I.L. Kolesnikova, .A. DolginaA Handbookof English-Russian Terminology for Language Teaching CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITY PRESS Russian Baltic Information CenterBLITZSt. Petersburg 2001.. , .. - - CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITY PRESS - - 2001 81374.822 81.2-4-923 60The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the British Council in the development of this project , 1, 2, .. , 3,4,6 .. .., .. - . .: - - ", Cambridge University Press, 2001 . 224 .ISBN 5-86789-143-7 , . , , , . 81.2-4-923ISBN 5-86789-143-7 Cambridge University Press, 2001 Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge - "191011, -, ., . 3 11 131. Language teaching: methods and approaches : 181.1. general concepts Approh,20Method21Principle231.2. language teaching approaches Behaviourism / Behaviourist approach24Cognitivism / Cognitive approach25Humanistic approach28Communicative approach29Learner-centred approach 31Whole language approach / Gestalt style / Global learning / Holistic approach /Top-down approach 33Product-oriented approach 33Process-oriented approach34Deductive approach us. Inductive approach34Structural approach / Grammatical approach 35Lexical approach, 36Eclecticism 37Integrated approach 37Comprehension approach381.3. language teaching methods: historical overview : Grammar-translation method38Direct method 39Audiolingualism /Audiolingual method / Mim-mem method....41Audiovisual method / Structural-global method 42Situational language teaching (SLT) / The oral approach43Natural method45Natural approach45Communicative method / Communicative language teaching (CLT)481.4. fringe / alternative methods () Community language learning (CLL) / Counselling learning49Suggestopedia / Lozanov method 50The silent way52Total physical response (TPR) 531.5. NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING Computer assisted language learning (CALL) 55Consciousness-raising approach (CRA) 57Data-driven learning (DDL) 59Task-based learning (TBL) 612. Syllabus design and curriculum development 632.1. general concepts Curriculum 65National Curriculum 66Course 67Programme 67Course design / Programme design68Syllabus68Syllabus design 69Threshold level 70Subject 71Unit 712.2. syllabus design procedures Needs analysis 72Aims .73Objectives74Performance objectives / Behavioural objectives / Instructional objectives 75Graded objectives 76Process objectives vs. Product objectives 76Content 77Ordering / Sequencing78Grading 792.3. approaches syllabus design Approach to syllabus design 79Synthetic approach80Analytic approach80Functional approach / Notional-functional approach812.4. types of syllabus Type of syllabus82A priori syllabus vs. A posteriori syllabus83Negotiated syllabus83Learning-centred syllabus 83Skills-centred syllabus84Content-based syllabus84Functional syllabus / Notional-functional syllabus (NFS)...85Lexical syllabus86Structural syllabus / Grammatical syllabus / Language-centred syllabus 86Task-based syllabus / Procedural syllabus 862.5. forms of syllabus organisation Linear syllabus 87Modular syllabus87Spiral syllabus / Cyclical syllabus 873. Teaching language skills 883.1. general concepts Skills 90Integrated skills 91Receptive skills 91Top-down reading, top-down listening 92Bottom-up reading, bottom-up listening 93Productive skills 93Background knowledge 94Study skills943.2. teaching reading skills Reading 95Guided reading 96Intensive reading 97Extensive reading 97Reading aloud / Oral reading98Communicative reading / Fluent reading 98Scanning 99Skimming / Skim reading / Reading for gist100Reading for detailed comprehension100Critical reading1013.3. teaching listening skills Listening / Listening comprehension101Guided listening 102Communicative listening102Skim listening / Listening for gist103Listening for detailed comprehension103Listening for partial comprehension / Selective listening104Critical listening104Interactional listening / Conversational listening / Reciprocal listening104Listening to interaction 104Transactional listening / Non-interactional listening105Academic listening / Listening to lectures 1053.4. teaching speaking skills Speaking106Speaking turn107Turn-taking107Short turn vs. Long turn108Interactional speech 108Transactional speech 1093.5. teaching writing skills Writing110Types of writing111Study writing / Academic writing 113Note-taking, note-making 114Summarizing114Composing 115Fast writing / Automatic writing 115Product-oriented writing / Genre-based writing116Process-oriented writing1174. Language teaching / learning activities 1194.1. general concepts Exercise121Activity121Task123Technique124Procedures126Open-ended activities vs. Closed activities126Lead-in activities 127Warm-up activities / Tune-in activities1274.2. language teaching techniques Classifying / Organizing 128Drama128Eliciting / Elicitation129Information gap130Questioning130Reconstruction / Restoration132Word association 1334.3. practice activities Completion133Consciousness-raising activities134Drill135Expansion135Gap-filling / Blank-filling / Cloze activity136Jigsaw activities / Information gap activities136Matching....137 Odd one out137Prediction138Ranking139Rephrasing / Reformulation / Paraphrase139Selection140Split dialogue / Jumbled dialogue141True-false statements141Unscrambling1414.4. communicative activities Brainstorming142Mapping / Mind-mapping 142Information transfer / Media transfer143Presentation143Oral reporting / Oral report144Reporting back144Discussion 145Controlled discussion / Guided discussion 145Free discussion 146Problem solving,146Scenario 147Role play 148Interview149Simulation150Project work 1505. Classroom management : 1525.1.general concepts Classroom management153Teaching156Learning157Classroom communication 1595.2.lesson planning Lesson161Lesson type / Lesson planning model161Lesson stage163Lesson planning / Pre-teaching planning 164Lesson evaluation1665.3. managing the materials Authentic materials167Course book167Self-access materials168Audiovisual aids / Teaching aids169Materials selection169Materials evaluation169Cues / Prompts1705.4. classroom dynamics Classroom interaction171Type of classroom interaction172Classroom monitoring173Teacher roles us. Learner roles 174Teacher talk vs. Student talk175Code switching / Choice of language177Teacher talking time (TTT) us. Student talking time (STT) 178Teacher waiting time (TWT) 178Grouping / Grouping arrangements178Whole class work 178Group work179Pair work / Pair practice 180Solo work180One-to-one instruction 181Seating arrangement181Discipline / Student behaviour181Rapport183Feedback18310

6. Assessment and testing 1856.1. general concepts Evaluation 187Assessment 187Summative assessment / Summative evaluation 188Formative assessment / Formative evaluation188Self-assessment / Self-evaluation188Testing / Language testing 188Test / Language test189Tester190Washback effect / Backwash 190Error191Mark / Grade 192Marking / Grading 1926.2. test types Test types 193Pragmatic test193Discrete-point test 194Integrative test / Global test194Proficiency test 194Placement test195Diagnostic test 195Achievement test 196Progress achievement test196Final achievement test196Norm-referenced test vs. Criterion-referenced test 1976.3. testing techniques Testing techniques 197Cloze procedure198Cloze test198C-test,199Multiple-choice test199Dictation 200Partial dictation 201Reception testing201Production testing 202Oral testing203Oral interview 2036.4. TEST VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validity203Content validity204Concurrent validity204Predictive validity / Prognostic validity204Construct validity204Face validity205Reliability205206 218 , , , . . -, . (Roy Cross), (Michael Bird), (Ian Pierson), (Elizabeth White), , , - . , -, . , , . (David Crystal) , . , - (Hugh Trappes-Lomax), (Gibson Ferguson), ( watt), (Tony Lynch), - (John Nuttall), - (Reinhardt Hartmann) - (Tom McArthur). , . .. - . , . .. . . (Colin Hayes) , . (Peter Donovan), 12 , , . , (-), . , . , . . : 191025, , -, , 46, .

1990- , . , . . , 197080- . (, , , , .) , , . . , BANA- (Britain, Australasia, North America) , , ; . ( ) , , , , . , , - , , . . , , . , -14 , . , 90- , , , , . , , , , . . . 1996 - , - . , , . . , . . , , , , . , , , , , , , . , . - . , , , , . , - -Hi , . : ; ( , , , ); ; , . , , , , , , , . : . , , . , , , . , - , , (, ), , . , , , . , ., , . , . : , , ; .16 , BANA-. . BANA-, . , , , : Richards J., Platt J. and Platt H. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Singapore: Longman, 1992; .. . .: . , 1966; ., .. . .: . ., 1993. , . , , , , , , , - (, Behaviourism / Behaviourist approach), , (, Open-ended activities us. Closed activities), . . , . , , . , . - ~, . , , . , , ( ). , , . : , , , , , . , , . , , , , 17 , . , , . , , , .1.Language teaching: methods and approaches - : , , . , , , ., , , , . , , . , , , (fluency), (accuracy). , , . , . , , , , . , , - . : , , , . , , , - , . , , . , , . 1. : 19 . , , , , , . . , , . , , , . 1960-70- , , , , , . . , () (fringe methods) , , , . , , . (. Total physical response, . 53), (. The silent way, . 52), (. Community language learning, . 49), (. Suggestopedia, . 50). . , , , , , . , , . , (discourse analysis) (. Communicative approach, . 29), . , , , . , 201. Language teaching: methods and approaches , . : , - , (. Task-based learning, . 61), -. , , . , . . , , , . . , , , - (Howatt 1997, . 264). , , . .1.1. General concepts Approach , . / . , : , . . , . (. Structural approach, . 35), (individualised learning) (. Integrated approach, . 37); -1. : 21 . , approach , learning approach . . , . , , : , (. Behaviourism, . 24), (. Cognitivism, . 25). (. Humanistic approach, . 28) (social constructivist approach), (Williams and Burden 1997). , , , () , , , , . , , - , , , , (. Communicative approach, . 29).Method , . , . , . , , . : , , . , . . . (Richards and Rodgers 1991) : , (approach), (design) (procedure). , method , , , , .221. Language teaching: methods and approaches , (, , , ) , , , , (. Principle, . 23). , , . , (. Total physical response, . 53) , . (. The silent way, . 52) , , , , . (. Community language learning, . 49) () , . . , (. Approach, . 20) , . , , . , , , (. Structural approach, . 35), , (. Product-oriented approach, . 33) (teacher-centred approach). , , , . , , , . . , , , , , . (. Natural approach, . 45), (. Natural method, . 45) (. Task-based learning, . 61) .- (Wilkins 1875, . 56; Prabhu 1990; Richards 1994a, . 42) , , , , , , .1. : 23Principle , , . , , . , , , , , , . , : (cognitive principles): (automaticity); (intrinsic motivation principle); (strategic investment principle) , , , . . ; - (affective principles): (language ego), , , , , . .; (language-culture connection). , (self-confidence, self-esteem), (risk-taking); (linguistic principles): (native language effect); (interlanguage , ; , ); (communicative competence) (Brown 1994b, pp. 1530). , . , : . , , , . , -241. Language teaching: methods and approaches ; : , , , , , . . : , , , , , , , . , (. Consciousness-raising approach, . 57; Integrated approach, . 37).1.2. Language teaching approaches Behaviourism / Behaviourist approach , . . , . , , . (operants), , , , . (reinforcement). , (operant conditioning), , . , . , , , , . , : , ;* , ;* ;* , (Williams and Burden 1997, pp. 9-10).1. : 25 , , . , , , , . , , . , , , , . , , . : (. Audiolingualism, . 41), (. Audiovisual method, . 42), (. Situational language teaching, . 43).Cognitivism / Cognitive approach1. , - (social constructivist approach), , . - , . :* . , , , ; , , ;* . , : (. Deductive approach us. Inductive approach, . 34);* . - , , , ; - , , ;* , , (overgcneralisation), (undergeneralization). , , (: I can to...); .261. Language teaching: methods and approaches , , (cognitive style). , . : (field independence) ; (field dependence) , ; (left- and right-brain functioning): , , ; , , , ; (ambiguity tolerance) , , , , , ;* (reflectivity) (impulsivity): , , ; , , ; * (visual style, auditory style): , , , ; (Brown 1994a, pp. 104-113). : (risk-taking), ; (self-esteem), ; , , (anxiety) , ; (empathy), , , , , , - . , , , . , , (learning style) (learning strategies). , -1. : 27 , , , .2. , . , . . (Rivers 1989). , , . , . : . (, , ) . , . , . , , , , . , . . , -- (. Grammar-translation method, . 38), - (. Consciousness-raising approach, . 57), (. Data-driven learning, . 59). (. Communicative approach, . 29) ; , . , , : ; ; , , , ; , , (, , . .);281. Language teaching: methods and approaches* , ; , / , , , . . . , - (. Communicative method, . 48; Communicative approach, . 29). ; , , , , . (Stevick 1991, pp. 28-29). : , , .* , , , .* : , , , , .* , , (empathy), , , . , , . , , . 1. : 29 , , , . (. The silent way, . 52), (. Community language learning, . 49) . , (Brumfit 1982; Arnold 1998; Gadd 1998).Communicative approach 1970- (communication). - , , (interaction) . , , . , , , , . , . (competence) . (performance). , (communicative competence), , , , . ; . (Sheils 1993, pp. 1-2; 1995, . 1-2): (linguistic competence) , ; (sociolinguistic competence) , , , ;301. Language teaching: methods and approaches (discourse competence) , , (, , . .); ; (strategic competence) (), , ; , , , ; (sociocultnral competence) , , , , ; ; (social competence) , , , , . , , ( ) . (functions), (, , , , , . .). (Brumfit and Johnson 1979; Morrow 1981; Widdowson 1990a, 1990b; Brumfit 1992; Littlewood 1994; Rossner and Bolitho 1995; Nunan 1998; 1991 .) : ; ; , ; : , , , , (, , . .);* : , ;* (. Authentic materials, . 167), , , 1. : 31, , ;* , , , ( ); * , -- , , (cognitive style) (learning strategies) , . , -, (. Communicative method, . 48).Learner-centred approach- (-) , , , . , . : * , , , , ; * , ; * , ;* , - ; * , ; * : , , , ; . , (Oxford 1990; O'Malley and Chamot 1995). (learning strategies) , , , . , , , . , (cognitive style).321. Language teaching: methods and approachesP. 62 , : (direct learning strategies) (indirect learning strategies). : , (memory strategies): , , , , , . ;* (cognitive strategies): , , . .; (compensation strategies): , , , , (avoidance strategies). : (metacognitive strategies): , , , . .; , , (affective strategies): , , , . .;9 (social strategies): , , , . - . (learner autonomy) (learner independence) , - , , , . , - . , (teacher-centred approach), , , , , , . , , , (nominating), .- . , .1. : 33Whole language approach / Gestalt style / Global learning / Holistic approach / Top-down approach , -, , -, . , . . . , , , . , , . , . , , (atomistic approach), (analytic style) (bottom-up approach). , (. Process-oriented approach, . 34). (. Analytic approach, . 80), ., , (. , Product-oriented approach) (. Synthetic approach, . 80). . , , , , , ., (, , , ) - , , . ., , . , , . (, , , .), (. Product-oriented writing, . 116). (. Synthetic approach, . 80), , (. Process objectives us. Product objectives, . 76).341. Language teaching: methods and approachesProcess-oriented approach , , . . , . , , , . . , (. Process-oriented writing, . 117). (. Analytic approach, . 80), (. Process objectives us. Product objectives, . 76).Deductive approach vs. Inductive approach . , , . , , , . . , - , , . , , . , , , , , . (Gollin 1998), , ( ), , ( ). (natural approach), , (formal, cognitive-based). , , . . , , , -1. : 35 , : , (Rivers 1989, . 95). , , . . , , , . , , , , . , , , . , consciousness-raising approach - . (. Data-driven learning, . 59) (. Computer assisted language learning, . 55).Structural approach / Grammatical approach (. Behaviourism, . 24). - (structures), . : / have a family, Could you open the door. , . , , . . , . , , : ( ) . , . , , ( 1973, . 45-46), : The book is on the desk. The361. Language teaching: methods and approachesbook isn't on the chair. Is the book on the desk? Yes, it is. (No, it isn't.) Is the book on the desk or on the chair? The book is on the desk. Where is the book? It's on the desk. , - - , . . , , , . , , . , , -, . , .Lexical approach , . , . , :In England people may drink coffee and drive cars, but in English they typically do not, as the following examples reveal:1. Would you like a cup of coffee?No, thanks. I've already had (not drunk) one.2. How did you. come this morning?I drove (or I brought the car; not I drove the car) (Lewis 1996a, p. 25). . , . , , (chunks), . , . , (collocations) .1. : 37* (computational linguistics) , (. Lexical syllabus, . 85). * . ( presentation, practice, production), ( observe, hypothesise, experiment).* , (Lewis 1993, pp. vivii). , , , . , .Eclecticism , , , , , , . . , . , . , , , . - (. Communicative approach, . 29) , , . , , , , , - , , . , .Integrate approach , , . integrated approach , . - ; , , ( ) ( ) ( ); . Integrated skills, , 91. , , : , , . , , .Comprehension approach , . :* , - .* , .* . , , . * , . * , (Richards and Rodgers 1991, pp. 87-88). , (. Total physical response, . 53), (. Natural approach, . 45) .1.3. Language teaching methods: historical overview : Grammar-translation method- . , XIX , , . . - :1. : 39* , . * , , .* . ( , - , .)* , , , , , .* , , , .* , -, , .* , (Richards and Rodgers 1991, pp. 3-4).- . , , , , , . : , , .Direct method -- . . , . . . : (. Natural method, . 45), . , : (. Audiolingualism, . 41), , (. Audiovisual method, . 42), , () (. Situational language teaching, . 43), . , (. Total physical response, . 53) (. Natural approach, c. 45), . , , . , , (directly), , , , , , . . : * , , .* . , , .* , . . , , . , , , , - , . .* (. Deductive approach us. Inductive approach, . 34), . , , .* .* (. Grading, . 79), .* , . - - . : , , , . . - .- - . , .1. : 41 , . , , . , . - , . , . , .Audiolingiialism /Audiolingual method / Mimmem method (. Behaviourism, . 24) (. Structural approach, . 35). , , . , , , , . . . , . :* (habits) . , , . ., . , , , . , . : , , , .* , , . , . (. Drill, . 135), . , , ( ), .* , , , 421. Language teaching: mewious and approacnes , .* . , , : , , , . , . : , . , , .Audiovisual method / Structural-global method (-) . 1950- -. : (, , ) (, , ); : , . , , , . - , , , , . : * - , . : , , , . .* - . , , (. Functional approach, . 81). , - .1. : 43* . , . . * , , , ; (. Drill, . 135). * - , . .* , , . : ( , ), ( - - ), ( ), ( ) (, 1993, . 30). . . , , . , , , . , .Situational language teaching (SLT) / The oral approach () (. Direct method, . 39) . 1930- , X. , . - . , . , -- . :* . , 2000 , . 50- (A General Service List of English Words), .* , , - , -, . , - (sentence patterns), , .* , .* ( ), ( ). : (- ), , , .* . , , . - . , , (Richards and Rodgers 1991, p. 38).* , . , , . .* , , (. Drill, . 135), . , . , , , . , , .* . , . .1. : 45 () . , , (. Structural approach, . 35), , , . , , Streamline English (Hartley and Viney), 1979 . , , . , .Natural method (. Direct method, . 39); XIX . . .* , , () , * - ; . . . , , . , , , (. Natural approach, . 45), (. Community language learning, . 49) .Natural approach , 1980- . . (Krashen and Terrell 1983) . , , , . , , . 461. Language teaching: methods and approaches (acquisition) (. Learning, . 157) (. Teaching, . 155). , , , (langnuage exposure) , . -, . .* Acquisitionlearning hypothesis . , , . , . , , , , , , . Natural order hypothesis . () , , , . . , . Monitor hypothesis . . - , , . : 1) monitor under-users , ; 2) monitor overusers , ; 3) optimal monitor users , , .* Comprehensible input hypothesis () , ( , ). , , i + 1, i , 1 , . , , . Affective filter hypothesis , , . ,1. : 47 , , (comprehensible input), , . , , . ( ) i + 1, 1, i . . , i + 1 , . , , , . : , , . , - .* , . , , , .* , , .* , . : (comprehension / preproduction), (early speech production), (speech emergence). , , - , , , , . . , , , , . , , , 500 . , - , , - .1. Language teaching: methods and approaches , , , . , : , , .* , .9 . (communicative competence), , . , , , , . , .Communicative method / Communicative language teaching (CLT) (. Communicative approach, . 29), - , . : . , , . , (. Task, . 123). , , . , , , , . , , (accuracy), (fluency). - , , -

1. : 49 , , . , , , , , .1.4. Fringe / alternative methods () Community language learning (CLL) / Counselling learning ( ) . . (counselling psychology), , -, , . , - . : . . -, , . , , . , , . , . , , . , , , . , - , . : , , , . . - 501. Language teaching: methods and approaches . , , . , , , , . -, , , . , . , , . , . , , .Suggestopedia / Lozanov method ( ) , . 1960- - . . , , , , . , , . . , , :* (authority). . , ( , , , .), , .* (infantilization). , , (, 1993, . 83). , , .1. : 51* (double-planedness). , , , , , . , , , , , - . , - .* (intonation), (rhythm) (concert pseudo-passiveness). , , . . . , , , - , ( ) , , . , ( ), (.. ), (.. ), . - . . , .. , . - (. Learner-centred approach, . 31) , , . .. , , , ( 1986, . 7). : *;*- ; ; ; ; (, 1993, . 121-122).521. Language teaching: methods and approaches , . , , , . , , . .The silent way ( ) (. Structural approach, . 35) (. Humanistic approach, . 28). . (Gattegno 1972), . , , , . , , , . : * , .* . -. . : 1) , , , . .; 2) , , , , , ; 3) (, , . .). , , . , -, , . , , , . . , -1. : 53 , , , . , . , , . , - , , . : , ,, . . (cuisenaire rods), . , . , , . (fidelcharts), , . , , . , , . .Total physical response (TPR) . , , , . (. Natural method, . 45), , , . , . , , ., , , , , , , , (. Comprehension approach, . 38). : - . -541. Language teaching: methods and approaches , . . . -, . 120 . . , , , .

, . , , . (. Structural syllabus, . 86); , .

(. Deductive approach us. Inductive approach, . 34). , . . , . , . , . : . , . .9 (. Drill, . 135). (. Role play, . 148) , , .* , . . (. Humanistic approach, . 28), , , , , , . . , . , , , , .1. : 55 . , , . : , - . , , , , .1.5. New developments in language teaching Computer assisted language learning (CALL) - . , , . , , , . , 196070- , (. Drill, . 135). 70- . (artificial intellect AT) . - . : , , , , ; , , : , , . .; , ; , ; , (Brown 1994b, p. 153).561. Language teaching: methods and approaches , . , . . . . (Story Board). (. Reconstruction, . 132), , , . . , , , , . . , . , . , . , . , , , , . : * , .* . , . , , , . . , , - .* , . : * , , , . , . , .1. : 57 . , , .* , , . . , . , , . , , , , , .Consciousness-raising approach (CRA)- . : . (universal grammar), ; , . , . - , , , , .- 1980- , . - (Rutherford and Smith 1988). (. Learning, . 157) (acquisition) : . . 581. Language teaching: methods and approaches , , , , . (. Direct method, . 39) , . - , - . . , . : , ; , , ;* , , ;9 ( 1975, . 84). ; ( ) (, ) ; . . , . , , . - : , , , , .9 , , ; , (input) (intake) (output).1. : 59 , . , . , .* , . , , * , , , . , . , , (. Consciousness-raising activities, . 134). , , , . - , , . , . , . : , , . . , (Rutheford and Smith 1988, p. 114). , .Data-driven learning (DDL) , , . , , , (. Deductive approach vs. Inductive approach, . 34).60

1. Language teaching: methods and approaches , , (Corpus of the English Language). (Sinclair 1991). , , , : (Business English), (English for medical students), (English of finance) . . . , , , . , , , (. Consciousness-raising approach, . 57). , , , . , COBUILD (Collins Birmingham University International Language Database) . Look Up, (concordance). , , (concordance line): , . , , . , . :if this were a personal test betweenhimselftime for him to respond he contentedhimselflearns to see you as the expert andhimselfhe should continue preaching or givehimselfTwinkletoes just likes to hearhimselfsent him, and worked out forhimselfshore, waiting for Machado to commithimselfand shattered. He bracedhimselfPaul affirmed that Christhimself

and the vicissitudes of the planet with a few apologetic mumblings as helpless. It's hard to be entirely to prayer (one senses talk & Debi giggled. Let's face an understanding of the Cayce to one of the available river as best he could and kicked with was the appointed representative1. : 61 , . , , , . , (. Computer assisted language learning, . 55). , , . , , . - . .Task-based learning (TBL) . (. Task, . 123), , , , , , . , , , . . : , , , , , , . . , , , , , . , , . , , , (. Task-based syllabus, . 86). , , . , , , , (. Learner-centred approach, . 31). , , -621. Language teaching: methods and approaches . , , , . () (Prabhu 1992a, pp. 1-2). , . , . , , (Swan 1996, . 34). , (Skehan 1994). . (Willis 1996a, . 53) , , , :1. Pre-task.2. Task cycle: Task, Planning, Report.3. Language focus: Analysis, Practice. , , , .2. Syllabus design and curriculum development , , , , , ., , , , , , , . , , , : (syllabus), (curriculum), (aims), (objectives), (content). , , , . . , . National Curriculum . , . , , , syllabus - . , , .642. Syllabus design and curriculum development , , , . , , . - , , . , , , , . , , , Syllabus Design , , , - (syllabus designers). , , , , , . . . (study skills). , . , , . . , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , 2. , , , . .2.1. General concepts Curriculum1. , , , , , , (, 1993, . 326). , . , (. National Curriculum, . 66) : , , , , . . , (. Course, . 67) . , , , , , . Second Language Acquisition ( ), Syllabus and Materials Design ( ), Discourse Analysis (, ), Pedagogic Grammar ( ) . , , , , .2. , , ( ). (attainment targets), . . , . :662. Syllabus design and curriculum development , ; ( ); ; , , ; .National Curriculum , ; , , , . , . , , . , , ( 1995, . 10). (attainment targets) . , , , . , , . , , . , , . , , . , , ; . , (level), ; , (Sweetman 1995, . 15). , , , .2. 67Course1. , , : , , .2. , , . , .3. , . . , , , , . course ; (. Programme, . 67).Programme . programme course : Teacher Training Course / Programme ( ), English Language Course / Programme ( ) . . , , , , , . , . ( , . .), - ( , , ) (, . .). , - , . : MA, BA, Diploma, Certificate Courses / Programmes in TEFL, TESL, TESOL. : PEESETT, INSETT , : ESP Teacher Development Course ( ), Teaching Business English ( ), Teaching English to Young Learners ( ) .682. Syllabus design and curriculum developmentCourse design / Programme design , : , , , , , , , , . course design syllabus design , , syllabus design , , , , , ..: Munby 1978; Yalden 1995; Dubin and Olshtain 1996.Syllabus , ; (. Curriculum, . 65). , . : , , . . , , : , , . - . , , , . , , . (. of syllabus, . 82), , . , , , . : basic level , , , policy level , ,* practical action level (Stern 1992pp. 23-39). , . -2. 69, , , , , . , . , , , , (. Negotiated syllabus, . 83). (Johnson 1982; Yalden 1987, 1995; Nunan 1994) , : (. Aims, . 73; Objectives, . 74);* , , - (. Content, . 77); , , (. . 4); (. Objectives, . 74; Graded objectives, . 76);

, (. . 6); . (. Threshold level, . 70), .Syllabus design - , . (. Approach to syllabus design, . 79), . (syllabus designers), , , . (Nunan 1994, . 5). . . , , . - , , .2. Syllabus design and curriculum developmentThreshold level1 . - , . . 2. (Van Ek and Trim 1998a) , , . , , . : General characterisation ( ), Extended characterisation ( ), Specification (). . . , : . , . , : () () , , . .. , . : (functions) , , , , ; , ; -, . .;* (general notions) (temporal), (spatial), (qualitative), (quantitative) ; (specific notions) 14 , , , , ; (, , ). Specification , , , . , , , , . , Waystage (Van Ek and Trim 1998b).2. 71 , , . , , , (, 1998).Subject , . . , , . Language Pedagogy English Language Teaching (ELT). , , , , , , : Syllabus Design, Second Language Acquisition, ELT Methods and Approaches. , , , , . , Discourse Analysis, , , , , , .Unit1. , . , , (lesson) , , .2. (teaching unit / learning unit) , . ,, , . . , - , - . , . -72 2. Syllabus design and curriculum development , , . , , , , ( , , , . .). , (, , , , . .), ( , , . .). , , , , (. Data-driven learning, . 59; Consciousness-raising approach, . 57). , , . , , , , , .2.2. Syllabus design procedures Needs analysis , ( ) . needs analysis . , , , (, , . .) , . , , , . : , , , , . . , , , , .2. 73 - . - : , , .Aims -, . - (. Teaching, . 155; Learning, . 157) ( , , - , , , . .) . , . , , . , . , - , . , . , , . (), , , , , - (. Negotiated syllabus, . 83). , , - (. Needs analysis, . 72). , , , , , . , . , - , , , . -, , : cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. , - , , . (. Humanistic approach, . 28) , - (. Classroom interaction, . 171).742. Syllabus design and curriculum development . , , , , . , , . , . (. Communicative approach, . 29) . -( 1986, . 16), , , . , . , . (. Objectives, . 74). , . , , .Objectives , , . . . , . , (real-world objectives), , (pedagogic objectives). : , , , , , real-world objective; , , pedagogic objective (Nunan 1994, p. 70).2. 75 , , , . , : , 2% , . , , : , 2% , .Performance objectives / Behavioural objectives / Instructional objectives , , . (. Threshold level, . 70). : performance , ; conditions , ; standard , (Nunan 1994, . 64).: (conditions) , (performance). (standard). , , , (. Behaviourism, . 24), , (. Humanistic approach, . 28), . , . , , , , . , (. Negotiated syllabus, . 83). . (. Graded objectives, . 76). (. Grading, . 79), .762. Syllabus design and curriculum developmentGraded objectives , , ; , , , , , . . (. National Curriculum, . 66) , . , . , . , . , . -, -, , . . , . , , . , , , . , . , . , .Process objectives vs. Product objectives, (process objectives) , (product objectives). , , , , . . , -2. 77

, , . (. Process-oriented approach, . 34) , , , . , (. Product-oriented approach, . 33), , , , , . , , , . , , , .Content , , ( 1986, . 5). , , , . , content , , , . content , , , , . , (. Syllabus, . 68) . syllabus :* , , , (. Background knowledge, . 94); (, , ) ;* ; (. Study skills, . 94); (, , ) ;* : , , , , , , -; .

ft782. Syllabus design and curriculum development , , (, 1993, . 284), , , , , , . . . , - , , . (Corpus of the English Language). . , , .Ordering / Sequencing , (, , , . .), , - . , . . , - (. Consciousness-raising approach, . 57) (. Data-driven learning, . 59), , , . (. Communicative method, . 48) , . . (. Integrated approach, . 37), : . , , , .2. 79Grading () , . (. Syllabus, . 68) (. Ordering, . 78). (natural order) (lock-step grading). , , . , . , . , , . Present Continuous, , to be ., . , , , , . , .2.3. Approaches to syllabus design Approach to syllabus design . ( ) , , , . , (. Type of syllabus, . 82). , . (. Analytic approach, . 80 ; Synthetic approach, . 80), - (. Functional approach, . 81) (. Functional syllabus, . 85).802. Syllabus design and curriculum developmentSynthetic approach . , (. Product-oriented approach, . 33) . (. Deductive approach, . 34). , , , , , , . , , . , , - , , . (. Structural syllabus, . 86) - (. Functional syllabus, . 85) (White 1988; Hutchinson and Waters 1993; Nunan 1994).Analytic approach . (. Process-oriented approach, . 34), . , , . , . (. Deductive approach us. Inductive approach, . 34). , , . (chunks) , . , , , , , , . , , , (function) (notion), . (. Content-based syllabus, . 84) , (. Task-based syllabus, . 86).2. 81Functional approach / Notional-functional approach (-) - . , , , . , . , (John is easy to please. John is eager to please), a (John wrote this letter. This letter was written by John), , (intention) (function) (notion) (Hutchinson and Waters 1993, p. 27). , , , . . , . . , : Could you close the window? Would you mind closing the window? Close the window, please. , , (exponent of function). : - - , Would you like to ... ? Let's .... . , . . , (, , , . .). , , : , , . . (Hutchinson and Waters 1993, p. 31). , (. Functional syllabus, . 85; Threshold level, . 70).- . , . , - , . . (., : - 1987), , .822. Syllabus design and curriculum development2.4. Types of syllabus Type of syllabus . , . , (. Method, . 21; Approach, . 20) , , , . , , . product-oriented syllabus. , , - , , , , . - , , , . , , , . , , (process-oriented syllabus). (. Community language learning, . 49) , , , , , . (Richards and Rodgers 1991; Hutchinson and Waters 1993; Nunan 1994; Dubin and Olshtain 1996) , , , . , , ; , (. Task, . 123), . , , . (mixed syllabus, multi-strand syllabus; Ur 1996, p. 178). . : , . , , (Hutchinson and Waters 1993, p. 37). :* : a priori syllabus, a posteriori syllabus, negotiated syllabus;2. 83 : learning-centred syllabus, skills-centred syllabus; : structural / grammatical / language-centred syllabus, content-based (topic-based / theme-based, situational syllabus), functional-notional syllabus, lexical syllabus, task-based / procedural syllabus.A priori syllabus vs. A posteriori syllabus a priori , . . a posteriori, , . . a posteriori (retrospective syllabus).Negotiated syllabus- , . , , , : , ; , ; . , , , . , , (Nunan and Lamb 1996, pp. 9-10).Learning-centred syllabus, , . - (. Learner-centred approach, . 31) learning-centred (Hutchinson and Waters 1993, p. 72). , , , , , . , , 84

2. Syllabus design and curriculum development, , , ( ) ., , , . , .Skills-centred syllabus, , . , . , . (. Study skills, . 94), (English for Academic Purposes EAP), . (Business English) , , , (business negotiation skills). (Teacher Training Course) (teaching skills). , (. Product-oriented approach, . 33). , , .Content-based syllabus . , , . , , , . - , , , , . : * situational syllabus , , ;2. 85 topic-based syllabus / theme-based syllabus , , . (. Situational language teaching, . 43). , , , , . , - . -, , .Functional syllabus / Notional-functional syllabus (NFS) (-) (. Functional approach, . 81). (functions) (notions), . (. Structural syllabus, . 86), , , (, , . .), , , . , , : Could you ... ? Will you ... ? . , . : (general notions) (specific notions). , , , . . . , : Food and Drink, House and Home, Clothes and Fashion . . Is there a drugstore near here?, . , drugstore , near here (Odlin 1994, . 322). , - , (. Threshold level, . 70).Lexical syllabus (. Lexical approach, . 36), , . (Willis 1990) , 862. Syllabus design and curriculum development , , . , , - , , should, would, have written . ., , .Structural syllabus / Grammatical syllabus / Language-centred syllabus () (. Structural approach, . 35), , - , . (structures), , (sentence patterns). , , , , , . . , , (Ellis 1993b).Task-based syllabus / Procedural syllabus, , . (. Task, . 123), , . , , . , : , ; ; ; , , . , . . , (. Task-based learning, . 61) , .2. 872.5. Forms of syllabus organisation Linear syllabus , , .Modular syllabus , . , . , , . . : (General English), (English for Specific Purposes ESP), (Business English), , . ., (project work) . , (, British and American Studies).Spiral syllabus / Cyclical syllabus , . .3. Teaching language skills , (skills) . , , . - XX . , , , , . .. , 50- . , 1970- , , .. , - .. .. . . , , , . . ( 1991, . 74). , ( ) : , , . , , , . , . , . . , , . , , , , . -3.

89, . , , : . , . , , , , , - . .

, , , , . : 1) -, 2) -, 3) - ( 1986, . 29). , . , . . , ( 1991, . 94). , , : , , , , , , , , . , . , (, , ) , () ( 1969, 1997; 1977; 1985; 1988; 1985; 1991; , 1993; 1999; 1999). skills. habit, 5060- , . , , , , . , , ( , 903. Teaching language skills, , , ) . , , (). . . , -, . , , , .3.1. General concepts Skills skills , .1. skills , , : reading , listening ,speaking , writing . total skills (Littlewood 1994, p. 17), macro-skills global skills (Wilberg 1996, p. 23; Rost 1993, p. 151).2. skills , . , , , sub-skills, part skills, component skills, micro-skills, enablingskills. , . skimming, scanning, summarizing, note-taking, skim listening, academic listening, interactional skills, transactional skills. : Speaking is an example of a complex cognitive skill which can be differentiated into various hierarchical sub-skills, some of which might require controlled processing while others could be processed automatically (O'Malley and Chamot 1995, pp. 66-67). sub-skills, part skills , . , , . . (Munby 1978; Richards 1987, pp.167-168; Hughes 1993, pp. 116-117; Rost 1993; Richards 1994a, pp. 198-199; - 1987). () 3. 91, , (). , . . , , , , . , , .3. skills linguistic skills, accuracy skills, linguistic contributory skills (Weir 1993, p. 73), motor-perceptive skills (Bygate 1993, p. 5) , , . linguistic competence. - , , grammatical and lexical low-level operations, grammatical and lexical abilities underlying skills. automaticity (Silberstein 1987, p. 32; Grabe 1993, p. 59), . , , teaching pronunciation, teaching vocabulary, teaching grammar.Integrated skills (, , ) . (. Integrated approach, . 37; Summarizing, . 114).Receptive skills . (listening) (reading). , ( ). . . . , , , , -923. Teaching language skills , , , , , . ., , : (. Top-down reading, top-down listening, . 92; Bottom-up reading, bottom-up listening, c. 93) . , , , : . , , , , , . , , . , , - , . , , (. Authentic materials, . 167)..: Silberstein 1987, . 32; Anderson and Lynch 1993; Rost 1994, p. 94; Paran 1996; Field 1999; 1989, . 42.Top-down reading, top-down listening ( ) (. Bottom-up reading, bottom-up listening, . 93; Receptive skills, . 91). , . , , - . , . , , . .3. 93 , -, . . , . (pre-text activities), (pre-reading / pre-listening activities). , , . , , . ..: Silberstein 1987, . 32; Grabe 1991; Anderson and Lynch 1993; Carrell 1993; Eskey 1993; Rost 1994, p. 94; Paran 1996; Field 1999; 1989, . 42; 1991, . 89; 1996, 1996.Bottom-up reading, bottom-up listening ( ) (. Top-down reading, top-down listening, . 92; Receptive skills, . 91). , , , . , , , . , , , . , .Productive skills () (speaking) (writing) . , , ( 1985, . 82). . - . 943. Teaching language skills ( ), ( ). , . - , .Background knowledge , ( ), ( ). , , , , . () (). . (socio-linguistic competence) . (sociocultural competence) , , , . , , - - , , , ..: 1988; 1989; 1997.Study skills ( ), , . , , , . , , , . , , , . . : ; ; ;3. 95 : , , , , , , ; ;* : , (mnemonic techniques);* ; : , , , , (referenceskills); , (examination skills). .: Matthewn et al. 1991; Jordan 1997; 1991; 1995.3.2. Teaching reading skills Reading , . , . , , , , , . , . , (interactive reading: Grabe 1991; Alderson and Urquhart 1992; Carrell et al. 1993). , (. Receptive skills, . 91), , . , , (analytical reading) (global reading), (reading aloud, oral reading) (silent reading). . (class reading) (home reading); (individual reading) (group reading, chorus reading). , , - . (. Guided reading, . 96) (. Communicative reading, . 98).963. Teaching language skills , , . , . (reading strategy), ..: Silberstein 1987; 1994; , 1991; 1991.Guided reading , , , , : (visual perception) (recognition); (grapheme-morpho-phoneme correspondences);& , (anticipation / prediction / forward inferencing); (segmentation / chunking), (grouping) (context cues); (guessing / inferring from context). , - - - . : (intensivereading) (extensive reading);* ; ; ;* . . , , , , . intensive reading extensive reading . : , . . 3. 97 , - , . , (. Intensive reading, . 97; Extensive reading, . 97). , ( 1973, . 86; 1989, . 195; , 1993). .Intensive reading , , , (. Guided reading, . 96). , . . . , , - ; , ( 1985, . 138). (text-based activities), - , ..: Nuttall 1982, pp. 23, 32; Matthewn et al. 1991; Grellet 1992, p. 4; Carrell and Carson 1997; 1986, . 91; 1987.Extensive reading , , (. Guided reading, . 96). - , , , . , , , . , -983. Teaching language skills - ( , , , ) ..: Nuttal 1982; Greenwood 1992; Grellet 1992; Carrell and Carson 1997.Reading aloud / Oral reading , -- , (. Pragmatic test, . 193). , , . , , (silent reading), . . , -- . : ; , ; ( 1990; . 1991, . 143). - , . , (Maley and Duff 1990, p. 95; Wilberg 1996, p. 133). , , , (- 1973; 1987).Communicative reading / Fluent reading . , . - -- , , , (reading strategies). , , , , (. Communicative listening, . 102). ,3. (reading for information) (reading for pleasure). , , . . , : scanning, skimming, reading for detailed comprehension (Nuttall 1982; Grellet 1992; Ur 1996). : , ( 1985, . 130; 1988; 1993; 1995; , 1995; , 1998, . 4). , .. (1987, . 25), , , , , , . , .. (1973, . 68) , : , , , .Scanning , . :1. , : , , , , , , , ... (1987, . 29) . , , , , . , , : , . .2. , , . , , . .. (1987, . 28) . ( ) - . 100

3. Teaching language skills , (. Reading for detailed comprehension, . 100). : , , ; , . , . - , , , , .Skimming / Skim reading / Reading for gist , , ; ( 1987, . 27). , , . 70% , 30% , (, 1993, . 167). , . , , , . , , . - , , , , . , ; ; , ( 1993-1994; 1995; , 1998). , , (. Reading for detailed comprehension, . 100; Critical reading, . 101). . , , (. : , 1993, . 250).Reading for detailed comprehension , , , ; ( 1987, . 27). -3. 101 , : , , , , . . . (. Intensive reading, . 97), . , , - . , ( , , ), : , . .Critical reading , ( 1973, . 68, 72) , ( , , , ) , , . , , . , (. Reading for detailed comprehension, . 100). , , , , (Silberstein 1987, Eskey and Grabe 1993).3.3. Teaching listening skills Listening / Listening comprehension , (. Receptive skills, . 91). : (auditory perception) (recognition, discrimination);9 (concentration); , (anticipation / prediction / forward inferencing); (guessing / inferring from context);1023. Teaching language skills$ (segmentation / chunking) (grouping); ;* , . , : - , , , ; - . (. Communicative listening, . 102) (. Guided listening, . 102). -- . ..: Anderson and Lynch 1993; Rost 1993, 1994; Field 1998; 1991; 1996a, 19966; , 1998.Guided listening , , , , . . , , , . , , , , , ( 1985; 1996, 19966). : intensive listening (. intensive reading); extensive listening (. extensive reading).Communicative listening , . ( ) (. Communicative reading, . 98).3. 103 , , , :* skim listening ; * listening for detailed comprehension ;*listening for partial comprehension ;* critical listening . , , :* interactional listening - ; listening to interaction ;* transaetional listening . , . , ( , , , ) ..: Anderson and Lynch 1993; Rost 1993, 1994; Lynch 1996, p. 92; Field 1998; 1991.Skim listening / Listening for gist , ; ( 1991). , , . , , , , , , , . .: Rivers and Temperley 1979; Rost 1993, p. 232; Prodromou 1992.Listening for detailed comprehension , ( 1996, 19966). , , , . , . , (post-text activities): , , , , .1043. Teaching language skillsListening for partial comprehension / Selective listening ( 1991). , . , , , : , , . , , , .Critical listening , . , (), , , (. Critical reading, . 101).Interactional listening / Conversational listening / Reciprocal listening - , , . , , , . , , , - . , , : - , , , , , , , ..: Anderson and Lynch 1993; Rost 1993; Lynch 1996, p. 92; 1985, . 114; , 1998.Listening to interaction , - . , (. Interactional listening, . 104). , , , . , . , ( 3. 105, , ). , , , , . , . , ( 1988, . 193). , .Transational listening / Non-interactional listening , . (. Academic listening, . 105), , , . (planned monologue) , , (unplanned monologue), , , ..: Anderson and Lynch 1993; Host 1994.Academic listening / Listening to lectures -, . , , , . . (Flowerdew 1994). : , ; ; . , , , , . , , . - ( , , ) . , , (. Note-taking, note-making, . 114).1063. Teaching language skills3.4. Teaching speaking skills Speaking () , - . , . , : ;@ , ; ;* ;* , , ;* ;* , ;* ;* . , -- - . , , , , , ( 1989; 1991). - (), () . , , : . , : .Bottom-up processing, , , ( ) , (). , , , , .Top-down processing, , , . (, , ) , , . , . ,3. 107 , ( 1988, . 188)..: Bygate 1993; Nunan 1998, p. 45; 1985, . 116; . 1990; . 1991, . 129.Speaking turn , - . . - . . , (. Short turn us. Long turn, . 108). . , . , , . ( ) , ( - - ), (adjacency pair). . . , . - - ( ). : ; ; ; .Turn-taking , . , , - (turn-taking strategies). :* . , , .* ( , ) holding a turn. . , , . relinquishing a turn..: Keller and Warner 1988; Richards 1994b, p. 68; 1989, . 162; 1989.108____ 3. Teaching language skillsShort turn vs. Long turn, , , - , . . . , , , . . , - , , -, , , . , , . (transactional skills). - , , . . , , (Brown and Yule 1993, p. 16).Interactional speech , (interaction). , , . . ( , , ). , - . , - , , , , . , , . , , ,3. 109 , , ( , ). , ( , ), , . ( , ). (, ). (.: Brown and Yule 1993; Richards 1994a, 1994b; 1989). , . (adjacency pair). , ( , ), , , - ( 1985; 1993-1994). (interactional skills) , : (. Turn-taking, . 107);* ;* ;* , ( 1991, . 162).Transactional speech , . . , () , , , , . transactional speech, (transaction). . , , . , , (), . , -1103. Teaching language skills - . (description), (report / account), (narration), (argument) . , , , . , - , , .. , .. , .. , .. ; . : Brown and Yule 1993; Richards 1994b. : , (reproduction us. production), (planned monologue us. unplanned monologue) . (transactional skills), -, , ( 1986, . 81). (. Information transfer, . 143), (. Jigsaw activities, . 136), (. Oral reporting, . 144), (. Discussion, . 145) . ..: 1985; 1988, . 176; 1989, 1991.3.5. Teaching writing skills Writing1. . writing - , : , , . . (mechanics of writing), . , , . ( ) , .2. () . . . 111 (writing for training / writing for reinforcement) - , - - , -, . - , . (composition) (dicto-comp / dicto-gloss). - . (writing for communication) , . , , , , . (. , Types of writing), , (Hedge 1993, . 96; 1986). guided writing free writing .Guided writing / controlled writing , (. Cues, . 170).Free writing . : , , , (. Product-oriented writing, . 116; Process-oriented writing, . 117). , . (Raimes 1987; Kroll 1993; Richards 1994b; White and Arndt 1994; Dyer 1996; 1969).Types of writing ( , .. : 1955, . 77). , (written genres), . - , , 112

3. Teaching language skills . . (Hedge 1993, . 96) , , .Types of writingStudy writing Professionalwriting Social writing Personal writing Creative writing

essays business letters notes diaries poems

research reports progress reports letters journals stories

summaries resumes/ invitations reminders rhymes

reviews curriculum vitae messages addresses drama

annotations applications instructions recipes scripts

abstracts public notices shopping lyrics

notes contracts lists

memoranda packing

minutes lists

advertisements

articles

1. Study writing / academic writing , () . (notes), (reviews), (summaries) (essays) (. Study writing, . 123).2. Professional writing / business writing , ; , (business letters), (contracts), (publicnotices), (progress reports), (articles), (minutes), (memoranda / memos) . .3. Social writing , - (notes), (letters), (postcards), (e-mail messages), (telephonemessages).4. Personal writing , (diaries, journals), (reminders), (recipies), (addresses).5. Creative writing : , , - . . - , ( -, ; . Composing, . 115) ( -3. 113, , ; . Summarizing, . 114)..: White 1987, . 261; 1991, . 96; 1997, . 5.Study writing / Academic writing , . , , :* Dicto-comp / dicto-gloss , -. , , . dicto-comp (dictation-composition) : , . , (Wajnryb 1989).Summary / precis , , . - (. Summarizing, . 114). - . . Review , , ; . , . , () , . (), . - , , .* Annotation , , -. , .* Research report , , , , , . Abstracts , , , , . Outline , , .1143. Teaching language skills0 Notes (), , . (. Note-taking, note-making, . 114).Note-taking, note-making (notes) , . . note-taking , , (taking notes while listening), note-making (making notes while reading). . note-taking note-making , (Povey and Walshe 1982, p. 140; Hedge 1993). note-making - . (. Brainstorming, . 142), (. Mapping, . 142) (. Fast writing, . 115). , , , : ; , , ; , , (, . .);* (Host 1994, . 72; Jordan 1997). - (. Study skills, . 94).Summarizing , . () , , . , .3. 115 , , , , . : , , , . (, , , ), -, , , , (. Study writing, . 113). . . , . , , , , ..: Pink and Thomas 1936; Knight 1981; Nuttall 1982, p. 142; - 1990, . 196; . 1991, . 159.Composing, (, , ), (. Process-oriented writing, . 117). , , composition. , . (. Summarizing, . 114). , , ( , , , , . .). - : - (narration), - (description), - (argument). .Fast writing / Automatic writing . , .1163. Teaching language skills . 5-10 , . - - , (. Process-oriented writing, . 117). , , , , . , , . ..: Raimes 1987, . 39; White and Arndt 1994.Product-oriented writing / Genre-based writing , , ( , .. : 1955, . 77), - (. Process-oriented writing, . 117). , - . , - , , . , . -, , . - ( ) , (the traditional read-analyze-write model: Zamel 1987, p. 274; . : Brookes and Grundy 1991; Jordan 1997, p. 164). , , . ( ) , , , . , -. , , : (gap-filling); (completion); , , (sentence combining); , (unscrambling); , (expansion). . , , , .3. 117 , -, , - , ( , . .) . , , .Process-oriented writing , -. (- ), . , , (. Product-oriented writing, . 116). , , , , . , , :1. Pre-writing / rehearsing , - ( , , .. : 1969,. 133, 153), , - - -. , , , - (discovering, generating ideas). . : (. Brainstorming, . 142), - (. Mapping, . 142), (. Fast writing, . 115), (conferencing), (responding to questions), - (note-making, outlining).2. Writing / drafting , , - . - -: (introduction), (body), (conclusion). , , - (unscrambling), (-) (sentence combining), (expansion) (reduction).3. Revising / editing / post-writing , , . , , , , -, , -1183. Teaching language skills, . , , , . . , , , , , , . , , -, , , . ..: Brookes and Grundy 1991; -Lyons and Heasley 1993; Hedge 1993, pp. 44, 154; Krapels 1993; White and Arndt 1994; Johnston 1996; Jordan 1997, p. 167; 1969,1997.4. Language teaching / learning activities Language teaching / learning activities activity, task, technique, exercise. , . - , , , . , , , . - , - . - , , , , . , , , . . , (Gvishiani 1993, . 44)., , - , - , - , . ) ) . , . (): ( ), .1204. Language teaching / learning activities* . , ( 1988, . 103); - - , - ( ) ( 1986, . 55). . . .9 , : , , ( 1985, . 108, 159). () . ( : , , , ), . 9 (, ). * . ( ), , , . , ( 1980). , ( 1986, . 55): - (-), - (-) . ( 1985, . 61). : communicative activities / communication activities / tasks, pre-communicative activities / pseudo-communication activities, practice activities. , , , , : () . , , . , , . , . , ( 1986, . 23-24), task (. Task, . 123). , : , 4. 121 , - ( 1988). -, , , . , , - . , -- , . - ( ), - . , . , . , . , , .4.1. General concepts Exercise. . (Rivers and Temperley 1979; Nuttall 1982). - - formal exercise (- ), linguistic exercise ( ), () . - , - activity task (Lewis 1993, pp. 127, 184). exercise activity. , exercise - (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 1992).Activity. activity , - . () . 122__________________________________4. Language teaching / learning activities activity task (Lewis 1993, . 184). , task, activity (. Task, . 123). , task, activity . task , , activity , - , / . : selection, matching, reconstruction, gap-filling, deleting . .Activity . task: ...A task is taken to be an activity in which: meaning is primary, there is some sort of relationship to the real world, task completion has some priority (Skehan 1996a, p. 38); Task is the carrying out of an activity / activities to achieve a pre-establishedobjective (Ribe and Vidal 1993); @ By task I mean a specific goal or activity that is accomplished through theuse of language (Richards 1994a, p. 30); Task is a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achievea real outcome (Willis 1996a, p. 53)., activity exercise, (. Exercise, . 121). activity , . activity (Harmer 1991; Littlewood 1992, pp. 85, 89; 1994; Lewis 1996b, p. 13). , : accuracy activities vs. fluency activities: ; practice activities vs. communicative activities: () () ; pre-comnranicative activities vs. communicative activities: () ; controlled practice activities / guided practice activities us. free practice activities: () ; pre-text (pre-reading / pre-listening) activities us. in-text (in/whilst-reading / listening) activities us. post-text (post-reading / post-listening) activities: ; pseudo-communication activities vs. communication activities: - - ; 4. 123 closed activities vs. open-ended activities: (. Open-ended activities, . 126);* pre-teaching activities vs. follow-up activities: ( ) ;* consciousness-raising activities us. practice activities: (. Consciousness-raising activities, . 134).Task1. , . task .1980-x . , , (Rubdy 1998). task (a unit of teaching / learning), . :* (goal / general intention / a pre-established objective / a communicativepurpose); (procedures / the operations learners use tocomplete a task);* (content and language form); * (product / outcome); * (order /the arrangement of a task within a sequence of other tasks); * , (pacing / the amount oftime spent on a task);* ( / ), (resources / input data); (mode); * (grouping arrangements) (Lewis 1993, p. 184; Nunan 1993, p. 48; Rost 1993, p. 158; Richards 1994b, p. 151; Skehan 1996a, p. 38; 1996b, p. 23; Ur 1996, p. 124; Willis 1996a, p. 53; 1996b, p. 23). , () - task activity (. Activity, . 115). , , , task , (. Task-based syllabus, . 86). Task , , , . , , , . -1244. Language teaching / learning activities, , , . , - (. Open-ended activities, . 126). - (. Task-based learning, . 61). - , - (- ), , - , - , , ( / -- ). , task , exercise drill . tasks , , ( ), tasks , , , (Skehan 1996b, p. 20; Willis 1996a, 1996b).2. task , , , , , - .Technique , , . , : , , . , . (Alexander 1998, . 79; 1986, . 15). (. Teaching, . 155) (. Learning, . 157) , , , - , , , , ( . 1982, . 17; . 1991). . teaching techniques testing techniques.Teaching techniques , , , . , . , :4. 125* , (presentation);* (practice). , , (accuracy practice / controlled practice).* , , (fluency practice). elicitation, drama, project work. (Lewis and Hill 1992, p. 54; Byrne 1994, p. 2; Skehan 1996b, p. 17; 1988, . 90; , 1991). - , (. Questioning, . 130).Testing techniques , - , (. Testing techniques, . 197). - . - , - , learning technique learning strategy (. Leaner-centred approach, . 31). . - activity technique. -, , , () , (. Activity, . 121; Task, . 123). , , , . . - , , , , . - , . . (controlled practice activities / guided practice activities). , (matching), (unscrambling) (jumbling). (gap-filling) (deleting). , , .1264. Language teaching / learning activitiesProcedures , . procedures techniques, - . Procedures , , . , - : , , . procedures , , - , , - (Richards and Rogers 1987, pp. 146, 153; Nation 1989, p. 26; Rost 1993, p. 158).Procedures, techniques, - , . (twelve generalizable procedures: Maley 1994, p. 3).Open-ended activities vs. Closed activities -, , . - . - -. , , . , , (tasks). - (), . - , , , (discovery learning). - , (mixed-ability class) , , . . , . , (prediction), (brainstorming, mind-mapping), , , (ranking, discussion, problem4. 127solving) - (role play, scenario, simulation). , closed activities. , , , . - . - , - . (gap-filling) (reconstruction), (matching) (Prodromou 1989; Willis 1996b, p. 28; 1997).Lead-in activities , - ( 1989, . 208; , 1995, . 12; 19966, . 8). . , - , , . . , (. Background knowledge, . 94) , - , -, , , (pre-text activities). . - (. Lesson stage, . 163).Warm-up activities / Tune-in activities , , . , , , - , . , , , . . 1960-70- - - - - . warm-up activities , , , , -, --1284. Language teaching / learning activities , , . , , , (. Open-ended activities, . 126). .: Ur and Wright 1993; , 1993, . 328; 1997.4.2. Language teaching techniques Classifying / Organizing- , . , , . (identification), (selection), (comparison, contrast), (matching), (sorting), (grouping), (ranking). , , , . (. Consciousness-raising activities, . 134). , : , , , , , ( 1989, . 208; , 1995). . , , . , , . , , , (. Open-ended activities us. Closed activities, . 126)..: Lewis 1993, 1997; Carter and Long 1995, p. 41; Willis 1996b, p. 26.Drama (discovery learning). , , . , , : , , , - 129 , . (. Role play, . 148), (. Simulation, . 150), (. Scenario, . 147), (language games). , . , , , , (), , . , , - , , . , , , , , . , : . . , - , - . : - - - , , , . , , , , , -;* - , , , - , , . - , , - , , ;* , , , , - . .: Holden 1981; Via 1985; Maley and Duff 1993; Wessels 1993; Ladousse 1994; 1996.Eliciting / Elicitation, - . - , , -1304. Language teaching / learning activities , - , , , . - (. Questioning, . 130), - (. Rephrasing, . 139)., , - - . , - ..: 1988, . 90; 199.Information gap - . , - , - . - . , - - , - . (jigsaw activities, information gap activities), - - . (. Information transfer, . 143). information gap activities - opinion gap activities, , , , - , . - , , , , , , ..: Lewis and Hill 1992; Prabhu 1992a, pp. 46-47; Prodromou 1992; Nunan 1993, p. 64; 1991, . 4-6. - . - - . , , - , -, , - . (. Eliciting, . 129). -4. 131 . - : . , , , . , : referential questions, inferential questions, evaluative questions questions of personal response. , , , . , , . , - , . - - :* comprehension questions / literal comprehension questions , ;display questions -- . , , - :* multiple-choice questions , ;* truefalse questions , , (. *Truefalse statements, . 141). , , . , . , . , , - , :*yes / no questions ;* wh / how questions ;* or questions ;* tag questions . :* closed / convergent questions , ;* open-ended / divergent questions , . , , , . . -132 4. Language teaching / learning activities . . , , , (. Open-ended activities us. Closed activities, . 126). () :* pre-questions (pre-reading, pre-listening, pre-text questions) , ( , , . .); in / whilst-questions (in-reading, in-listening questions) , ;* post / follow-up questions (post-reading, post-listening, post-text questions) , , . , . (, 1992). , , , (. Background knowledge, . 94). , , . , , , , , . (follow-up discussion), (. Feedback, . 183)..: Nuttall 1982, . 132; Stevick 1986, pp. 24-25; Lewis and Hill 1992, p. 1ll; Tollefson 1994; Tomlinson 1994; Hess and Pollard 1995.Reconstruction / Restoration - , - . - (deleting) (jumbling). -: (. Gap-filling, . 136), (. Completion, . 133), (. Unscrambling, . 141). , - , , - . - (. Jigsaw activities, . 136)..: Maley 1994; Willis 1996b, p. 78.4. 133Word association- , , , .