53376065 a practical guide to costume mounting

A Practical Guide to

Costume Mounting

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A Practical Guide to

Costume Mounting

Lara Flecker

Published in association with the Victoria & Albert Museum

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • OxfordParis • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of ElsevierLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

First edition 2007

Copyright © 2007, The Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Published byElsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

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To my Grandmother Hilda Firth

C O N T E N T S

FOREWORD ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

INTRODUCTION xiii

CHAPTER 1 HANDLING, DRESSING AND CONSERVATION ISSUES 2

Handling costumes 3

Dirt and creases 8

Materials commonly used for costume mounting 9

Basic conservation issues for costumes on display 12

A brief overview of packing costume for transport 13

CHAPTER 2 TAKING PATTERNS AND MAKING TOILES 16

Assessing which parts of a costume to copy 17

Preparatory research 18

A brief introduction to historical pattern cutting 18

Taking basic measurements of a costume 21

Accurate toile method (suitable for fragile dress) 26

Quick toile method (suitable for more robust garments) 37

CHAPTER 3 SELECTING AND MODIFYING MANNEQUINS

AND DRESS STANDS 40

Mannequins and dress stands 41

Having a customised figure made for a costume 42

Choosing a non-customised figure 45

Adapting torsos before padding 46

Covering figures with fabric 57

CHAPTER 4 PADDING UP THE TORSO 74

The techniques of applying padding to a torso 76

Creating female historical body shapes 80

Creating male historical body shapes 95

CHAPTER 5 DESIGNING AND MAKING UNDERPINNINGS 102

Sleeve supports 103

vii

Leg supports 113

Techniques of making skirt supports 118

Creating period skirt silhouettes 134

CHAPTER 6 TROUBLESHOOTING 162

Additional pads 163

Collar supports 170

Costumes with missing or damaged fastenings 175

Missing articles of costume and frequently

needed reproductions 186

CHAPTER 7 ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR MOUNTING COSTUMES 200

Flat costume mounts 201

Perspex® mounts 207

Buckram figures 209

Plastazote® or Ethafoam® figures 217

APPENDIX BASIC SEWING TECHNIQUES 225

BIBLIOGRAPHY 249

SUPPLIERS LIST 251

INDEX 257

C O N T E N T Sviii

F O R E W O R D

Of all artistic media, dress is the most challenging to display. Flat paintings andprints, as well as three-dimensional forms such as sculpture, ceramics andmetalwork move easily from store to display case, with the addition of a frameor plinth. Overall, dress lacks such rigid structure. It is usually stored flat indrawers or cupboards, but must be translated into a three-dimensional formwhen exhibited. Such a conversion operates, in a sense, in reverse to dressmak-ing and tailoring practice. Clothing is made to fit a particular person or industrydefined size. In mounting dress, we are trying to recreate the body for which agarment was originally made, a challenge compounded by the shifting ideals infashionable silhouette throughout history. This process requires appropriatelystyled mannequins, carefully shaped underpinnings, a good understanding offashion history and a degree of skill. The aims in mounting dress are bothaesthetic and protective. Not only should the garment be shown accurately and toits best advantage, but it should also be fully supported with no stress on the seamsor fabric and protected from any contact with mechanisms of the mannequin.

This book offers excellent guidance on preparing mannequins, modifying themto accommodate particular shapes and sizes of garment, and on making a rangeof supports for sleeves, trousers and a variety of skirt dimensions. The patternsare precise yet simple to use and the advice on readily available materials sensi-tive to both conservation requirements and budgetary restrictions. All thedirections are applicable to both historical dress and contemporary fashion;the adaptability of the instructions to the infinite variety of dress is another ofthe book’s major strengths. Having followed a number of the enclosed patternsin order to mount dress in the V&A’s collections for the new Fashion Gallerydisplay, I can attest to their ease, practicality and successful results, despite myvery limited sewing skills. A Practical Guide to Costume Mounting is essential read-ing for all those who work with dress in museum collections, as well as dresshistory and museology students. It provides the essential ‘magic wand’ to trans-form a limp object in a drawer into a stylish garment, resplendent in the sculp-tural form intended by its maker and original wearer.

SUSAN NORTH

Curator of 17th and 18th century fashionV&A Museum

ix

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

I would like to thank the following people: first and foremost Frances Hartog,who generously put hours of work into reading and improving the text andSusan North who kindly wrote the foreword and supplied valuable guidance oneighteenth-century dress. I would also like to thank all those in Conservation atthe V&A who have given me so much advice and support, in particular SandraSmith, Lynda Hillyer, Marion Kite, Elizabeth-Anne Haldane, Albertina Cogram,Susana Hunter, Cynthea Dowling and Boris Pretzel. In addition I would like tothank all the curators from Furniture Textiles and Fashion who I have had thebenefit of working with over the last few years and in particular Lucy Johnstonfor her insightful advice on nineteenth-century dress.

I am very grateful to those in the photographic department who have helpedwith the images for this book, especially Richard Davis for taking the cover photo,Sarah Hodges for working with me on some of the corset shots, Peter Kelleherfor providing so many of the pictures and for his technical assistance and James Stevenson also for his technical support.

I am also indebted to several other colleagues at the V&A, includingChristopher Breward, Sue Prichard, Anna Fletcher, Robert Lambeth, RichardAshbridge and Nicola Breen.

In addition I would like to express my gratitude to Janet Wood who sharedher mounting experience with me during the few years that we workedtogether at Historic Royal Palaces. Also to Wimbledon School of Art for givingpermission to use Michael Pope’s technique for constructing a court panier. I would also like to thank Joanne Hackett, Beth Szuhay and Patricia Ewer forproviding information about materials and suppliers in the U.S.

My grateful thanks also go to all those concerned with the production of thisbook, in particular Stephani Havard, Mary Butler, Charlotte Dawes, AparnaShankar and those from HL Studio’s and also to Zenzie Tinker, EdwinaEhrman and Catherine McLean for reviewing the proposal for this book.

Finally I would like to thank my family for all their support and assistance and particularly Dom Browne for drawing diagrams and correcting spelling etc. and Mary Flecker for her meticulous proof reading. My thanks also go toPat Cuttforth for all her help and encouragement and also to Lauren Child and Carrie Browne.

xi

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The style and fashions of clothes have been a subject of great interest forcenturies. Over the last few years the display of both historical and contempo-rary costume in museums, galleries and exhibitions has become increasinglypopular. As a result the need to display costume in a manner that is acceptableto conservators, historians and the general public has become essential. Thismeans that every time a costume is put on display it must be fully supported,historically accurate and visually appealing.

Unlike many objects exhibited in museums and galleries, costumes usuallyrequire considerable work to prepare them for display. Even contemporarydress often needs additional attention and the amount and complexity of worktends to increase for period garments. Although mounts such as mannequinsand dress stands can be purchased easily, they are rarely the right size andshape for historical costume and will often need adapting to fit. Underpinningsare also essential, not only as a substitute for historical frames such as paniersand crinolines, but as a supportive foundation, controlling the shape andarrangement of trousers, skirts and sleeves.

The importance of costume mounting is often underestimated by those whoare unfamiliar with the subject. However, garments that are badly prepared canruin a display and will put fragile textiles at risk. This is well illustrated bycomparing the two images of an 1830s muslin dress before and after it wasmounted for display shown in Figures 0.1 and 0.2. Although the garment isdressed on the same figure in both images, the pictures could not be moreunlike. In the first, the dress does not fit the torso, it has no historical defini-tion, while the fine muslin from which it is made is unsupported and vulnera-ble to damage. In the second image, the dress has been dramatically improved.The transformation has been accomplished by using a series of techniques tocreate a body shape and underpinnings which support the dress, give it thecorrect historical silhouette and show it off to its best advantage.

Preparing a costume such as this can be a daunting prospect for someonewho is unacquainted with mounting techniques, but, like any craft, it is some-thing that can be taught and learned. Unfortunately, the lack of trainingcourses and scarcity of information on this subject has meant that many areexpected to display costumes without any advice or assistance. The aim of this

xiii

I N T R O D U C T I O Nxiv

Figure 0.1

Muslin dress withembroidered hem.C. 1830. British orFrench. T.51–1934

Dress before any workhad been carried outto prepare it fordisplay.

Figure 0.2

The same dress asabove after it had beenprepared for display.

book is to provide a practical and comprehensive guide to costume mountingthat will fill help this gap. Using techniques developed at the Victoria andAlbert Museum (V&A), A Practical Guide to Costume Mounting is intended to beuseful to all involved in this area, including those with little sewing experience.

Housing one of the finest dress collections in the world, the V&A reflects therising interest in fashion, displaying costume within its galleries and numerousexhibitions, as well as loaning to a large number of national and internationalinstitutions. In order to meet these demands the need to mount costume swiftlyand economically while maintaining a high standard has become increasinglyimportant and many of the methods recommended here have been developedin response to this need.

The topics included in the book cover the areas of costume mounting that aremost commonly required, from handling and dressing through to body paddingand techniques for making toiles and underpinnings. It is important to state here,however, that costume mounting methods vary widely throughout the world andthe techniques detailed in this book are only some of many possible approaches.

Each process is broken down into a series of simple steps using a combina-tion of text and diagrams. To help illustrate these points a number of photo-graphs are used, depicting relevant examples of mounted costume from theV&A. A basic sewing appendix is also included for the benefit of those withlimited needlework experience, providing all the necessary sewing techniquesneeded to carry out the instructions. Although English names for materialshave been consistently referred to in the book, an English to American conver-sion chart can be found in the first chapter, to assist with the translation of theseterms. The word costume is used throughout as a general expression, intendedto encompass all varieties of dress, rather than signifying theatrical garments.

A Practical Guide to Costume Mounting caters for a wide range of people withvarying experience, including conservators, curators, theatre and film costumemakers and designers, exhibition designers and members of the fashion indus-try. Although focusing on costume from the eighteenth century onwards, thesemounting techniques can be adapted for garments from earlier periods. As it isimpossible to include every potential display problem likely to be encountered,the same flexible approach should be taken to all the instructions in the book,modifying and altering them as necessary to suit specific mounting projects.For the safety of the costumes themselves and for those working on them, it isessential to follow health and safety precautions when carrying out any of theproposed mounting techniques.

This publication has been designed as a practical reference book and can beused in different ways. Those with more experience can dip into it when neces-sary, to help with individual display problems, while beginners can use it as ahandbook, guiding them through all the fundamental mounting processes,from start to finish.

I N T R O D U C T I O N xv

1Handl ing,

Dress ing andConservat ion

Issues

This chapter is a basic introdution to the handling, dressing and conser-vation issues relevant to the display of historical costume and is for thebenefit of those who have little experience of working in this area.

Costumes that are handled or mounted inappropriately are vulnerable todamage, particularly if they are already old and degraded. Outfits of a morerecent date can also be fragile and for this reason a high level of care must bemaintained at all times and should be applied to every garment no matter whatits age or value. To reduce any risks, a knowledge of good handling practicesand an understanding of basic display principles are essential.

Hand l ing Cos tumes

Basic precautions

There are a number of basic precautions that should always be observed when handling costume. Before unpacking an outfit from storage, a table largeenough to receive the garment should be prepared. Ensure that the surface is clean, well-lit and free from splinters or covered in a sheet of Melinex®. Handsneed to be washed and heavy makeup and jewellery removed. To avoid accidents,pens and scissors should not be used or left in close proximity to the costume.

Figure 1.1

Purple silk bias-cut dress, designed by Jeanne Lanvin. 1930. French. T.340-1965. Mounted on a modern dress stand made by Proportion London.This costume toured for nearly three years in North America and Japan and wasexhibited in seven successive venues. During transport, the costume remained on thedress stand, with additional covers and padding for protection.

3

Gloves

Although it is good practice to avoid touching a costume, it is not possible tomount an outfit for display without a certain amount of handling. To minimiseany potential damage, gloves should be worn as much as possible to prevent the natural oils found on the skin coming in contact with the textile. This isparticularly important when working on garments with metal components asthe compounds secreted through the skin cause tarnishing and corrosion.Close-fitting latex gloves are the most suitable, as they do not restrict dexterityand still allow some sense of feel. There is also no danger of them snagging orcatching on the textile. When handling costume, however, it is also importantto be realistic about the use of gloves. For example, for intricate procedures usinguncovered hands may be less of a risk to the garment than performing the sameprocess in gloves. When this is the case, hands should be washed thoroughlybefore touching the object.

Examining the costume for signs of deterioration

Before attempting to prepare a costume for display, it is important to examine thegarment thoroughly for signs of degradation and weakness. Most historicalcostumes will have suffered some kind of damage, but modern outfits are alsosusceptible and should be checked equally carefully. To perform a comprehensiveexamination, the structural state of a costume must be investigated as well as theoverall condition of the textile. This will involve a thorough inspection of theseams, lining, fastenings and fabric of the garment. Costumes should be turnedover during the process, so that they can be inspected on both the front andback. The inside of costumes should also be scrutinised, paying particularattention to the condition of the lining. Signs of deterioration can include anyof the following: splits in the fabric, shedding fibres, degraded materials suchas perished elastic and areas of ware, open seams, weak and missing fasteningsand mould and insect damage. Professional advice should always be soughtfrom a textile conservator before mounting any damaged textile and essentialconservation should be carried out in advance to ensure the safety of thecostume while on display.

Moving a flat costume

The process of carrying a costume from one place to another should always bethought through carefully before executing. Even for very short distances, theroute should be planned and all obstructions cleared out of the way. Ensurethat there are enough people on hand to carry out the process safely.

Costumes can be carried in a variety of different ways and unless fairly small,should generally be carried by two people. One of the safest methods available

A P R A C T I C A L G U I D E T O C O S T U M E M O U N T I N G4

is to transport the costume wrapped in a clean dust sheet. Held by a person at either end, the dust sheet not only protects the costume during transfer, but can be used to lift and support it. In a similar way, costumes can also beconveyed from one place to another on a rigid board. When using this system,make sure that the selected board is able to pass through relevant doorwayswithout being angled. Less bulky costumes can be folded and placed in boxesor trays and in some cases carried by a single person. No matter how short thejourney, any folds should be supported and padded with tissue rolls. Robustgarments can be carried on a hanger; wrap the costume in tissue or a clean dustsheet and make certain that the outfit is secure on the hanger. Long skirtsshould be supported over an arm.

Dressing a costume onto a figure

Although costumes are at risk throughout all display preparations, they areprobably at their most vulnerable while being dressed onto a figure. It is there-fore essential to carry out this process in as safe and controlled a manner aspossible. Before commencing operations, make sure the figure, pole and standare clean and free from dust by wiping over with a dry cloth. Select an area offloor that is large enough to accommodate the costume and with enough extraspace around it to allow access on all sides. Cover the floor with tissue paper ora clean dust sheet and place the figure on top. Study the design of the costumeand work out a dressing strategy, calculating how many people will be requiredto carry out the process safely. It is important to gauge this accurately, as usingtoo many people can be as potentially harmful to the costume as using too few.On average, two dressers are usually needed, although three may be requiredfor larger or more complex garments. Make sure that all parties involved areclearly informed of the dressing strategy and know what their responsibilitieswill be throughout the procedure.

Bodices and jackets: As sleeves tend to be the most complicated part of abodice or jacket to mount, the way these are dressed will depend on the kindof arms that the figure is constructed with. These tend to divide roughly intothree different types; figures with detachable solid arms, figures with non-detachable articulated arms and figures with stitched-on soft sleeve supports.No matter what kinds of arms are used, two people should always be employedto dress a bodice or jacket onto the figure. Working closely together, eachdresser should take charge of one side of the costume, focusing on the safedressing of the relevant sleeve. This level of co-ordination is essential, especiallyas sleeve linings are often fragile.

When working with figures with solid and detachable arms, prepare the torsoby removing one of the arms and laying it to one side. Gently pass the appro-priate sleeve of the costume up the remaining arm, until it is fully covered.

H A N D L I N G , D R E S S I N G A N D C O N S E R VAT I O N I S S U E S 5

Thread the disconnected arm through the second sleeve and gently ease thegarment around the figure until the arm fixing is aligned with the socket. Slotthe arm into position, taking care not to trap any fabric.

Figures with articulated arms that cannot be detached should be treated inthe following way. To prepare the torso for garments with front openings, botharms should be straightened out and twisted towards the rear, until they areparallel to each other and pointing directly backwards. With the dressers work-ing in synchronisation, both sleeves of the costume are gently drawn up the armsof the figure simultaneously. To move the costume fully into position, push thearms forward again and ease the costume over the shoulders and around thefigure. This process should be reversed when dressing garments with backopenings.

Dressing figures with soft sleeve supports is perhaps the easiest method of all and the kindest to the costume. Stitched to the figure and made of fabricstuffed with padding, arms of this variety can be squashed, compressed andmanipulated in all directions without losing their shape or falling off. The sleevesof the costume can either be dressed simultaneously using the same method asdescribed for articulated arms, or they can be threaded through the sleeves oneat a time. Do not be afraid of manhandling the arm into any position thatmakes it easier for the costume to be dressed.

Skirts: Skirts are generally straightforward to mount and should be dressedonto a figure using two people. With one person supporting the waist of thegarment and the second managing the hem, the skirt is gently drawn over the topof the figure and dropped down into the waist.

Occasionally, skirts are cut too narrow to fit over the bust of a mannequin.When this is the case a different dressing technique must be employed and the costume should be eased onto the figure from the bottom up. When everpossible, the upper torso should be removed entirely from legs or pole fixingsbefore beginning. With the top part of the figure missing, the skirt can bedropped easily over the legs or pole and held in position by the first dresser.The second dresser should replace the torso and the skirt can then be gentlypulled up the body and secured around the waist.

Dresses: As dresses combine a skirt, bodice and usually sleeves in onegarment, they tend to be the largest and most awkward costumes to mount.Unless there are any additional complications, dressing should once again becarried out by two people. Using the same methods as have already beendescribed, the process of mounting a dress on a figure can be broken down intotwo stages, focusing first on the skirt and then the bodice and sleeves. Forexample, with one dresser supporting the bodice of the costume, the hem ofthe skirt should be gently eased over the top of the figure by the second dresser.Once the skirt has been dropped into place, the bodice and sleeves of thegarment can be positioned, using the same dressing methods already described


for bodices and jackets.

Trousers: Depending on the kind of figure involved, trousers can be dressedby two people in two different ways. The first method can be used for thosemounted on a torso and pole. Before starting, the torso should be removedfrom the pole and put to one side. With one dresser supporting the waist of thetrousers, the second dresser guides one leg down the pole. If the pole is positionedoff centre, make sure that the correct trouser leg is selected to correspond withthe fixing on the torso. With the first dresser still supporting the garment from thewaist, the second dresser can reattach the torso to the pole. Once in place, thetrousers can then be gently pulled up the body and secured around the waist.

The second dressing method can be used for mannequins with legs. Beforestarting, the legs (and in some cases the entire figure) must be removed fromthe base fixing or spigot. The top of the legs are then rested on a tabletop andheld firmly in position by dresser 1. The trousers are placed on a flat board ortrolley by dresser 2 and held horizontally in front of the feet of the figure, at legheight. With the costume fully supported in this way, the trousers can then begently eased over the feet of the figure and up the legs. The figure can then bereturned to a vertical state and fastened back on its base.

Protecting mounted costume

Once the mounting of a costume is complete, care should be taken to protectthe garment while it awaits display. Costumes can be placed on clean dust sheetsand covered in a layer of tissue paper to protect them from dust, abrasion and,to a limited degree, light. To afford better light protection, figures should becovered in an additional layer of tightly woven fabric or Tyvek®. To identify thecostume, affix a clearly marked label to the outside of the covering.

Moving dressed figures

Moving costumes that have already been mounted on a figure is usuallyunavoidable when preparing costume for display. No matter how long or shortthe distance to be covered, the same transport procedures should always beapplied. As when moving a flat costume, the route must be planned and allobstructions cleared. The number of people required can also vary, but as ageneral rule two or three will be sufficient. Figures can be moved using anassortment of different wheeled trolleys and skates. If you do not have access to one of these, a very simple skate can be created out of a sturdy piece of flatcardboard or correx, with a loop of tape attached. Placed on this contraption adressed figure can be pulled for short distances.


Before starting, remove any unstable accessories and unfixed parts of thefigure such as hats and heads. Moving a dressed figure can be separated intotwo distinct stages. The first consists of lifting the costume on and off the trolleyor skate and the second involves the actual process of transporting the costumeto its destination. The lifting of a mounted costume requires a minimum of twopeople, one to balance and support the neck of the figure and one to take theweight of the ensemble by lifting from the base. If the costume has a train, athird person will be required to take care of this. Never attempt to pick up thefigure from around the waist.

The second stage of transporting the dressed figure may require three people,one to pull the trolley or skate, one to stabilise the figure and if necessary a thirdto open any doors. Before moving, make sure that the figure is centred on thetrolley and protect trains and skirt hems with tissue paper or dust sheets. Aswhen lifting, the figure should be steadied from the neck rather than aroundthe waist and special care should be taken when going over any bumps orramps. In order to keep a close eye on the stability of the figure it is usuallybetter to transport the costume uncovered, though skirts can remain wrappedin a protective layer of tissue if necessary.

Di r t and C reases

As historical costumes are often stained and have frequently been stored fordecades in less than ideal conditions, dirt and creasing are a common problemwhen preparing garments for display. Unfortunately, dealing with these difficultiesis never straightforward and advice should always be sought from a textile conser-vator. Using standard cleaning techniques on historical costume can cause irre-versible damage to various materials. Although in some cases it is possible to washa costume, this is a complex conservation treatment and should not be under-taken without thorough investigation and supervision from a specialist. Usingcleaning treatments of a less invasive nature are sometimes possible, such asremoving surface dust from a garment with a soft brush and low suction vacuumcleaner. When carrying out this process, the vacuum should not be applieddirectly to the costume, but held at a short distance, while the brush is used todislodge the dirt from the costume and direct it into the nozzle. Techniques canalso be employed to help mask the appearance of dirt such as the careful position-ing of an outfit in a display case. Costumes can be arranged so that soiled areas areless conspicuous and lighting used to minimise the visual impact of stains.

Dealing with heavily creased textiles is equally complicated. As with cleaning,standard methods are not suitable for period costume. For example, ironingold, fragile fabrics can be extremely detrimental. Even if there is no immediatevisible injury, the base of an iron is very hot even on the lowest setting. This willcause damage to weakened fibres, which will accelerate the degradation of the


garment. The use of steam also requires great caution as the introduction ofheat and humidity to a soiled textile is not desirable. Again, advice should beobtained from a textile conservator before attempting to smooth creases usingthis method. As a useful non-invasive technique, costumes with heavy creasingshould be mounted well in advance of the display, as creases will sometimesdrop out naturally over time.

Mater ia l s Commonly Used fo r Cos tume Mount ing

Mounting costumes for display involves the use of a variety of different materials,some of which will be in direct contact with the garment. Using products of aninappropriate quality can be harmful to the costume, particularly for thosei n s t a l l e din sealed cases, on long term display. It is therefore important to make sure that the materials used for mounting are chemically inert and safe for use with textiles(see table below).

One of the most reliable ways of ascertaining the suitability of different prod-ucts is to have them tested by a conservation scientist. Unfortunately thisprocess can be both expensive and time consuming. Consequently, any materi-als testing must be budgeted into a display programme from an early stage forthe results to be of any use. To minimise the need for testing, many materialsof a suitable quality can be conveniently purchased from specialist conservationsuppliers. Fabrics, however, are generally only available from standard manu-facturers and stockists and should be selected with a certain amount of care.For example, fusible fabrics treated with adhesives should be avoided.


List of useful materials used for the mounting of costume

UK trade name US trade name Description Stocked by

Unbuffered Unbuffered acid-free Tissue paper suitable for use with Conservation acid-free tissue tissue paper textiles. Can be purchased in sheets supplierspaper or on the roll.

Unbuffered Unbuffered abaca Soft, semi transparent tissue, suitable Conservation spider tissue fibre for use with textiles. Can be purchased suppliers

in sheets or on the roll.

Museum board Museum board Conservation grade acid-free card, Conservation made from 100% cotton rag. suppliersAvailable in a range of different weights.

Reemay® Reemay® 100% spun polyester fibre. Available Conservation in a variety of weights and can be suppliersused as an alternative to card. Reemay® is easy to stitch through making it a particularly useful material.

Continued



Plastazote® Less commonly An inert, polyethylene foam used Specialist andavailable in the US. for mounting and packing. conservationEthafoam® can be suppliersused as a substitute

Not available in the Ethafoam®? An inert, lightweight polyethylene ConservationUK. Plastazote® foam, used for mounting and supplierscan be used as a packing. This product is particularly substitute easy to carve.

Hexlite® Aluminium Lightweight board made of an Specialist and(Aluminium Honeycomb Aluminium honeycomb structure conservationHoneycomb board sandwiched between sheets of suppliersboard) fibreglass in resin.

Archival Melinex® Archival Mylar®/ A chemically stable transparent film. Specialist and (Polyester film) Melinex® Available in a wide variety of weights. conservation

(Polyester film) Limited weights also sometimes suppliersavailable in an opaque finish.

Polyester wadding Polyester batting Standard craft padding made of 100% Conservation and polyester, comes in different weights. standard fabricUse varieties that are thermally suppliersbonded rather than resin spray bonded.

Tyvek® Tyvek® A spun-bonded, water-resistant, Conservation polyethylene fabric, that is safe for suppliersuse with textiles. When used in direct contact with a textile, the smooth side of the Tyvek® should be placed against the object.

Calico Muslin A versatile unbleached plain weave Standard fabric cotton fabric. Usually available in a suppliersnumber of weights ranging from light to heavy.

Cotton Duck Cotton Duck Heavy weight cotton fabric, Standard fabric particularly useful for making robust suppliersunderpinnings.

Cotton lawn Cotton lawn Good quality, fine woven lightweight, Standard fabric cotton fabric. suppliers

Muslin Cheese cloth Loose woven, cotton fabric. Standard fabric suppliers

Cotton Cotton Sheeting A medium weight fabric made from Standard fabric Sheeting 100% cotton. Often available in suppliers

particularly wide widths.

Polycotton Cotton/Polyester An inexpensive medium weight fabric Standard fabric made from a mix of cotton and supplierspolyester.



Cotton jersey Cotton Stockinette Knitted cotton fabric, with varying Standard fabric degrees of natural elasticity. suppliers

Tights Pantyhose Standard nylon tights. Generally larger Standard clothes sizes should be selected for mounting shopspurposes.

Silk Habotai Silk Habutae Fine woven, smooth, silk fabric Standard fabric generally available in three different suppliersweights. The most commonly used for costume mounting is a medium weight.

Nylon Net Nylon Netting Nylon mesh fabric useful for Standard fabric underpinnings. Available in many suppliersweights, from standard dressmaking to heavy varieties used for making tutu’s. It is useful to stock three different weights.

Conservation Conservation Fine grade net made from 100% nylon Dukeriesgrade net grade net and used in the conservation of textiles.

Domette Similar to cotton A soft cotton fabric generally Standard fabric flannel used as an interlining. suppliers

Bump Similar to thick cotton A heavyweight cotton fabric generally Standard fabric flannel or poly-felt used as an interlining. suppliers

Linen Scrim Linen Scrim Inexpensive, loose woven, linen fabric. Standard fabric and Requires a minimum of three hot machine upholsterywashes to remove all the dressings. suppliers

Buckram Buckram A cotton or linen fabric impregnated Millinery suppliers with a starch based size. or can be

manufactured in-house

Plain weave Plain weave Inexpensive cotton tape, available in Conservation and cotton tape cotton tape a variety of widths. standard (India tape) haberdashery/notion

suppliers

Cotton Cotton twill A herringbone tape made from 100% Upholstery and twill tape tape cotton. standard haber-

dashery/notion suppliers

Rigilene® Dress makers Flexible polyester boning that is usually Standard (Dress makers Polyester supplied in a variety of widths. The haberdashery/notionPolyester boning size most frequently used in costume suppliersboning) mounting is 12 mm.

Steels (Metal Steels (Metal A strong metal boning generally Specialist suppliers and boning) boning) covered in a woven casing. Used in some haberdashery/

the theatre and fashion industry for notion supplierslarge underpinnings.

Continued



Velcro® Velcro® Extremely strong and thought to be Conservation (Hook and (Hook and the safest of all hook and loop and standard loop fastener) loop fastener) fasteners. Chiefly made of nylon, but haberdashery/notion

limited stocks now also made from suppliers100% polyester. Available in a variety of widths, with self-adhesive or sew in backing.

Fishing line Fishing line Sturdy nylon thread useful for securing Hardware or accessories etc. Available in a variety fishing shopof weights.

Entomological Entomological Very fine, long shanked pins. These pins Taxidermy or insect pins or insect pins should be cleaned before use by suppliers

passing in and out of a piece of Plastazote® or by dipping in an acetone bath.

Archival PVA Archival PVA A water-soluble adhesive Conservation suitable for use with textiles. suppliers

Hot melt glue Archival hot Adhesive suitable for use with Conservation melt glue Plastazote® and Ethafoam®. suppliers

Wheat starch Wheat starch A powder made of wheat starch that Conservation can be used to mix up a starch paste and chemical when added to water. Starch is suppliersattractive to mould and silverfish and should only be used in a dry and stable environment.

Generally, un-dyed cotton, polyester and silk are all suitable for use. As a precaution, however, thesefabrics should be washed to remove any dressings and impurities. Commercial detergents are not usedin this process and the fabrics should be machine-washed exclusively in water, using a long hot cycle.

Bas i c Conse rva t ion I s sues fo r Cos tumeson D i sp lay

Placing an historical costume on display can also put it in danger. To reduce the risk, it is important tobe aware of the basic conservation issues that relate to this situation. For the benefit of those who areless familiar with this practice, the following section sets out some of the more fundamental concernsrelating to the display of costume.

Long-term fatigue: Costumes that are displayed for extended periods can suffer from long-termfatigue, resulting in the overall deterioration of the garment. To avoid this, the condition of suchcostumes should be regularly monitored and, when necessary, rotated or removed from display. Therisks of strain and fatigue will obviously increase if garments are already weak and damaged and this must betaken into account when selecting objects. The additional stresses caused by the handling and mounting of

fragile costumes should also be considered and those that are particularly vulner-able should not be selected for display.

Light levels: Light damages textiles whether they are dyed or un-dyed, causingfading and photochemical degradation. Overexposure resulting in deteriora-tion can occur in a matter of days. The effects of light can be reduced but noteliminated and certain precautions should be taken to protect costumes ondisplay. For example, exposure can be limited and lux levels kept low, a maxi-mum of 50 lux is suggested for museum objects. The most harmful end of thelight spectrum, ultraviolet, should also be entirely screened out of display areas.The dyes used in some historical textiles are particularly sensitive, such as earlyaniline dyes. Costumes with these or similarly sensitive colours should beexcluded from display or exposed for short periods only, even in a well-regulatedenvironment.

Open display: This method of display is currently becoming increasingly fashionable. One of the drawbacks to this practice is the excessive amount of dust that can build up on garments in a short period of time. Frequent vacuuming is damaging and also very time consuming. Displaying costumes incases is therefore strongly recommended, particularly for fragile garments.

Touching: The amount of harm that can be caused to a costume from peopletouching it is enormous, ranging from heavy soiling to structural damage. A garment exhibited on open display within reach of people’s hands, will beirresistible to the general public. Measures must be taken to ensure that costumesare positioned well out of reach, with suitable barriers in place and, if feasible,surveillance equipment and warding staff.

Costume resting on the floor: For costumes with long trains, skirts or cloaksthat extend on to the ground, a barrier layer should be used to protect thetextile and isolate it from the floor. Melinex® is best suited for this function asit is transparent and offers some protection as well as a resilient, smooth surfacefor the garment to lie on. Though not ideal, acid free tissue can be substitutedif Melinex® is not available. To cut the barrier layer to the right shape and size,position a piece of Melinex® on the floor of the display area before installingthe figure. Once in place, arrange the hem of the costume on top of thebarrier. The excess Melinex® is then cut away by gently pushing the hem of thetextile back a couple of inches and trimming to size. As scissors are used for thisprocess, extreme care is required. Once the cutting is complete, return thehem to its original position, fractionally overlapping the edge of the barrier tohide it from view.

A Br ie f Overv iew of Pack ing Cos tume fo r Transpor t

The packing of objects for transport is an integral part of a travelling exhibitionor loan. Costumes are vulnerable during travel and in order to move and transfer


them as safely as possible, it is essential that they are packed with suitable mate-rials and appropriate support. This section briefly outlines some of the princi-pal packing methods.

Flat packing costume: There are a number of different ways of packingcostume for transport. In most cases, outfits are removed from their mountsand packed flat in trays, crates and boxes and padded with suitable materials toprevent them from moving or becoming creased. Whenever feasible, costumesshould be packed unfolded and trays and boxes chosen that are large enoughto accommodate the full length of the garment. If this is not possible, foldsmust be carefully padded to prevent creasing. Consideration should also begiven to how costumes will be lifted in and out of the container. This processcan often be simplified by placing the garment on a sheet of packing materialsuch as tissue paper or a dust sheet. Holding this at either end, the costume canbe lifted and moved as required, without any additional handling. If more thanone item is placed in a tray, the heaviest and most robust should be installedfirst and each object should be separated by a layer of packing.

When preparing a flat costume for transport, a number of different packingmaterials can be used. Crates and trays can be lined with polyurethane foam1

and Plastazote® for insulation and shock absorption. Loose packing materialscan take the form of acid free tissue paper or polyester wadding fashioned intodifferent supportive shapes. Tissue can either be rolled into sausages, whichcan be used to support folds in the costume, or crumpled into light, air-filledpuffs which are useful for cushioning and filling in voids. Polyester waddingcan also be rolled to create more robust sausages. As well as this, it can be usedin flat layers, either cut into specific shapes and inserted inside garments forsupport, or left as unshaped padded covers used to protect the outside of agarment. When using polyester wadding for packing, it must always be coveredin an isolating layer of fabric or tissue, to protect the textile from loose fibres.

Packing mounted costume: An alternative method to flat packing is to trans-port costumes ready-dressed on figures. This practice is much less common,but is particularly useful for costumes that are difficult to mount and will be putat risk by repeated handling. Costumes packed in this way have the advantageof being already well supported from beneath by custom made underpinnings.For transport however, this will not be sufficient and additional packing will berequired to safeguard the outside of the costume and limit any movement. In order to protect the garment, costumes made of vulnerable fabrics shouldbe covered by a smooth silk body bag. These are made with an opening at oneend, allowing the bags to be dropped easily over the necks of figures and pulled


1Polyurethane foam is not suitable as a packing material if costumes are to remain in trays for

longer than three months.


down over the costumes. Heavily beaded or decorated textiles need additionalsupport and protection, in the form of specially made padded outer garments.These are constructed out of silk covered wadding and fastened around thesensitive areas with tapes. The arms of the figure can be immobilised withcotton tapes to prevent movement and straps and zips should also be securedto the figure with additional ties. As a final precaution, both the outfit andmount should be covered in a custom made Tyvek® bag. To protect costumeswith trains or trailing skirts, a cardboard or Reemay® base can be stitched to thebottom of the bag, with a large enough circumference to accommodate thehem of the garment.

Not all figures are suitable for this form of packing and only the most robustshould be used. For example, mannequins with single spigot fixings are less likelyto withstand the constant vibration and jolts caused by transport. Attempting to use models of this kind may result in broken or collapsed figures. Torsosmounted on poles with solid bases are much more suitable, but to guaranteetheir safety all fixings must be checked for stability and strength and tightenedto their maximum extent. Figures of this type can be secured in crates, usingneck and base fittings made of foam blocks and timber batons.

Packing instructions: No matter what method is used, a set of packing instruc-tions should be prepared for every garment that travels. These are used to assistwith the unpacking and the repacking of an outfit. As different personnel are frequently required to carry out this task, it is important to make sure that the instructions are simple and easy to understand. Using digital images tohelp explain the packing process is a particularly effective way of clarifyinginstructions and cutting down on lengthy written descriptions or hand drawndiagrams.

Packing costumes for multi-venue loans: The significance of good packingpractices become increasingly important for costumes travelling on multi-venueloans. In this situation garments may be packed and transported to a numberof locations, often by different personnel. On these occasions, the design of the packing needs to be particularly carefully planned, to create a robust, logical and straightforward system that can be easily reused at every venue. Fabric covered polyester wadding is especially suitable as a packing material as unlike tissue paper, it cannot be crushed and will last for long periods oftime. To ensure none of the packing is lost or mixed up during the tour, eachcomponent should be labelled both to identify which object it belongs to andhow it is used.

Condition checking: To monitor the condition of objects during transport,costumes should be carefully checked for damage both before packing and when they are unpacked. Garments should be carefully inspected insideand out and any alterations to their condition marked on an accompanying

2Taking Patterns

and Making Toi les

The word ‘toile’ is used throughout the fashion and costume industry todescribe a rough trial version of a garment. Made out of inexpensivefabric, it is used to experiment and test out patterns before a final outfit

is made. In the world of costume mounting, everything works in reverse becausethe final garment already exists. A toile, in this context, is used to describe acopy of a costume and is valuable in a variety of different ways. For example, itis one of the few objects in a museum that can be handled and examined by thegeneral public. In addition, toile patterns can provide an insightful archivalresource for costume historians and can also be useful to textile conservatorswhen working on damaged garments.

Toiles are principally used, however, to assist with the preparation ofcostumes for display. By using a toile as a substitute, the handling of a costumeduring mounting can be reduced to a minimum. Access to a toile can greatlyassist with the selection and adaptation of a figure, the sculpting of a customisedmannequin and the creation of bespoke supports, underpinnings and replicagarments. For this reason, an understanding of how to take a pattern from anoriginal costume is very important. This chapter explores two different copyingtechniques that can be used to make toiles. The Accurate Toile Method is slow,meticulous and very precise, while the Quick Toile Method is less accurate butextremely fast. Both systems have their place and can be used to suit differentmounting situations.

Assess ing wh i ch Pa r t s o f a Cos tume to Copy

When creating a toile it is often unnecessary to make a complete copy of acostume. One of the best ways to simplify the process is to analyse what the toilewill be used for and omit any part or detail of a costume that will not contributeto this. In many cases, it may be possible to reduce the components of a toile tonothing more than a copy of the bodice with no sleeves, skirt or trousers.

Figure 2.1

Satin bodice with slashed decoration. 1630–1635. British. 172-1900. Mounted with areplica stomacher on a fibreglass figure made by H&H Sculptors Ltd and padded to fit.

17

Determining which parts of a costume should be reproduced will depend on the toile’s use and the condition and design of the original garment. Tomake decisions, costumes should be broken down into separate parts, such asskirt, bodice, sleeves and trousers. The condition and mounting issues of eacharea should then be individually assessed to establish whether or not a copy isnecessary. The requirements for each costume are likely to be different, butthere are a few common criteria that can be usefully applied to most examples:

(a) A toile should be made for parts of a costume that are fragile or vulnerableto damage caused by handling.

(b) Where part of a garment is made with a structural inner lining, outerlayers should be excluded and a toile made only of the inside.

(c) Replicating any applied trimming or decoration is usually unnecessary.(d) Making accurate copies of bias-cut garments is virtually impossible and

should not be attempted.

Prepara to ry Research

Before attempting to make any kind of pattern for a toile, it is essential thatsome pattern cutting research be carried out first. This is particularly impor-tant for historical costume, where knowledge of the period cutting conventions will give a valuable insight into a costume before it is even examined. Beingprepared in this way will considerably reduce the amount of time needed tostudy a garment and understand its construction. Research should focus on theshape, cut and grain line of individual pattern pieces. Rather than attemptingto find authentic material, there are a number of excellent cutting books inwhich historical patterns have been scaled down into diagrams that are clearand easy to comprehend (see Bibliography). For those who have no experienceof pattern cutting, it may be necessary to read the following section in order tolearn how to interpret these pattern diagrams.

A Br ie f In t roduc t ion to H i s to r i ca l Pa t te r n Cut t ing ( fo rthe benef i t o f those w i th l im i ted d res smak ing o r pa t te r ncut t ing exper ience )

Making a toile of an already existing garment is like drafting a pattern inreverse. To understand how toile patterns are produced, it is important to look atthe process of pattern cutting from the right way around before attempting to doit backwards. There are two routine pattern cutting methods. One approach is todraft a pattern with pencil and ruler on a flat piece of paper. The second is to usea dress stand as a foundation and create a three-dimensional pattern by drapingand pinning fabric around it. Both these techniques are utilised when making


toiles of existing costume. For example, flat pattern drafting is closely linked tothe method for making accurate toiles, while the quick toile system borrowsheavily from cutting on the stand. Recognising how these two cutting methodsrelate to each other is fundamental to understanding how patterns work. Thisrelationship clearly explains how a flat piece of fabric can be shaped to fitaround the three-dimensional curves of a body and vice versa. It also illustrateshow pattern diagrams in cutting books should be read and interpreted.

For those who are new to this subject, there are two basic cutting conventionsthat is important to be aware of. It is usual when designing and cutting garmentsto draft only half a pattern, as this can then be reversed and duplicated for thesecond half. Unless there is some design feature that makes a costume asym-metric, diagrams of patterns in reference books are presented in the same wayand are drawn from the centre front line to the centre back as half patterns only.

The second convention is concerned with the important practice of markinggrain lines on patterns. These lines correspond to the straight of grain on thefabric and indicate how a pattern piece should be positioned. The straight ofgrain is where a piece of cloth is at its strongest and least stretchable. It runs upand down the fabric, parallel to the selvage. If there is no selvage to indicate thegrain, it can usually be identified by looking closely at the surface of the fabricand observing how the fibres are woven. The straight of grain follows the warpthreads (the weft line runs across the fabric from selvage to selvage). The grainline is usually marked individually on commercial dressmaking pattern pieces,but in pattern books it is often indicated by the vertical edge of the page. It should be clear from the way a diagram is drawn where the straight of grainis running, for example, if a pattern is rotated at an angle this shows that it iscut on the bias. An understanding of the straight of grain is fundamental to allpattern cutting and toile making and it is essential to be able to identify it bothin reference diagrams and on the costume itself.

One of the most straightforward ways of observing how a flat pattern and athree-dimensional pattern relate to each other is to look at a female bodiceblock. The word block is used to describe a basic fitted pattern that can beadapted to create any number of different styles and designs. The femalebodice block is made out of two pieces of fabric that are shaped to fit a figurein the simplest way possible. The front and back panel of the block are joinedalong side and shoulder seams, while four darts are used to help mould theblock into a snug fit around the body. The straight of grain runs directly up anddown the centre front and centre back line.

Comparing the image of the block pattern on the dress stand to the flatdiagram of the pattern, it is clear how one relates to the other. All bodices,historical or contemporary, can be seen as an adaptation of this basic patternand interpreted in a similar way. Seams and darts may be moved and reshaped,front and back panels may be divided into separate pieces, neck and waistlines

TA K I N G PAT T E R N S A N D M A K I N G T O I L E S 19


Figure 2.2

(b) Back view.

Figure 2.3

(b) Back view.

Figure 2.2 The basic bodice block on a dress stand.

(a) Front view.

Figure 2.3 The basic bodice block as a flat pattern.

(a) Front view.

might differ dramatically, but essentially the conventions are the same. Thissimple example illustrates how most three-dimensional garments relate to a flat pattern. Other costume parts work in a similar way. Patterns of skirts,trousers and sleeves can all be deconstructed into flat shapes and the straightof grain continues to be used to orientate every panel.

Tak ing Bas i c Measurements o f a Cos tume

Whether or not you are making a toile, accurate dimensions of a costume areconstantly required throughout the mounting process. Measuring a costume isnot necessarily as straightforward as it sounds and for this reason it is worthrunning through some of the technical issues relating to it.

In order to measure the costume it should be laid out on a clean surface withaccess to good light. To get the most accurate reading, measurements shouldbe taken at least twice, if possible, using a narrow tape measure (approximately1 cm wide). As a rough guide; vertical measurements can be taken from theoutside of a costume, while circumference measurements should be taken fromthe inside, where the garment is at its smallest. Working on the inside of acostume can be awkward and to make it easier circumference dimensions canbe broken down into halves or quarters, measured individually and then addedtogether. Whenever possible, circumference measurements should be supple-mented with a position reference (i.e. where the measurement was taken fromin relation to the waist). Careful attention should also be paid to fastenings,making sure that measurements do not include button overlaps or placketopenings. Finally, when working with historical dress, it is always advisable tomeasure both halves of a costume, as they are often uneven.

The chart below shows which measurements are needed. It is unlikely thateverything on the list will be required. Measurements most commonly used aremarked in red and if possible these should always be taken.

Relating garment measurements to a figure

Measurements Location on a figure Location on a costume Reference position

1. Around waist The waist is usually the narrowest Usually easily recognisable by part of the figure between the seam and dart shaping or hips and bust. The measurement the position of waistbands.is taken around the entire When dealing with skirts or trousers waist circumference. that are separate from the

bodice, it is important to take waist measurements for both. Skirts/trousers usually have a waistband that makes this measurement easy to take.


Continued



2. Around bust This measurement is taken The level of the bust can be located Measure the or chest over the fullest part of the at the farthest tip of the bust reference position

bust or chest, under the darts. If there are no darts, the from bust line to arms and across the back, measurement should be taken waistline. keeping the tape measure from just below the armhole.as level as possible.

3. Around ribcage This measurement is taken Locating the level of the ribcage Measure the reference female directly under the bust, on a costume can be difficult. position from costume only around the body and If it is unclear, the measurement ribcage to waistline.

across the back, keeping should be taken approximately the tape measure as 7–9 cm below the bust line.level as possible.

4. Bust point to The bust points on a figure This measurement is the distance The reference position point usually correspond to the between each bust point. On a from bust line to female nipples and are the costume these points are found waist should already costume only precise spots where each at the farthest tip of the bust have been taken.

breast is at its fullest. The darts or seam shaping. If the point to point dimension bust points are not obvious, is taken by measuring estimating this measurement is the distance between not important. As a rough guide, the nipples. however, the point to point of

an average, uncorseted woman is approximately 20 cm.

5. Shoulder point This is the distance from the The shoulder point usually coincides to side waist shoulder point to the side with the head of the sleeve. If the

of the waist. The shoulder costume is sleeveless and there is point is located at the no obvious shoulder point, its farthest tip of the position must be estimated. To do shoulder and separates it this, simulate the extension of the from the upper arm. side and shoulder seams with two

rulers. The shoulder point can be found where the rulers intersect.

6. Nape to back This is the distance from the Unless the costume is cut with a waist nape of the neck to the high neckline, this measurement

centre back waist. If must be estimated. To do this uncertain where the nape take the shoulder point to side is, drape a tape measure waist measurement and add around the neck of the 3–4 cm/3.5–4.5 cm.figure and allow it to fall naturally. The nape can be found where the bottom edge of the tape measure rests on the centre back neck.

Key: Female costume/Male costume



7. Across front This is a flat measurement This measurement is taken in a Measure the reference taken across the front of straight line across the front of position from the the figure above the bust. the costume, from armhole level of the across Arms should be left to seam to armhole seam. The front dimension to hang naturally and the measurement should be taken the shoulder point measurement taken from approximately 14–15 cm down or waistline.the crease of each arm, from the shoulder point.approximately 14–15 cm down from the shoulder point.

8. Across back This is a flat measurement This measurement is taken in a Measure the reference taken across the back of straight line across the back of position from the the figure, using the same the costume, from armhole seam level of the across position and method as to armhole seam, using the same back dimension to the across front. position and method as the the shoulder point

across front. or waistline.

9. Length of This measurement is taken This measurement is taken along shoulder along the top of the the top of the garments shoulder.

figure’s shoulder, from As the neckline or armhole may the side of the neck to be cut away, the shoulder length the shoulder point. of a costume is often different to

that of a matching figure.

10. Front This measurement is taken from neckline the lowest point of the front to waist neckline to the level of the waist.

11. Back This measurement is taken from neckline the lowest point of the back to waist neckline to the level of the waist.

12. Length This measurement is taken If the sleeve is straight, simulate of arm/ with the arm slightly an elbow by arranging it into a sleeve bent. Measure from the slight bend on the table. The

shoulder point, around measurement should be taken the tip of the elbow to from the sleeve head/shoulder the wrist. point, around the tip of the

elbow to the cuff.

13. Around This measurement should This measurement should be taken wrist/cuff be taken around the around the cuff or hem of the

wrist. sleeve.

14. Around This measurement is taken Estimate where the bicep of an arm Measure a reference biceps around the biceps of a would be positioned inside the position from the

figure at its widest point. sleeve of the costume and take head of the sleeve the measurement from this point. to the level of the

bicep.

15. Around This measurement is taken Estimate where the forearm would Measure a reference forearm around the forearm of a be positioned inside the sleeve position from the head

figure at its widest point. and take the measurement of the sleeve to the from this point. level of the forearm.


Continued


16. Around hip This measurement is taken Visually locating the level of the Measure the reference around the figure at the hipbone on a costume is not position from the level of the hipbone. If possible. In this case, the level of hipbone touncertain where the hipbone measurement should be taken waistline.is located, it is approximately approximately 8 cm/10 cm below 8 cm/10 cm below the line the line of the waist.of the waist.

17. Around This measurement is taken Though the bottom is the fattest Measure the reference bottom around the figure at the point of the lower torso it is still position from the

fattest part of the bottom. sometimes difficult to locate on a level of the bottom to It can usually be found costume. If this is the case, the the waistline. approximately 20 cm/23 cm measurement should be taken below the line of the waist. approximately 20 cm/23 cm below

the line of the waist.

18. Front length This measurement is taken This measurement is taken from of skirt/leg from the centre front waist the centre front waist of the

of the figure to the floor. costume to the hem.

19. Side length This measurement is taken This measurement is taken from of skirt/leg from the side waist of the the side waist of the costume to

figure to the floor. the hem.

20. Back length This measurement is taken This measurement is taken from of skirt/leg from the centre back waist the centre back waist of the costume

to the floor. to the hem and should include any skirt extension or train.

21. Inside leg This measurement is taken This measurement is taken from (trousers from the crotch to the floor the crotch to the hem on the only) on the inside of the leg. inside of the leg.

22. Around If relevant, this measurement This measurement is taken around hem of can be taken around the the hem of the skirt or trouser leg skirt/leg ankle. of a costume. If the costume

includes a train, the around–hem measurement may be misleading. To gauge it more accurately, lay the tape measure horizontally across the train rather than going around the outside edge.

23. Waist to This measurement is taken On trouser garments only, this Measure a reference waist via between the legs from the measurement is taken from the position from the level crotch centre front to the centre centre front waist, down through of the crotch to the

back waist. the crotch and back up to the waistline.centre back waist.

24. Around This measurement is taken For trouser garments only, estimate Measure a reference thigh around the thigh of a figure where the thigh would be position from the

at its widest point. positioned inside the leg of the level of the thigh costume and take the measurement to the waistline.from this point.



13

15

14

12

57

2

3

1

16

23

17

24

1821

19

9

4

13

15

1412

57

2

3

1

16

17

18

19

9

4

22

13

15

14

8

2

3

1

1623

17

20

6

24

8

23

1

16

17

20

22

6

Figure 2.4 Relating garment measurements to a figure.

(a) Front of figure. (b) Front of costume.

(c) Back of figure. (d) Back of costume.

25


Converting costume measurements into figure size

One of the principal reasons for taking the measurements of a costume is toestablish what size figure it should be mounted on. It is perfectly possible to trans-late costume measurements onto a figure, without trying the garment on, as longas you have the estimated back nape to waist length. Having this measurementmeans it is possible to locate where the waist of a garment will fall when it isdressed on the figure. If you cannot establish this, all other statistical comparisonsbecome meaningless and you will not be able to make an accurate assessment.Even if you find a figure that has identical bust and waist measurements to thecostume, this does not mean that it will fit. If there are differences between therespective nape to waist measurements, the bust and waist will be out of kilter andthe dimensions will no longer match, preventing the costume from fastening.

The nape to waist of historical costume tends to vary widely and for this reasoncaution must always be taken when translating measurements. If you have directaccess to the figure, use the nape to waist measurement of the costume to judgewhere the waist of the garment will sit. Mark the waist with a line of pins or apiece of elastic or tape tied around the figure. All reference positions can thenbe taken from this line and the level of the bust, ribcage, hipbone and all othercircumference measurements established.

Another important factor to take into consideration when translating costumemeasurements into figure size is the allowance for ease. In order for a costumeto fit comfortably on a mannequin without being put under strain, the circum-ference measurements of a costume must be a minimum of 1–2 cms larger thanthe figure. If you are in any doubt about the size, always select a smaller figure,as it is much easier to increase the dimensions of a torso with padding than itis to cut one down.

Accura te To i l e Method

Due to the handling restraints of historical costume, making an accurate patternfor a toile can be an exacting and time consuming process. For this reason toilesare often seen as a luxury that cannot be afforded. Fortunately, for the majorityof costumes there is no need to make a duplicate of this precision. In some cases,however, it is essential and a realistic amount of time must be budgeted to allowfor the process. The most common reason for making a toile is to protect fragilecostumes from handling during the mounting process. With access to an accuratetoile, it is possible to sculpt a figure and make a complete set of underpinningsfor a costume without once touching the original. In this way the costume is onlydressed on the mannequin when everything is fully prepared and the paddingand underpinnings are in place.

Two techniques can be used when making an accurate pattern of a historicalcostume. The first is to take a large number of meticulous measurements and


Figure 2.5

Toile of 1630s slashedbodice (see p. 16 for original costume). An accurate toile(made by AnneKwaspen), dressed onthe figure before anywork had been carriedout to prepare it fordisplay.

Figure 2.6

Toile dressed on thefigure after it had beenprepared for display.Due to the fragility ofthe costume, an accu-rate toile was made andused to assist with thepadding up of thefigure and the makingof underpinnings andreplica stomacher.


use them to draft a flat pattern with pencil and paper. The second is to take atracing of the costume by laying tissue paper over individual panels and draw-ing around the shapes. Used in isolation, neither of these techniques is ideal;the first, because it takes so long and the second, because it is generally inac-curate. To speed up the process, while retaining as much accuracy as possible,the best way to tackle a toile pattern is to use both methods together. In this waythe tissue tracing will provide a rough idea of pattern shape, while the meas-urements can be used to adjust and fine tune it to the correct size.

Before getting to work, the costume should be mentally divided into appropriate sections, such as: bodice, skirt/trousers and sleeves. With the costumelying flat on a clean well lit surface, these sections of the garment should thenbe subdivided along the seam lines, into individual panels, studied carefullyand the relevant pattern research carried out. Once the costume has beenprepared in this way, detailed measurements and tissue paper tracings can betaken of each panel and used simultaneously to create an accurate pattern ofthe costume. As historical costume is frequently uneven, a toile pattern shouldbe made of both halves of the garment. Once the pattern has been fullydrafted, the toile can be made up using a suitable cheap and robust fabric.Refer to the sewing appendix for guidance.

Useful tips

If unfamiliar with taking patterns from historical costume, the following aresome useful tips that can be used to help carry out safely the processes involved.

Measuring tips(a) Where possible, all measurements should be taken from the inside of the

garment, unless this is detrimental to the costume.(b) To get the most accurate reading, measurements should be taken at least

twice. If possible use a narrow tape measure (approximately 1 cm wide).(c) If a measurement is difficult to reach, is very curved or is complicated by

gathering tucks or pleats, abandon the tape measure and use a length ofthick thread instead. This will be much easier to manipulate. To ensurethe thread has no give, steam and press with an iron before using. Put aknot in one end and measure from this point. Mark the end of the measurement with a pin inserted through the yarn. Remove the threadfrom the costume and measure off against a ruler.

Tracing tips(a) Ordinary tissue paper can be used to trace panels, but if possible use

a soft spider tissue as it is more transparent and moulds better to the fabric.


(b) Tissue tracings can be taken either from the inside or outside of thegarment. The choice should be made according to which ever is leastharmful to the costume.

(c) Hold down the tissue paper around the object using glass weights.Alternatively, dressmaking pins can be used to secure the tissue by pininginto protruding padding or to a dustsheet positioned beneath thecostume. If possible do not pin into the textile itself. If this is unavoidable,use only the finest pins (entomological pins are ideal) and fasten thetissue in place with the point of one of these slipped into a seam.

(d) If it is difficult to see the straight of grain through the tissue paper, lay alength of thread onto the costume in the direction of the grain beforepositioning the tissue. To ensure the thread is straight, steam and presswith an iron before using.

Making an accurate toile pattern of a bodice

As the bodice or body of a costume is generally constructed of more complex,shaped panels, making a toile pattern for this part of a garment tends to bethe most time consuming. The techniques described in the following instruc-tions can also be used to draft toile patterns for other parts of a costume. N.B. The measuring and tracing instructions described in the table belowshould be carried out simultaneously.

Making an accurate bodice toile

Measuring Tracing

1. Select a panel from the bodice and position so that it is as smooth as possible. Bear in mind that not allbodice panels can be made flat. Use polyester wadding covered in tissue paper to pad out and supportareas that require it.

2. Draw a rough diagram of the panel. All measurements should subsequently be noted on this planthroughout the drafting process.

3. Study the panel to ascertain the angle and 3. Cut out a piece of tissue large enough to direction of the straight of grain. If the grain overlap the panel. Using a ruler and pencil, draw line is unclear, use pattern cutting reference a line and mark as the straight of grain.books to assist with analysis.

4. Measure the outer perimeter of the panel, 4. Lay the tissue over the panel matching the taking individual dimensions of each edge and pencil line to the straight of grain on the fabric.seam line that defines it. Using a soft pencil, trace the perimeter of the

panel, taking care not to rip or puncture the tissue. Remove the tracing from the costume.

Continued


Measuring Tracing

5. Compare the size of the tissue pattern to the measurements taken from the costume. This will providea rough idea of its accuracy. You will probably find there are some inconsistencies.

6. Select a point that is easy to identify on the 6. Replicate the grid line on the tissue pattern by top or bottom edge of the panel. Using a locating the same easy-to-identify spot and length of buttonhole thread, cast a vertical draw a vertical line from this point. The line grid line over the panel, from the selected should run parallel to the marked straight point. The thread should follow the grain of of grain.the fabric and be kept as straight as possible. N.B. These two measuring and tracing Straighten the thread before using, by techniques can be carried out in reverse order.pressing with an iron.

7. Take careful measurements from the grid lines on the panel and tissue pattern and compare the findings.Where there are inaccuracies make alterations on the tissue. All measurements taken from the costumeshould also be noted on the diagram, as distances may need readjusting as the pattern develops.

Figure 2.7

Embroidered jacket, 1600–1620. British. T.106-2003. Using lengths of thread to mark thecostume with grid lines in order to draft apattern for an accurate toile.

33.2

Grid line cast tohelp establishcurve of armhole

2nd Grid line

1st G

rid li

ne fo

llow

ing

the

stra

ight

of g

rain

Perimetermeasurements

Grid line castto helpestablish thediagonal seam

Point on thepanel that iseasy to identify

7.5

19.2

13.1

11.3

11

3.5

19.8

10.6

17.3

15.15

32.4

Figure 2.8

Using the grid lines and measurements toadjust the paper pattern.


Measuring Tracing

8. Select a new point that is easy to identify 8. Replicate this second grid line on the tissue and cast a second grid line, using a separate pattern in the same way as the first. Make sure piece of thread. This should run horizontally that the line runs exactly perpendicular to the across the first line, perpendicular to the marked straight of grain. straight of grain. N.B. These two measuring and tracing techniques

can be carried out in reverse order.

9. Using the new grid line in the same way as the first, take a series of new measurements and compareand transfer to the tissue pattern. When new adjustments are made, cross reference all related pointsto make sure the measurements still fit.

10. Carry on adding new lines until a sufficient grid has been built up. The number of lines needed willdepend on the complexity of the shape. For example, a panel with curved edges will require morethan a panel with straight sides. As alterations are made to the pattern, continue to double check andrevise all related points until every measurement fits. In this way the toile pattern is evolved. If youare unable to make the measurements work out on the tissue pattern, cast new grid lines at the rele-vant points to help resolve any mistakes.

Incorporating darts and gussets into a toile pattern

Taking a pattern from a costume that is constructed with darts can be difficult,particularly if the size of the dart is hidden behind an inner lining. The tech-nique below explains a simple way in which to use the tissue paper tracing towork out the size and position of a dart and draft it into the pattern. The samesystem can be used for costumes with inserted gussets. N.B. The measuring and tracing instructions described in the table below shouldbe carried out simultaneously.

Darts and gussets

Measuring Tracing

1. Pad out the fullness created by the dart, from underneath, with wadding covered in tissue.

2. Study the panel to ascertain the angle and 2. Cut out a piece of tissue large enough to direction of the straight of grain on both overlap the panel. Mark on a series of pencil sides of the dart. grain lines at intervals of 3–4 cm.

Continued

Measuring Tracing

3. Measure the length of the dart line. 3. Mentally divide the panel in half along the line of the dart and select one side. Call this side A. Lay the tissue over the panel, matching the grainlines on side A. Continuing to work on this side,trace half the outer edge of the panel onto thetissue (see Figure 2.9(a)). Draw in the line of thedart, marking the farthest tip with a balance mark.

4. If the dart is visible, measure the width at 4. Remove the tissue from the costume and cut its widest point. If it is hidden by lining, along the line of the dart to the farthest tip. it may be possible to get a rough idea of its Once the dart line has been cut, the tissue size by gently pressing down on the dart pattern can be repositioned over the panel, and feeling it through the fabric. in exactly the same place as before.

5. If the dart width is known, overlap the tissue by this amount, sliding side B over side A (see Figure 2.9(b)). If the dart size isunknown, overlap the tissue using the straight ofgrain as a guide. When the grain lines of the tissue and fabric on side B match, the dart is the correct size. (For costumes with gussets,open the slit up instead of overlapping.)


Half tracedpattern

Grain lines

Remove patternfrom the costumeand cut along theline of the dart

Side A

Shading indicating a garment beneath

Figure 2.9(a)

Step 1.


Measuring Tracing

6. Secure the overlapped tissue with a pin and draw the lineof the dart onto side B. Trace around the remaining edgesof the panel so that the pattern is complete.

7. Check and adjust the pattern using the ordinary grid system. If there is more than one dart in thepanel, repeat the process for each dart, evolving the tissue pattern in several stages.

Fullytracedpattern

Side A

Side B

Overlapping sideB over side A toform the dart

Figure 2.9(b)

Step 2.

Side ASide B

Figure 2.9(c)

Finished pattern.


Figure 2.10

A sack-back gown and petticoat made of painted Chinese silk with replica stomacher. 1760s. British. T.115-1953.Mounted on a modern dress stand made by Proportion London and padded up to fit. As the gown was so fragile,an accurate toile was made to assist with conservation, figure padding and the construction of a replica stom-acher.


Sleeves and trousers

Measuring Tracing

1. Prepare the sleeve or trouser leg by padding out with tissue. To facilitate all round access, gently raiseit an inch or so off the table. Do this by propping it up with tissue rolls or suspending it from aboveusing a sling made of cotton tape.

2. Using the seam lines as a guide, divide the sleeve/trouser leg into panels and draw a rough diagram ofeach part. Sleeves are often made out of a single panel, so only one diagram will be necessary.

3. Study each panel to ascertain the angle 3. Cut out pieces of tissue large enough to overlap and direction of the straight of grain. each panel. Using a ruler and pencil, draw a line If the grain line is unclear, use pattern on each one and mark as the straight of grain.cutting reference books to assist with analysis

4. Measure the seams of each panel and 4. Lay the tissue paper over the panels matching all other top and bottom edges. up the grain lines. Join the pattern pieces with

pins, following the line of the seams. Using a soft pencil, trace the seams and edges onto the tissue paper and remove from the costume. It is often easier to limit the tissue to the level of the underarm or crotch point and draft the sleeve head/trouser top from measurements only.

Making an accurate toile of sleeves and trousers

Although patterns can be taken from sleeves and trousers in the same way asthe bodice, the narrow, cylindrical shapes of these appendages means that theymust be treated slightly differently. For example, all tissue paper tracingsshould be taken from the outside of the garment and the individual panels thatmake up one sleeve or trouser leg should be worked on simultaneously. Securethe tissue paper in place by pinning the pieces together along the seam linesuntil all panels of the sleeve or trouser leg are fully covered.

Establishing the inside dimensions of a sleeve or trouser leg can be difficultas access is limited. To assist with this, measurements can be taken by insertinga strip of rolled-up Melinex® into the sleeve or trouser leg and gently releasingit until it fills out the shape. The Melinex® can then be carefully removed andmeasured outside the costume. Paper or card can be used instead of Melinex®,but is not quite as effective.N.B. The measuring and tracing instructions described in the table belowshould be carried out simultaneously.

Continued


Measuring Tracing

5. Compare the size of the tissue pattern to the measurements taken from the costume. This will providea rough idea of its accuracy. You will probably find there are some inconsistencies.

6. Employing the same grid technique used with bodices, compare and adjust the pattern until it is theright size and shape. If the tissue pattern does not include sleeve head or trouser top, extend the gridlines beyond the underarm or crutch level and draft the top of the pattern using measurements only.

Tissue paper A tape sling used toraise the trouser leg

Pinning thetissue togetheralong the seamsof the trousers

Tissue rolls

Figure 2.11

Taking a tissue paper pattern of a trouser leg.

Making an accurate toile of a skirt

Unlike all other parts of a costume, a toile pattern for a skirt should be drawn with-out the assistance of tissue paper tracings. Skirt patterns tend to be cut in straightlines with uncomplicated panel shapes and can be drafted more simply as a flatpattern. As the cut of historical skirt patterns often reflect the cutting conventionsof each period, reference books should always be consulted before starting work.


Quick To i l e Method

Due to the constraints of time and money, making accurate toiles is often notviable. Nevertheless, to minimise potentially harmful handling, toiles are stillfrequently needed to assist with the adaptation of figures and the making ofunderpinnings. For this reason a quick toile method has been developed as analternative to the slower processes described in the previous section. With thiskind of toile, the emphasis is on speed and a copy of a bodice can be made upin less than an hour. Inevitably speed comes at a cost and these toiles are lessaccurate than copies made in a more painstaking manner.

The quick toile method is based on the fashion technique of pattern cutting onthe stand, i.e. using a dress stand as a foundation to create a three-dimensionalpattern by draping and pinning fabric around it. In this case, however, thecostume is dressed onto a figure before work commences and the pattern is takenover the top of the costume. Rather than fabric, the pattern is made of tissuepaper which is both easy to tear and semi-transparent. Spider tissue is particularlygood for this job as it is softer and more mouldable than other types of tissue. Adress stand or mannequin must be selected as a temporary foundation for thecostume. If you have any choice of size, take basic costume measurements (p. 21)and select a figure of appropriate dimensions. If needed, the mounted costumecan be supported and filled out with temporary pads made of tissue paper puffsor tissue covered wadding. If no figure is available, lay the costume on a clean, well-lit surface and make a temporary body by padding out the bodice with tissue andwadding. Although the costume is far less easy to work on in this way, access canbe facilitated by propping the bodice up on rolls of tissue. This technique can alsobe very useful when making toiles of fragile costumes.

Measuring and drafting a flat pattern for a skirt

1. Select one panel of the skirt and draw a diagram of it. Ascertain the angleand direction of the straight of grain.

2. Establish the dimensions of the outer perimeter of the panel, by measuringthe seams and all other edges.

3. From these measurements, draft a flat pattern of the skirt panel on a separate sheet of paper, using a pencil and long ruler. Mark on the straightof grain.

4. Employing the same grid technique used with bodices, cast a few verticaland horizontal threads to double check the size and shape of the paneland the curve of the hem and waistlines.

5. Replicate the grid lines on the flat pattern and compare and adjust the measurements to fit.


Once the costume is prepared, the toile pattern can be moulded over thetop. Varying degrees of accuracy are possible. To get a more exact copy, a tissuepattern should be cut and fitted to each individual bodice panel and the seam and grain lines carefully matched. If time is very short, however, a super-quick toile can be created, bypassing these details. Large pieces of tissue can be substituted for individual panels and shaped to fit over the costume using arbi-trary darts, tucks and seams. The finished mould has no constructional value, butit takes half the time and is enough to give a reasonable indication of the size andshape of the costume. It is important to remember when using this method,that, however accurate, the toile will always be slightly bigger than the originalcostume.

Figure 2.12

Evening dress designedby Pierre Balmain.1957. French. T.51-1974.Tissue paper patternbeing taken over thetop of the costume,using the quick toilemethod.


Making a quick toile of a bodice

1. Cut a piece of tissue large enough to overlap the centre front bodice panel. Using a ruler and pencil,draw a line and mark as the straight of grain.

2. Lay the tissue over the panel matching the pencil line to the straight of grain. Do not pin the paperto the costume, but hold loosely in place by pinning to the neck of the figure. (A small piece of lowtack masking tape can be substituted when working on a solid figure.)

3. Repeat the same process for the panels at the centre back.4. Cut tissue for the side panels. Mark on the straight of grain and position each piece over the bodice,

matching up the grain lines. To hold them in place, join them to the centre front and centre backpanels with pins, roughly following the line of the seams. Darts should be incorporated, employingthe same technique used in the accurate toile method (see p. 31).

5. Join the front and back pattern pieces together along the shoulder with pins.6. Roughly trim the seams of the pattern by tearing away some of the excess. Ease around the neck and

arms by tearing the tissue into short tabs. Do not use scissors for either of these operations.7. Improve the shape and accuracy of the pattern by working down each seam line, repositioning the

pins and tightening up the tissue until it fits closely over the costume. Take care not to pin into thetextile and make sure that the grain lines of both pattern and costume are still consistent with eachother.

8. Using a soft pencil, trace the neck opening, armholes, hemline and seams onto the tissue pattern.Remove the pattern from the costume, making sure that each panel is labelled before it is unpinned.

9. Even up the pattern as necessary and add balance marks to the seams.10. Use the tissue pattern to make up a fabric toile (see Sewing appendix). Alternatively, if time is

pressing, the pattern pieces can be stitched or pinned together as they are and used as a paper toile.

Quick toile patterns for sleeves, trousers and skirts

If quick toiles are required for sleeves, trousers and skirts, lay the costume on a clean well-lit surface anddraft the patterns while the garment is flat. Adopting a far less meticulous approach, make up thepatterns, using the same basic techniques described in the accurate toile section (p. 35).

3Select ing and

Modify ingMannequins and

Dress Stands

Before mounting a costume, a figure must be chosen for the outfit to bedressed on. Although every costume is different, there are a number ofcommon factors that must be taken into consideration when making

this selection. These include such things as the exhibition design and duration,the individual requirements of the garment, the composition of the figures, theinclusion of accessories in the display and the possible need for legs, arms andheads. The huge array of mannequins and dress stands available means thatmost exhibition requirements can be accommodated. The price of figures canalso vary enormously and for this reason money is often the principal influencewhen selecting figures for costumes. Although it may be possible for exhibi-tions with large budgets to have expensive, custom-made fibreglass or waxfigures produced for individual costumes, this is usually an exception. Fordisplays with smaller budgets, less expensive, standard sized, modern figurescan be purchased, while old mannequins and second-hand dress stands can bereused for projects with limited resources. In either case, torsos can be alteredand adapted to fit the costume and can be improved with new fabric covers orpaint. This chapter deals with some of the general issues surrounding the selec-tion of mannequins, including basic structural alterations and advice abouthow to cover/recover figures in fabric.

Mannequ ins and Dress S tands

Figures come in an overwhelming range of shapes, styles, sizes, finishes, mate-rials and prices and knowing how to make the best choice can be complicated.

Figure 3.1

Black evening dress designed by Christian Dior, worn by Dame Margot Fonteyn. 1955.French. T.118-1974.Mounted on a papier maché dress stand by Proportion London.In order to mount the costume, the figure had to be cut down to reduce its dimen-sions and re-covered in a non-stretch display fabric.

41

In particular, conservation concerns about the materials that figures are madefrom, are not clear-cut. As a result it is difficult to give firm guidance on this subject.There is no doubt that some materials are less suitable than others for use withtextiles. For example, those made from high-density urethane and polyurethanefoams should be avoided, as these are known to break down quickly and emit reac-tive chemicals that are damaging to costumes. Figures made from fibreglass,Plastazote®/Ethafoam®, buckram and wax are generally thought to be compara-tively safe. Bear in mind, however, that the substances used in the manufacture offigures can vary, making it impossible to guarantee the stability of any material.Ideally all materials should be regularly tested and analysed before use and up-to-date research carried out in order to keep abreast of any scientific developmentsin this area. If there is a particular concern about the poor quality of a figure,barrier foils such as Moistop® and Marvelseal® can be used to cover it. However,this precaution is worthless if the seal is punctured by pins or needles.

Similar concerns apply to surface finishes such as paint which are commonlyused to coat the outside of mannequins. Water-based emulsions or cellulosepaints are thought to be safer than those that are solvent based, but once again,this cannot be depended upon without testing. To improve the safety of anysurface finish, a period of time should be allowed for the figure to off-gas. Inorder to carry out this process, position the figure in a well-ventilated space, atroom temperature, for a minimum of three to four weeks.

As can be seen, selecting a figure on the merits of the materials that it is madefrom is not straightforward, nor is it the only factor that needs to be consid-ered. Selections should be made by weighing up all the relative pros and consof the proposed figure in relation to the individual circumstances of the displayand costumes. Inevitably, the design and budget of a display will be influentialin such decisions but consideration should also be given to the figure’s struc-tural stability, adaptability, aesthetic appeal, the physical state of the costumeand the display conditions, including the amount of time garments are exhib-ited for and whether they are cased or on open display. Finding the ideal figurethat offers perfect solutions to all these demands is unlikely to be possible anda compromise usually has to be found. The use of papier maché dress stands in many museums and historic houses in the UK is a good example of this.Although not made out of ideal materials, these figures are often chosen as theadvantages of their versatility, adaptability and sturdy physical support, coupledwith their affordable price, considerably outweigh their disadvantages. Adoptingthis kind of flexible and multi-focused attitude towards the selection of figuresis recommended as the most practical way of dealing with this issue.

Hav ing a Cus tomised F igure Made fo r a Cos tume

If you are lucky enough to be able to employ a sculptor to custom make yourfigures, do not underestimate the amount of time this will take. Having a figure


constructed to exactly fit a costume can be a slow and meticulous process and islikely to involve a lot of input from you as well as the sculptor. As a general rule,two or three fittings are needed before a good fit can be achieved and leavingenough time for the process is important. Depending on how the sculptor likesto work, it will probably be necessary to begin the process by supplying a list ofmeasurements from the costume (see p. 21) and some historical informationabout its shape and date. Fittings are usually a collaborative effort between thesculptor, curator, conservator and possibly even a designer, all working togetherto try and create the best shape, fit and support for the costume. Notes andphotographs should be taken during a fitting in order to keep track of the alter-ations that are to be carried out. If the torso is sculpted out of a hard materiallike fibreglass, it is good practice to have it made slightly smaller than necessary.This will allow space for the figure to be covered in a layer of padding whichwill provide a softer more flesh like support for the costume.

When mounting a particularly fragile garment, an accurate toile or copy maybe needed for the fittings (see Chapter 2). This can then be substituted for thecostume, significantly reducing the handling of the object. During the interme-diate stages, the evolving figure can be fairly rough. Coming direct from asculptor’s workshop, half made mannequins are often dirty, with unfinished orsometimes even jagged edges. Under these circumstances having a toile isideal, but as time and money are usually in short supply it is not often possibleand the costume itself must be used in the fittings. In order to protect thecostume at such times certain precautions should be taken. Firstly, the figureshould be given a thorough wipe over with a dry cloth to remove any surfacedust. Secondly, the figure should be covered in a layer of fabric before thecostume is tried on. For obvious reasons the fabric must be as close fitting aspossible. Use something stretchy, such as a tight fitting T-shirt, pairs of tights ora previously made jersey cover (see p. 57).

Although the fitting of the torso is the most important part of the process,limbs and heads can also be specially sculpted. One of the advantages of this isthat more animated poses can be incorporated into the figures, that are relevantto the design of the exhibition and suitable for the costume. Unfortunately, anyadditions of this kind are likely to be expensive and costs can escalate rapidly.Limbs are usually broken down into individual parts and can be used in anycombination. For example, arms can be sculpted as full length limbs with fixedor detachable hands, they can be cut to half or three-quarter length to suit thesleeves of a garment or they can be reduced to nothing more than a shouldercap. In the same way legs can be cut to any variation of length, or eliminatedcompletely and substituted with a pole. If limbs are to be included, it is alsoessential to consider how the costume will be dressed onto the figure when it iscompleted. For example, dressing a fitted bodice onto a figure with two fixedarms is usually impossible and at least one arm must be detachable (see p. 5).Putting historical costume on mannequins with unsuitable or badly planned

S E L E C T I N G A N D M O D I F Y I N G M A N N E Q U I N S A N D D R E S S S TA N D S 43

joins can put the costume at risk. Fortunately, a range of different fixings areavailable that can be used in creative combinations to overcome these difficulties.Every costume will have its own individual dressing problems and you shouldwork with the sculptor to create the best solution in each case, making sure thatunsightly joins in the figure are concealed by the costume.

It is important to remember that having a figure sculpted to fit a particularcostume will not prevent it from being reusable for other garments. As customisedfigures are expensive it is always worth considering how the figure might berecycled for future displays. Sculptors can assist with this and often have ingen-ious inventions and systems that can help make a figure more versatile. It is agood idea to discuss these possibilities at an early stage so that they can be takeninto account throughout the sculpting process. If money is limited it is alsopossible to minimise the expense of the figure by reducing the amount of workcarried out by the sculptor. Cut out anything that is unnecessary. For example;sculpted limbs can be substituted for soft sleeve and trouser supports (p. 103). It might also be possible to compromise on price by purchasing off the shelffigures made from old moulds or patterns. These can then be padded to anexact fit using polyester wadding (see Chapter 4).


Figure 3.2

Doublet made of silver-gilt tissue. 1650-1665.British. T.91-2003.Costume mounted on a customised, fibreglassfigure made by H&HSculptors Ltd.

Choos ing a Non- cus tomised F igure

Due to budget constraints, the luxury of having a custom-made torso sculptedto fit a costume is not often possible and cheaper solutions must be found.Fortunately, the availability of ready-made mannequins and dress stands makesit possible to display costume for a less exorbitant price. Be aware, however, thatthe costs of some figures can still be surprisingly high. Prices vary dramaticallyand choice will inevitably be limited by the display budget. Aside from money,off-the-peg figures can be found in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, materials andfinishes. Decisions should be made in collaboration with curators, designersand conservators. The figure chosen should accommodate both design andconservation issues, taking into consideration such things as: the individualneeds of the costume, the materials from which the figure is fabricated, thelength of time the object will be on display and the overall style and tone of the exhibition. When selecting mannequins, it is also important to be aware ofthe amount of time required for manufacture and delivery. This can sometimestake months rather than weeks and if additional work is needed to adapt figuresafter purchasing, it is essential that decisions are made early.

Working out what size figure to order for a costume is obviously very impor-tant and a set of basic garment measurements should be provided and used toestablish this (p. 21). Make sure that the nape to waist measurement is includedand be prepared to ring the manufacturers to ask for this dimension if it is not supplied in the catalogue. Most off-the-peg figures are made to standard stock sizes and modern shapes. Though these are eminently suitable for exhi-bitions of contemporary dress, using them to display historical costume is lesssatisfactory. Not only is a modern figure unlikely to be the right size for a histor-ical costume, but it will also be an inappropriate shape. Off-the-peg mannequinsmust therefore be carefully adapted and altered before they are suitable asmounts for historical costume. For this reason, a figure should always be chosenthat is significantly smaller than the garment. In some cases, finding a body thatis small enough can be problematic and it may be necessary to select a child-sized figure for an adult costume.

If heads, legs and arms are to be included as part of the mannequin, carefulconsideration must be given to how the outfit will be dressed. As with custom-made figures, limbs can be articulated or broken down in a number of differ-ent ways to facilitate dressing and an assortment of fixings are usually available.Costumes are at their most vulnerable while being dressed and the use of extrabody parts can put additional strain on a garment and complicate this process.It is therefore important to double check the way limbs are assembled and theirsuitability for each costume. Remember that soft sleeve and trouser supportscan be used instead of solid arms and legs and are often easier to manipulateduring mounting (see Chapter 5).


As there are so many different kinds of mannequin on the market, it is impos-sible to give precise details of all those available. Every costume and display will have different requirements and the suitability of each mannequin style will vary accordingly. One of the most widely used figures is the fabric covered,papier maché dress stand. Although using dress stands to display costume mayseem rather humdrum, they have several advantages. They are generally cheapand figures are available in a wide range of sizes, from small children to largeadults. Some manufacturers even produce figures that are fashioned intohistorical shapes. Dress stands are fixed to a central pole that can be set at anyheight to accommodate different costume lengths and provides a stable base.Arms, heads and even legs can also be added if required. At an additional cost,some manufacturers are also prepared to cover figures in a top fabric of yourchoice. Best of all, these figures are easy to adapt. This makes them particularlysuitable for use with historical costume. The fabric cover provides a ready-madefoundation on to which padding can be stitched, while the papier maché bodycreates a tough shell that can be cut down using a hand or jigsaw. The versatilityof these figures also makes them particularly suitable for reuse in other mount-ing projects. Dress stands can therefore be repeatedly recycled making them avery cost effective choice.

Adapt ing Tor sos be fo re Padd ing

Why a torso might require adaptation before padding

When using a figure that requires altering to fit a costume, it may be necessaryto carry out some basic structural work before embarking on the more sculp-tural padding. This can take the form of cutting a figure down to make it smalleror adding solid parts to make it bigger. As every costume and mannequin isdifferent, it is impossible to give examples for more than the most commonalterations. The methods described here should be treated as something thatcan be developed and adapted to suit individual cases.

Cutting a figure down to make it smaller

When using contemporary mannequins and dress stands as mounts for historicalcostumes, you are likely to come up against a number of difficulties. One of themost common is finding figures small enough to be used as mounts for perioddress. Although the size of garments will obviously vary, this can be a particularproblem for nineteenth and early twentieth century female costume where theshoulders, waists and diaphragms of garments are often very small. Similardifficulties can also be experienced when looking for male figures narrowenough for eighteenth and nineteenth century jackets and waistcoats. To solve



Figure 3.3

‘Queen of Sheba’dress, Vive La Cocotte,designed and lent byVivienne Westwood.A/W 1995. Worn byLinda Evangelista andDemi Moore. Mountedon a papier machédress stand made byProportion London.The figure was madeinvisible by cutting itdown below the level ofthe neckline of thebodice.

Figure 3.4

Cutting off the upperneck area of the figurealong the marked line.


these problems, it is sometimes possible to cut figures down, reducing them insize and making them small enough for use. One of the most common ways ofdoing this is to slice off the sides of the torso from the top of the shoulder downinto the waist. This will decrease the over-all circumference of the upper bodyand in particular the shoulder width. In the same way the circumference of thelower torso can be reduced by trimming off the side hips. Specific parts of thebody such as the neck, bust or limbs can also be sliced off when necessary.Another area that frequently needs attention is the bottom edge of the figure.For example; when mounting corsets, bodices or jackets, independently ofskirts and trousers, the lower part the torso may still be visible below the hemof the garment. To rectify this, the bottom of the figure can be trimmed backso that it is no longer seen. When doing this, care should be taken not toexpose any internal fixings.

Not every mannequin is suitable for these kinds of adaptations and it willinevitably depend on what the figure is made of and how it is constructed. It maybe necessary to get assistance from someone with more technical experienceand equipment. As sharp cutting tools will be required, health and safety precau-tions must be taken. One of the simplest figures to adapt, is the fabric covered,papier machét dress stand. These are both robust and relatively easy to cutdown and large areas of the torso can be trimmed back without weakening the form. For example, the neck area of a dress stand can be entirely cut away,removing all visible parts of the figure above the line of the costume.

Dress stands should be prepared by snipping open seams and peeling backthe fabric cover to reveal the cardboard shell beneath. Be prepared to removestaples and tacks. Stretch top-covers are easier to handle and should be undonefrom the bottom of the figure and pulled up to expose the raw form. Mark allcutting lines with a pencil and use a hand or jigsaw to make the alteration. As dress stands are hollow, once an area has been cut away, it will probablycreate an open cavity. These spaces can either be blocked in with wedges of carved Plastazote®, covered with a tight layer of fabric and stapled in place,or left as a void. If the inside of the figure is visible, this can be smoothed downwith sandpaper and finished with a suitable coloured paint or fabric.

Building up, extending and re-shaping shoulders

When mounting historical costume, some of the most regularly needed struc-tural alterations relate to the shoulders of the figure. Reducing shoulder widthhas already been discussed in the section above, but it may also be necessary toextend the length of the shoulders, build up their height, or alter their angle.As shoulders bear much of the weight of a costume it is vital that all modificationsare made as solid as possible. For example, building up a shoulder with layers

of soft polyester wadding is often not firm enough and more robust techniquesmust be employed.

Extending shoulders

Though it may seem unlikely that the shoulders of modern figures would everneed lengthening for a historical garment, this technique is more frequentlyused than might be expected. In particular it can be employed to help adaptchild-sized figures into mounts suitable for adult costume.


Making extended shoulders

1. Try the costume on the figure and calculate how much each shoulder mustbe extended by. Measure the full length of the shoulder from neck toshoulder point including the extension. Call this measurement A.

2. Remove the costume and measure the width of the armpit of the figure atits widest point. Taking this measurement as the diameter, draw a circle ona piece of medium weight museum board, using a compass.

3. Cut out the card circle with scissors and calculate its circumference by wrapping a tape measure around the outer edge of the disk. Divide thecircumference measurement in half. This is measurement B.

4. Using measurement A and B, draw a rectangle on a second piece ofmuseum board, with a pencil and ruler. Mark the neck and shoulder pointends as N and P and cut out the shape with scissors.

5. Lay the rectangle on a piece of calico and trim round it, leaving turnings ofapproximately 4 cm on all sides. Fasten the calico to the cardboard bystitching close to the edges through both layers. This can be done either byhand or with a sewing machine.

6. Fold the calico around the sides marked N and P and secure with a secondline of stitching. The calico covering the other sides should be left as rawedges, flat and unfolded.

7. With the fabric side up, bend the covered rectangle into a curve and place ontop of the shoulder of the figure, matching N to the side of the neck. Side Pshould extend beyond the original shoulder point of the figure. Smooth theraw edges of the calico flat and sew firmly in place using herringbone stitch.

8. Lay the disc on a piece of calico and trim around it leaving turnings ofapproximately 2 cm all the way round. Stitch the calico to the disc in thesame way as the rectangle. Fold the 2 cm turning around the card andsecure with a second line of stitching.

9. Use the disc as a plug to fill in the open end of the new shoulder.Whipstitch it in place where it rests against the rectangle and the side ofthe figure, leaving a small opening on one side.

Continued

Increasing shoulder height

Raising the height of the shoulder is perhaps the most common of all the struc-tural alterations. This can be achieved in a number of different ways and aslong as the finished result is sturdy and solid it does not matter how it is done.A simple technique is to use strips of Plastazote®/Ethafoam®, cut to the widthand length of the shoulders. Select Plastazote® of a relevant thickness and anchorto the top of the shoulders by stretching a length of fabric over the strips andherringbone stitching firmly to the figure. The Plastazote® will need smoothingover with one or two layers of polyester wadding. If you do not have access toPlastazote®/Ethafoam®, the following method, similar to that used for extendingthe shoulders, can be used instead.


10. To make the shoulder extensions as rigid as possible, insert small pieces of polyester wadding through the openings to fill out the voidbehind. Continue doing this until the space is tightly stuffed and the cardboard extensions are fully supported.

11. Repeat the process for the second shoulder.12. Finish the shoulders by covering each in a thin layer of polyester

wadding.

Cardboard

rectangle

covered

in calicoB

A

P

N

4 cm

Stuff void withpolyester wadding

Whipstitch

Disc

Figure 3.5

Constructing anextended shoulder.


Building up shoulder height using calico, museum board and polyester wadding

1. Calculate the amount the shoulders must be built up by, divide it in halfand call this measurement H.

2. Following the instructions used for extending shoulders, cut out a discmade of museum board and cover in calico.

3. Continuing to use the same instructions, draw a rectangle on a secondpiece of museum board and mark the neck and shoulder point ends as N and P. Mark the two remaining sides as S. Cut out the shape with scissors,but do not cover in calico.

4. Using a ruler, draw a line down the centre of the card from side N to side P.

5. Cut out a piece of calico considerably larger than the rectangle and fold itin half along its length. Run a line of pins or tacking parallel to the foldededge, at a distance equal to measurement H, creating a tuck.

6. Unfold the calico leaving the tuck pinned together and lay flat on a tableface down. Lay the card rectangle on top of the calico matching the pencilline to the line of the tuck and hold in place with a few pins.

7. Fasten the calico to the rectangle by stitching through both layers alongthe sides marked S, approximately 0.5 cm from the edge of the card.

8. Trim the calico so that it overlaps by a minimum of 4 cm on all sides.

Figure 3.6(a)

Step 1.S

S

P NB

A

Continued

Figure 3.6(b)

Step 2.S

S

P

H

4 cm

Calico tuck

Stitch linefasteningrectangle to calico

N

Changing the angle of the shoulder

Altering the angle of the shoulder is sometimes necessary when mountinghistorical costume on figures. In particular, nineteenth century dress oftenrequires modifications of this nature to create the exaggerated sloping shoul-der of the Victorian era. Correspondingly, a figure with sloping shoulders mayneed to be reshaped in the opposite direction to accommodate a garmentwhich is cut more squarely. The easiest way to make these alterations is to cutout rectangles of polyester wadding, to the width of the shoulder, rolling and


9. Release the tuck by removing the pins from the calico. The fabric betweenthe stitch lines will now be larger than the card underneath.

10. With the fabric side up, bend the covered rectangle into a curve and placeon top of the shoulder of the figure, matching N to the side of the neck.Smooth the raw edges of the calico flat on sides S and herringbone stitchfirmly to the figure.

11. Fold under the raw edge of the calico along side N and pin or stitch to theneck of the figure.

12. From side P, insert small pieces of polyester wadding to fill out the loosecalico. Continue doing this until the space is tightly stuffed keeping thepadding as smooth and even as possible.

13. Fold down the raw calico edge of side P over the padding and pleat intotwo tucks so that it fits snugly.

14. Use the covered disc as a plug to fit over end P. Pin to the figure andsecure with whipstitch.

15. Repeat the process for the second shoulder.16. Finish both shoulders by covering each in a thin layer of polyester wadding.

Figure 3.6(c)

Step 3.

P S

N

Disc

Raw edge pleatedover padding


Figure 3.7

White muslin day dress, decorated with puffed muslin and coloured wool stitching. 1818–1820. English. T.55-1934.Mounted on a modern dress stand made by Proportion London, padded up to fit. The figure was cut down toreduce its dimensions and the shoulders reshaped into a sloping line.

stitching them tightly into sausages. Depending on the size of the alteration,make up around ten of these sausages. They can then be used as buildingblocks to reshape the shoulder. Stitch them in layers to the figure, building upand tapering away as necessary. Finish the new shoulder line by smoothing overwith one or two layers of polyester wadding.

Cutting a pattern for a neck

1. Estimate the dimensions of the new neck. You will need the height of theneck at the centre front and the circumference of the neck at its base. As arough guide, the height of a neck is usually between 4 and 7 cm. The circum-ference of a female neck = 30–35 cm/male neck = 35–40 cm.

Making necks

The neck can be an important part of a figure. As well as improving the aestheticappearance of a torso, it can also help the costume sit properly and offerssupport to collars and high necklines. Fortunately, even when headless, mostmannequins and dress stands are usually constructed with a neck. However, it does not necessarily follow that the neck will be a suitable size for the costumeor angled and set in the right position. A neck that is the wrong size or is placedinappropriately can prevent a costume from fitting the figure and for thisreason, it is sometimes necessary to make a new one.

Making a new neck for a figure is not difficult. Depending on the circum-stances, it can either be made over the top of an existing neck or used to replaceone that has been removed. It is important to get the shape and proportions ofa new neck correct or it can look unnatural and will detract from the finishedappearance of the costume. The necks of most mannequins are shaped so thatthey are narrower at the top than the bottom and set on the figure at a slightforward angle. It is a good idea to take some neck measurements from otherfigures to help gauge the required size.


Rolls of polyester wadding

Figure 3.8

Changing the angle ofthe shoulders with rollsof polyester wadding.


2. Using these two measurements, draw a rectangle on a piece of tissuepaper, with pencil and ruler. Do not cut the rectangle out but leave anallowance of at least 4 cm all the way around. Mark both the top cornersof the rectangle as C and the bottom corners as B.

3. Fold the rectangle in half lengthwise; so that the top corners marked C andthe bottom corners marked B exactly overlap. Where the top pencil linemeets the fold line, label this point F and the bottom line point N.

4. From F measure 3 cm down the fold line and label this R. Do the same fromN and label this T.

5. Draw in a smooth curve from C to R and from B to T (see Figure 3.8(a)).6. Turn the folded tissue over and trace through the curves to the other side

of the pattern.7. Unfold the tissue paper and cut out the pattern along the new lines.8. To find the correct angle for the centre back line of the pattern, curl the

tissue into a cylinder, matching point B with point B. Using finger andthumb as a pivot, hold these points together while overlapping the top ofthe pattern until it forms an even line. The overlapped tissue should createa triangle and a new point X should be made exactly half way betweenpoint C and point C. You may find it easier to pin the overlap in place whileyou measure and mark this on. Trace point X through to the other side, sothat it is marked at both ends of the pattern (see Figure 3.8(b)).

9. Unroll the pattern and mark the new centre back lines by joining X and B.Trim off the excess tissue with scissors. This is the finished pattern.

B

C Cx

x x

C

B

R

F

N

T

C

B

F old line

Tissue paper

Even line formedat top of pattern

Pivot tissuebetween fingerand thumb

Overlappingthe back of thepattern to findpoint x

Figure 3.9

(b) Working out the angle for the centre back line.

(a) Neck pattern.

Making a new neck using the patternOnce the pattern has been drafted, it can be used to make the neck. Beforestarting work, check the size and proportions by curling the tissue pattern intoa cylinder and trying it on the figure.


Making a new neck

1. Using the tissue pattern as a template cut out the neck shape in a mediumweight museum board.

2. Lay the neck shape on a piece of calico and trim around it, leaving turnings of approximately 3 cm on all sides.

3. Fasten the calico to the neck shape by stitching through both layers closeto the edge of the card. This can be done either by hand or with a sewingmachine.

4. Leaving the bottom edge of the fabric raw and unfolded, wrap the rest ofthe calico tightly around the neck shape and stitch through all the layers tokeep in place. Once again this can be done by hand or by machine.

5. Snip the bottom unfolded edge of the calico into tabs approximately 2cm wide.

6. Bend the neck into a cylinder and tightly whipstitch the ends together. If necessary, you can reinforce this seam with a narrow strip of card orReemay, placed behind the join and hand stitched firmly in place. To makeit easier to sew, punch stitch holes in the strip of card by running it underan unthreaded sewing machine.

7. Position the neck carefully on to the torso and pin in place. Using a curvedneedle, attach the neck to the figure by stitching firmly through the tabsusing a tight herringbone stitch.

Calico

Museum board

Figure 3.10

Making a neck.

Cover ing F igures w i th Fabr i c

The ability to cover a figure in fabric is a vital tool when adapting them fordisplay. Even if it is not required as a visible finish, it can still be used inconspic-uously beneath the line of the costume. Fabric has many advantages; it is soft, it comes in a wide variety of qualities and colours and it is relatively easyto manipulate. Constructed into close fitting covers, it has a number of valuableuses. For example; fabric covers can be used to conceal old, dirty or damagedsurfaces, to unify assorted figures and to blend with exhibition designs andcolour schemes. Most important of all, the ability to cover a figure in fabricenables padding to be used in the mounting process. A layer of material is usedto isolate fibrous padding from the costume, conceal its unsightly appearanceand consolidate and firm up the shape. For solid figures with a non-stitchablesurface, a fabric cover is even more important as it can be used as a founda-tion to which padding can be applied. In this case the figure would require twolayers of fabric, one to cover the hard surface and a second to cover the padding.

Using a stretch fabric to cover a figure

Using stretch fabric to cover a figure is quick and far easier to use than a non-stretch fabric. Stretch covers can be divided into two different categories; a top-cover, which is used to smarten up or change the aesthetic appearance of the figure and an under-cover that is hidden beneath the costume and is usedprincipally to isolate padding from the garment. A third foundation-cover canalso be used for figures with hard surfaces such as fibreglass. These covers areused as a preliminary layer, providing something soft to which padding can beattached.

There are many different kinds of stretch fabrics available and choice willdepend on the kind of cover being made. One of the most commonly used issimple cotton jersey. This has the advantage of being cheap, durable, easy tomanipulate and suitable as a conservation material. The one drawback is its plain,rather workaday appearance and for this reason it is more frequently used forunder-covers rather than top-covers. An alternative that can also be used tomake quick under-covers, is the tubular stretch fabric that women’s tights aremade of. Tights are not as robust as cotton jersey however, and are less suitablefor long-term display. For top-covers, an ever-expanding variety of stretch fabricsare available on the market. These tend to be made up of mixes of differentmaterials including Lycra. Ideally all fabrics used on a figure should be testedby a conservation scientist and at the very least washed before use.

Whatever kind of cover is required, the secret to success is to make it as tightas possible. Most stretch covers can be constructed out of two pieces of fabric,one for the front and one for the back and joined together with side seams.



Making top-covers and under-covers using stretch fabric

1. Roughly cut out two rectangles of fabric using the following measurements:(a) The length of the torso from the top to bottom +15 cm for seam

allowance.(b) The circumference of the figure at its widest point, divided in

half +15 cm for seam allowance.2. Fold both panels of fabric in half down their length, following the grain

line. Mark the fold with pins or tacking. These two lines should be matchedto the centre front and centre back axis of the torso and will help to keepthe fabric straight.

3. With the right side out, select one piece of fabric and hold it up againstthe front of the torso so that it overlaps top and bottom. Match the grainline to the centre front axis of the figure by eye and pin in place from theneck down. Use several pins and tension the fabric as you work by pullingdownwards from the hem. Repeat for the back.

4. Gently smoothing and stretching the fabric away from the centre, pin thefront and back pieces together at the shoulder points.

5. Drop down to the waist of the torso and repeat the same process, pinningthe front and back panels together on either side.

6. Repeat for the lower hips and the base of the torso. Keep an eye on thegrain of the fabric when doing this and ensure that it is straight.

7. Begin to shape the rest of the cover by pinning the fabric together inbetween these eight anchor points. Start at the top of the figure; pindown both sides of the neck, along the top of the shoulders and downthe sides of the body. Keep both seams as symmetrical as possible.

8. Trim off some of the excess fabric leaving a minimum seam allowance of 5 cm.

9. Once the seam lines have been preliminarily pinned and trimmed, thecover can be stretched to fit more tightly. Begin from the top and workdown the lines of pins, pinching out the fabric and re-pinning as you go.The tighter the cover becomes, the harder work this is. You will probablyneed to go over the seams two or three times before it is firm enough.

10. Machine or hand stitch the cover together following the instructions on p. 69. Bear in mind that a more professional finish will be achieved using a machine and this is particularly important when making top-covers.

11. If the cover has been removed, return it to the figure, right side out andpull into the correct position. Finish the hem by whipstitching, stapling ortacking the fabric around the bottom of the figure. Alternatively, if you

The neck and even the head can be included in the cover by continuing theshoulder seams up the sides of the neck and beyond. Be prepared to treat thefabric forcefully, stretching and pulling it until it fits snugly and there are nowrinkles or creases. All fabrics should be applied with the direction of thestretch going around the figure, rather than up and down the length.


have access to a sewing machine the hem can be folded over, stitched intoa channel and threaded with a drawstring.

12. Finish the neck opening with a covered cardboard lid following the instructions on p. 71. Alternatively, an under-cover can be trimmed backto just below the neckline of the costume, exposing the original surface ofthe figure. Before doing this, mark the cut line with tacking and herring-bone the cover to the figure just beneath. The fabric can then be cutaway as close to the stitching as possible.

13. Once the cover has been positioned onto the figure and secured in place,the seams can be given a final press with an iron. This can be done usingthe iron vertically, or if preferable, the figure can be laid horizontal.

Figure 3.11

Covering a figure withstretch fabric.

Using tights to cover figures

Using nylon tights to create an under-cover or foundation-cover for a figure has one major advantage – speed. To use the tights, snip out the crotch gusset,cut off the legs and pull the remaining part of the tights over the figure. The cutaway gusset creates a perfect neck hole and the sliced off leg openings becomearmholes. Unless the tights are very big or the figure small, two pairs of tightswill probably be required to cover a torso, one to cover the upper body and one the lower. Using tights in this way has other advantages. The nature of thefabric creates a particularly fine under-cover that can be stretched over almostany shape with no seaming required. However, there are also drawbacks.


For example, depending on the thickness of the tights, the fabric can ladder. The extreme elasticity of the fabric also means that it cannot be pulled as tautas cotton jersey, making it a much less firm cover.

When purchasing tights, choose a shade that is as close to the colour of thefigure as possible. Tights of a fine denier are obviously less suitable than heav-ier weight varieties as they are more likely to ladder. It is also worth checkingthat the tights have a crotch gusset as not every style is constructed with one.Once in place on the figure, tight-covers can be treated in the same way as anunder-cover and trimmed away as necessary. Always herringbone stitch thetights to the figure before cutting back. The legs of tights can also be used.Some costume mounters prefer to stuff them with wadding, reattach them tothe figure and use them as sleeve supports. They can also be cut up and usedto cover small isolated areas of padding. Perhaps the best way to make use ofthem is to turn the legs into wider tubes of fabric. These can also be used asfigure covers, with the added advantage that they are long. Using three or morelegs, cut off the feet and open each leg out by snipping down the length. Usinga narrow zigzag stitch, seam the legs together down the sides forming onecomplete tube. The seam allowance can then be trimmed away close to thezigzag and the tube turned right side out before pulling onto a figure. Once inplace, tube covers of this kind will need joining at the top in a shoulder seam.

Covering figures with a hard surface

The technique of making stretch covers is particularly important for figures withsolid surfaces such as fibreglass. Without a fabric cover, it is difficult to attachpadding and underpinnings, as there is nothing to stitch into. For this reason,fibreglass figures must be covered in a foundation layer of stretch fabric beforeany padding can be applied. It is particularly important that this foundation-cover is as tight and immovable as possible, as all padding and underpinningswill be attached to it.

To cover a figure in a foundation of fabric follow the same instructions asthose for making a top or under-cover on p. 58. The method is almost exactlythe same, except that stretching fabric around a slippery fibreglass surface canbe more fiddly. The difficulty lies in beginning the process, but once underway,the cover can be fitted as already described. Prepare the fabric for the coverusing instruction 1 and 2. As you will not be able to pin the fabric to the figure,attach it instead using the following method. Fasten the front and back panelstogether at one end with a couple of pins. Suspend the pinned edge from thetop of the neck or head so that the material falls down on either side of thefigure. To secure the fabric further, take hold of the bottom edge of both panelsand stretch down until they can be pinned together between the legs of thefigure or under the base. The foundation-cover can then be made up following


Figure 3.12

Costume for Giselle,Act 1, worn by AliciaMarkova. 1946. British.S.657-1983. Mounted on a fibre-glass figure made byH&H Sculptors Ltd.Figure prepared with atight foundation-covermade of cotton jerseyand padded up to fit.An under-cover madefrom tights was used toseal the padding. Thefoundation and under-cover were thenstitched together andtrimmed back toexpose the originalsurface of themannequin.


Trimming foundation and under-covers to expose the originalsurface of a figure

1. Make up a foundation-cover, fitted close around the neck of the figure.2. Try the costume on the figure to establish the neckline and mark with

tacking stitches.3. Remove the costume and apply padding to the figure as necessary.4. Make up an under-cover and stretch over the top of the padding.5. Stitch both covers together just below the marked neck line, using a small

tight herringbone stitch.6. Snipping as close to the herringbone stitch as possible, trim away both

covers, exposing the neck area of the figure beneath.7. Fabric covering armhole sockets and fixings should be trimmed away using

the same technique.

the remaining instructions, making sure that the grain line is kept straightthroughout the process. To ensure that the cover remains as tight as possible,the foundation-cover should be hand stitched in situ on the figure rather thanremoving and machining.

As the foundation-cover is structural and should not be seen, the finalprocess is to conceal it. If the torso is to be covered with a finishing layer ofdisplay fabric, the foundation can be left as it is, as the top-cover will hide itf r o mview. Alternatively, the foundation and padding can be sealed with an under-cover and the layers snipped away to expose the original surface of the figurebeneath (see the instructions below). When doing this, always leave any cutting tothe very last. It is also important to fit the foundation-cover close around the neck,even though it will subsequently be trimmed away. This improves the fit of thecover and helps prevent it from slipping and sagging when the fabric is finallycut back.

Using tights as a foundation-cover is also possible, but bear in mind it will notbe as robust and close fitting as one made from cotton jersey. Depending onthe costume, this can be problematic as it is difficult to pull tights sufficientlytaut to prevent them from slipping and moving on the figure. Cotton jersey onthe other hand can be pulled into a very tight fit, gripping the figure enoughto hold its position. Some costume mounters prefer to use two pairs of tights,

one on top of the other, stuffing polyester wadding between the layers to padup the figure.

Covering figures in non-stretch fabrics

Unfortunately, using stretch fabrics as a covering material is not always anoption and a woven cloth may be selected instead. Although covering a figurein something non-stretchy is not as quick and easy, it is still a viable alternative.The secret to working with this kind of fabric is to use it only to cover the partsof the figure that are visible, i.e. the chest and neck. For any area that requirescovering and is hidden below the line of the costume a stretch under-cover canbe used (see p. 57). Limiting the areas to be covered in this way will make theprocess of working with non-stretch fabric much simpler. It also cuts down onthe amount of potentially expensive display fabric required.

Covering a torso in non-stretch fabric is similar to covering a piece of uphol-stered furniture. The aim is to coax the fabric into as snug a fit as possible,requiring strong, forceful handling. To make the job easier, cut the fabric onthe bias. This will give it more stretch, facilitating a tighter fit. If the fabric has


Tack line marking theneckline of the costume

Trimming away bothlayers of fabric

Small tight herringbone stitchFigure 3.13

Trimming back coversto expose the originalsurface of the figure.

a very conspicuous grain, this may not be possible. For example, the heavy slubof raw silk can look odd applied to a torso at an angle. Shot fabrics and thosewith heavy napes or patterns may have similar problems. If this is the case, cutthe fabric with the straight of grain running up and down the figure and beprepared to use a little extra brute-force to pull the cover into shape. If you areworking on a fibreglass figure, make up a foundation-cover first (see p. 60).This will provide a firm fabric base to which the top-layer can be stitched.

Although the requirements for each individual costume will vary, the followingthree basic pattern templates can be used to accommodate most examples ofmale and female costume.


Making a basic yoke cover

1. Try the costume on to the figure. With a curved needle and thread tack a line onto the torso marking the shape of the neckline. Remove the costume.

2. Cut out a square or rectangle from the chosen display fabric, large enoughto cover the front yoke area, with a minimum of 15 cm for seam allowance.This piece can be cut on the bias or straight of grain.

3. Fold the fabric in half down its length and mark the fold with pins or tacking. This line should be matched to the centre front axis of the torsoand will help to keep the fabric running straight.

4. Measure approximately 10 cm down the tack line from the top edge of thefabric and mark with a pin. With the right side out, hold the fabric up tothe figure matching this mark to the base of the neck and secure with apin. Work down the tack line from this point, pinning the fabric to thefigure and keeping it as straight as possible. Tension the fabric slightly asyou work by pulling down on the hem.

5. Stretch the fabric across the figure towards each shoulder and pin in place.

6. Smooth the fabric over the rest of the chest area and secure with more pins.

7. Fit the front yoke around the neck by snipping down the centre tack lineto just above the first pin. Ease the fabric around the neck, clipping into itas necessary, taking care not to cut too deeply.


8. Repeat the whole process for the back yoke following instructions 2–7.9. Join the front and back yoke along the top of the shoulders by pinning

tightly together.

10. Trim off any superfluous fabric, making sure that the cover overlaps the tacked neckline on the figure by a minimum of 4 cm.

11. Machine or hand-stitch the yoke together (p. 69).12. If the cover has been removed, return to the figure, stretching and

pinning it into position. Using a curved needle, herringbone around the hem and neck opening of the yoke to secure it to the figure.

13. Complete the yoke with a covered neck and neck disc (p. 54 and 71).14. Once the cover has been positioned onto the figure and secured in place,

the seams can be given a final press with an iron. This can be done usingthe iron vertically, or if preferable, the figure can be laid horizontal.

Figure 3.14

Basic yoke cover.

A basic yoke cover

This cover is easy to make and can be used underneath costumes with sleeves.Depending on the neckline of the outfit, the yoke can be cut into a ‘V’, scoopor square. Even if the costume has a very low centre front or centre backneckline, you can still use this method by cutting the yoke deeper in theseareas.


Making a basic yoke cover with armhole discs

1. Try the costume on the figure. With a curved needle and thread, tack a line onto the torso marking the shape of the neckline and armholeopenings. As sleeveless garments often gape slightly, ensure the tack linesurrounds what is visible through the sleeve-hole rather than the sleevehole itself. Remove the costume from the figure.

2. Make up a basic yoke following the previous instructions.3. Make a paper pattern for the discs by laying a piece of tissue against the

figure and tracing through the tacked line of the armhole. Remove thetissue and extend the pattern by adding a minimum of 3 cm all the wayaround.

4. Using this pattern cut out two discs of fabric. Finish the raw edges by over-locking, zigzagging or pinking.

5. Pin the discs onto the figure making sure that the tack line is overlapped.Keep the discs as smooth and flat as possible, re-pinning and stretching toease out the wrinkles.

6. Herringbone the fabric in place.

Basic yoke

Armhole disc

Figure 3.15

Basic yoke coverwith armhole discs.

Basic yoke cover with armhole discs

This method can be used for sleeveless costumes, but is only suitable forgarments with straps or shoulder seams that are a minimum of 3–5 cm wide.This template is made up of a basic yoke cover (as described above) with two

additional discs of fabric stitched to the sides of the figure, filling in thearmhole openings. The edges of both the yoke and discs are hidden under-neath the straps of the outfit, giving the impression that the figure is fullycovered.


Making a fitted cover for upper torso

1. Try the costume on the figure. With a curved needle and thread tack a line onto the torso marking the shape of the neckline. Straps will notneed to be included. Remove the costume from the figure.

2. Prepare the cover by cutting out five squares/rectangles of fabric, large enough to overlap the front of the figure, the sides and two halfbacks. Each piece should include a minimum of 15 cm seam allowance. Thesepieces can be cut on the bias or straight of grain.

3. Fold each piece of fabric in half down their length and mark the fold withpins or tacking. These lines should be matched to the vertical axis of thefigure and will help to keep the fabric running straight.

4. Keeping the tack line running up and down the body, pin the front panelonto the figure following the same instructions used for the basic yoke.Use instruction 4–7 to carry out this process.

5. Pin both back panels onto the figure so that they overlap by a minimum of3 cm at the centre back. The tack lines should run parallel to the centreback axis of the figure. Smooth both pieces of fabric over the back areaand secure with more pins.

6. Join the front and back panels along the top of the shoulder by pinningtightly together.

7. Pin the side panels onto the figure, continuing to match the tack lines tothe vertical axis. Make sure the fabric of each panel rises above the level ofthe shoulder to provide seam allowance. Smooth the fabric around thesides of the figure and secure with more pins.

8. To fit the cover to the figure, start pinning the panels together, creatingseams. The front and side panels should be joined from the shoulder pointand travel in a smooth curve over the top of the bust and down towardsthe waist. The back and side panels are joined together in a similar wayfrom the shoulder point down. Complete the process by joining the two centre back panels in a straight vertical seam.

Continued


9. Trim off excess fabric and go over each seam, adjusting and tightening thepins until the cover is fitted as closely as possible.

10. Machine or hand stitch the cover together, leaving the centre back seamopen and unfinished (p. 69).

11. If the cover has been removed, return it to the figure stretching andpinning it into position.

12. Finish the centre back seam by pinning and stitching one raw edge flat tothe figure. The second edge should be folded and slipstitched over thetop of the first, keeping the seam tight, straight and central.

13. Using a curved needle, herringbone around the neck and hem of thecover to secure it to the figure.

14. Complete the cover with a covered neck and neck disc (p. 54 and 71).15. Once the cover has been positioned onto the figure and secured in

place, the seams can be given a final press with an iron. This can be done using the iron vertically, or if preferable, the figure can be laid horizontal.

Front view Back view

Tack lines

Joining the frontand side panelsin a smooth curveover the bust

Joining the backpanels in a straightseam

Figure 3.16

Fitted cover.

Fitted cover for upper torso

This template is appropriate for strapless garments or those with thin shoulderstraps. For costumes such as these there is nowhere to hide the raw edges of a yoke or armhole discs, therefore the top half of the torso must be fullycovered. As a result, this template is more complicated and time consuming to

make. Instead of using two pieces of fabric the cover is made out of five: one forthe front, two for the back and two covering the sides. An additional panel issometimes required for figures with large busts. This can be achieved by divid-ing the front piece in half and adding a centre front seam. When making afitted cover, it is important to keep the seams as symmetrical as possible. Judgethis by eye and do not waste time trying to measure exact distances as figuresare notoriously uneven.

Finishing the neck

As well as the figure, the neck will also need covering in fabric. If you are confi-dent at cutting and sewing, this can be done by stretching a bias collar aroundthe neck and stitching it to the torso cover with a curved seam. The bias collarshould be joined together at the centre back in a straight seam.

If you are less confident at sewing, a neck made from museum board can bemade instead, following the instructions on p. 54. Necks of this kind can becovered separately in display fabric and then fitted over the existing stump,hiding the raw edges of the cover beneath it. To do this, make up the neck shapeand cover in calico as instructed on p. 54. Fold in the bottom edge of the calicoas well as the other sides and stitch in place. A second covering of the appro-priate display fabric should be stretched over the top of the calico. Leaving thetwo ends unfinished, fold the fabric around the shape and herringbone the rawedges to the calico on the back of the neck. Bend the cardboard into a cylinderand tightly whipstitch the ends together, reinforcing if necessary. To finish the


Machine stitching stretch and non-stretch covers

Stretch fabrics Non-stretch fabrics

1. With the cover still pinned to the figure, mark the stitch lines onto the wrong side of the fabric. To dothis pull the pinned seams apart and mark between the seam allowances, using a soft pencil or chalk.Make sure the pencil impresses both panels and add balance marks as you work. The more balancemarks used, the easier it will be to match up the seams (see Figure 3.16).

2. Mark the front of the cover with a tailor’s tack, to distinguish it from the back. This is importantbecause once the cover is removed from the figure it can be hard to tell which is which.

3. Remove the cover from the figure by unpinning all the seams and lay out the pieces flat on a table.

4. With right sides together, re-pin the cover along the stitch lines, matching up the balance marks.

Continued


Stretch fabrics Non-stretch fabrics

5. Sew the seams together using a small zigzag 5. Sew the seams together using a small or overlock stitch. straight stitch.

6. Press the seams together with an iron, easing out any small wrinkles.

7. Using a small pair of sharp scissors, trim the 7. Using a small pair of sharp scissors, trim the seam allowance 2–3 mm away from the seam allowance 1 cm away from the stitch stitch line. Iron the seams towards the back line. Press the seams open using a ham or and hand tack in place. This will prevent ironing mitten.the seams from becoming twisted when the cover is pulled onto the figure and can be removed once in position.

8. Finish the hem of the cover with pinking shears, zigzag or overlocking. Do not finishthe neck edge, but leave the snipped tabsraw and intact.

Balance mark

Marking between theseam allowance

Tailors tack marking thefront of the cover

Figure 3.17

Marking the stitch lines onto a cover for machine sewing.

display fabric at the centre back, neatly fold in one raw edge and slipstitch overthe top of the other. Drop the finished neck onto the figure making sure thatall unfinished edges are concealed. Secure in place using ladder or slipstitchand a curved needle.


Stitching stretch and non-stretch covers by hand

1. Leaving the cover pinned to the figure, tack the seams together using smallstitches and a heavy weight thread.

2. Trim the seams with staggered edges. The back seam allowance (side of theseam nearest the back of the figure) should be cut as close to the tackingstitches as possible. The front seam allowance (side of the seam nearest thefront of the figure) should be trimmed to approximately 1/2 cm.

3. Working on one seam at a time, push the front 1/2 cm seam allowance over the top of the back seam allowance so that it is fully covered. Foldunder the raw edge and slipstitch in place. When making stretch founda-tion/under-covers or stitching areas that will be hidden beneath the line ofthe costume, do not waste time folding in the edge, but simply herring-bone the raw edge flat.

4. Remove tacking stitches and press lightly by running a warm iron over the seams on the figure.

Back of figure

Slip stitch

Seams trimmedwith staggerededges

Smalltackingstitches

Figure 3.18

Stitching covers byhand.

Stitching covers together

As a general rule, using a sewing machine to stitch together the seams of stretch and non-stretch covers is more effective than hand stitching. Seams sewn together by machine are neater, stronger, quicker and achieve amore professional finish. However, if you do not have access to a machine oryou would prefer to sew by hand, this is also possible. The following instruc-tions detail the different machine and hand stitching methods that can be usedto make up figure covers.


Making covered neck discs

1. Take a pattern of the top of the neck by pinning a piece of tissue over it and tracing off the oval or circular shape. Mark on the centre front andcentre back.

2. Remove the tissue pattern and even out the oval/circle. Join the centrefront and centre back marks with a ruler.

3. Transfer the markings onto a piece of museum board and cut out the shape.4. Lay the card on a piece of polyester wadding and trim around it leaving an

overlap of approximately 1 cm. Make sure the centre front and centre backpencil line is visible.

5. With a needle and thread, secure the wadding in place by catching stitchesthrough the wadding from side to side across the back of the card. Workall the way around the circle, pulling the thread tight so the wadding fitssnugly.

6. Lay the padded shape onto a piece of top fabric matching the grain of thefabric to the centre front and centre back line. Fold the fabric around theshape and whipstitch to the wadding.

7. Position the disk on top of the neck with the grain running from centrefront and centre back. Fasten in place using ladder or slipstitch and a curved needle. Use a sturdy thread and pull each stitch as tight as possible.

Holding thewadding in placewith long catchstitches

Polyesterwadding

Whipstitch

Top fabric

C B

C F

Figure 3.19

Making covered neckdiscs.


Figure 3.20

Evening dress designed by Hubert de Givenchy. 1955. French. T.223-1974. Mounted on a modern dress standmade by Proportion London. To keep the strapless gown in position, the figure was carefully padded up, thenrecovered in a non-stretch, fitted, calico cover, to hide the padding and match the other exhibition figures.

4Padding up the

Torso

It is a well-recognised fact that the size and shape of human bodies havesignificantly changed over the last few hundred years. There are severalthings that may have contributed to these developments such as diet,

health and exercise. For men, these kinds of sociological influences are likelyto be the primary causes of such alterations, but for women, the use of under-wear and in particular corsets, has played a far more significant role in theevolution of the female figure.

Although there is some argument as to when corsets were introduced, thefirst that have any relevance to costume mounting, date back to the sixteenthcentury. Although corsets at this time were known as ‘a pair of bodies’ and werefairly simple in construction, the fundamental purpose was the same – to mouldthe female body into the fashionable shape of the day. From this periodonwards, variations of this structural undergarment were worn until well intothe twentieth century.

Nowadays most clothes are manufactured to standard sizes, but even contem-porary dress mounted on modern mannequins of equivalent dimensions canrequire adjustments to improve their fit. For female dress, dating earlier than1960, modern figures are generally an unsuitable shape and this disparityincreases significantly for garments from the eighteenth and nineteenth century.Consequently, when using contemporary mannequins as mounts for historicalcostumes, figures must be adapted to the correct period silhouette. This can bedone by applying layers of padding to a torso and effectively sculpting it intothe correct form.

The following pages will introduce the basic padding techniques required toconvert and adapt modern torsos. The chapter will go on to look in greaterdetail at the chronological development of human body shapes, explaininghow padding can be used to create different silhouettes.

Figure 4.1

Cream corset. 1820s–1830s. British. T.57-1948.Mounted on a modern polystyrene figure, considerably cut down and re-padded to fitthe garment.

75

As the use of corsetry imposed such dramatic changes on the female figure,particular attention will be given to this subject. This chapter will explore howcorsets affected the body during different periods of history and the best wayto pad contemporary torsos to create these shapes. Although concentrating onthe adaptation of modern figures, the same principles can be applied to mostdisplay mounts, no matter what kind of support is being used. For examplee v e nwhen purchasing an off-the-peg figure, carving a Plastazote®/Ethofoam® form, working with a Perspex® mount maker or having a customised mannequin made,it is equally important to have an understanding of the kind of corset that wouldhave been worn beneath a costume and how this would have affected the body.

The Techn iques o f App ly ing Padd ing to a Tor so

1. Trying the costume on the figureHaving selected a figure of an appropriate size and style, the first step is to try thecostume on. Remember that it is essential to choose a torso that is considerablysmaller than the costume, so that there is room to develop a new silhouette.Instructions for dressing techniques can be found on p. 5. In some cases, thegarment may be too fragile to attempt a preliminary trial on an unpaddedtorso. If this is the case, an accurate toile or copy must be made and substitutedfor the original (see Chapter 2).2. Taking measurementsOnce the costume is dressed on the figure, stand back and examine it carefullyfrom all sides. With no underpinnings to support the skirt, trousers or sleevesand a torso that does not fit, the costume will not look its best. As it is harmfulfor any garment to be repeatedly taken on and off a mannequin, it is importantto gather as much information about its mounting requirements while it is onthe figure. To avoid unnecessary fittings in the future, detailed measurementsand notes need to be taken and although this chapter specifically deals with thetorso, these should also include specifications for underpinnings.

One of the most straightforward ways of recording data is to draw a simplefront and back diagram of the figure and costume on to which the dimensionscan be marked (see Figure 4.2). Use a fixed point of reference to take meas-urements from, such as the top of the neck. At this stage, it is also useful tomake a quick bodice toile of the costume, which will help reduce the handlingof the object during the padding process (see p. 37). Constructing a quicktoile, however roughly made, can be particularly useful when dealing with weaktextiles or garments that are difficult to dress. It can also be a valuable tool for


beginners, who will find padding a torso less daunting if they can gauge theirprogress with repeated toile fittings.3. Estimating the paddingOnce the basic measurements have been taken, consideration can be given tothe amount and positioning of padding that the figure requires. The way inwhich a torso is padded to fit a costume will be determined not only by the sizeof the garment, but by the fashionable shape of the period it belongs to.Techniques for creating different historical body shapes can be found later in

PA D D I N G U P T H E T O R S O 77

36 cm

43 cm50 cm

61 cm

17 cm

18 cm

18 cm12 cm

7 cm 7 cm

18 cm

32 cm

45 cm52 cm

64 cm

18 cm

Shoulderlength

Across frontand back

Bust pointto point

Level ofwaist

Level ofhip

Level ofbottom

30 cm

Figure 4.2

Simple diagram of acostume on the figurewith useful dimensions.

22

+8

18

14

16

14

7

Low

er w

aist

by

5cm

Low

er b

ust b

y 4.

5cm

+617

19

17

26 26

1512

30

27

1 layer of padding

2 layers of padding

3 layers of padding

+718

Figure 4.3

Diagram shaded toindicate the requiredfigure padding.

the chapter. To keep costume fittings to a minimum, it is essential to gather andrecord detailed information about the amount, positioning and shape of therequired padding. Using the same figure diagrams as before, shade the areaswhere padding is needed. To make sure that padding will be correctly orientated,take additional measurements. For example, if the back of the costume needsfilling out, mark how far down from the top of the neck the padding should beapplied. It is also important to gauge the size and shape of individual areas ofpadding. To do this, study the construction of the costume. The line of the seamsand the form of the bodice panels will usually indicate the shape and size of thepieces of padding. Once this phase has been completed, the costume can beremoved from the figure.4. Applying polyester wadding to a figureThe material most commonly recommended for use as padding when preparingfigures for display is thermally bonded polyester wadding. This product is cheap,easy to source and can be purchased in a variety of different thicknesses orweights. The best results tend to be achieved with a finer grade (approximately


Figure 4.4

How to apply polyesterwadding to a figure.

(a)

Cut wadding to shape.

(c)

Pin and stitch wadding in place.

(b)

Feather out edges by pulling waddingbetween finger and thumb.

1.5 cm thick), as this is easier to control and manipulate. As polyester waddingis very fibrous, a dust mask should be worn when working with this material andany costume within close proximity should be protected by layers of tissue paperor a dustsheet.

Using wadding to adapt a figure is similar to the process of sculpting with clay.Keeping the padding as smooth and firm as possible, the aim is to build up thetorso by applying layers of wadding until it is exactly the right shape and size tofit the costume. The amount of wadding required will depend on the individ-ual costume. In some cases very little will be used, while in others, the entirefigure may need covering in several layers of padding.

Rather than attempting to wrap large quantities of wadding around a figure,the padding should be cut and applied in smaller pieces. To assist with thisprocess, it is useful mentally to divide the figure into separate sections, slicingthe torso in half at the waist and dealing individually with front, back and sides above the waistline, and tummy, hips and bottom below. In addition, thebust, shoulders and neck can be treated as separate areas. With reference to thediagrams and measurements previously noted, each piece of wadding is cutindividually to size. When working on the bust or sides of the body where dupli-cate padding is required, cut one piece to size and use it as a template for thesecond. In this way, the shape of the body will be kept as even as possible.Before fastening padding in position, the edges of each piece should be teasedand feathered out so that it can be applied smoothly to the figure, avoiding visi-ble joins. Once this has been done, pin the padding to the figure, stretchingslightly to keep it taut and firm and stitch securely in place using a curvedneedle and a large herringbone stitch. Repeating this technique, further piecesof padding can be applied until the figure is the right size and shape for thecostume.5. Costume fittingsOnce the padding has been completed, it is usually necessary to try the costumeon the figure to check that it is the correct shape before continuing. To preventthe fibrous wadding from getting onto the garment, padding must be isolatedby a temporary covering of tissue paper, spider tissue or fabric. Making use ofstretch fabric for this job is quick and easy. Tights are generally the best choice,as the material they are made from will mould to the figure, without requiringadditional shaping. Rather than using the trunk of the tights, it is often easierto construct a longer tube made out of three or more pairs of legs, slit openand stitched together (p. 59). If necessary one end of the tube can be seamedtogether to create shoulders, leaving a gap for the neck. Making one of thesetubes and keeping it on hand for this purpose will save time in the future, as itcan be repeatedly reused for other costume fittings.6. Finishing the figure


Once the padding has been checked and any final alterations or additionscarried out, the figure can be finished with a permanent fabric cover (seeChapter 3).

Creat ing Fema le H i s to r i ca l Body Shapes

Introduction to the corseted figure

When preparing historical dress for display, it is sometimes thought necessaryto use replica corsets as a means of creating an appropriate body shape.Without pattern-cutting experience, however, making a well-fitting periodcorset for a living person is not straightforward. Reversing the process andattempting to construct one to fit beneath an already existing costume is evenmore complicated. As well as this, the heavily boned structure of a corset canmake a hard and unsympathetic foundation for a costume, particularly thoseon long-term display. In view of such issues, using these undergarments formounting projects is not recommended. Instead the shape of a corseted figureshould be created and evolved using padding, which provides a soft but firmsupport for the costume to rest on.

The range of body shapes created by corsetry from the eighteenth to thetwentieth century is diverse and it is essential to match the correct periodsilhouette to the costume. Padding a figure with polyester wadding so that it fitsa garment will not be enough, as it is possible to do this and still fail to createthe correct silhouette. In order to pad a female torso successfully, it is impor-tant to understand what happens physically to a human figure when a corset ofa particular date is worn. For this reason, it is always advisable to preparebeforehand by studying relevant reference images such as portraits, fashionplates, historical pattern-cutting diagrams and underwear books, to ensure thatyou are familiar with the body shape of the period.

The following section looks at the chronological development of corsets anddemonstrates the general techniques of adapting modern figures usingpadding, to create different historical silhouettes. As every costume will vary inshape and size, the amount of padding required will obviously differ. Thediagrams and instructions should therefore be used as an indication ratherthan as an exact description of where padding is required. The same principlescan be usefully applied to any mounting project involving a female corsetedfigure, whether it entails working with padding or other materials.


A brief history of eighteenth century stays

During the 1700s, corsets were known as ‘stays’. Though there were some variations and developments to the shape and style of this undergarment, thestays did not radically change during this period. For the purposes of costumemounting, the basic body silhouette remains fairly constant until the last tenyears of the century. Stays were rigid in construction, stiffened with whaleboneand made out of fabrics such as cotton and linen. Below the level of the waist,stays were slit into tabs, liberating the flesh and preventing the garment fromdigging into the body.

The function of the stays was to mould the figure into the shape of aninverted cone, incorporating a long, straight centre front line that finished ina point well below the level of the waist. The stays effectively elevated the posi-tion of the bust, curbing the natural form, by flattening and displacing itupwards. By the 1750s, several curved bones had been added at the front of thestays to help control the chest and compress it into a smooth bowed line. Theback of the garment was cut high, keeping the figure rigid and straight. Thishelped to draw the shoulders back, which in turn pushed the bust forward. The waist was pulled in at the sides, reducing the width and making it appearsmaller. The neatness of the waist was further emphasised by the wearing ofexaggerated paniers, side hoops and hip pads. This basic silhouette and firmstructure was maintained for the first two thirds of the century. With the aban-donment of the fashionable side hoops in the 1770s, changes to the bodice also began to occur. Stays became less rigid and a slightly more fluid shapedeveloped. During the 1780s, the centre front point of the bodice rose back up to the natural level of the waist and greater emphasis was placed on the bust. By the mid-1790s, the waistline had risen into the neo-classically inspiredEmpire line and lighter stays were worn. These were usually less densely boned, with particularly narrow backs and enough structure to lift and control the bust.

The techniques of applying padding to create an eighteenth centurybody shape

Without the use of structured underwear, the natural shape of the femalefigure is oval. Stays from the eighteenth century alter the body by pushing thesides of the upper torso inwards. Like a balloon, once the sides are squeezedcloser together, the front and back will begin to expand, changing the bodyfrom an oval to a cylindrical shape. To alter a modern figure into this corsetedsilhouette, padding must be principally applied to the front of the figure, leav-ing the sides above the waist relatively bare. Some padding should also be


Figure 4.5

Creating an eighteenthcentury figure withpadding.

(a)

Using pins or tacking mark keydimensions onto the figure,such as the level of the bustand waist and the point topoint measurement.

(b)

Start work on the bust byestablishing the bust pointsusing two small circles ofwadding approximately 6 cmin diameter. Feather out thewadding and pin in place.Before stitching downcompletely, inflate the pointsby stuffing with scraps ofwadding.

(c)

Begin to build up the bustwith graded circles of wadding,positioned over the top of thebust points. To reduce theprominence of the originalchest, do not apply anypadding to this area until ithas been levelled off. Flattenout the bust definition byapplying a larger piece ofwadding across the chest, leaving the top half of thebreasts uncovered.

82

(d)

Build up the side hips ofthe figure below the level ofthe waist.

(e)

Work on the front of thefigure, building it up tomatch the bust. Mould thetorso into a cylindricalshape by applying thepadding in graded pieces.To reproduce the straightline of eighteenth centurystays, padding can beapplied in long pieces thatcover the figure above andbelow the waist. Paddingmay also be required tosmooth out the line of thefigure from shoulders tobust.

(f)

Straighten up the line ofthe back with paddingbeginning by filling out thesmall of the back. Applyfurther wadding in larger,graded pieces to create a cylindrical shape.

83


Figure 4.7

Stays mounted on the same figure afterpadding.

Figure 4.6

Eighteenth centurystays made in pale pinklinen. 1780–1790.British. T.172-1914. Mounted on a moderndress stand beforepadding.

added to the back to straighten the vertical line of the figure and to help createthe characteristic cylindrical shape. The original location and shape of the bustmust be radically altered. The bust points are raised and positioned closertogether and the front chest considerably filled out, making the shouldersappear to be pushed back. Padding should also be applied below the level ofthe waist to bulk out the hips, where the tabs of the stays allowed the surplusflesh to bulge.

A brief history of nineteenth century corsets

The evolution of corsetry during the 1800s was far more diverse than in theprevious century and consequently changes to the female silhouette occurmore frequently. The early years were marked by the distinctive high-waisteddresses that had come into fashion at the end of the eighteenth century andduring this time lightweight stays were commonly worn to control the figure.The waistline continued to rise, reaching its peak in 1815, gradually descend-ing after this date. By the 1820s, additional triangular gussets were inserted intothe top of corsets, either side of the central busk, allowing a rounder moreseparated bust shape to develop. To accommodate the fullness of the hips,gussets were also added to the bottom of the corset, replacing the eighteenthcentury tabs. During the second half of the 1820s, the waistline sank back to itsnatural level and corsets became more structured, with emphasis on a smallwaist and a more curvaceous silhouette. This body shape, so typical of the nine-teenth century, was assisted by the hip and bust gussets, which allowed thefigure to swell out above and below the increasingly pinched-in waist.

This fashionable profile continued to develop throughout the 1830s and 1840s.Corsetry was improved by the invention of metal eyelet holes in 1823, whichenabled garments to be laced more tightly and efficiently, forcing women’sfigures into more exaggerated shapes. A slight drop in the level of the waistlineduring the 1840s lent some variety to this period. By the 1850s, skirt dimensionshad become so enormous that the waist of the figure could not fail to look smallby comparison. As a result, shorter and less substantial corsets were adoptedand tight lacing was allowed to relax to some extent. The waistline, which hadreturned to its natural level during the 1850s, shifted once again early in thenext decade, rising slightly above the waist. During the 1870s this dropped backonce more, to accommodate the longer close-fitting bodices that were cominginto fashion at this time.

By 1875, the Cuirasse bodice had become fashionable and dresses were cut tofit tightly over the figure as far down as the hips. To create an appropriate foun-dation for these garments, corsets were elaborately cut and once again became


longer and heavier. In about 1873 the spoon busk was introduced, curving intothe waist and out over the lower abdomen, forming a rounded plumpness at thefront of the torso. This body shape continued throughout most of the 1880s.With the bustle discarded, the final decade of the century was marked by analteration in the general silhouette. The female torso now lost some of itscurvaceousness, and corsets were cut with a straight front. Particular emphasiswas placed on a small waist and to achieve this effect, underwear was moretightly laced than ever.

The techniques of applying padding to create nineteenth century body shapes

The general construction of corsets from the nineteenth century tends to focuson reducing the size of the waist. This in turn increases the swell of the hips and bust, creating a far more voluptuous silhouette compared to that of theprevious century. In order to keep the waist looking as narrow as possible, whenadapting a figure, padding should be principally applied to the front and backof the torso, leaving the side waist relatively free. As with the previous centurythe level of the bust is raised, but its shape is very different. Rather than confiningit with heavy bones, the introduction of gussets or shaping either side of thecentral busk, gives the chest room for expansion. The bust points are thereforepositioned further apart and padding used to create a more independentlydefined shape. The construction of corsets over the hips acts in a similar wayand padding should be used in this area to build a smooth, rounded shape.With the introduction of strapless corsets early in the century, the fashionableline of the shoulders became more sloping. When necessary, padding can beused to adapt this part of the figure (see p. 52).

1800s–1820s: The high waists of the Empire line tend to add confusion to thistransition period. Borrowing from the previous century, costumes are often cutastonishingly narrow across the back, with a full and rounded bust. The circum-ference of the diaphragm can also be tiny, making it difficult to find modernfigures small enough for use with these costumes. Using a child’s torso insteadis often a practical solution, as this will combine a narrow back as well as a smalldiaphragm. Padding should be concentrated on the front of the figure, ratherthan the back or sides, creating a high well-defined bust.

1820s–1850s: The curvaceous body shape of this period becomes increasinglyexaggerated as the waist is more tightly laced and the hip and bust shaping incorsets is developed (see Figure 4.1). Depending on the date of the costume,padding should reflect this development. The small waists created by thesecorsets often mean that modern figures are too large to be used as mounts.Unfortunately children’s torsos are also unsuitable, as the waist sizes are like-



Figure 4.8

Cream satin corsetmade by Edwin Izodwith spoon busk andslot-and-stud fastening.1887. British. T.265-1960.Mounted on a cutdown polystyrenefigure, before padding.

Figure 4.9

Corset mounted on the same figureafter padding.

Figure 4.10

Creating an1820s–1850s figurewith padding.

88

(a)

Using pins or tacking markkey dimensions onto thefigure, such as the level of thebust and waist and the pointto point measurement.

(b)

Start work on the bust byestablishing the bust pointsusing two small circles ofwadding approximately 6 cmin diameter. Feather out thewadding and pin in place.Before stitching downcompletely, inflate the pointsby stuffing with scraps ofwadding.

(c)

Begin to build up the bustwith graded circles of wadding,positioned over the top of thebust points. To reduce theprominence of the originalchest, do not apply any paddingto this area until it has beenlevelled off. Develop the bustinto a well-defined shape,remembering that the centralbusk and gussets of nineteenthcentury corsets separated thebreasts and allowed themgreater fullness. Cut thewadding into oval pieces tohelp give the upper figure amore triangular silhouettefrom bust line to waist.

89

(d)

Build up the side hips of thefigure below the level of thewaist. Padding should also beadded to the upper sides ofthe torso, avoiding the waist ifpossible.

(e)

Work on the front of thefigure, building it up as necessary. Apply the wadding ingraded pieces to create a morecylindrical shape. Padding mayalso be required to smooth outthe line of the figure fromshoulders to bust.

(f)

Use padding to build up theback as necessary, focusing inparticular on creating arounder plumper bottom.


Figure 4.11

Applying padding tothe area below thefront waist in order todevelop the distinctiverounded shape createdby the spoon busk.

padding, it is important to remember that the level of the waist needs to beraised slightly for garments from the early 1860s to early 1870s.

1870s and 1880s: With the Cuirasse bodice in vogue early in the 1870s, theclose fit of dresses from shoulder to hip, puts greater emphasis on the shape ofthe body below the level of the waist. The invention of the spoon busk playeda large part in moulding the front of the lower torso, dipping into the waist and out over the lower abdomen creating a distinctive, rounded stomach. Asthe shape of the hips, bottom and stomach will all be visible beneath thecostume, as much care must be taken to pad the lower part of the torso as theupper (see Figures 4.8, 4.9 and 4.11).

1890s: By the 1890s, the front of the corset had become straighter and therounded tummy created by the curved spoon busk had disappeared. Paddingshould be used to emphasise the bust and hips, keeping the waist as small aspossible to reflect the tightly laced corsets worn at this time.

wise generally too big. For this reason, figures may need to be cut down beforethey can be shaped with padding or it may be necessary to purchase a torsofrom a specialist supplier. See Figure 4.10 for padding instructions.

1850s and 1860s: The same general body shape persists, but as the corsetsbecome less tightly laced during the 1850s, costumes from this period tend tobe slightly larger. For this reason, using modern figures as mounts can be lessproblematic, though there are always exceptions. When preparing torsos with

A brief history of twentieth century corsets

The beginning of the twentieth century saw the arrival of one of the most noto-rious foundation garments yet invented. The tightly laced, S-bend corsetachieved its shape by maintaining a rigidly straight centre front, which in turnthrust the hips and bottom backwards and the bust forwards. Corsets began tobe cut below the bust, leaving the bosom relatively unsupported and allowingthe level of the chest to drop. Reaching its peak at around 1905, the corset thenbegan to lose some of its severity and a less extreme shape began to develop.Towards the end of the first decade a straight, slim figure became the acceptedsilhouette. To help achieve this tubular shape, corsets were considerably lengthened, extending far down the figure to smooth out the line of the hips.The slightly raised waistline that became fashionable around 1909 put greateremphasis on the bust, requiring more support for this part of the body. Thiswas achieved using a bust bodice or brassiere. This garment subsequentlycontinued to develop throughout the twentieth century.

During the First World War, corsets became shorter, less heavily boned andmore comfortable to wear. The brassiere continued to be used as a supportuntil the early 1920s, when it took on the new function of flattening the bust.Initially still worn in combination with a straight corset that ran from the waistto the hips, these two garments were soon combined into one called the corse-lette, helping to create the flat boyish figure fashionable at the time. By 1928,the female figure had re-emerged and more natural curves had come into fash-ion. The brassiere now separated the breasts and was used once more as asupport rather than a garment that flattened. New advances in elasticated mate-rials allowed the figure to be held smoothly in position by underwear ratherthan defined by heavy boning and lacing.

The frugality of the war years did nothing to advance the development ofunderwear. By 1942, materials were difficult to obtain and the utility schemehad been introduced, effectively putting a halt to any new innovations. Asrationing continued for several years after the war ended, underwear continuedto be made as before. In 1947, Christian Dior’s new look was the herald ofchange and once restrictions began to be lifted, developments in foundationgarments could be used to help form the new silhouette. Small waists, largehips and a well-defined and pointed bust became fashionable. Waists werecontrolled by tightly fitting undergarments such as girdles and the bust liftedand accentuated by specially made bras. Both the bust and the hips were some-times padded to help create the correct shape. By the 1960s, the hourglassfigure had run its course. The bust became less conspicuous and a more a natu-ral shape evolved. Body stockings, made from the newly invented manmadeLycra were often worn, giving the body smooth, comfortable and natural look-ing support. The arrival of the miniskirt by the mid-sixties encouraged a more



(a)

Start work on the bust, developing apronounced mono-bosom by applyinglong rounded rectangles of waddingacross the chest. Remember that the levelof the bust is often positioned fairly low.

(b)

Develop the straight front line of thefigure by cutting out triangular shapes ofwadding and positioning them from theprojecting bust to below the waist.Padding should also be used to smoothout the large expanse of chest above thebust. Build up the side hips of the figurebelow the level of the waist, making surethat the majority of padding is concen-trated on the back half of the hipsrather than the front.

(c)

Work on the back of the figure developing a prominent bottom.Padding should also be applied to theupper part of the torso, developing amore curvaceous line from shoulders towaist and out over the bottom.

Figure 4.12

Creating a 1900s S-bendfigure with padding.


minimalist approach to undergarments. Girdles and corsets were generallydiscarded and increasingly separate bras and briefs were worn. This attitude tounderwear was carried forward into the 1970s and has continued through tothe present day.

The techniques of applying padding to create twentieth century body shapes

It is not possible to generalise about the body shape during this century aschanges in the style and use of underwear were so extreme. Instead, the silhou-

Figure 4.13

Adapting a modernbust with padding to create a flattened1920s chest.

ported by the corset, the level of thebust is generally positioned fairly low.Once the chest has been built up,padding can be applied to the front ofthe figure forming a straight line thatslants from the protruding chest tothe waist and beyond. Keep the waistas small as possible with any paddingapplied to the front and back of the figure rather than the sides.Finally, the hips and bottom of thefigure can be built up. Padding shouldbe concentrated on the back half ofthe hips, creating a smooth, plump shape from one hipto the other, around the backside.

ette of the figure must be brokendown into relevant decades andtreated individually.

1900s: The infamous S-bend corsetcreated a figure unlike anything thathad preceded it. To adapt a torsosuccessfully, padding should beapplied principally to the bust, hipsand bottom. Begin with the upperbody, using padding to develop apronounced mono-bosom. As thispart of the figure was relatively unsup-

Original bust level

Figure 4.14

Using padding to dropthe level of the bust.

1920s: As costumes from thisperiod are relatively unfitted,attention is generally concen-trated on giving the bust a flat-tened appearance. This can bedone by simply filling in the voidarea between the two breasts withpadding. A final layer is appliedacross the chest to soften anyremaining definition. If the figureis particularly well endowed, itmay be necessary to cut away someof the bust before adapting it withpadding.

1930s and 1940s: Underwearworn beneath garments from thesetwo decades contributed to a morenatural shaped figure. Bras werecommonly worn to support the bust

Stitch together

Cut outtriangles

Whipstitchopenings togetherto create bustshape

(a)

To create a pointedbust, cut two ovalshaped pieces ofwadding. Snip a trian-gular dart either sideof the central pointand whipstitch the cutlines together.

Figure 4.16

Creating a 1950s figure with padding.

Figure 4.15

Black nylon and rayoncorset, made by EdithCorsetière. 1950s.British. T.137-2000. Corset mounted on a modern dress standmade by ProportionLondon and paddedup to fit the garment.

(b)

Position the shapedbust pads onto thefigure, feathering outthe edges and pinningin place. Before stitch-ing down completely,stuff with scraps ofwadding. Build up thefront of the figure asnecessary, applying thewadding in gradedpieces to create a morecylindrical shape.

(c)

Build up the sidehips of the figurebelow the level ofthe waist.

94


(d)

Apply padding to thearea below the frontwaist to develop a slightlyrounded tummy.

(e)

Work on the back of thefigure focusing on developing a prominentrounded bottom.

and although these worked in much the same way that they do nowadays, thebust line of clothes from this period is often positioned lower than it is today.For this reason, figures prepared for costumes from the 1930s and 1940sfrequently need simple bust adaptations to drop the level of the breasts. Paddingcan be used to reshape this part of the body, blending in naturally with the orig-inal figure.

1950s: To create the distinctive hourglass body shape of the 1950s, a moderntorso will generally require a considerable amount of reshaping. With the waist kept as small as possible, padding is concentratedon the bust, hips and bottom. In addition, padding will often be required tocreate a small tummy, which was typically created by the pinched-in waist.Although the level of the bust is not generally dissimilar to that of the modernfigure, the shape of the breasts will need developing into more pronounced andconical points. This can be simply achieved by shaping the padding before appli-cation (see Figure 4.16(a)).

Creat ing Ma le H i s to r i ca l Body Shapes

Introduction to the male figure

There is little doubt that mounting male outfits for display is generally lesscomplicated than preparing female costumes. Not only are the underpinningsrequired to support male dress less diverse, but the shapes of men’s bodies arealso subject to far less variation. This major difference between the figures ofmen and women is inevitably caused by the custom of wearing corsets or stays,which artificially controlled and shaped women’s figures for several hundred

years. Although there is evidence that men also periodically wore corsets, thispractice was not universal and their bodies were largely left unrestricted byfoundation underwear. In spite of this, some changes to the male physiquehave occurred, but these probably have more to do with natural evolution, diet,employment and exercise. In general, male costume from the eighteenth, nine-teenth and early twentieth centuries tends to be on a smaller scale than moderndress. In particular chests and shoulders are not as broad and the ‘across back’measurement is frequently smaller. For this reason, using modern figures asmounts for male historical costume is not necessarily straightforward. However,figures can usually be adapted to accommodate these differences and thissection will offer some suggestions that can assist with such alterations.

A brief history of male dress

Throughout the last three hundred years, male costume has developed fairlyslowly. Changes are generally subtle and tracing the chronological evolutiontends to be far less clear-cut than following the development of fashionablefemale dress.

During the early eighteenth century, men’s clothes maintained the same cut and style as those worn at the end of the previous century. Male attire wasprincipally made up of a coat, waistcoat and breeches. These garments hadcome into fashion around 1660 and though initially cut very loosely, soonbecame closer fitting. Coats at this time were generally worn open to display thewaistcoat and shirt. By 1690, a more conspicuous change in male dress wasdeveloping. The body of the coat became tighter while the skirts of both coatsand waistcoats increased in fullness, creating an ‘A’ line effect. During the nextfew decades, the skirts continued to grow, to some extent mirroring the fash-ion in women’s gowns for wide hoops and paniers. To create the fuller shape,coat skirts were pleated at the sides and stiffened or padded. Britches were cutto fit over the knee, but were almost invisible beneath the upper garments.

The fashion for wide skirted coats continued to develop, peaking around themiddle of the 1740s. This marked the beginning of a new phase of male dress.Henceforward, the width of coat skirts gradually diminished and continued tonarrow throughout the second half of the century. The pleating at the sides,moved towards the back and the front edges of coats began to be cut away in abold arching line. The waistcoat evolved slowly, rising to mid thigh by the1750s, the top of the thigh by the 1770s and to just below the level of the waistby the 1780s. Changes to the breeches did not occur until later. During thegreater part of the century, this garment continued to be fashioned in the sameway, with fairly close fitting legs, a low front waist, high back and baggy bottom.By the last decade of the century, however, breeches were being cut in longer,closer fitting styles and pantaloons were being worn.



Figure 4.17

Coat made of brownwool. 1830s. British.T.18-1918.Mounted on a modernpapier mâché dressstand made byProportion London.Figure cut back in a ‘V’shape below the levelof the front hem of thejacket. Padding wasapplied to the frontand back of the figureto create a good fit and used to reshapethe shoulders into a sloping line.

Throughout the second half of the century, the fashionable male shapecontinued to develop into a slimmer, more natural silhouette. Men’s clothesbecame simpler and plainer, exposing the figure to a greater extent. By the endof the century, the original skirt of the coat had shrunk away to little more thana tail.

During the nineteenth century, developments in male costume were particu-larly subtle, making costume from this period difficult to date. Emphasis wasplaced on good tailoring and the bright colours and decoration of the previouscentury were replaced by more sober shades. During the first years of the newcentury, the prevailing male fashion was for tight knee breeches or pantaloons,worn with close fitting tail-coats. By the mid-1820s, trousers, which had beenintroduced early in the century, were regularly worn. These garments wereheld in a smooth, straight line by a strap fitted beneath the foot. At the sametime, a pronounced rounded chest became fashionable and the fronts of coatsand waistcoats were often padded to create a fuller form. The slope of the maleshoulder also became more exaggerated.

In the second half of the century, the fashion in formal wear was for fittedgarments such as the frock and morning coats. The lounge jacket was introducedas a less tailored garment that could be used for informal daywear. By the1860s, this had developed into the three-piece suit, consisting of waistcoat,trousers and jacket in matching fabric. At the same time a number of new stylescame into use, designed specifically for sportswear. Some of these infiltratedfashionable dress, helping to develop a more relaxed style.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the reputation of the frockcoatwas waning and the morning coat was more frequently worn. The lounge suitwas also well established and fast gaining in popularity, and by the mid-1920s,this suit had become the most commonly worn male outfit. Inspired by PrinceEdward, men’s clothes were more comfortable during this decade. Soft shirtcollars and wider trousers were worn and knitted sweaters became fashionable.By the 1930s, suits had developed a square-cut style, with wider padded shouldersand narrow fitted hips.

With the onset of the Second World War, men’s clothes were forced to accom-modate the limitations imposed by rationing and the utility scheme. Clotheswere simplified and the amount of fabric reduced where possible, cutting downon pleats and banning unnecessary turn-ups. Once released from these restric-tions, advances in male fashion could once more develop. Ironically in the1950s, this included the new but retrospective style of the Teddy Boy whichborrowed both its name and long narrow look from the Edwardian period. Bythe 1960s, fashion designers had begun to modernise the cut and style of men’ssuits and men’s garments had developed the same fast changing characteristicsas women’s wear.



Figure 4.18

Brown pinstripe suit, designed by Radford Jones. 1937. British. T.29-1993.Due to the smalldimensions of thejacket and trousers, this outfit was mountedon a child-sized dressstand and padded up to fit.

‘The techniques of mounting male dress’

ResearchBefore starting work, research should be carried out to ascertain the mannerin which the costume would have been worn and its general fit. For example,it is necessary to identify how tightly or loosely waistcoats and jackets from the relevant period were fitted to the figure and how they would have been fastened,if at all. The location of buttons will not necessarily clarify this point as they weresometimes applied for decorative rather than functional purposes, particularlyin the latter half of the eighteenth century. If leg-wear is included in an outfit,research should also establish the correct position of breeches, pantaloons ortrousers in relation to the rest of the suit.

Adapting figures for historical dressContemporary shaped mannequins are often too broad across shoulders, chestand back for historical male dress. For example, the fashionable shape of a manduring the eighteenth century was the reverse of what it is today, favouringnarrow shoulders and wider hips. To solve this problem, figures can be cutdown, reducing the width of the upper torso (see p. 46). Alternatively a child’sfigure can be selected and built up with padding to fit the costume. Surprisingly,the neck position on modern figures can also cause difficulties, preventingperiod jackets and waistcoats from sitting correctly on the shoulders. Minoradjustments using padding can often resolve this problem, but in extreme casesit may be necessary to cut the neck off and apply a new one in a more suitableposition (see p. 54).

Once the figure has been selected and any necessary structural adaptationscarried out, padding can be applied to the torso to develop a suitable body shape.As the weight of jackets and waistcoats are often focused on the shoulders, a layerof polyester wadding needs to be applied to this area to create a soft cushionfor the garment to rest on. For many historical costumes, the shoulders of thefigure will also need reshaping, to modify the square frame of the modern torsointo a more sloping line (see p. 52).

To keep the figure looking slender, the majority of padding should generallybe applied to the front and back of the torso rather than the sides. Use relevanthistorical images to ensure that the chest area is developed into the appropri-ate shape for the period. Consideration should also be given to the back of the torso, especially the upper half, which frequently requires some additionalpadding to create a smoother fit. For eighteenth century coats mounted assingle garments, a certain amount of padding must also be applied to thebottom of the figure to simulate the baggy breeches that would have been wornbeneath.

If leg-wear is included as a part of an outfit, the size of the waist will be crucial.Padding can be used to alter the dimensions of the body to fit exactly and


support the waistband of a pair of breeches or trousers, giving them somethingto fasten around and anchoring them in the correct position.

Additional padsAs male costume frequently consists of several layers of garments, such as waist-coats and jackets, worn one over another, the use of additional loose pads can be valuable when mounting these costumes. Loose pads are made as independent cushions that can be slipped between two separate parts of a suit,to smooth problem areas and improve the finished look of the top garment(see p. 165).

Sleeve covers and costume linersWhen mounting male costumes, it is sometimes necessary to dress the sleevesof one garment over another. This can often occur with early eighteenthcentury outfits, as at this time, waistcoats worn beneath jackets, were made withfull-length sleeves. The friction caused by dragging one sleeve over another mayresult in damage to both and always makes mounting difficult, putting costumesunder additional strain. To ease dressing and minimise any risk, a pair of sleevecovers can be used to separate the two garments (see p. 112).

For particularly fragile costume or those with heavy beading, embroidery ormetal thread, it may also be necessary to make a costume liner to isolate thebody of one garment from another. The simplest way to achieve this is to dressthe lower garment onto the figure and take a pattern from it, using the quicktoile method on p. 37. Once the pattern has been made, the costume liner canbe constructed in a slippery fabric such a silk habotai. To ensure that the linerwill not be seen, trim or fold back any parts of the fabric that may be visiblewhen the upper garment is in place.


5Designing and

MakingUnderpinnings

If padding a torso to the correct shape is a vital part of costume mounting,underpinnings are equally crucial. Just as the shape of the torso supportsand defines the bodice of a costume, the underpinnings support and

define everything else, principally skirts, trousers and sleeves. This chapteraddresses the production of underpinnings, providing simple methods tocreate all shapes and sizes of supports, from those for contemporary costume,to the more extreme historical shapes.

S leeve Suppor t s

The importance of supporting the sleeves of a garment should not be under-estimated when preparing costume for display. Sleeves that are inappropriately,inaccurately or inadequately mounted will not only put strain on the costumebut will also spoil its appearance. As a general rule, if a garment is made withsleeves, then some kind of underpinning, shaped like an arm, should be madeto support them. Even the sleeves of robust and modern tailored jackets oftenlook better with something inside. For some costumes, it is the arm supportsthat will define and control the shape, style and length of the sleeves. An exam-ple of this is the rouched bias cut sleeves popular in the early nineteenthcentury. Mounted without the right sized support, these sleeves will hang downlike two shapeless, elongated lengths of fabric, making the costume look absurd(see Figure 0.1 in the Introduction).

Costume mounted on mannequins with solid arms may not need under-pinnings, as the arms will provide sufficient support for the sleeves. Bear inmind however, that solid arms will not necessarily be the right size or shape for

Figure 5.1

Bodice and skirt made of green silk. C.1865. British. T.433-1976. Mounted on an off-the-peg, Victorian, fibreglass torso made by H&H Sculptors Ltd and padded to fit thecostume. Underpinnings include soft sleeve supports and a crinoline frame with addi-tional net frills and a top petticoat.

103


Figure 5.2

Sleeve supports attached to a figure with additional netfrills covered in silk habotai. Torso made by H & HSculptors Ltd, customised to fit the costume with additional padding.

Figure 5.3

Floral print dress. 1835–1840. British. T.32-1940.Mounted on the torso shown in Figure 5.2 with thesleeves fully supported by the underpinnings.Additional skirt supports include a tube petticoat, netfrills and top petticoat.

a historical costume and the fittings may not be suitable. In such cases, the limbsshould be removed and substituted with custom-made sleeve supports.

There are a variety of different ways of making sleeve supports. These includesuch methods as rolling polyester into arm shapes, stuffing the legs of tightswith padding, carving Plastazote® and wrapping wadding around armaturewire. No matter what technique is used, there are a number of issues commonto all sleeve supports that are worth mentioning. For instance, supports shouldalways be constructed with a slight bend at the elbow. Those that are madestraight, with no elbow definition, tend to look unnatural and will do nothingto improve the appearance of the sleeves. It is also important to avoid over stuffing or making supports too large, as this looks equally unattractive and canbe damaging to the costume. It is better to be cautious and produce sleevesupports that are slightly slimmer than may seem necessary. Considerationmust also be given to the way the supports will be attached to the figure andhow they will be fed into the sleeves of the costume.

The sleeve support described in this chapter is constructed in the same waythat a soft toy is made. The shape of the support is cut from fabric using a paperpattern, the shape is seamed together and finally stuffed with polyester wadding.Making a support in this way has many advantages. First and foremost, it createsa soft but robust arm with a natural shape that can be stitched firmly to thefigure and manipulated in any direction. This makes dressing easier, reducingstrain on the costume. Supports of this kind can also be customised to fit anysleeve size and as a pattern is used, it is easy to make an identical right and leftarm. Finally, this method creates sleeve supports that are hard wearing and canbe reused for numerous mounting projects.

Adapting a pattern for a sleeve support

Once the pattern has been scaled up to size, it can either be used as it is, orcustomised to suit an individual costume. To adapt the pattern, you will needto take the following measurements:

From the costume (a) The length of sleeve from the shoulder point to cuff, minus 1.5 cm.

(b) The inside circumference of the cuff. This measurement isparticularly important if you are mounting a costume withfitted cuffs. If the sleeves have a wide unfitted cuff, use thewrist measurement from the pattern.

From the pattern (c) The length of the pattern from the head to wrist line.(d) The width of the wrist line.

In order to construct a sleeve support that is the correct size for the costume,the measurements of the sleeve and the pattern must be compared to each otherand the pattern adapted accordingly. To do this, start by comparing measurement(a) to measurement (c) in the above list. The pattern can be altered to the correct

D E S I G N I N G A N D M A K I N G U N D E R P I N N I N G S 105


Shoulder dart

Elbow dart

W rist disc

Back point Front point

Str aight of g r ain

Wr ist line Stitch line

W rist disc

Str aight of g r ain

Elbow dart

Back point Front point

Scale = 5cm

Shoulder dart

W r ist line

(a) Male sleeve support pattern.

Figure 5.4

Patterns for male and female sleeve supports.

(b) Female sleeve support pattern.

length by raising or extending the wrist line. For example, if the sleeve of the costume is 4 cm shorter than the pattern, raise the line of the wrist on the pattern by 4 cm. Draw on the new wrist line with a pencil and ruler. In thesame way, the pattern can be extended to accommodate longer sleeves, whenthis is the case you will also need to extend the sides of the pattern to match.

Once the length of the pattern has been established, compare measurement (b) to measurement (d) and alter the pattern by increasing or decreasing thewidth of the wrist line. To keep the pattern symmetrical, adjustments should becarried out evenly on both sides and marked clearly with a pencil. New stitchlines are drawn connecting the altered wrist line to the underarm front andback points. To complete the pattern, raise or lower the level of the elbow dartin proportion to the alterations and add seam allowance. When mounting acostume that requires a fully fitted sleeve support (i.e. a bias cut rouchedsleeve), it may be necessary to make additional width comparisons and alter-ations to the pattern. In doing this, the stitch lines may become curved and itis important to make sure that they remain equal in length. This pattern canalso be adapted to produce supports for costumes with short sleeves, by consid-erably reducing the length.

Re-sizing the wrist disc

If the width of the sleeve support has been altered, the pattern for the wrist discwill also need to be redrawn. It is often wise to postpone making adjustmentsto the disc until after the sleeve supports have been made and a fitting hastaken place to finalise their length. The easiest way to draw a wrist disc is to usea compass. Measure the outside circumference of the sleeve support at the levelof the wrist and divide this figure by 3.14 (π). To set the compass to the correctradius, divide this number in half and draw a circle. As human wrists are notactually circular, it may be preferable in some cases to adapt the disc into anoval; for example, the narrow cuffs of eighteenth century men’s coats are oftenbetter suited to this shape.

Making sleeve supports

Feeding supports down the sleeves of a costume can be awkward, putting strainon the garment during dressing. To ease this process, supports should be made out of a slippery fabric to encourage the arms to slide down the sleeves.Silk habotai is particularly suitable and can be mounted onto firmer cottonfabrics such as calico or polycotton to make it more robust. To hide supports,it is advisable to select a fabric colour that roughly matches the inside of thesleeve.



Making sleeve supports

1. Using the pattern as a template, cut out a right and left sleeve support. If necessary, back fine silks onto a layer of cotton to make them morerobust (see Sewing Appendix).

2. Mark the pattern perimeter and darts onto the fabric using a tracing wheel.Thread trace the wrist line, so that it is visible on the front of the fabric.

3. With right sides together stitch in the shoulder and elbow darts.4. Finish the head of the sleeve supports with pinking shears, overlocking or

zigzag. Leave the wrist ends unfinished in case of alterations.5. With right sides together, fold each sleeve in half down the length and

match up the stitch lines. Pin and stitch these seams in place.6. Trim the seam allowance and press the seams.

7. Turn the sleeve supports the right way out and stuff with polyester wadding.This can be done with scraps, but a far better finish is achieved using largepieces of wadding cut to shape. Use one of the unfilled supports as atemplate, laying it on top of the wadding face up and cutting around itleaving a 1 cm excess on all sides. Depending on how thick the wadding is,cut out a further two or three pieces. Lay the pieces on top of each otherand loosely fasten together with large tacking stitches. With the under armseam facing up, stuff the padding into the head of one of the supports asfar as it will go. To make this easier, fold in the edges of the padding. Fromthe wrist end of the support, take hold of the wadding and pull it down thearm until it is fully filled. Repeat this process for the second support.

8. Shape the wadding at the head of the sleeve support in the following way:using scissors, trim away any excess padding around the top of the support.Fold down the fabric so it is out of the way and continue to snip and sculpt

Shoulder point

Shoulder dar t

Finished head of slee ve

Elbo w dar t

Stitch line

Figure 5.5(a)

Making a sleeve support.


the wadding until it is formed into a reverse wedge shape (see Figure 5.5b).Make sure that enough is cut away from under the arms. This is essential,as it will allow the sleeve supports to hang flat to the sides of the figure,preventing them from sticking out unnaturally once they are attached.

9. To finish the other end, trim off any excess wadding and fold in the fabricalong the wrist line marked with thread tracing. To check the length iscorrect, pin the supports to the figure and try the costume on. Make surethat all pins are pointing inwards so that the costume cannot snag.

10. Cut the wrist disc out of medium-weight museum board or Reemay®

and cover with the support fabric. To do this, lay the disc on a piece offabric and trim around it, leaving approximately 2 cm excess. With aneedle and thread, secure it in place by catching it from side to side,pulling the thread tight until the fabric fits smoothly around the disc.

11. Slip stitch the disc to the end of the sleeve support.

Shoulder point

W adding snipped into a re v erse wedge shape

F olded do wn f abr ic

Figure 5.5(b)

Shaping the wadding atthe head of the sleevesupport.

Co v ered wr ist disk

F abr ic f olded in along the wr ist line ma rk ed with thread tracing

Tr imme d w adding

Figure 5.5(c)

Applying the wrist discto the end of the sleevesupport.

Continued

Supportive net frills

Sleeves cut with exaggerated puffs, bells, bishops or flounces may need addi-tional support. Originally, sleeves, such as the giant gigots of the 1830s, wereoften bolstered with cushion-like pads, stuffed with down. Today, historicalcostume makers are more likely to use net frills as a foundation and this tech-nique can also be used when mounting costumes for display. Using net helps tokeep sleeves looking light and airy and is more subtle than upholstered sleevepads. More importantly, the insubstantial nature of the material means that itcan be crushed and passed through narrow armholes with relative ease, spring-ing back into shape once released. Net frills are used in conjunction with sleevesupports and a pair of these must be prepared for the costume, before startingwork on the frills.

To make a net frill for a sleeve, you will need the following measurements:

(a) The approximate length of the puff or flounce.(b) The approximate circumference of the puff or flounce at its fullest,

minus 10–20 cm.


12. To attach the sleeve supports, herringbone stitch to the shoulders of the figure, using a curved needle. Stitch only around the head of thesupport, leaving the underside to hang freely. If you are attaching sleevesupports to a fibreglass figure, cover the torso in a layer of stretch fabricfirst so there is something to fasten them to. Alternatively, cotton tapescan be wrapped around the figure like a harness and supports secured to these.

Herr ingbone stitch ar ms to figure lea ving underside to hang freely .

Figure 5.5(d)

Attaching the sleevesupports to the figure.

Using measurement (a) and (b) from above, cut out two rectangles of light-weight nylon net. Gather the net and hand stitch it to the sleeve support tocreate a puff or frill that mirrors the location and dimensions on that of thesleeve. This will vary according to the costume. For example, supports made for puffed or gigot sleeves must be gathered both at the top and bottom of thenet rectangle. The gathered net should then be arranged around the sleevesupport, reflecting the position of the puff on the costume, and be stitchedfirmly in place through the top and bottom gathers. Supports made for sleeveswith flounces or frills will need gathering and fastening at one end only, butonce again, care should be taken to attach the net to the sleeve support in thecorrect position.

To prevent the costume from catching or snagging on the raw edges of thenet, a layer of fine silk or cotton is applied over the top. The top fabric is cutfractionally larger than the net and gathered and applied in the same way.Finish all raw edges with pinking, zigzag or overlocking, ensuring the fabricoverlaps the edges of the net. Alternatively the fabric can be mounted onto thenet and the two layers gathered up as one.

When supporting sheer fabrics such as the lace flounces found on the sleevesof eighteenth century gowns, a conservation grade net should ideally be substituted for more standard varieties. This material is so fine that it is almostinvisible and its edges can be left raw without any danger of snagging. Thoughfloppy and insubstantial, once gathered, it can often provide enough supportfor lightweight flounces.


Figure 5.6

Three examples ofdifferent ways to applygathered net to a sleevesupport.

Slip-on sleeve covers used to isolate an under sleeve from a top sleeve

Sometimes an outfit is made up of two garments and it is necessary to dress thesleeves of one piece of costume over another. When mounting moderncostumes, this is generally not an issue, but for those that are old and fragile it can be a serious problem. The friction caused by dragging one sleeve overanother may result in damage to both and always makes mounting difficult andslow, putting costumes under additional strain.

To ease dressing and minimise any risk, a pair of fine silk sleeve covers can beused to separate the two garments from each other. The smooth surface of thesilk allows the top sleeve to glide over the bottom sleeve, avoiding any damagecaused by friction or abrasion. These covers can be made using the same patterndesigned for sleeve supports. Adapt the pattern to a suitable size as described,taking measurements from the sleeves of the under garment and making surethat a minimum of 2 cm ease is included in the pattern. The sleeve coversshould be made out of a medium-weight silk habotai and finished at the headand cuff with pinking, overlocking or zigzag.

Once the bottom layer of the outfit is mounted on the figure, the silk sleevecovers can be pulled gently into position over the top. If necessary, a length oftape can be attached to the head of each sleeve cover and tied together across theback of the figure, preventing them from slipping down. To stop the coversriding up during the dressing of the second costume, temporarily fasten them tothe bottom of the sleeve supports by passing a thread from one side to the otherand tying in a bow. This can easily be removed after dressing is complete. Withthe sleeve covers in position, the outer costume can then be dressed onto thefigure.

Fitted cuff supports

For costumes with tightly fitted cuffs, it is essential to create sleeve supports that are the right size for the garment to fasten around. This can sometimes bea problem when reusing old sleeve supports, as, although these can easily bemade smaller, it is less obvious how to make them bigger. To solve this problem,a simple technique can be employed, using rolls of polyester wadding cut to the circumference of the wrist and covered with fabric. The padded rolls arestitched securely around the bottom of the sleeve support, effectively enlarging


the circumference of the wrist and providing a soft support for the cuff of thecostume to button around.

Leg Suppor t s

Leg supports are required for garments such as trousers, britches, pantaloonsand shorts, that are displayed on figures that do not have pre-existing legs. In these cases, a simple support can be made and used to fill out the trousers, inthe same way that a sleeve support is made for a figure without arms. Althoughleg supports are not as essential to the overall appearance and safety of thecostume as arm supports, they improve the look of an empty pair of trousersconsiderably and prevent this part of an outfit from collapsing and lookingunnaturally two-dimensional. For some garments, the use of leg supports isessential. For example, costumes cut with fitted knee or ankle cuffs, flares orgathered puffs, often require an inner structure to control their length.

Some figures are more suitable than others as mounts for trousers. For exam-ple, costumes mounted on full-length mannequins with manufactured legs willnot need trouser supports. It is worth remembering, however, that dressing frag-ile costume onto figures with rigid legs can put increased strain on the garment.In some cases, it may be preferable to opt for a figure that does not include lowerlimbs and construct a more flexible pair of leg supports instead. Unfortunately,not every kind of figure is suitable as a mount for trousers. Some figures (partic-ularly female) are constructed with a lower body that is too long for the crotchof trousers and will prevent the garment from being pulled up into the waist.To avoid this, always take a waist to waist via crotch measurement on both thefigure and the costume (see p. 24). If the torso has a larger measurement thanthe costume, select a different mannequin or prepare to cut the figure down(see p. 46).

Another common problem when mounting trousers is caused by figures withcentral pole fixings. Although these are perfect for outfits incorporating dresses,skirts or tunics, they are not suitable for trousers, as the pole will not comfort-ably fall down either trouser leg. If the legs of the garment are cut very wide, it is sometimes possible to thread a central shaft down one side, but the resultis usually unsightly and may put the costume at risk. Snipping holes in thecrotch seams of historical costume to make way for a central pole is not some-thing that should be considered. To overcome this problem, there are severalpossible solutions. The simplest is to purchase figures that include a side fixingfor trousers. This kind of fitting is set off-centre and will enable the pole to fallcomfortably down one trouser leg. Alternatively a figure can sometimes beadapted by moving the original fixing across and positioning it to one side.Other possibilities include figures that are suspended from the wall, ceiling or a



Figure 5.7

Gabardine Ski-outfitcomprised of jacketand knee breeches.1920s. British. T.241-1989. Outfit mountedon a dress stand madeby Proportion Londonand padded to fit.Knee-breeches,controlled using legsupports made fromcalico and Rigilene®,reinforced at the hemwith additional rings ofboning.


Method 1: Leg supports made by hand Method 2: Leg supports made using a sewing machine

1. To calculate the dimensions of the leg support, try the costume on the figure, select one trouser leg and workout the following dimensions:(a) Measure the inner circumference of the trouser leg at its narrowest point and subtract a minimum of 2.5 cm.(b) Measure the length of the trouser from the bottom of the figure to the hem of the trouser leg and

subtract 2 cm.

2. Using these measurements, draw a rectangle onto 2. Using these measurements, draw a rectangle onto a piece of medium-weight museum board or a piece of heavy-weight calico with a pencil and Reemay®. If using Melinex®, it is easier to make ruler.a tissue pattern and use it as a template.

3. Mark the top of the rectangle as ‘top’ and the bottom as ‘ankle’. To give the support a more realistic shape, widenthe top line of the rectangle in proportion to the circumference of the trouser leg at this point. Make sure theline is extended evenly on both sides. Redraw the stitch lines by connecting the new top line to the ankle. Curve in the top and bottom of the pattern (see Figure 5.8(a) for guidance).

4. Draw an overlap of 6–8 cm down the outside of 4. Cut out the rectangle with a 2 cm seam allowance on one seam line and cut out the completed rectangle. all sides. Use this as a pattern for the second leg.Use this as a template for the second leg.

e xtended

Cu rv ed top line

Stitch line

Stitch line

Ankle cur ve d ankle line 0.5 cm

1 cm

b

To p

a

e xtended

Figure 5.8(a)

Drawing the shape of the leg support.

Continued

stand, without the use of a pole. When using any of these, make sure that otherparts of the outfit will not be put at risk by fixings positioned in different places.

Making leg supports

As with all costume mounting systems, there are probably many different waysof making leg supports. The methods described here are based on theconstruction of simple cylindrical tubes which are suspended from the bottomof the figure and inserted into the legs of the trousers. Method 1 makes use of



5. To make the leg supports easier to sew, apply a 5. Mark the bone lines across the fabric, working from length of cotton tape to the inside of both stitch the bottom up, mirroring the curve of the ankle line. lines. Machine or hand stitch the tapes firmly in The bones should be spaced approximately 15–20 cm place. This is not necessary when making leg apart, and should include the ankle line or hem.supports out of Melinex®.

6. Bend each leg support into a cylinder and match 6. With right sides together, pin and sew the stitch the stitch lines. Use paper clips top and bottom lines together. Trim and press the seam open and finish to hold the overlap in place. Herringbone or the top and bottom with pinking shears, overlocking whip stitch the cylinder together by stitching or zigzag.into the cotton tape, using a curved needle. Melinex® supports need only be secured top and bottom. To do this, pass a thread through both layers of Melinex®, using a curved needle and tie the loose ends in a knot.

7. With the fabric the wrong way out, follow the marked lines and apply rings of Rigilene® directly to the calico, using a wide machine zigzag stitch. Overlap the ends of the boning at the seam by approximately 6 cm. N.B. Make sure that the natural curve of the boning corresponds to the curve of the finished leg support. As the support is currently the wrong way out, this means that the boning should be applied with the curve bent in the reverse direction.

8. Turn the leg support the right way out with the bones on the inside. The support should spring into a firm tubular shape.

9. Temporarily pin tabs of cotton tape to the top of the cylinders and use them to attach the leg supports to thefigure. Adjust the tapes until the legs are hanging in the right position and at the correct angle. The sides of thefigure should run smoothly into the outside line of the leg support as naturally as possible.

Stitch line

To p

Ankle

Stitch line

Cotton tape C

otto

n ta

pe

Ov e

r la p

Figure 5.8(b)

Applying cotton tape to a leg support.

15–20cm

To p

Bone lines

Ankl e

Seam

all ow ance

2cm

Stitch line

Figure 5.8(c)

Marking the bone lines onto the fabric.



10. Once the positioning is established, the tapes should be stitched in place and the pins removed.

Figure 5.8(d)

Fixing leg supports to the bottomof a figure with tabs of cotton tape.

medium-weight museum board, Reemay® or Melinex® and is useful for thosewho prefer to sew by hand. Method 2 requires a sewing machine and uses acombination of calico and Rigilene® boning.

Mounting leg-wear with fitted knee or ankle cuffs

Some varieties of britches and trousers are cut with fitted cuffs that are buttoned,buckled, zipped, elasticated or tied at the ankle or knee. In these cases, it is some-times necessary to strengthen the leg support at this point, providing a moresolid shape for the hem of the garment to fasten around. This is especially impor-tant for britches or trousers that would ordinarily have been worn pusheds l i g h t l yup the leg, creating a blousy effect. In this case, the silhouette of the garmentis dependant on the supports holding the trouser legs at the right height.

There are several different ways to reinforce the hem of a leg support. Calicosupports can be fortified with supplementary rings of Rigilene®, while those

made from museum board or Reemay® can be strengthened with additionalstrips of the same material or plugged with a disc of Plastazote®. Melinex® is notsuitable for specialist leg supports of this kind and should not be used. If thecostume demands a particularly tight fit, the hem circumference of the legsupport should be made slightly smaller than the costume and padded with athin layer of polyester wadding, covered in fabric. This will give the cuff of thetrouser leg something soft to grip around. For britches that are cut particularlyshort, there may be some danger of the underpinning being visible. When thisis the case, the bottom of the leg support can be finished with a cardboard disc,hiding the inside from view. The disc should be covered with an appropriatelycoloured fabric and slip stitched in place, in exactly the same way that a wristdisc is made to finish the bottom of a sleeve support (see p. 109).

Net frills for non-standard leg-wear

Although the cut of leg-wear tends to be more conventional and less variablethan the cut of sleeves, there are always exceptions that will need special atten-tion. For example, some of the more flamboyant theatrical costumes mayrequire additional help. Net frills can be used to create extra supports fortrousers with extreme fullness or exaggerated flares. Net can be cut and gath-ered to create a variety of different shapes and customised to fit beneath indi-vidual costumes. Using the leg supports as a foundation, frills are stitched inplace in exactly the same way that nets are applied to sleeve supports (see p. 110).For trousers that require additions of this kind, it is helpful to construct theinner leg support from fabric or Reemay® rather than card or Melinex®, as thiswill provide a surface that can be stitched into with ease. As with sleevesupports, the net should be covered in a protective layer of gathered silk orlightweight cotton.

Techn iques o f Mak ing Sk i r t Suppor t s

Of all components of dress, perhaps the part most susceptible to change duringthe last three hundred years is the skirt. The diversity of size and silhouettevaries dramatically throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuryand continues to do so on the catwalks today. This constant evolution of skirtshapes plays a major part in defining the history of fashion, and significantchanges can sometimes be observed even within a single decade.

In the past, the shape of the skirt was created by the underpinnings wornbeneath it. As very few costumes survive with these supports intact, it is the job of the costume mounter to provide suitable substitutes when preparinggarments for display. Making appropriate underpinnings for a period skirt isnot only vital to its historical interpretation and aesthetic appearance, but also


to the safety of the entire outfit. Skirts that are inappropriately or inadequatelymounted are vulnerable to damage. For example, fabrics may become creasedand fatigued, seems weakened and bodices that are stitched to skirts can be putunder unnecessary strain. For these reasons, it is essential to create an under-pinning that is accurate in shape and size, that will maintain its profile overtime and is made of something that is both soft and supportive.

As with all costume mounting techniques, there are many different ways tomake skirt supports. Some costume mounters prefer to employ historical meth-ods, using authentic materials and patterns to produce facsimile petticoats andundergarments. Building up a stock of these can be useful as they last for manyyears and can be reused for different mounting projects. Some costume collec-tions already have a good supply of underpinnings that can be dipped intowhen required. For those that do not, alternative methods may be preferable,as making replica petticoats and supports can be very time-consuming as wellas requiring a certain amount of sewing and pattern cutting expertise. Quickermethods, using more contemporary materials, can be borrowed from costumemakers working in the theatre and film industry. The series of books by JeanHunnisett, Period Costume for Stage & Screen’ is a valuable source of information,giving detailed cutting and making instructions for modern but historicallyshaped underpinnings.

Even with books such as these, constructing underpinnings for skirts can be daunting to those less confident at sewing, and the prospect of tackling some of the more extreme shapes, such as nineteenth century crinolines oreighteenth century court paniers, can be intimidating. This is not helped bythe topsy-turvy approach to petticoat making that a costume mounter isforced to adopt. Making underpinnings for an already existing costume is farless straightforward than tackling the job the other way round. Historically,the underpinnings would have been constructed first and once completed,the dress or skirt would have been cut to fit over the top. When mountingcostume for display, however, everything is reversed and the process ofmaking underpinnings the correct size and shape to fit under a skirt, can bechallenging. To solve this problem, the method described in this chapterallows skirt supports to be developed through several stages. Using simpletechniques, it focuses on evolving the shape and size of the underpinning byapplying layers of gathered net to a simple tubular underskirt or frame. Inthis way, the silhouette can be developed gradually and fine tuned to an exactshape and fit.

Taking measurements for the skirt support

The first step to creating a skirt support is to measure the costume. This can bedone with the skirt flat on a table or dressed on the figure. If the garment is


robust enough, this latter method is the best to adopt, as it also affords anopportunity to see the skirt as a three-dimensional object and a chance to startplanning the underpinnings. If the costume is very fragile, a toile should bemade and used in place of the original (see Chapter 2). When taking meas-urements, a simple diagram of the skirt front and back should be drawn so thatall dimensions can be clearly recorded. To start the process you will need thefollowing measurements:

• Around inside waist • Back length of skirt• Around hip, if relevant • Side length of skirt• Around bottom, if relevant • Around hem• Front length of skirt • Any other relevant notes

Estimating the size and shape of the skirt support

Once measurements have been taken, consideration can be given to the shapeand size of the support. Time should be spent researching the skirt silhouettesof the relevant period. Books with images of fashion plates, portraits, drawingsand photographs will usually give a clear indication of what to expect.Reference books such as Corsets and Crinolines by Norah Waugh also providesome valuable information about the construction, shape and dimensions ofhistorical underpinnings. With the costume still dressed on the figure, beginroughly gauging the size of the support needed. The widest part of the under-pinning is usually located at the bottom and this dimension can be roughlyascertained from measuring the hem of the skirt. Bear in mind that some skirtsare designed to fall over the underpinning in folds and once again referenceimages should be referred to. When working on a costume with a train, be care-ful not to include its outside perimeter in the hem circumference, as this willgive you an inaccurate measurement. It is sometimes helpful to lay a long tapemeasure around the foot of the figure in simulation of the finished size of theskirt. For smaller skirts, strips of card or Melinex® can be taped together, bentinto a ring and tried under the hem of the skirt. This will help gauge the visualdimensions required.

Once the approximate lower circumference has been established, the rest of the underpinning can be planned. Keeping this measurement in mind as a basic proportion, begin to estimate the rest of the support. Making continualreferences to images, work slowly up the skirt in distances of approximately20–30 cm, noting any changes to the silhouette at these levels. The front, sidesand back of the skirt should all be considered individually as the profile at thesepoints is often different. For example, the sides of the skirt may be fairly bulky,the back even fuller, while the front is relatively flat. Additional clues that can


be used to help determine the shape of the support can be found in the lengthof the skirt. Studying the rise and fall of the hem line can be informative. Forexample if the hem dips towards the floor, it may indicate that increased full-ness higher up the support is required to level the line. However, not all skirtsare designed to be even around the hem and care should be taken not toconfuse deliberate variations with those caused by lack of support.

While the costume is on the figure, gather as much information as possibleand record all estimated measurements and notes on the diagram. Make surethat you orientate any circumference dimensions with additional length measurements, to pinpoint their position. For example, if the fullness at thesides of the skirt swells outwards at a certain point, mark how far down from thewaist this should take place.

The basic tube petticoat

This petticoat can be used for smaller skirt shapes that do not require extensiveunderpinnings. The purpose of a tube petticoat is to provide a simple supportand a firm foundation on to which net frills can be attached if necessary.Supports of this kind are particularly important for mannequins and figuresthat are made without legs, as skirts tend to cave into the void created by thesemissing limbs. Tube petticoats are so straightforward that they can beconstructed in less than half an hour. They are made out of a single rectangleof fabric, stitched into a cylinder with a centre back seam and reinforced withrings of polyester boning applied directly to the fabric. To reduce bulk at thewaist and eliminate the need to shape the skirt with darts, side seams and plack-ets, the calico tube is designed to fit the figure around the fattest part of the


Making the basic tube petticoat

1. Calculate the following measurements:(A) The circumference of the figure around the widest part of the

bottom (approximately 20 cm below the waistline). When taking thismeasurement, mark the exact position on the figure with pins or a lineof tacking.

(B) The length of the petticoat. This can be established by measuring the waist to hem of the skirt and subtracting a minimum of 20 cmdepending on where the circumference measurement has been takenfrom. A further 3–5 cm should be subtracted to ensure that the petticoat is not visible below the hem of the costume.

Continued


2. Using these two measurements, draw a rectangle/square onto a piece ofheavy-weight calico or cotton duck, with a pencil and ruler.

3. Add an additional seam allowance of 2 cm on all sides and cut out theshape. Each side should be labelled as appropriate with (A) or (B).

4. Finish both sides (A) with pinking shears, overlocking or zigzag. Mark oneas the top of the petticoat and one as the bottom.

5. Using a pencil and ruler, draw the bone lines onto the calico from side (B)to (B). The number of bones depends on the amount of support the petticoat requires: in general three or four rows are sufficient, spacedapproximately 15–20 cm apart. Work from the bottom up and include thehem as a bone line.

6. With right sides together, match side (B) to (B) and pin and stitch thecentre back seam. Trim and press the seam open.

7. Keeping the tube the wrong way out, apply rings of Rigilene® boning tothe calico, using the previously marked pencil lines as a guide. Stitch theboning directly onto the fabric, using a wide machine zigzag stitch. Overlap the ends across the centre back seam by approximately 10 cm.N.B. Make sure that the natural curve of the boning corresponds to thecurve of the finished petticoat. As the tube is currently the wrong way out,this means that the boning should be applied with the curve bent in thereverse direction.

8. Turn the petticoat the right way out, with the bones on the inside. The petticoat should spring into a tubular shape.

9. Dress the petticoat over the head of the figure and pull into position,matching the top of the tube to the pins or tack line. Fasten the petticoatin place using a herringbone stitch and curved needle.

Measurement A

MeasurementB

Seam

allowance

Bone lines

A Bottom

A Top

B B

15–20cm

Include hem as bone line

Figure 5.9(a)

Drawing the patternfor the basic tube petticoat.

bottom. To create a more slender support, the tube can also be made to fitbelow the bottom where the figure is narrower. If possible, tube petticoats aresecured to the figure with stitching. For figures with non-fabric finishes, this is notpossible and the tube should be made slightly differently. In this case, the lengthof the petticoat is extended up to the level of the figure’s hip and any excessfabric pleated to fit snugly around the torso, holding the garment in place.

The pleated tube petticoat

This petticoat is designed to be used with medium skirt shapes requiring moreextensive support and is made in almost the same way as the basic tube. Unlikethe basic tube, the pleated tube is cut with a much bigger circumference andonce made, the excess fabric is fitted around the figure by folding into pleats.Depending on the date of the costume, the fabric should be pleated in such away that it will start to form the correct silhouette. For example, petticoatsmade for skirts that are fuller at the back and sides, should mimic this shape by being pleated heavily in these areas and kept smooth across the front.


20cm

Boning applied to the inside of the petticoat

Figure 5.9(b)

Attaching the basictube petticoat to thefigure.

Tapes can also be attached to the inside of the tube and tied off around the legs or central pole of the figure to help pull the underpinning into the rightposition.

Unfortunately this method of support is less suitable for particularly largeskirts, such as some of the nineteenth century crinolines, and a more robust

foundation frame may need to beconstructed (see p. 148). For skirts withless extreme dimensions, the pleated


Figure 5.10

Blue linen dress withpolka dot bow. 1915.British. T.17-1960. Mounted on a moderndress stand made byProportion Londonand padded to fit.Skirt supported with apleated tube petticoatmade out of calico and Rigilene® boning.

Making a pleated tube petticoat

1. Before starting work on the pleated tube, establish the position at whichthe petticoat will be attached to the figure. To keep the waist clear ofunnecessary bulk, the petticoat should be applied to the figure a minimumof 10 cm below the waist. Mark this with a line of pins or tacking.

2. The pleated tube petticoat can be made in exactly the same way as thebasic tube petticoat, following instructions 1–8 (p. 121). The only differenceis in the measurements. These are calculated in the following way:(A) Estimate the circumference of the skirt and subtract a minimum of

15 cm to allow for a layer of net. You may need to seam fabric togetherto make it wide enough. Remember that the maximum size for a tubepetticoat is 1.5–2 m.


(B) Calculate the length of the petticoat. This can be established by measuring the waist to hem of the skirt and subtracting a minimum of 10 cm from the length, depending on where the petticoat is to be positioned on the figure. A further 3–5 cm should be subtracted toensure that the petticoat is not visible below the hem of the costume.

3. Once the petticoat has been made, the tube is dropped over the head of thefigure and pinned in position at the centre front and centre back. Matchingthe top of the tube to the pins or tack line, fold all excess fabric into pleats,so that the tube fits snugly around the figure and herringbone in place. Keepthe pleats as symmetrical as possible, judging this by eye. To help create theright silhouette, the pleating should reflect the shape of the skirt, i.e. thepetticoat should be pleated most heavily in areas that require greater fullness and applied flat to the figure in areas that are less pronounced.

10cm

Boning appliedto the inside ofthe petticoat

Pleating upthe top of thepetticoat

Figure 5.11

Fitting a pleated tubepetticoat to the figure.

tube petticoat can be used, with additional layers of net frills applied to bulkout the shape.

Bear in mind that polyester boning is not strong enough to keep its shapepast a certain length and will collapse if it is extended too far. As a guide, themaximum circumference a petticoat can be made is approximately 1.5 m.However, this size can be increased to over 2 m if the boning is applied indouble rather than single layers. To create maximum strength, the second layer

of boning should be applied with the natural curve running in the oppositedirection to the first.

Melinex® skirt supports

Although tube petticoats made of fabric are suitable as a basic underpinningfor most costumes, there are always some exceptions. For example, skirts madeof sheer fabrics often require an invisible underpinning in order to maintainthe integrity of the style. Tight fitting pencil skirts are also better suited to moreslippery foundations, while an all over smooth and firm support is essential for stretch knitted skirts, in order to prevent them from clinging unattractivelyto the base of dress stands or torsos.

To accommodate these garments, a simple underpinning made of archivalMelinex® can be used instead of the fabric tube petticoat. Available in manydifferent weights, Melinex® is an inert polyester film, transparent and smooth,making it a perfect material for this job. The only drawback is its shiny finish,which can show through garments made of finer fabrics. This is not a problemif the outfit is exhibited in a glazed case rather than on open display, as theshine will be interpreted as a reflection on the surface of the glass. Some typesof Melinex® are made with a mat finish which may be more suitable for sheercostumes. However, these tend to be made in less sturdy weights and a sampleshould be obtained before purchasing.


Making a Melinex® skirt support

1. Establish at what level the Melinex® tube will be attached to the figure andmark with a line of pins or tacking. This will usually be a minimum of 20 cmbelow the waistline.

2. Calculate the distance between the waist and the marked line and call thismeasurement X.

3. Select a weight of Melinex® that is suitable for the job and cut out arectangle/square to the following dimensions.(A) The circumference of the figure around the marked line plus an overlap

of approximately 15 cm.(B) The length of the support. This can be calculated by measuring the skirt

from waist to hem and subtracting measurement X. A further 3–5 cmshould be subtracted to ensure that the petticoat is not visible belowthe hem of the costume.

4. Wrap the Melinex® around the figure at the marked level and overlap atthe centre back.

5. Depending on the skirt, the shape of the support can be adjusted by anglingthe overlap in different directions. For example, tilting the overlap upwardswill make the tube narrower at the hem and vice versa. Do not attempt tokeep the top and bottom line of the Melinex® even, as this will not be possible.


6. Once the correct angle has been established, secure the Melinex® to thefigure with pins. For mannequins with a solid surface, use temporary tabsof low-tack masking tape instead. Hold the overlap in position at top andbottom with paper clips.

7. Using a sharp pair of scissors, trim the top and bottom of the Melinex®

tube to even out these lines. In order to do this, you will need temporarilyto remove some of the pins or masking tape.

8. Using a herringbone or whipstitch, fasten the top of the tube to thefigure, with a curved needle and sturdy thread. This can be hard work,and a thimble may be required. For mannequins with a solid surface, thesupport can be more permanently secured with fishing line. To do this, tie a length of line or cotton tape tightly around the waist of the figure asan anchor. Threading a curved needle with more fishing line, work aroundthe body suspending the Melinex® from the waist-tie with long stitches.

9. Remove all pins or masking tape from the figure.10. Secure the overlapped Melinex® at the hem of the tube. To do this, pass a

thread through both layers of Melinex®, using a curved needle and tie theloose ends in a knot.

11. To complete the support, round off all exposed corners of the Melinex®

as they will be sharp and may snag on the costume.

Back

x

Melinex® tube

Trim the unevenhem and top ofthe support

Figure 5.12

Making a Melinex®

skirt support.

To make the support, a rectangle/square of Melinex® of appropriate propor-tions is wrapped around the figure and fastened in place with stitching. Formannequins with solid, non-stitch surfaces, supports should be fixed in positionusing lengths of invisible fishing line suspended from the waist. The Melinex®

is positioned on the figure according to the shape of the skirt. For example, forfuller garments, the top of the tube should be located around the widest partof the bottom, but for close fitting pencil skirts it will need placing lower downwhere the body is narrower. If necessary, the Melinex® tube can be furthershaped by angling the overlap at the top of the support, so that it becomeswider or more slender towards the hem.

Developing skirt supports using nylon net

Although the hem of the costume will be partially defined and supported by a tube petticoat, the upper part of the support will still be relatively undeveloped.This can be filled out using nylon net. In the same way that padding is used tosculpt the shape and size of a torso, net can be used to create the silhouette ofthe skirt support. By gathering net into frills and applying them in layers to thelower figure and tube petticoat, an endless variety of shapes and sizes can becreated. The amount and placement of net frills will obviously vary according tothe size and shape of the costume. For example, a simple straight-skirted costumewill need very few frills, while a mid-nineteenth century skirt may require many.

Nylon net has several advantages: it is cheap, easily obtained and straightfor-ward to use. As it is a non-fraying fabric, raw edges and seams can be left unfin-ished, making it speedy to work with. Net comes in a variety of different weights.As a rough guide, the stiffer tutu-like nets are more suitable for use as underfrills, creating the actual shape of the support. Lightweight nets should be usedas top layers, to soften and consolidate the silhouette.

Net can be gathered into frills that are wide and long enough to wrap aroundthe entire figure from waist to floor, or into shorter, narrower strips, that canbe applied individually to build out specific areas. Do not waste time being toometiculous about cutting and making frills. Emphasis is on speed rather thanaccuracy and approximate measurements will be sufficient. If possible, thequick-gather method, described in the sewing appendix (p. 243) should be used,particularly when working with stiffer nets. This method will halve the amountof time it would normally take to gather the frills in the conventional fashionand will considerably speed up the process.

As an alternative to net, polyester wadding can sometimes be cut into lengths,hand gathered and applied to the support in a similar way. This is a useful way ofbulking out large skirt shapes, but if over used can make the support very heavy.In general it is better employed in combination with net, rather than as a substi-tute.



Making up net frills

1. Calculate the dimensions of the frill in the following way.(A) Hold a tape measure up to the figure and tube petticoat and roughly

estimate the length of each frill by eye. The length of a net frill canvary from a few centimetres to over a metre, depending on how thesupport needs building up.

(B) Wrap a tape measure around the area where the frill will be appliedand note down this measurement. The width of net cut must be considerably wider than this, as the net will be drawn into gathers. The bulkiness of the frill is created by both the amount of gathers andthe weight of net used. Use the following chart as a rough guide tohelp judge the width of the net required for each frill.

Weight of net Multiply by finished width of frillStiff tutu net 2–4 timesMedium-weight net 4–6 timesStandard light-weight net 6–8 times

2. Using the appropriate weight net, cut out the frill according to measurements (A) and (B). When necessary, seam together several pieces ofnet to make the strip large enough. Do this by overlapping the edge ofone piece with another and stitching through both layers on a machine.

3. Gather the net on the machine using the quick-gather or draw-threadmethods (see Sewing Appendix). You will find this process much faster if the quick-gather method is used, particularly when working with heavier nets.

4. Pin the net frill to the figure or tube petticoat, making sure that all pinsare pointing inwards.

Once the frills have been made, they are pinned to the skirt support andfigure in the relevant positions, keeping the shape as symmetrical as possible.Check the dimensions of the underpinning against the measurements takenfrom the costume and the estimated support sizes recorded on your diagram.Gauge the shape by eye, with reference to relevant images of similar garmentsfrom the same period. To make this simpler, cover the skirt support in a toppetticoat. The overall silhouette will become much clearer once this has beendone and it will be easier to spot areas that need additional work.

Before stitching the frills in place, try the costume on over the top of the skirtsupport. Make sure that all pins are pointing inwards and the nets are covered in atop petticoat. If alterations are required, record any new measurements and noteson the diagram, while the costume is still on the figure. Once the shape has beenchecked, the frills can be machine or hand stitched in place and all pins removed.


Making a basque

1. Measure the waist of the figure and divide this by 3.14 (π). Call this measurement (A).

2. Using a heavy-weight calico or cotton duck, cut out a piece of fabric approxi-mately 40 × 80 cm. For large figures, a bigger piece of fabric may be required.

3. Fold the fabric in half, making a square.4. Lay the fabric flat on a table, with the fold on the right-hand-side. Using

the top right corner of the fabric as the central point, set a compass tomeasurement (A) and draw a quarter circle onto the fabric.

5. Using a pencil, draw in a second curve, 20 cm outside the first. If thecompass does not stretch far enough, work along the original curve using aruler to measure the distance between the two.

6. Keeping the fabric folded in two, cut out the basque shape along the twocurved lines.

7. Pin the basque to the waist of the figure with the fold running down thecentre front. Wrap the rest of the basque around half of the figure’s waistfrom centre front to centre back.

8. Shape the basque to fit the hips by pinching out an upside down dart at theside of the yoke and securing with pins. In some cases, it may be easier tomould the basque with two darts, one closer to the front and one the back.

20cmA

Fold

Figure 5.13(a)

Marking the basqueonto the folded fabric.

CF

Figure 5.13(b)

Shaping the basquewith an upside downdart.


9. Remove the basque from the figure.10. With the fabric still folded double, use a tracing wheel to mark the dart

onto both sides of the basque.11. Remove the pins and unfold the fabric. If necessary, the darts can be

drawn in more clearly using tailor’s chalk or pencil.12. If a more robust basque is required, back the semicircle onto a second

piece of fabric, making sure that the dart shaping is still visible.13. Stitch the darts together. Trim away the excess and press with an iron.14. Finish all raw edges with overlocking, zigzag or pinking.15. To complete the basque, a basic placket can be added, by stitching a length

of cotton tape to one side of the centre back opening. This is not alwaysnecessary as the finished basque is often large enough to overlap at thecentre back.

16. To assist with the application of the net frills, a series of guide lines can bedrawn onto the back of the fabric, following the curved shape of thebasque. Guidelines should be positioned approximately 5 cm apart.Transfer these marks through to the front of the basque with machinethread tracing. This will also help strengthen the basque.

17. Apply nets to the basque as required, using the same instructions as previously described (p. 128).

Basque

Net fr ills applied to basque in la y ers

Figure 5.13(c)

A completed basquewith net frills attached.

Basque petticoats

This kind of petticoat provides an alternative system for constructing netsupports for skirts and dresses. In this case, a separate fabric foundation is fittedaround the waist and hips of the figure and used as a base to which layers of net can be applied. Once the petticoat has been made, it can be dressed andundressed from the figure in one easy stage. As a result, supports of this kindare particularly useful for garments requiring reusable underpinnings. Madefrom a layer of thick fabric such as a heavy calico or cotton duck, the basque, or


Making the top petticoat

1. With the net support on the figure, calculate the petticoat dimensions inthe following way:(A) To work out the length of the petticoat, take a measurement from the

waist of the figure to just below the hem of the net at its longestpoint. Add a minimum of 6 cm for turnings.

Figure 5.14

Evening dress designedby Hubert de Givenchy.1965. French. T.345-1997.Mounted on a moderndress stand made byProportion London.Skirt supported with atube petticoat and gath-ered nets, covered with a simple top petticoat toprotect the skirt.


(B) To calculate the width of the petticoat, take a rough measurement ofthe circumference of the net petticoat at its widest point. For greaterfullness, add a minimum of 50 cm.

2. Cut out the fabric using these measurements. In order to make the petticoat wide enough, you will probably need to seam together two ormore pieces of fabric. Once stitched, press the seams open and finish withpinking shears, overlocking, zigzag or leave the selvage edges intact.

3. Lay out the fabric and select one long edge to be the top of the petticoat.Fold the silk in half along this edge and mark the centre point with a pinor tailor’s tack. Unfold the fabric and neaten the raw edge with pinkingshears, overlocking or zigzag.

4. Working with the wrong side of the fabric face up, start at one end and laya line of machine gathering stitches approximately 2 cm from the finishededge. Lock the marked centre point by reverse machining for a few stitchesand then continue gathering until the far end of the petticoat is reached.

5. Fold in the top edge along the gather line and press with an iron. To keepthe fold in place and control the gathers, a second line of gatheringstitches should be sewn through both layers of fabric, a foot’s width fromthe folded edge. Remember to lock stitch the centre point again andensure that the stitches are laid in the same direction as the first line or thegathers will not pull up.

6. Remove the petticoat from the machine and pin the marked centre pointsecurely to the centre front waist of the figure. Working on one side at atime, pull up the gathered edge of half the petticoat until it exactly fitsaround to the centre back waist of the figure. Pin in place. Repeat theprocess for the other side of the petticoat, overlapping at the centre backto ensure there is no gap.

A

2cm

Neatened top edge Locked centre point

Gathering stitches

BWrong side of fabric

Figure 5.15(a)

Applying gatheringstitches to the top of thepetticoat.

Continued

hip yoke is cut in a semicircular shape and fitted to the body. Layers of gatherednet are then applied to the basque, as required, using the same techniques as above. If necessary, the protective top petticoat can also be attached to thebasque, combining all layers of the underpinning into a single garment.

Top petticoats


7. Remove the petticoat from the figure and secure the gathers with a line ofmachine zigzag. If necessary, the open back of the petticoat can be joinedin a centre back seam. When doing this, make sure that an opening of aminimum of 16 cm is left at the top of the petticoat so that the garmentcan be dressed onto the figure.

8. Place the petticoat back on the figure and mark the hem so that it overlapsthe bottom edge of the net support. Finish the hem using instructions fromthe Sewing Appendix (p. 240).

9. Using a curved needle, herringbone stitch the petticoat directly to the figureor apply cotton tapes and tie in position.

Figure 5.15(b)

Pulling up the gathersto fit the petticoataround the waist of thefigure.


Once the silhouette has been built up with nets, the skirt support must befinished with a top petticoat. This will protect the costume from the raw edgesof the net and will provide a smooth soft layer for the skirt to sit on. Dependingon the fabric of the costume, the top petticoat can be made from a number ofdifferent materials. It is important that the fabric is light-weight, easy to gatherand has a smooth surface. Medium-weight silk habotai is one of the best mate-rials to use for this job, as it is inexpensive and provides an efficient barrierbetween net and costume and a slippery surface for the skirt to glide over.Alternatively a fine cotton lawn can be used.

Creat ing Pe r iod Sk i r t S i lhouet tes

Although it is not necessary to use authentic support methods when mountingcostume for display, a basic knowledge of historical underpinnings is essentialwhen creating modern replacements. By observing the chronological develop-ment of the skirt, a clearer picture of the variation of underpinnings can begained. The following pages will look specifically at the history of skirt shapesand advise how to create appropriate supports using the basic methodsdescribed in the previous section. A variety of additional techniques will also beintroduced to help deal with the more extreme silhouettes.

A brief history of eighteenth century skirt shapes

The exaggerated paniers or hoops worn beneath skirts during the eighteenthcentury are so characteristic of their time that garments from this period canbe easily identified, even by those who are less familiar with the history of dress.Although the extremes of this style are a familiar image of the period, theevolution of the skirt during this century is punctuated by a variety of changesthat are important to be aware of.

Early alterations to the skirt silhouette were partly inspired by the newly available silks, velvets and brocades from France, which could be shown off to greater advantage if spread out over a larger surface area. Initially, skirts weresupported with petticoats and pads and it was not until 1710 that the first structured underskirt of the century was introduced. This took the form of a large dome or bell-shaped garment, supported with whalebone. By the 1740sthe silhouette had changed, flattening out at the front and back and extendingbeyond the hips, to create the hoop or panier shape that is so symbolic of thisperiod. Throughout this time, hoops continued to expand, in some cases to a preposterous extent. Skirts and frames were shaped into a square, box-likesilhouette or fashioned into a fan shape, that flared out from the top of theskirt into an even wider hem.

By the 1750s, the size of the skirts had begun to reduce and pocket hoopswere worn for informal wear. These supports were made as separate structures,like two half buckets worn over the hips and held together by a communal waisttape. This less extreme silhouette persisted for another twenty or thirty years,although the larger paniers of earlier decades continued to be worn for formaland court occasions. Pocket hoops were finally replaced in the late 1770s by hipand bum-pads (false rumps), made of fabric stuffed with wool, horsehair orcork. These pads were worn throughout the 1780s, creating a rounded shape to the skirt. By the mid-1790s, a more radical change had occurred. The femalewaistline rose dramatically, altering the silhouette to a classical line. Skirts at this time become straighter and less voluminous with only a small bustle orbum-pad used to fill out the curve in the spine and prevent skirts from restingon the backside of the wearer.

Mounting costume from the eighteenth century

The exaggerated shapes of eighteenth century costume can often make skirtsfrom this period challenging to mount. The following tips can be used and


Figure 5.16

Open robe made ofprinted cotton, overlaidwith gold spots. 1780s.English. T.217-1992.Mounted on moderndress stand made byProportion London and padded up to fit.Gown mounted over afalse front replica of an18th century petticoat.

adapted to assist with the making of supportive underpinnings for costumesfrom this century.

Mounting tips for skirts from the 1730s–1770s: Although tube petticoatsmade from calico and Rigilene® are not strong enough to create the very largecourt paniers sometimes required for this period, they can be a useful supportfor costumes with less exaggerated side hoops. Tube petticoats should beemployed to control the hem of the costume and always used in combinationwith hip pads or pocket hoops. Using the instructions on p. 123, a large pleatedtube petticoat can be made. To create the lozenge-shaped hemline required forskirts from this period, fit the tube to the figure by pleating the fabric at thesides only. Ties made of cotton tape can be secured inside the petticoat, eitherside of the centre front and centre back and used to pull the base together,forming an oval shape. Hip pads, or more generally pocket hoops, can be usedto define the upper shape of the skirt and layers of gathered nylon net appliedover the top to consolidate and smooth the overall silhouette. To emphasise theshape, nets should be gathered more heavily at the sides than at the back orfront. If necessary, the sides of the support can be enlarged with additional frillsof stiff net. Finally the entire support is covered in a top petticoat.

Mounting tips for skirts from the late 1770s–1790s: When mountingcostumes from this period, a pleated tube petticoat can be used as a foundationfor the skirt (see p. 123). Make the tube as wide as necessary and fit it to thefigure by pleating the sides and back of the petticoat, leaving the front flat. Toprevent the tube from pushing forward, it may be necessary to apply cotton tapesinside the front of the petticoat, using them to pull the support backwards. Tapescan be tied off around the pole or legs of the figure. A bum-pad of a suitable sizeshould be used to define the top of the skirt and layers of gathered nylon netapplied over the top to consolidate and smooth out the overall silhouette.


Making a pattern for hip pads

Using Figure 5.16 as a guide, patterns can either be drawn freehand or draftedfrom measurements using the following instructions. The dimensions includedin brackets can be used as a rough guide.

1. Wrap a tape measure around the side hip of the figure and estimate thelength of the inside edge of the pad. Divide this figure in half and call thismeasurement X (9 cm).

2. Study the costume and estimate the required depth of the pad. To assistwith this process, use temporary tissue puffs to build out the sides of thecostume. Add 6 cm to this dimension and call this measurement Y (16 cm).

Continued


3. Take a piece of tissue paper and fold in half with the crease running vertically down the left-hand-side.

4. Using measurement Y as the vertical and X as the horizontal, draw arectangle onto the tissue, treating the fold as one edge.

5. From the top of the rectangle, measure 6 cm down the fold line and markthis A. Square across from this point to assist with the drawing of the curve.

6. Referring to Figure 5.16 for guidance, mark in a smooth curve from A–B.7. Using measurement X once more, measure this distance along the curved

line from A and mark as C. It is easier to use a flexible tape measure ratherthan a ruler.

8. Referring to Figure 5.16, draw in a smooth curve from C–D passing throughthe outer edge of the rectangle.

9. Add seam allowance of 2 cm and turn the tissue paper over. Trace theshape of the pad onto the other side. The tissue can now be unfolded andused as a complete pattern.

Making a pattern for a bum-pad

Using Figure 5.17 as a guide, patterns can either be drawn freehand or draftedfrom measurements using the following instructions. The dimensions includedin brackets can be used as a rough guide.

1. Wrap a tape measure around the back of the figure from hip bone to hipbone and estimate the length of the inside edge of the pad. Divide thisfigure by 4 and call this measurement X (10.5 cm).

2. Study the costume and estimate the required depth of the pad at thecentre back. To assist with this process, use temporary tissue puffs to build

Y

D

X B

A

C

Measurement x

Fold

Scale = 2.5cm

Figure 5.17

Pattern for hip pads.


Continued

out the back of the costume. Add 14 cm to this dimension and call thismeasurement Y (24 cm).

3. Take a piece of tissue paper of an appropriate size and fold in half with thecrease running vertically down the left-hand-side.

4. Using measurement Y as the vertical and X as the horizontal, draw arectangle onto the tissue paper, treating the fold as one edge.

5. From the top of the rectangle, measure 14 cm down the fold line and mark this A. Square across from this point to assist with the drawing of thecurve and extend approximately 6 cm beyond the edge of the rectangle.Call this point W.

6. Referring to Figure 5.17 for guidance, mark in a smooth curve from A–B.7. Multiply measurement X by two and measure this distance along the

curved line from A and mark as C (21 cm). It is easier to use a flexible tape measure rather than a ruler. In some cases, you may need to extend the line above the top of the rectangle.

8. Referring to Figure 5.17 draw in a smooth curve from C–D passing through W.

9. Add seam allowance of 2 cm and turn the tissue paper over. Trace theshape of the pad onto the other side. The tissue can now be unfolded and used as a complete pattern.

2x measure

men

t X

Y

X

6cmW

A

D

Fold

Scale = 2.5cmBC

Figure 5.18

Pattern for bum-pads.


Making hip and bum-pads

1. Using a heavyweight calico or cotton duck, cut out two layers of fabricusing the pattern as a template and making sure that a seam allowance of2 cm has been added on all sides. Pads can be cut either on the bias or thestraight of grain.

2. Mark the stitch line onto one of the pieces using a tracing wheel (see SewingAppendix p. 235).

3. With right sides together, lay the two pieces of fabric exactly on top of eachother and secure with pins.

4. Machine stitch the two pieces together along the marked stitch line. Leavean opening of approximately 4 cm on the inside curve, through which thepad can be bagged out and stuffed.

5. Trim back the seam allowance to approximately 1/2 cm on all sides. To minimise bulky turnings at the points, slice off as much seam allowanceas possible in these areas without cutting the stitching.

6. Bag out the pad by pulling it through the opening. Use a blunt point, suchas a knitting needle, to push out the ends, taking care not to poke through.

7. Using fragments of polyester wadding, stuff the pad until firm.8. Close the opening in the pad with slipstitches.9. Stitch the pad directly to the figure or apply cotton tapes and tie around

the waist. It is important not position them too high. Pads should generallybe placed a little below the level of the waist.

Mounting tips for skirts from the mid 1790s–1900: For costumes with highwaists, a more slender tube petticoat can be used as a foundation. This must besecured at the level of the raised waistline and pleated principally at the back.For more details see the nineteenth century Empireline (p. 146).

Simplified pocket hoops

1. Using a heavy calico or cotton duck, cut out a rectangle of fabric approximately 44 × 76 cm with an additional 2 cm for seam allowance on all sides. These dimensions can be used to make up a basic pocket hoop, but sizes can be altered as necessary to suit different costumes.

2. Finish the long top and bottom edges with pinking shears, overlocking orzigzag, trimming away the seam allowance.

3. With the fabric the wrong way out, mark two parallel lines 14 cm from theleft-hand and right-hand edges. Label these lines X and Y.

4. Mark the bone lines between line X and line Y on to the wrong side of thefabric. The lines should be positioned 13 cm apart, working from thebottom up (see Figure 5.18 for guidance).


Continued

5. Fold the fabric in half, with right sides together, and stitch the two rawedges together allowing a 2 cm seam allowance. Trim the seam and pressopen with an iron.

6. Fold the fabric down line X and line Y and secure each fold with a few pins.7. To help define the shape of the pocket hoop, permanently secure the

folds by stitching down each one, approximately 1/2 cm from the edge.8. Using line X and line Y as a start and finishing point, apply half rings of

Rigilene® boning directly to the fabric, using a machine zigzag stitch andfollowing the marked bone lines. The narrow area of 24 cm between lineX and line Y should be left free from boning. Make sure that the naturalcurve of the bones corresponds to the curve of the finished pocket hoop.As the support is currently the wrong way out, this means that the boningshould be applied with the curve bent in the reverse direction. To makethe pocket hoop more robust, a double layer of Rigilene® can be used ifnecessary. To prevent the hoop from buckling, stitch the boning together,before applying it to the fabric. When doing this, make sure that thenatural curve of both strips are running in the same direction.

9. Apply a final half ring of boning to the bottom of the pocket hoop.10. Turn the fabric the right way out and allow the support to spring into shape,

with the seam running down the centre back.11. Keeping the seam positioned at the centre back, flatten the top of the

tube by stitching the front and back together.12. Finish the pocket hoop by pleating the top into approximately 15–20 cm.

To do this, mark the central point along the top of the fabric and pleatevenly on either side using 2–3 tucks (see Figure 5.19).

13. Repeat the entire process for the second pocket hoop.

12 cm

Line

X

Line Y

12 cm

18 cm

13 cm

13 cm

Bone lines

76 cm

44 cm

Scale = 5cm Figure 5.19

Pattern for simplifiedpocket hoops.


14. Stitch the hoops directly to the figure or apply to cotton tapes and tiearound the waist. When securing, ensure that the hoops are positioned at the correct level.

CB

Sea

mlin

e x

line

y

Flatten the topof the tube bystitching thefront and backtogether

Pleat up thetop of the tube

Figure 5.20

Pleating up the top of a pocket hoop andfastening it to a figure.

Making additional supports for eighteenth century skirts

Hip and bum-pads: Pads of this kind were used at the beginning and end ofthe eighteenth century to give the fashionable shape to the hips and bottom.Although less historically accurate, pads can also be a useful tool when mount-ing costumes outside these dates. Hip pads in particular can be used instead of,or in combination with, pocket hoops or small frames, to adjust the shape ofthe underpinning or lend greater spring to the hips when necessary.Constructed out of a double layer of fabric such as calico and stuffed with poly-ester wadding, hip and bum-pads can be made to any size.

1 Credited to Michael Pope, Wimbledon School of Art.


Making a court panier

Drafting the pattern and making the mould1. To estimate the size of the frame needed, lay the costume on a large table

and take the following measurements. Bear in mind that the frame shouldalways be made smaller than the dimensions of the skirt:(a) The width of the costume from side to side at waist level.(b) The depth of the costume from front to back. To assist with this

measurement, use temporary tissue puffs and rolls to build out thesides of the skirt.

2. Using these two measurements, draw a rectangle on a large piece of paper.3. Divide the rectangle in half lengthways and mark on the centre front and

centre back axis.4. A second axis should be marked on the rectangle adjacent to the first. This

line should be positioned 2 cm nearer the front edge of the rectangle thanthe back (see Figure 5.20). Label this line X and Y.

5. Draw on line H–I and P–S equidistant either side of the centre front andcentre back axis. The distance between these two lines should be equal tothe width of the hips on the figure at their widest point, plus 2 cm forease.

6. From the sides of the rectangle, measure in approximately 20 cm and markon line M–N and line O–Q.

7. Select a flat piece of scrap wood large enough to accommodate the rectan-gle and spread out the paper pattern on top of it.

8. Using the pattern as a guide, hammer nails into the wood at point M, H, P,O, Y, Q, S, I, N and X. Do not bang the nails in too deeply, but leave juttingout well above the surface of the wood.

20 cm Width of hips plus ease

M H P O

N I S Q

20 cm

X Y

CB

CF

Figure 5.21

Pattern for a courtpanier.

Continued


Constructing the frame1. Using steels approximately 1.5 cm wide, lay the foundation of the frame

in the following way. Wrap a long piece of steel three times around theinside of the nails to make a sturdy base. Cut the steel to the relevantlength by folding in half and pressing together with a pair of pliers untilthe metal snaps. Secure the loose ends by binding tightly in place withcotton tape.

2. Cut four equal lengths of steels approximately 70 cm long. Bend the steelsinto hoops and apply across the foundation from M–N, H–I, P–S and O–Q(see Figure 5.21). Tuck the cut ends in between the foundation steels andtie them tightly in place with cotton tape.

3. A fifth and sixth bone should be applied in the same way from X and Y tothe top of hoop. Using cotton tape, tie the steels tightly in place whereverthey cross.

4. Depending on the width and height of the support, apply one or twolengths of steel around the frame, between the top of the hoops and thefoundation, in order to strengthen the structure. Using cotton tape, tiethese steels tightly in place wherever they cross the vertical struts.

5. Using Figure 5.21 as a guide, two final steels should be applied at an angleto reinforce the ends of the frame.

6. To help maintain the shape of the frame, lash tapes across it from front to back. Tapes should be kept clear of the central area and applied to thefoundation steel from M–N, H–I, P–S and O–Q.

7. Remove the frame from the nails and wooden base.

Space between the hoopswide enough for the figure

Use cotton tape to tiesteels in place whereever they cross

Cotton tapes lashedacross the frame

N

I

S

Q

Y

M

H

P

O

X

Figure 5.22

Constructing a courtpanier frame.


Suspending the frame from the waist1. Make a waistband by wrapping a length of sturdy twill tape (approxi-

mately 2 cm wide) around the waist of the figure. Overlap by a minimumof 4 cm, positioning the join half way between the centre front and theside waist of the figure. Pin the tape securely together.

2. Slip the frame over the neck of the figure and position at the correct level.Ask someone to hold the frame in place while securing it to the waistband.

3. Cut a length of wide twill or webbing tape (approximately 5 cm wide) andapply in the following way. Wrap the tape around the bottom of the frameand thread behind the waistband at the centre back. Overlap the tape andpin together so that it forms a loop. Pin the tape together around thewaistband and horizontal steels, creating channels.

4. Repeat the same process at the centre front.5. Using the same technique, a tape of a narrower width should be used to

secure the sides of the frame. To help keep these tapes in position, stitchthem around the cross steels at the top of the frame.

6. Remove the frame from the figure with the waistband attached. Secure allthe tapes with stitching and remove any pins.

7. When dressing the frame on to the figure, the waist tape can be securedwith stitches, a hook and bar fastening or Velcro®.

At the end of the eighteenth century a smaller pad was used to fill out the backof the dress. This pad can be made up as a simple square or curved shape andattached just below the raised waistline. Alternatively, a long net frill can be usedto create the same effect and will support the back of the skirt from waist to floor.

Pocket hoops: Historically, pocket hoops were used from around the middleof the eighteenth century up until 1775, but they can also be used as a supportwhen mounting moderate sized garments from earlier in the century. Patternstaken from original pocket hoops can be found in Period Costume for Stage &Screen by Jean Hunnisett and Corsets and Crinolines by Norah Waugh.Alternatively, the simplified method below can be used to make a quick andeasy pair of pocket hoops.

Large panier frames for court costumes and extended skirt silhouettes:Although the eighteenth century hoop reached its maximum extent aroundthe middle of the century, skirts with huge side hoops continued to be worn atcourt up until the Revolution in France and as late as the 1820s in England.Some examples of these large court skirts are so enormous that pocket hoopsare completely unsuitable as a means of support. Instead, a solid frame must beconstructed and used beneath the skirt to create a suitable silhouette andadequate under-structure. The technique described here is a straightforward

way of creating a sturdy frame made out of crinoline steels and was developedfor use in the theatre1.

A brief history of nineteenth century skirt shapes

The high waist that had become fashionable at the end of the 1700s marks thecommencement of the nineteenth century with a particularly distinctive style ofdress. Persisting with this shape, the first years of the century are characterised bya waistline that continued to rise until reaching its zenith around 1815. Althoughmaintaining decency, underpinnings from this period were less bulky than previ-ously. Dresses often made of transparent muslins and gauzes were cut with rela-tively straight skirts, requiring little support to define their shape, apart from atiny pad worn in the small of the back. From 1815 onwards, the skirt silhouettebegan to fill out and the hem developed into a more spherical bell shape.

By the mid-1820s the high waist had dropped while the skirts continued toincrease gradually in size. The numbers of undergarments worn beneath skirtsinevitably multiplied to support their swelling shape. Throughout the 1830sand 1840s, the expansion of the skirt continued, with hem circumferences steadilygrowing. A larger bum-pad or bustle was used at this time to fill out the back ofthe skirt, while many layers of starched and stiffened petticoats were now worn tocreate the correct silhouette. By the end of the 1830s, a sturdier petticoat knownas a crinoline was being used. This undergarment obtained its name from theFrench word crin or horsehair with which the petticoat was reinforced and shouldnot be confused with the crinoline frame which was introduced some years later.

The waistline, which had temporarily dropped during the 1840s, rose againin the 1850s. By this time, skirts had become so large that the number of petti-coats worn to produce the shape was very cumbersome. In 1856, the cage crino-line was introduced to overcome this problem. Made out of a series of springsteel hoops suspended from tapes, the crinoline successfully liberated womenfrom their previous petticoats, providing a firm support for the skirt. The shapeof the skirt soon began to develop into a slightly more elegant silhouette, flattening out at the front and extending at the back. This bias towards the backof the figure seemed to develop throughout the decade culminating at its endin the first era of the bustle. With the crinoline abandoned, the bustle shapewas partly derived from the looping up and draping of the surplus material leftover from larger skirts. The level of the waist was also raised at this time and thebustle worn fairly high. To create the bustle silhouette, skirts were oftensupported with frames based on the structure of a half crinoline and made offabric reinforced with whalebones or steels. Pads were also used, stuffed withstraw, cotton or feathers. Later, in the early 1870s, when skirts were narrower,pads were worn alone, before being temporarily dropped to make way for thenew slim line shape of 1874.



This new fashion was a radical change to the female silhouette and was alsoshort lived. Skirt shapes at this time were moulded tightly over the hips andkept flat and narrow down the front and sides. The back was also fitted, oftenwith an additional train attached to the skirt and positioned sometimes as lowas knee level. Trains were supported with layers of flounces attached to the backof a fitted petticoat. By 1882, the bustle began to return, becoming more exag-gerated than before. Positioned slightly lower than previously, it projectedalmost horizontally from the back waist of the figure. The flatter front of theskirt survived, helping to exentuate the extremity of the bustle behind, whichwas also narrower than its previous incarnation. Reaching its zenith at aroundthe middle of the 1880s, the size of the bustle began to shrink and had disap-peared entirely by the beginning of the next decade. Skirts now became rela-tively unstructured and were supported with gored petticoats stiffened withfrills and gathered at the centre back for greater fullness.

Mounting costume from the nineteenth century

The shapes of the skirts during the 1800s are the most extreme and varied of the three centuries and consequently garments from this period can be

Figure 5.23

Spencer and dressmade of taffeta. 1807–810. British. T.60-1962. Mounted ona tiny child sized dressstand, padded to fitwith additional sleevesupports.Skirt supported with along, narrow, tubepetticoat fitted to thefigure below the bustline.

challenging to mount. The following tips can be used to assist with the makingof underpinnings to support and define the wide variety of skirt shapes.

Mounting tips for skirts from the 1790s–1820s: Although Empire line skirtsfrom this period are far slimmer than in later decades, they still require support.A basic underpinning, made of an extended tube petticoat can be used as afoundation for skirts of this type. The petticoat should be lengthened considerablyand secured to the figure just below the level of the high waist. For straighterskirts, the dimensions of the tube should be made to match the circumferenceof the figure’s bottom at its widest point. Any excess fabric is then pleated at theback of the figure leaving the front and sides smooth. Tubes with a largercircumference can be used for fuller skirts and additional layers of net usedover the top when required. To keep the front of the tube straight and preventit from pushing forward, it may be necessary to apply cotton tapes inside thefront of the petticoat, using them to pull the support backwards. The tapes canbe tied off around the pole or legs of the figure. In addition, a small pad orlength of gathered net will be required to support the fullness of skirts at thecentre back.

All supports should be covered in a top petticoat (p. 132). These need to belengthened, gathered more heavily at the back and applied to the figure at the level of the raised waistline. It is important to note that many dresses from this period are made from semitransparent materials such as muslin and willrequire a full-length under-dress custom-made to fit beneath it. In this instance,a top petticoat will not be required as the under-dress will be sufficient.Instructions for making under-dresses can be found in Chapter 6.

Mounting tips for skirts from 1825–1850: Although the size of skirts during this period continues to expand, a similar technique can be applied throughoutto create appropriate supports. Using a pleated tube petticoat and layers of net,the silhouette of the support can be evolved and fine-tuned to suit the individ-ual requirements of each costume. Depending on the dimensions of the skirt,the circumference of the tube petticoat can be increased to its maximum extent.For larger or heavier costumes, the tube can be strengthened by applyingdouble layers of polyester boning. The top of the petticoat is pleated fairlyevenly around the figure and applied well below the level of the waist.

The shape of the upper support can be developed with layers of net eitherapplied directly to the figure and tube or attached to a separate basque (see p. 129).Nets should generally be more heavily gathered towards the back of the figureto create greater fullness in this area. A bum-pad can also be used to build outthe back of the skirt. This can be made as a simple sausage of rolled waddingcovered in fabric, or a small bum-pad can be constructed using instructionsfrom the section on the eighteenth century (p. 137).

Mounting tips for skirts from the 1850s–1860s, The cage crinoline: Althoughthe cage crinoline was not introduced until 1856, skirts are generally so large



throughout this period that using more substantial frames made of steels isoften advisable. It is possible, however, to create large skirt supports using thetube petticoat and gathered net technique employed for the previous twodecades, but the quantity of net frills required to build up supports can be soconsiderable that a crinoline frame may be more straightforward.

There are several different ways of using steels to make crinoline supports.Historically, rings of steels were suspended from a series of tapes fanning outfrom a waistband or were inserted into carefully cut fabric petticoats. Specificpatterns and techniques for making crinolines using these two systems can befound in Period Costume for Stage & Screen by Jean Hunnisett and Corsets andCrinolines by Norah Waugh. Some costume mounters prefer to simplify the system

Making a crinoline frame

Drafting the pattern1. To make the pattern for the petticoat, you will need the following

measurements:(a) The waist circumference of the figure divided by 4.(b) The centre front length of the costume from waist to hem, minus 5 cm.

2. Fold a large piece of tissue paper in half and mark measurement (b) down the fold. Square across at the top and bottom.

3. Divide measurement (a) in half and mark onto the top line. The length ofthe bottom line should be approximately 33 cm long.

a ÷ 2

b

Fold

Bone lines

33 cm

0.75cm

3 cm

Scale = 5cm

Figure 5.24

Pattern for a crinolineframe.

Continued


4. Join these two points with a long ruler in a diagonal line.5. To create a curved hem and waistline, raise the bottom right-hand-corner

of the pattern by 3 cm and draw in a smooth curve (see Figure 5.23 for guidance). The straight line at the top of the pattern should be altered in a similar way, raising the right-hand-corner by 0.75 cm.

6. Divide measurement (b) by 6 and mark 5 equally spaced bone lines onto the pattern. These lines should mirror the curved shape of the hem.

7. Add seam allowance of 2 cm and turn the tissue paper over. Trace thepattern through to the other side. The tissue can now be unfolded andused as a complete pattern.

Making up the fabric petticoat1. In a heavyweight calico or cotton duck, cut out three panels using

the pattern as a template. Make sure that a 2 cm seam allowance has been included on all sides and the bone lines are marked onto eachpiece.

2. Stitch the three panels together leaving the petticoat open down the back.Trim and press open the seams.

3. Finish all four sides of the petticoat with pinking shears, overlocking orzigzag. To make the perimeter of the garment more robust, fold in thefinished edges and topstitch to hold them in place.

4. Using a machine zigzag, stitch down the flaps of the seam allowance and edge turnings. This will make the process of threading the steels easier,by preventing them from becoming caught under loose pockets of fabric.

5. Using the bone lines as a guide, apply casings to the inside of the petticoatmade from cotton twill tape. Use a width of tape that is larger than thesteels. Tapes should be sewn in place with a parallel line of stitching, leav-ing a space large enough to insert the steel. Make sure that the channel isslightly broader than the steel so that it can be threaded comfortably intothe casing, but snugly enough to prevent it from twisting. A final tapecasing should be applied to the hem of the petticoat.

6. To secure the crinoline around the waist of the figure, apply ties to the topof the petticoat made of cotton tape.

Preparing and threading the steels1. Using steels approximately 1 cm wide, cut 6 lengths to the following sizes.

Steels can be cut by folding in half and pressing together with a pair ofpliers until the metal snaps:Bone 1 = 315 cmBone 2 = 285 cmBone 3 = 240 cmBone 4 = 190 cmBone 5 = 150 cmBone 6 = 115 cm


2. Before inserting into the petticoat, each length of boning should be coveredin an outer covering. To do this, use two lengths of cotton tape of anappropriate width and stitch together forming a narrow casing. Thread thesteels into the casing and stitch across the ends to prevent the steels frommoving. Leave a tab of soft tape at both ends and finish the raw edges.

3. Thread the steels through the petticoat casings with the largest in the hem.Pull through until an equal amount of the steel is exposed at either end.

4. Once all the steels have been threaded, secure each into a ring by overlap-ping them at the back and binding with a length of tape (see Figure 5.24).Depending on the size of the frame required, the steels can be overlappedto a greater or lesser extent. To create a smaller frame, overlap the steels,wrapping them around the outside and inside of the petticoat. Secure inplace with a few stitches passed through the soft tape tabs at each end ofthe steels.

5. To prevent larger frames from sagging at the centre back, a length ofcotton tape can be secured to the waist band and looped simply aroundeach ring of steel, lifting it and holding it in the correct position.

N.B. Larger crinoline frames can also be made using this technique. Ensure thatthe steels are increased in proportion to the measurements stated above andthat the hem of the petticoat is also enlarged. To strengthen the frame, add atleast one extra ring of steel.

Channels for steelsmade from tape andstitched to the insideof the petticoat

Machine zigzagflattening theseam allowanceon the inside ofthe petticoat

Steelsoverlapped atthe centre backinto rings

Figure 5.25

Making a crinolineframe.

by making an unshaped gathered calico petticoat with a drawstring waist. Tapechannels are stitched to the petticoat and the steels inserted through a centreback opening. The size and shape of the support can be altered by overlappingthe steels and gathering the calico in areas requiring greater fullness. Thissystem can work well, although the insertion and manipulation of the steels canbe difficult and more time consuming than might be expected.

The method described here is a simplified system, using a combination oftechniques to create a reusable crinoline which is quick to make and easy toadapt into different sizes (see image on the front cover). It can also be used asa foundation for larger skirts from other periods. The crinoline is made of a


Figure 5.26

Dolman made of velvet.C.1885. British. T.299-1983. Mounted on amodern dress standmade by ProportionLondon and padded to fit.Bustle foundationcreated using a combi-nation of a frame andpad applied over thetop of a pleated tubepetticoat.

Making a bustle pad

1. Scale the pattern (Figure 5.26) up to size and if necessary adapt the dimensions.

2. Using the pattern as a template, cut out two panels of fabric in a medium-weight calico or polycotton, adding a seam allowance of 2 cm on all sides.It is better to do this with the fabric on the bias.


Continued

3. Working with one piece of fabric only, mark on the stitch lines using a tracing wheel.

4. Mark the two middle stitch lines through to the front of the fabric, with hand or machine thread tracing.

5. With right sides together, lay the two pieces of fabric exactly on top ofeach other and secure with pins.

6. Stitch the two pieces of fabric together around the perimeter of the pad,leaving three small openings as indicated on the pattern.

7. Trim the seam allowance to approximately 1/2 cm on all sides. Minimisebulky turnings at the corners by slicing off as much seam allowance aspossible without cutting the stitching. To ease the fabric when turning, snip into the curves.

8. Bag out the pad by pulling it through one of the openings. Use a bluntpoint, such as a knitting needle, to push out the ends, taking care not topoke through.

9. With the bustle unstuffed, stitch the two layers of fabric together alongthe lines of thread tracing.

10. Using the separate openings, stuff the three individual sections of the padwith fragments of polyester wadding, until each is firm.

11. Close the openings with slip stitches.12. For extra lift, an additional pad can be made separately and secured with

a few stitches to the bottom of the middle pad.13. Apply cotton tapes to the bustle as ties or stitch the pad directly to the

figure.

openingopening

opening

opening

Additional padsecured to thebottom of themiddle pad.

Scale = 5cm

Figure 5.27

Pattern for a bustle pad.


Making a bustle frame

1. Using the measurements from the Figure 5.27, draft the frame pattern ontissue paper. Measurements can be adjusted if necessary to create smalleror larger frames.

2. Using a folded piece of heavyweight calico or cotton duck, position the tissuepattern on top of the fabric matching line Y to the fold. Hold in place withpins and cut out the shape, adding seam allowances of 2 cm to all sides.

3. Mark the pattern onto the fabric using a tracing wheel (see SewingAppendix p. 235). Make sure that all stitch and bone lines are included aswell as line X. Remove the tissue and unfold the material.

4. Fold the fabric down the two lines labelled X and secure with pins.5. To help define the shape of the frame, permanently secure the two folds

by stitching down each one, approximately 1/2 cm from the edge.6. Finish the top and bottom of the bustle frame with pinking shears,

overlocking or zigzag.7. With right sides together, stitch the two raw edges into a centre back

seam. Trim the seam and press open with an iron.8. Using the two fold lines labelled X as a start and finishing point, apply

half rings of polyester boning directly to the fabric. Use a wide machinezigzag stitch and follow the marked bone lines. Make sure that the naturalcurve of the boning corresponds to the curve of the finished bustle. As the support is currently the wrong way out, this means that the boningshould be applied with the curve bent in the reverse direction. To make

Bone line

Fold-

line Y

Line X

Bustle framecut on the fold

16 cm

13 cm

14 cm

15 cm

16 cm

17 cm

38 cm54 cm

16

7.5 cm

3 cm

5 cm

91 cm

24 cm Scale = 5cm

Figure 5.28

Pattern for a bustleframe.


three-quarter sized, fabric petticoat, left open at the back. Casings are stitchedto the inside of the garment into which graded lengths of steels are threaded,leaving the ends of the steels exposed at the back. To create a spherical frame,the ends of the steels are bound together into rings. The open back of the petti-coat allows the support to be easily adjusted by overlapping the steels to agreater or lesser degree, avoiding any difficult bone manipulation. To preventthe front of the frame from pushing forward, cotton tapes should be applied

the bustle frame more robust, a double layer of Rigilene® can be used ifnecessary. To prevent the frame from buckling, stitch the boning together,before applying it to the fabric. When doing this, make sure that thenatural curve of both strips are running in the same direction.

9. Apply a final half ring of boning to the hem of the frame.10. Work two rows of gathering stitches along the top of the bustle, between

the fold lines labelled X.11. Turn the fabric the right way out and allow the bustle to spring into

shape with the seam running down the centre back.12. Using the prepared stitches, pull up the front fabric into gathers between

the fold lines labelled X, until it matches the width of the back. Secure thegathers by stitching front and back together.

13. Apply cotton tapes to the bustle as ties or stitch the frame directly to thefigure.

Tubepetticoat

Polyesterboning stitchedto the inside ofthe bustle

Figure 5.29

Making a bustle frame.

Figure 5.30

Making a trainsupport.


Fr ill lines

Hea vy weight f abr ic

Finish all edges with pinking shears , ov er loc king or zigzag Net frills

Tubepetticoat

Fabricfoundation

(a)

Fabric foundation.

(b)

Attaching a train support.

Drafting the petticoat pattern

Pattern for the front petticoat Pattern for the back petticoat

1. To draft the pattern, you will need the following measurements:(a) The circumference of the figure approximately 8–10 cm below the waistline, divided by 4.(b) The length of the petticoat. This can be calculated by measuring the length of the centre front skirt from waist

to hem and subtracting 8–10 cm depending on where the circumference measurement has been taken from. A further 3–5 cm should be subtracted to ensure that the petticoat is not visible below the hem of the costume.

inside the front of the petticoat and used to pull the frame backwards. Thetapes can be secured around the pole or legs of the figure.

Gathered nets and a top petticoat should always be used in combination withthe crinoline frame. Nets are not only a useful way of building up and finetuning the shape of the support, but will also protect the costume from thesteels. Over time, damage can be caused to historical skirts resting directly ontop of these sharp edged strips of metal.

Mounting tips for skirts with bustles: Supports for the two periods of bustleswere historically created using a variety of different frames and pads. Once again,patterns can be found in Period Costume for Stage & Screen by Jean Hunnisett andCorsets and Crinolines by Norah Waugh. Included here is a pattern for a basicbustle pad and a simple method for making a more structured bustle frame. Thetwo techniques can be adapted in size for individual costumes and often workwell used together as well as alone. Tube petticoats should be employed to

Pattern for the front petticoat Pattern for the back petticoat

2. Referring to Figure 5.30 for guidance, draw a straight line down the left side of a large piece of tissue paper

3. Using a tape measure, mark measurement (b) on to this line, labelling the top as X and the bottom Y.

4. On the front pattern, line X and Y is the centre 4. On the back pattern, line X and Y is the side of front line of the petticoat and should be the petticoat and should be marked as the straight marked as the fold. of grain.

5. Square across from point X and point Y.

6. Using a tape measure, mark measurement (a) along the top line from point X and label this P.

7. The hem of the front pattern should be 7. The hem of the back pattern should be between between 40–50 cm. Mark this distance along 85–100 cm. Mark this distance along the bottom the bottom line from point Y and label it Q. line from point Y and label it Q.

8. Join point P and point Q with a straight line.

9. Extend this line 1 cm beyond point P and label this M. Join M and X with a smooth curve, referring to Figure 5.30for guidance.

10. From point M, use a tape measure to mark measurement (b) onto the diagonal line and label this N. Join pointsN and Y with a smooth curve, referring to Figure 5.30 for guidance.

11. From point M measure down approximately 15 cm and mark as the centre back opening.

12. Add a 2 cm seam allowance to the outside of the pattern.

13. Looking at the shape of the costume, gauge the number and dimensions of net frills required to support thehem of the garment. Once this has been established, mark the frill lines onto the pattern. These should followthe curve of the hem and can be used as a guide when applying the frills to the petticoat.

Front petticoatCut 1 panel on

fold

b

50 cm

example frill line

Fold

b

N

QY

XM

P

Side seam

a

Scale = 5cm

b

100 cm

example frill line

Side seam

on straight of grain

N

QY

XM

P

a

b

Back petticoatCut 2 panels

CB opening

CB seam line

Scale = 5cm

Figure 5.31

Front and back petticoat patterns (1890s–1909).

157


Making the petticoat

1. Using a medium to heavyweight calico, fold the fabric in half and positionthe front pattern piece on top, matching line X and Y to the fold. Pin thepattern in place and cut out the front panel of the petticoat.

2. The back pattern piece should be laid on top of the folded calico, matching line X and Y to the straight of grain, but making sure that seamallowance is included. If the pattern is too large to fit on the fabric, unfoldthe calico and cut out the two back panels individually.

3. Using a tracing wheel, mark the stitch lines, hem and frill lines onto thecalico (see Sewing Appendix p. 235).

4. Mark the frill lines through to the front of the fabric, using hand ormachine thread tracing.

5. With right sides together, stitch the two back panels together along thediagonal seam line, remembering to leave a centre back opening ofapproximately 15 cm. Finish the seam with pinking shears, overlocking orzigzag and press open.

6. With right sides together, stitch the front and back panels together alongthe side seams. Finish the seams with pinking shears, overlocking or zigzagand press open.

7. Trim and finish the waistline and hem of the petticoat using pinking shears,overlocking or zigzag. To strengthen the waistline, fold in the top edgeand secure with a line of top stitching.

8. To add bulk to the lower part of the petticoat, prepare the appropriate net frills, using the quick-gather method, (see Appendix p. 243). Stitch thefrills to the hem of the petticoat, using the previously marked lines as aguide.

Figure 5.32

Completed petticoatwith net frillsattached.


support the rest of the skirt and always used in combination with bustle pads and frames. A layer of gathered net and top petticoat should be applied over thetop of the entire support, helping to consolidate and smooth the silhouette.

Mounting tips for skirts from 1875–1882, Train supports: Although the rela-tively narrow skirts of the dresses from this period do not require any largesupports or frames, the long trains of this era often need additional attention.This can be simply done by cutting a long triangular foundation shape of heavy-weight calico or cotton duck, the length and width of the train (see Figure 5.29(a)).Rows of graduated net frills can then be applied to the foundation, extendingout on to the floor as necessary. Once the support has been built up, the netfrills should be covered with a layer of gathered fabric, such as silk habotai, toprotect the costume from any sharp edges. The train support should be used incombination with a tube petticoat and fastened over the top at a level appro-priate to the costume. In some cases this will be surprisingly low.

Mounting tips for skirts from 1890s–1909, Supportive petticoat: Skirts fromthis period were relatively unstructured compared to previous fashions fromthe nineteenth century and tended to be supported with gored petticoats, stiff-ened with frills and flounces. The underpinning described here can be adaptedand used as a support petticoat beneath most skirts from this period. Using thepattern as a basic shape, net frills of varying sizes and quantity can be added tothe hem of the petticoat to create a foundation customised to the requirementsof each costume. The petticoat is cut in three panels, one for the front and two for the back. To avoid bulk and simplify the pattern, the underpinning ispositioned well below the waistline and should be used in combination with a tube petticoat.

A brief history of twentieth century skirt shapes

Most of the big changes of this period were concentrated in the first half of thecentury. Between 1900 and 1908, when the S-bend corset was in vogue, skirtswere cut to fit the figure fairly closely, flaring out below the knee. By 1906, thelevel of the waistline was altered by the introduction of the corselette skirt,

9. To protect the costume from the raw edges of the net, cover the frills witha layer of gathered fabric such as silk habotai.

10. Dress the petticoat onto the figure and position 8–10 cm below the levelof the waist. Close the centre back opening with whipstitching and, ifnecessary, herringbone stitch the petticoat to the figure using a curvedneedle.

which fitted tightly around the waist of the figure, rising several inches aboveits natural line. Petticoats from this time mirrored the styles of the skirts, withadditional frills and flounces for support. As the new slim line skirts took holdof the fashionable world in 1910, petticoats of this type were discarded.Garments such as the hobble skirt took this style to such extremes that it some-times became difficult for women to walk. Naturally, the impracticalities of sucha narrow silhouette meant that it could not last long and once the First WorldWar began, hems increased to a more realistic width.

With the war over, the well-known silhouette of the 1920s developed. The fashionable flat boyish figure was dressed in simple straight cut skirts, with rising hem lines and unfitted dropped waists. By the end of the decade,this shape was already giving way to the more naturally curvaceous profile ofthe 1930s. Inspired by the newly developed technique for bias cutting, skirtsnow clung to the hips of the figure, dropping into long, graceful pleats at the feet. By contrast, the skirts of the 1940s were far more economical. This shift was generated by the Second World War and the introduction of theutility scheme in 1941, which kept strict control over the amount of time andmoney spent on clothes. As a result, skirts were cut straight or gathered intoungenerous pleats, with cost-effective hem lines that came just below the knee. As rationing continued for some years after 1945, the plain fashions of the war years could not be broken with immediately and it was not until the end of the decade that a more extravagant style, inspired by Christian Dior’s new look, began to take effect. This new silhouette favoured exaggerated hips, tiny waists and both a fuller and longer skirt. During the 1950s, skirts were often supported by petticoats made from layers of gathered nylon net,similar to the techniques used for costume mounting. By 1957, the fuller silhou-ette had given way to slimmer skirts or ‘A’ line shapes, which were continuedinto the 1960s. By 1965, hem lengths had risen dramatically into the first everminiskirts. So short was this new style that very little could be worn beneath,making slips and petticoats redundant. At the end of the decade the vogue forminiskirts had passed, and floor length garments came into fashion. From thenon, hem lines and skirt shapes constantly fluctuated, matching the faster chang-ing and more diverse fashions we are familiar with today.

Mounting costume from the twentieth century

Although the twentieth century went through some radical changes, skirtsfrom this period tend to be easier to mount than those from the previous twohundred years. Depending on the size and style of the costume, most skirts canbe satisfactorily supported using a combination of a tube petticoat and netfrills. The following are some general guidelines and tips that can be used tohelp when preparing twentieth century skirts for display.



Mounting tips for skirts from 1900–1909: Costumes from this period can besupported with the same kind of underskirt used at the end of the nineteenthcentury and used in combination with a tube petticoat. The quantity and posi-tioning of net frills should be applied to the petticoat according to the shapeof the individual costume.

Mounting tips for skirts from 1910–1915: When mounting the narrow skirtsfrom this period, it may be necessary to use a support that tapers at the hem.For example, many of the distinctive pleated dresses made by Mariano Fortunyoften appear to greater advantage if mounted over the top of an inverted coni-cal shaped foundation. The straight cut of the tube petticoat can easily beadapted by stitching a number of long darts around the hem of the supportbefore applying the polyester boning (4 darts are usually adequate). To helpthe costume hang smoothly, it is often wise to back the calico tube onto a layerof slippery fabric such as silk habotai. Melinex® supports can also be used to

Figure 5.33

Two petticoats made tofit under a sequinedbias-cut evening dressby Coco Chanel and asatin, bias-cut eveningdress by MadeleineVionnet. The upperparts of the figureswere covered by hand,while the skirts weremade separately andstitched to the waists ofthe figures.

6Troubleshoot ing

Although most of the core aspects of costume mounting have alreadybeen covered in previous chapters, a number of other problems oftencrop up when preparing garments for display. These additional snags

are usually associated with older items where parts of the costume are weak,damaged, distorted or even missing. Modern costumes, however, can also posethe same sorts of difficulties. Problems can vary in magnitude from quite signif-icant issues, such as missing parts of an outfit, to small adjustments, the needfor which only becomes evident once the costume is mounted. Although largerproblems will inevitably predominate, the importance of addressing moreminor issues should not be underestimated. For example, the final tweaks andfinishing touches applied to a costume before it goes out on display, can makea huge difference to its finished appearance and a little extra time shouldalways be allowed for these improvements.

This chapter deals with some of the snags and adjustments that may be neces-sary when mounting a costume on a figure. The number of problems that canoccur are probably limitless and this book deals only with those that arise mostfrequently. The methods and techniques that are described here should betreated as approximate examples and must be adapted and developed to suitindividual mounting difficulties.

Addi t iona l Pads

Although the shaping of a torso with soft padding is covered in detail inChapter 4, it is sometimes necessary to attach additional pieces of padding to afigure as a final step. These pads can be used to fill out residual wrinkles, defineunusual bodice shapes, add the final fullness to the bust, smooth out unattractivedepressions caused by distorted fabrics and warped bones and help preventskirts and strapless bodices from slipping down the figure. Not every costumewill require work of this kind and reasons for using extra pads can vary widely.

Figure 6.1

Muslin dress with embroidered hem. C. 1830. British or French. T.51-1934. Mountedon a fibreglass torso made by H&H Sculptors Ltd and padded to fit.Shear muslin frock mounted over the top of a custom-made under-dress and additional supportive underpinnings.

163

For example, pads can be employed to deal with problem areas for figures thathave already been heavily shaped with polyester wadding, while also providinga useful tool for fine-tuning mannequins that require no other modifications.

Supplementary pads can be prepared and used in three different ways. Themost straightforward method is to stitch isolated pieces of padding directly to the figure, covering them afterwards in fabric. Alternatively, loose pieces ofcovered padding can be made up individually and slipped inside the costumeduring dressing. A less common technique is to fashion wadding into morespecific shapes by stiffening it with museum board or Reemay®. These reinforcedpads can either be fastened directly to the figure or inserted loose inside thecostume. The size and shape of the pads will differ according to the individualmounting problem and can vary from small pieces of padding a few centimetreswide, to large sections of wadding cut to cover the entire front of a torso.

Applying extra pads directly to the figure

Although it is important never to over stuff a costume, pads of this kind can beconveniently used to smooth out many of the more straightforward wrinklesand creases. As the padding is stitched directly to the torso, this technique ismost suitable for use on figures with a fabric finish. Mannequins with solidsurfaces will need to be covered in a preliminary layer of stretch fabric beforepads can be applied (see p. 57). To establish the exact shape and size of thepadding, dress the costume on the figure and take a tissue paper pattern of theproblem area. This can then be used as a template to cut out a piece of polyesterwadding of suitable dimensions. For a smooth finish, feather out the edges ofthe padding. Carefully position onto the figure and herringbone stitch in placeusing the same technique described in Chapter 4 (p. 78). Once secured, thepadding should be covered in a layer of stretch fabric to isolate the fibres fromthe object. With individual pieces of padding such as these, it is not necessary tocover the entire torso, but only the area where the wadding has been applied.The following instructions explain this process.


Covering isolated areas of padding in stretch fabric

1. Stretch a piece of cotton jersey over the padded area and secure to thefigure with a few pins.

2. To ease out all the creases and fit the fabric smoothly over the padding,work around the shape, stretching and pinning the jersey to the figureuntil the wadding is completely encircled with pins. The fabric should overlap the padding by a minimum of 2 cm on all sides.

Loose pads

As their name suggests, loose pads are made up individually as unattached piecesof padding that can be slipped inside a costume to help smooth out troubledareas. Pads of this sort are made from shaped pieces of polyester waddingcovered on both sides with a layer of smooth isolating fabric, such as silk habotai.Loose pads can be used to assist with a number of different mounting problems.In particular, they are of great value when dressing outfits made up of morethan one garment. For example, a jacket worn over the top of a dress can some-times require more padding than the size and shape of the dress will allow. Inthis case, loose pads can be made and slipped inside the jacket over the top of thedress. If necessary, pads can be partially attached to the figure to help keep themin place.

There are many other uses for which loose pads can be employed. Mostcommonly they can be used as a means of filling out the bust of fitted costumes.Made up as a matching pair, bust pads can usually be slipped inside the cup areawhile the garment is dressed on the figure. To help them disappear, bust pads

T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G 165

3. Working on the inside of the pins, secure the jersey permanently to thefigure with a small herringbone stitch.

4. Remove the pins and trim the excess fabric away with a pair of small sharpscissors. To prevent the edges from rolling and fraying, stretch and pull thejersey away from the herringbone as you work and snip as close to thestitch line as possible.

Jersey

Wadding

Figure 6.2

Covering isolated areasof padding with fabric.

should always be covered in a fabric that matches the colour of the outfit. Toease access, the fastening of the garment should be left open until the padshave been inserted. Once in position, the costume should be fastened over the topand the loose pads will be held in place by the pressure of the costume against thefigure. Loose pads can also be used to help smooth out ugly hollows, indentationsand creases caused by distorted fabrics and warped or damaged bones.


Making loose pads

1. With the costume dressed on the figure, make a pattern for the loose pad.To do this, hold a piece of tissue paper against the costume where extrasupport is required and, using a soft pencil, trace through the shape of theproblem area.

2. Remove the tissue from the figure and even up the pattern as necessary.3. Select polyester wadding of a suitable thickness and use the pattern as a

template to cut out the pad. If identical right and left pads are required,use the pattern to cut out an extra shape.

4. Feather out the edges of the padding, using the same technique describedon p. 78.

5. With the pad flat on a table, lay a piece of fabric, such as silk habotai, overthe top of the wadding and pin in place.

6. Turn the pad over and trim the fabric around the shape so that it overlapsthe padding by approximately 1 cm on all sides.

7. Sandwich the padding between a second layer of fabric and pin in position.When doing this, ensure that the pins pass right through the padding andcatch into the fabric on the other side.

F eathered edge

First la ye r of f abr ic

W adding 1 cm

First la ye r of f abr ic

Second la ye r of f abr ic Additional line of

stitching, only required if finishing the ra w edges with pinking shears

Figure 6.3

(a) Step 1. (b) Step 2.

Stiffened pads

Stiffened pads are less commonly required than the two previous types. Whenappropriate, however, they can be employed to great effect. Stiffened with alayer of lightweight museum board or Reemay®, pads of more precision and


8. Turn the pad back over and remove the original pins.9. Using the trimmed edge as a guide, sew a line of stitching approximately

2–3 cm inside the perimeter of the pad, passing through all layers. This canbe done by hand or machine.

10. Trim away any excess fabric and finish the raw edges with overlocking orzigzag. If using pinking shears, work an additional line of stitching justinside the cut line.

Figure 6.4

Bodice and skirt made out of wateredsilk. C.1858. British.T.90-1964. Mounted ona modern dress standmade by ProportionLondon and padded to fit.To help the back of thebodice sit smoothlyover the skirt, a stiffened pad made of Reemay® and reinforced with boning,was inserted into theback of the costume.Once the skirt hadbeen mounted, the padwas positioned on topand stitched to thefigure to hold it inplace, before dressingthe bodice.

structure can be created. As with loose pads, supports of this kind can beslipped inside the costume as unattached shapes, or can be fastened moresecurely to the figure with stitching.

This technique is suitable for outfits with baffling areas of surplus fabric, suchas fullness around the shoulder blades or costumes with exaggerated designs thatrequire more specialist support than an ordinary rounded body can provide. Forexample, some of the pleated and gathered bodices from the 1840s and 1850sare occasionally cut in such unusual shapes that they require additional assistanceto help form the correct silhouette. Stiffened pads can be used to assist withsuch problems in a controlled and structured way. This technique can also be usedto help give figures a more corseted appearance or to create a firm flattenedsupport for the front or back of close fitting bodices.


Making stiffened pads

1. With the costume dressed on the figure, make a pattern for the stiffenedpad. To do this, hold a piece of tissue paper against the costume whereextra support is required and, using a soft pencil, trace the shape of theproblem area.

2. Remove the tissue from the figure and even up the pattern as necessary.3. Using the pattern as a template, cut out the shape of the pad in a piece of

medium-weight museum board or Reemay®. If identical right and left padsare required, use the pattern to cut out an extra shape.

4. Lay the shape on to a piece of polyester wadding and hold in place with afew pins. Trim around it, leaving 2 cm turnings of wadding on all sides.

5. Fasten the wadding to the shape by stitching through both layers, 1 cm fromthe edge of the card. This should be done using a loose hand tacking stitch.

Shape made of Reem ay ®

or museum board

W adding

f eathered out edges

f abr ic

(a) Step 1. (b) Step 2. (c) Step 3.

Figure 6.5

Using pads to prevent skirts and strapless bodices from slipping down

It should rarely be necessary to prevent skirts or strapless bodices from slippingdown a figure. In the majority of cases if the waist, hips and bust are padded upto the correct size, costumes will fasten comfortably around the torso and holdtheir position with little difficulty. There are always exceptions to the rulehowever, and in some cases additional supports may be required to helpgarments with specific dressing problems. These problems can vary in nature,but are most regularly caused by baffling inconsistencies between the waist sizesof skirts and bodices. For example, the waistband of a skirt is sometimesconstructed unaccountably larger than the waist dimensions of its matchingbodice. Outfits from the nineteenth century tend to suffer most frequentlyfrom these discrepancies, complicating the mounting process. As many bodicesare designed to fasten over the top of skirts, the waist of the figure must be keptsmall, and alternative methods of support found to keep the skirt in place.

There are several possible techniques described in other sections of thischapter, which can be used to resolve this situation. These include supportingthe skirt with braces (p. 178) or overlapping the waistband (p. 180). Using a combi-nation of different methods often provides the best solution. Improvements canalso be made by applying hip and bum-pads to the figure to help support theweight of the skirt. Depending on the style of the costume, pads can be made ina variety of different sizes using the instructions on p. 137. Care should alwaysbe taken to keep the size of pads to a minimum or the silhouette of the outfit willbe spoilt. For this reason, hip and bum-pads will not be suitable for costumes withslim-line skirts. However, by considerably reducing the size of pads, the system canstill be used to support skirts with less significant problems.

Rather than using shaped hip pads, narrow rolls of covered padding can beapplied around the torso just below the waistline. This provides a small, invisi-ble shelf for the skirt to hook over and is often just enough to keep the garmentin position. This technique can also work as a support for strapless bodices anddresses. Similar rolls of covered wadding can be applied around the diaphragm


6. Feather out the edges of the wadding up to the tack line. Trim around thecard shape, snipping away any excess.

7. Cover the wadding in an isolating layer of fabric. Fold the fabric around to the back of the padded shape and whipstitch to the edge of the card. N.B. If the reverse side of the stiffened pad touches any part of thecostume, the back of the card should also be covered in fabric.

8. These pads can either be slipped inside the costume as loose pads or besecured to the figure with stitches.

of the figure or just below the back of the bodice, adding an extra layer of softwadding for the garment to grip and fasten around.

Co l la r Suppor t s

Although collars are more decorative than structural and may seem an insignif-icant part of an outfit, they play an important visual role and should not beoverlooked when mounting costume for display. Used as a way of finishing theneck opening of a garment, collars are not only very conspicuous, but are alsovulnerable to damage and, over time, often become flattened, droopy, collapsedor creased. To correct these visual defects, supports can be used to help restorethe shape and set of the collar to its original condition. Although not everycostume made with a collar will need additional supports, it is not uncommon,and taking time to tidy up this part of a garment can considerably improve itsover-all appearance. Even the collars of very new and up-to-date outfits can some-times benefit from extra underpinnings when being prepared for static display.

Collars can be cut in many different ways to create different fashionable effects.As always, supports must be custom-made to deal with individual problems,but despite wide differences in styles, the basic difficulties with collars tend to be fairly uniform and can be dealt with in similar ways. Collars and theirsupports can be divided roughly into two separate categories; those that standup and those that fold down. The following instructions provide a basicmethod for dealing with mounting problems from each of these groups. Thetechniques described should be adapted and developed as appropriate.

Supports for fold-down collars

There are a number of different problems that commonly arise when mountingcostumes with fold-down collars. The most simple to rectify are collars that havebecome over pressed along the fold, giving the neckline an unnaturally knifeedge quality. This can usually be improved with a simple roll of polyesterwadding covered in fabric and pressed up inside the collar to ease out the hardcrease. In other cases, the inside curve of the collar stand can lose its smoothline and become buckled and distorted. Problems of this kind are usually bestcorrected with a more structured support. A band similar to a vicar’s dog-collarcan be made of a stiffened material, such as museum board or Reemay® andinserted between the collar stand and flap. Collar flaps can also have their shareof troubles, becoming droopy, squashed or even dented. Loss of definition ofthis kind can be revived using another stiffened support, this time cut to fitunder the collar flaps. This foundation can be used alone or in combinationwith a band support. When making either, care should be taken to ensure thatthey are not visible once they have been inserted and should usually be coveredin a fabric that matches the colour of the costume.



Making a band support

1. To make the pattern for a band support you will need the following measurements:(a) The circumference of the collar stand minus a minimum of 2.5 cm.(b) The height of the collar stand minus approximately 1 cm.

2. Using these two measurements, draw a rectangle on a piece of tissue paper.3. Cut out the tissue pattern and test its shape by wrapping it around the

collar. To improve the fit of the band, it may be necessary, in some cases, toadjust the rectangular pattern into a curved shape. To do this, divide therectangle into six equal parts along the width, marking the pattern withfive parallel lines. Leaving the central line intact, slash down the remainingfour lines with a pair of scissors, taking care not to sever the sections fully.Overlap the pieces at the top by approximately 0.5 cm and pin or tape inplace to create the curved shape. For collars requiring a more exaggeratedcurve, overlap the lines by more than 0.5 cm.

4. Try the pattern for size against the collar once again. Make sure that theband will not be visible from the front of the costume. If the pattern is toobig, reduce its length.

5. Use the finished pattern as a template and cut out the band in medium-weight museum board or Reemay®.

6. Cover both sides of the band in a layer of fabric of an appropriate colour.To do this, lay the shape on the fabric and trim around it, leaving turningsof 2 cm on all sides. Wrap the fabric tightly around the edges of thesupport and secure in place by stitching through all layers with a matchingthread. This can be done either by hand or machine. Cover the other sideof the support in a second layer of fabric, folding the raw edges under andslipstitching in place.

7. Once the band support has been made, bend the shape into an appropriatecurve and insert carefully under the collar and up into the fold.

0.5 cm

b

a

Figure 6.6(a)

Adjusting the rectangu-lar band pattern in to acurved shape.

Continued

Second la y er of f abr ic Slipstitches

First la y er of f abr ic

Figure 6.6(b)

Covering the collarband in fabric.


Making a support for collar flaps

1. Lay a piece of tissue over one half of the collar flap and using a soft pencilcarefully trace off the shape. It is only necessary to take a pattern of thearea of collar that requires support, for example the back of the collar willnot usually be included.

2. Remove the pattern from the costume and even up if necessary. Thepattern can be used for both the right and left side of the collar.

3. To ensure that the support will not be visible when positioned under the collar,reduce the dimensions of the pattern by a minimum of 0.5 cm on all sides.

4. Cut out the pattern and try it for size under both sides of the collar. Make surethat it does not protrude beyond the collar flap and is sufficiently set back tobe invisible from the front. If the template is too big, reduce the size of thepattern. Repeat this process until the pattern is a suitable size and shape.

5. Using the pattern as a template, cut out two shapes in a medium-weightmuseum board or Reemay®. These can be used as supports for the rightand left half of the collar.

6. Using a fabric that matches the colour of the costume, cover both sides ofthe supports in a layer of fabric. To do this, use the same instructions asdescribed for band supports.

7. Once the collar supports are completed, it is a good idea to link them togetherwith a piece of cotton tape. Cut the tape to a suitable length and secure theends to the back of each covered shape. The supports can then be insertedunder the collar flaps with the tape hooked around the back of the neck. Thiswill help prevent them from slipping out of position during the display.

Cotton tape

Slipstitches

Figure 6.7

Collar flap support.

Supports for stand-up collars

Although stand-up collars are less likely to require additional supports, they canbecome buckled or distorted in storage. When dressed on mannequins, thesefaults often become more pronounced and can spoil the look of the outfit. To deal with this difficulty, the collar can be supported with a stiffened bandsimilar to that used for fold-down collars. In this case, however, the band ismade to the exact dimensions of the inner collar, joined into a complete cylin-der and inserted inside the neck of the garment. As there is no means of hidingthe band from view, it is likely to be partially visible. For this reason, the supportmust be made to look as much like the inside of the collar as possible. This canbe done by covering the support neatly in a fabric that matches the colour ofthe costume.


Figure 6.8

Reconstruction of a Production outfit designed and worn by Alexandre Rodchenko. 1922.T40-2005.Collar defined and smoothed by a stand-up collar support, inserted inside the neck of thegarment.

Making a support for a stand-up collar

1. To make the pattern for a stand-up collar support you will need the following measurements:(a) The complete inner circumference of the collar stand at the top and

bottom.(b) The height of the collar stand minus approximately 0.5–1 cm.

2. Draw a rectangle with these two measurements on a piece of tissue paper.3. If the top of the collar stand is narrower than the bottom, it will be necessary

to adjust the straight-sided pattern into a curved shape. To do this, divide thedifference between the top and bottom circumference of the collar stand by4 and call this measurement X. Divide the rectangular pattern into six equalparts along the width, marking on five parallel lines. Leaving the central lineintact, slash down the remaining four lines with a pair of scissors, taking carenot to sever the sections fully. Overlap the pieces at the top by measurementX and pin or tape in place to create the curved shape (see Diagram 6.6(a)).

4. Add an overlap of 2 cm to one end of the rectangle and cut out the pattern.5. Curl the pattern into a cylinder and try it for size inside the stand-up collar.

The centre back line can be overlapped to create the best fit.6. Use the finished pattern as a template and cut out the stand in a

medium-weight museum board or Reemay®.7. Cover both sides of the collar support in a layer of fabric that matches the

colour of the costume. To do this, lay the shape on the fabric and trim aroundit, leaving turnings of 2 cm on all sides. Wrap the fabric tightly around theedges of the support and secure in place by stitching through all layers witha matching thread. This can be done either by hand or machine. Cover theother side of the support in a second layer of fabric, folding the raw edgesunder and slipstitching in place. Make sure that the inside of the cylinder isas neat as possible as this will be visible from the outside of the costume.

8. Complete the band by stitching the ends of the rectangle together andforming a cylinder.

9. Once the support has been made, carefully insert inside the stand-up collar.

Collar support

When covering,ensure that the insideof the support is asneat as possible

Figure 6.9

Stand-up collar support.

174

Training collars

This is a useful technique that can be used with collars of all shapes, sizes andstyles to help remould the necks of garments. Although it is not foolproof, thismethod can often improve the appearance of a collar significantly and is alwaysworth trying. Essentially, it is a way of retraining collars that have fallen into badhabits and schooling them to behave as they were originally designed to do.Unlike the previous methods, this technique involves only a temporary supportthat is removed from the collar once the costume has been placed on display.It is therefore particularly useful for costumes where time is limited, or whenmore structured supports are too conspicuous to be employed. Using soft wadsof tissue as padding, the collar can be moulded into a better shape and thenleft to acclimatise. A minimum of three to four days is usually necessary for thisprocess. To give the collar training its best chance of success, the tissue shouldbe left in situ until the costume is installed in the display and only removed atthe last possible moment. With luck, the newly set collar will maintain its shapeeven after the support has been removed.

Cotton tapes can also be used to assist with training techniques. For example,a costume that has lost its collar fastening can sometimes be trained to appearas if it is done up. Gently tie a piece of cotton tape around the neck of thecostume to hold the collar in the correct position. Once again, the outfit shouldbe left to acclimatise for as long as possible. When the tape is finally removed,the collar should remain in position without any further assistance.

Costumes wi th Mis s ing o r Damaged Fas ten ings

Costumes can be fastened in a variety of different ways using hooks, buttons, ties, drawstrings, lacing, pins and, more recently, zips. These fixings are a vital part of a garment, particularly when preparing outfits for display.Unfortunately, fastenings are often lost and damaged, leaving a costume mounterwith the difficult task of securing a garment around a figure with no means ofdoing it up.

The most obvious way of dealing with the problem is to replace these fastenings.Unfortunately, this is not always possible, particularly when dealing with old,fragile costumes. Occasionally, it is clear from residual threads, indentations oreven rust stains on a garment, where and what the fixings were, and in thesecases it is sometimes possible to substitute lost fastenings with appropriatemodern imitations. This tends to be the exception rather than the rule however,and for most outfits, replacing fastenings is not so straightforward. For example,costumes are often too weak to sustain the application of new fixings, while inother cases there is often nothing to indicate how a costume was originallyfastened, making it impossible to select appropriate reproductions.


This lack of evidence may be accounted for by the use of pins, which were oftenused to secure dress in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, instead ofthe more permanent forms of fastenings that we are familiar with today.Although this method may be historically correct, it is not necessarily suitablewhen mounting costume. Pushing pins into fragile and brittle textiles can causedamage, particularly if the fastening is under any kind of strain. Costumes thathave been secured in this way are also at risk of being torn when undressed, aspins are often difficult to see and can easily be overlooked. If there is no possiblealternative, fine entomological pins should be used rather than those of an ordinary dressmaking variety. The position of any pins must be well documented,so that the costume can be undressed safely at the end of a display.

Before resorting to using pins, however, alternative methods should be exploredfirst, to see if a safer way of securing a costume can be found. The followingsection provides a number of different techniques that can be used to helpsolve fastening problems. The methods range from simple and harmless tips tosystems that involve more invasive stitching treatments. To ensure the safety ofthe costume, these latter techniques should never be implemented without firstobtaining advice and guidance from a textile conservator and curator.

Training costumes with tapes

When mounting costumes with missing fastenings, it is sometimes possible tomake a garment appear as if it has been done up, even when there is nothingstructural holding it together. This is one of the simplest techniques and isparticularly valuable, as it avoids the necessity of using more invasive methods.To put this process into practice, temporary tapes are secured around the openflaps and plackets of a costume and left until the garment has been trained toremain closed. Once the tapes are removed, the costume should stay in positionwithout any further assistance. This technique is only suitable for fasteningsthat are not under any tension. For example, the waistband of skirts or trouserscannot be secured in this way. Training tapes can also be used to assist withother costume mounting problems, such as controlling unruly pleats, coaxingsoft sleeve supports to hang evenly and any other small corrections that may be appropriate.

When using this technique, lengths of cotton tape are gently wrapped aroundthe area that requires attention and secured by tying or pinning together. Takecare when doing this that no other part of the costume is crushed ordisarranged by the tapes. For the training to have time to take effect and thecostume to acclimatise to its new arrangement, the tapes must be left in placefor a minimum of three to four days and in some cases longer. If possible, thetapes should remain in situ until the costume is installed in the display and onlyremoved at the last possible moment.


Fastenings solutions using stitched techniques

Although it is rarely appropriate to use stitching alone as a means of doing upa costume, it is sometimes necessary to use it as part of a fastening technique.The following are some examples of different methods that require invasivestitching treatments as a way of solving the problem of missing fixings. Whenusing any of these techniques, advice should always be sought from a curatorand if possible work should be carried out by a textile conservator. All treatmentsshould be executed with the costume flat on a table, in a controlled environmentand never when dressed on the figure.

Velcro® supports: Velcro® has a dual function and can be used not only as ameans of fastening a garment together, but also of securing the costume to thefigure. For this reason Velcro® is a particularly useful way of securing the waist-bands of heavy skirts and trousers, where a single fastening such as a button orhook would be under too much strain. To implement this technique, a strip ofsoft Velcro® must be stitched to the inside of the waistband1 and a corresponding


Figure 6.10

Satin bodice withslashed decoration.1630-35. British. 172-1900. Mounted ona fibreglass figuremade by H & HSculptors Ltd andpadded to fit. To train the opening of thebodice to remain in the correct positionwithout the use offastenings or pins,cotton tapes weresecured around thecostume and left forseveral weeks to acclimatise.

1To avoid snagging during storage, soft Velcro® only should be applied to costumes.

layer of hard Velcro® applied around the waist of the torso. The garment canthen be dressed onto the figure and carefully positioned so that the layers ofVelcro® are joined and the weight of the costume is evenly distributed. Thistechnique can also be successfully used as an additional support for costumeswith weak waistbands, or for fragile bodices burdened with skirts of unsuitablebulk and weight.

Braces: Applying simple tape braces to the waistband of a costume can be aneffective way of holding a skirt or pair of trousers in position when fasteningsare missing. As with Velcro®, braces can also be used as an additional supportfor costumes or dresses with particularly heavy skirts, but bear in mind that theweight will not be distributed as evenly using this technique. Braces can bemade very simply out of two equal lengths of cotton tape stitched either side ofthe centre front and centre back waistband. If possible, braces should becrossed at the back to prevent any risk of their slipping off the shoulders of thefigure. It is a good idea to select wider varieties of tape for this job in order todistribute the weight of the garment over a greater area.

In some cases, fastenings for braces may already be found on the waistbandsof trousers and breeches. Typically, these take the form of buttons and,although the original braces are generally lost, the buttons can still be used toattach replacement tape supports, making it possible to avoid stitching into thegarment altogether. To secure the tape braces, a buttonhole must be snippedin the end of the tapes to correspond with the buttons on the waistband of thegarment. To strengthen the slit, it is a good idea to use two layers of tape andreinforce the hole using a machine zigzag or hand buttonhole stitch.

Stitched on placket fastenings: This method is appropriate for costumes requir-ing a more robust means of fastening. In particular, it is useful for close fittingbodices or jackets with no existing overlap or built in placket for fixings to beattached to. To get round this problem, false plackets made of a fabric match-ing the colour of the costume can be tacked inside the opening of the garmenton both sides. One placket is secured flush to the edge of the opening, whilethe other is positioned extending beyond it by a few centimetres. Fastenings,such as hooks or press-studs, can then be applied to the false plackets, limitingany heavy stitching into the garment itself.

As most varieties of fastenings are not flat, they can sometimes create aslightly lumpy effect that is not in keeping with the period. For example, thecentre front opening of a closed bodice from the 1780s is not improved by the visible glint and bumpiness of modern hooks and eyes. To keep the join as smooth and even as possible an alternative method can be used called the ‘slotted placket technique’. In this case a false placket, made out of a matchingcoloured fabric, is stitched to both sides of the opening, in such a way that oneextension can slot inside the other, bringing the two halves of the garmenttogether into a neat join. With the costume on the figure, a line of pins or tackingcan be slipped between the join, fastening the placket firmly together.



Making up false plackets

1. Selecting a fabric that matches the colour of the costume, cut out tworectangles using the following measurements:(a) The length of the costume opening plus a seam allowance of 4 cm.(b) The width of the finished placket multiplied by 2, plus a seam

allowance of 4 cm. (The placket width can vary according to therequirements of the costume. An average width is 2.5 cm.)

2. Fold in the top and bottom edge of both strips of fabric so that the lengthof each is fractionally smaller than the opening of the costume. Press thefold with an iron.

3. Fold both strips in half down their length and once again press with an iron.4. Secure the fold with a line of stitching.5. Finish the raw edge of each placket with pinking shears, overlocking or

zigzag.6. Secure the false plackets inside the opening of the costume, using a

running stitch. Position as necessary, avoiding weak and fragile areas. Seebelow for the slotted placket method.

7. Attach the chosen fastenings to the plackets. When doing this avoid stitching into the garment.

a

b

F old in top and bottom edges and press with iron

Secure foldwith a neat line of stitching

Finishing the raw edge


Figure 6.11

Continued

Reducing the size of waistbands using existing fastenings

As has been mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is not uncommon to comeacross skirts with waistbands that are unaccountably too large to fit under thebodice of the ensemble. Some methods for dealing with this problem havealready been described, such as propping skirts up with hip and bum-pads


Slotted placket technique

1 Make up two false plackets as above, to a width of 2.5–3 cm.2. Placket (a) should be stitched into the garment so that it extends beyond

the opening by approximately 1 cm. The stitch line should be set back fromthe edge of the costume by a minimum of 1.5 cm.

3. Placket (b) should be positioned so that 1 cm is also extending beyond theopening of the garment. In this case, however, the placket can be stitchedin place as close to the edge of the garment as possible.

4. To fasten the costume, slot placket (b) inside placket (a) where the stitchline has been set back by at least 1.5 cm (see Diagram). The costume shouldnow join neatly together down the opening.

5. Secure the interlocking plackets with pins or tacking stitches using a curvedneedle. Pins and needle can be slipped carefully between the join in thecostume, without danger of touching it and pushed into the overlappingplackets beneath. When using tacking stitches, use a double thread and tieboth ends in a bow, tucking the loose threads out of sight behind theplackets. This will allow the tacking to be removed easily when undressingthe costume.

Inside ofcostume

Inside ofcostume

1.5 cm

Placketa

Placketb

1 cm 1 cm

Stitch linesecuringplacket tothe costume

Stitch linesecuringplacket tothe costume

Figure 6.12

Slotted placket technique.

(p. 169) or attaching supportive braces (p. 178). The following technique providesan alternative way of negotiating this difficulty, by overlapping the waistband ofthe skirt, reducing its overall circumference and making it small enough to fitunder the bodice.

Although this sounds simple, overlapping the waist of a skirt is not straight-forward, as the fastenings on the garment will not be positioned to accommo-date this adjustment. As the moving or application of new fastenings should beavoided, this technique has been developed to hold the overlapped skirt inposition without tampering with the fixings. This can be done by securing theoriginal skirt fastenings to imitation counterparts of a suitable size and style, thatare stitched directly to the figure. The positioning of the new fastenings on thewaist of the torso can be carefully adjusted so that the garment overlaps byexactly the right amount.

Unfortunately, this method will result in the level of the waistband beingsomewhat lopsided. To avoid this unevenness, a slightly different technique canbe implemented, using a length of cotton tape and securing one end to thewaist of the figure. The tape can then be passed snugly around the waistbandof the skirt, helping to hold the garment in its overlapped position. Appropriatecounterpart fixings are stitched to the tape so that the original skirt fasteningscan be hooked or buttoned in place and the costume secured firmly aroundthe waist of the figure.

Although far less likely to be required, these methods can also be successfullyused to enlarge waistbands of garments that are too small. In this case an insertof a fabric matching the costume may be needed to fill any visible gap createdby the extension.


Overlapping a skirt using cotton tape and counterpart fastenings

1. Using cotton tape of a similar width to the waistband of the skirt, cut alength of tape long enough to pass around the outside of the waist a minimum of 11/2 times. If necessary, tapes can be reinforced by stitching twolayers together.

2. Using a curved needle, firmly stitch one end of the tape to the figure ashort distance from where the under lap of the skirt will begin. If workingon a mannequin with a solid surface, secure the tape by tying tightlyaround the waist.

3. With a pin, mark the position on the tape where the fastening of theunder-lapped skirt occurs.

Continued

Making and replacing missing lacing

Using lacing as a way of fastening a garment is a technique that has been usedfor many hundreds of years. Mounting costume with this kind of fastening isusually reasonably straightforward, as eyelet holes tend to ware better thanapplied fastenings such as hooks and bars. In some examples, the originallacing cords and ribbons survive and can be used to fasten the costume. Inolder garments, however, lacing is often either missing or is too weak and fragile to be used and it is necessary to replace it with a modern replica.


4. Depending on the kind of fastening used, select a counterpart fixing thatwill roughly fit the size of the original. For example if a metal eye has beenused, select a hook that will slot into it and apply it to the underside of thetape. If a button has been used, a buttonhole must be slit in the tape andreinforced with a hand buttonhole stitch.

5. Once the first fastening on the skirt has been secured, pass the rest of thetape around the waistband of the skirt keeping it smooth and tight.Overlap the skirt as much as necessary and once again mark the position onthe tape where the second fastening occurs.

6. Apply a counterpart fastening in the appropriate position, making surethat it is stitched to the outside of the tape. The original fastening on theskirt can now be secured to the tape.

7. Trim back the loose end of the tape 5–10 cm beyond the overlap of theskirt. To hold it in place, apply a final fastening of your choice to the endand secure to the tape beneath.

Cotton tape

2nd f astening

Counter par t f astening appliedto the underside of the tape

T ape stitched to figure

Secur ing the loose end of the tape with f astening

5–10cm

(a) Step 1.

Figure 6.13

(b) Step 2.

The lacing of costumes can be divided into two different categories: lacingthat is visible and lacing that is hidden. The latter variety is used purely as astructural fastening and is generally concealed by other parts of the costume,such as a stomacher. In cases such as these, the appearance of the lacing is obvi-ously not important and fairly crude replacements can be used. For example,standard white or black lacing can be purchased in variable lengths from ahaberdasher and employed as a substitute. Alternatively a narrow cotton tapeor piping cord can be used with equal success. To make it easier to threadlacing through the eyelet holes, bind the ends of the tape or cord with a scrapof low tack masking tape. Once the costume has been laced up, the maskingtape must be removed by snipping off the ends.

For costumes where the lacing is visible, this is not only used as a structuralfastening, but also as a decorative finish. The appearance of the lacing in thiscase is important and care must be taken to use suitably coloured and texturedfabrics to make replacements. Depending on the costume, lacing can be madeout of a variety of different materials. For example, cotton lacing can be boughtfrom a haberdasher’s and custom dyed to match the object. In other cases,lengths of fine ribbon or linen tape can be used and either dyed to a suitableshade or purchased ready coloured. If necessary, ribbons can be made narrowerby folding in half and sewing down both edges with a small machine straightstitch. When carrying out this process, take time to fold the ribbon exactly downthe centre and iron flat before stitching. Ends should be finished by bindingtightly with a length of matching coloured thread. Lacing can also be made upsuccessfully by twisting together two lengths of threads in the time honoured way.

Another way of manufacturing replacement lacing is to make it out of fabric.For this job, select a material that suits the colour and texture of the costume,avoiding fabrics that are thick or bulky. A long strip can be cut, folded in half,seamed into a channel and turned the right way out. Unfortunately, it is usuallynecessary to cut this kind of lacing on the bias, or the narrowness of the channelwill prevent the fabric from turning through. To reduce the elasticity, the channelshould be created with two parallel lines of stitching, rather than using the fold.Before starting work, it is a good idea to run up a trial on a piece of scrap fabric,to ensure that the dimensions are correct and the lacing will turn throughsafely.


Making lacing out of fabric

1. Using a fabric of an appropriate colour and texture, cut out a bias stripusing the following measurements:(a) The width of the finished lacing multiplied by 2, plus seam allowance

of approximately 8 cm.

Tips on lacing up a costume

Fastening a garment with lacing is a straightforward operation for anyone experienced in handling historical costume. For those who have never laced up a garment, however, this practice can be slightly confusing and it is worthhighlighting a few historical conventions and practical tips that can make thisjob simpler.

As a general rule, eyelet holes in costumes from the eighteenth, nineteenthand twentieth century are positioned slightly differently. For example, theeyelet holes in garments from the nineteenth and twentieth century tend to be placed exactly opposite to each other, while, in earlier periods, eyelets were arranged alternately. For this reason, methods for lacing up costumesfrom different centuries can vary, though the fundamentals usually remain the same.

Nineteenth and twentieth century costume can be fastened making use ofboth ends of the lacing and working from the bottom up. The lacing should bepulled through the bottom two eyelet holes with an equal length on either side. Each end of the lacing is then passed through the hole diagonally oppo-site, from the inside out. This pattern is continued all the way up the costumeand secured at the top with a bow. The lacing can be tightened in stages. Workup the costume by degrees, hooking a finger either side of the crossed laces andgently pull the two sides of the costume closer together. If necessary, the bow atthe top can be concealed by tucking it down inside the back of the costume.


(b) The required length of the lacing (always over estimate this measurement).To make the strip long enough, it may be necessary to seam lengths offabric together. When doing this, always join the strips with a diagonalseam so that the stitching runs along the straight of grain. Trim andpress the seams flat.

2. With right sides together, fold the strip in half down its length and securewith pins.

3. With seam allowances of approximately 2 cm on either side, stitch a channelin the folded fabric, the width of the finished lacing. Stitching should becarried out on a machine using a short straight stitch.

4. Trim back both seam allowances to a few millimetres.5. To turn the lacing through, thread up a stout needle with a long double

thread and secure to one end. Feed the needle backwards through thechannel, to avoid snagging, until it drops out of the far end. Continue topull on the thread, drawing the channel back through itself until it is fullyturned out. Starting this process off can be awkward, but once underway,the rest of the rouleau will follow easily.

6. To reduce the elasticity of the rouleau, press or steam the lacing whilestretching it.

Eighteenth century costume is generally fastened using only one end of thelacing, spiralling from side to side, through the alternate eyelet holes. As withnineteenth century costumes lacing should usually be carried out from thebottom up. To start the process, however, it is a good idea to thread the redun-dant end through the topmost eyelet hole, leaving a few inches dangling. Passthe other end down to the bottom eyelet and commence the process of lacing.When the top of the costume has been reached, the lacing can be secured byfastening the two ends together in a bow. If necessary, this can be concealed bytucking down inside the back of the costume.

Tying sashes with the invisible thread method

Fastening sashes around the waist of a mounted costume can sometimes be adifficult and frustrating task. In order to prevent it from slipping, the sash mustbe tied in a reasonably tight knot. Unfortunately, fastening a sash in this way willnot only cause severe creasing to the fabric, but can also look unattractive andlumpy.

The following technique provides a simple way of securing a sash in a casual,single tie, without using a knot and without any danger of the fabric unfastening.This is done by wrapping the sash around the waist of the figure with the addition of a length of thread laid beneath it. Together the sash and the threadare then fastened in a single tie and the fabric is left gracefully dangling. Thetwo ends of the thread are continued around the waist of the figure to the back,secured in a double bow and tucked out of sight beneath the sash. In this way the sash is held firmly in position by the thread. This method can also beeffectively used as a first step to tying a bow.


Securing sashes and ties with an invisible thread

1. Select a thread of a matching colour to the sash and cut a length approxi-mately three times the circumference of the waist.

2. Spread out the sash face down on a flat surface and lay the thread in along smooth line on top of it.

3. Pick up the sash and the thread together, wrap around the waist of thefigure as one and loop into a single tie. Make sure that the thread ishidden beneath the sash as much as possible.

4. Leaving the fabric dangling, pass the two ends of the thread around to theother side of the figure and tie firmly in a double bow. Tuck the loose endsout of sight under the sash.N.B. This process is easier to carry out with two people.

Continued

Miss ing Ar t i c l e s o f Cos tume and F requent ly NeededReproduct ions

One of the inevitable consequences of working with historical costume is that outfits are often incomplete. Given that garments can be two or threehundred years old, it is only natural that some losses will occur; indeed in manycases it is remarkable that so much survives. Missing parts of a costume caninclude anything from small items, such as decorative trimmings, to more impor-tant articles, such as petticoats and skirts. In some cases, it may be possible, toreplace lost pieces with specially made reproductions. Though this can oftenimprove the appearance of an outfit, it is not necessarily the right course ofaction. The use of imitation replicas in exhibitions of historical dress is a contro-versial area. Views on this subject vary according to the policies of different institutions, the individual opinions of curators or designers and thebudget and style of the display. Occasionally, however, the need for a replacementarticle is unavoidable in order to make sense of an outfit and prevent it frombeing historically misleading or inaccurate. This section looks at the few exam-ples of replicas that are essential to costumes when being mounted for display.

Although impossible to cover every eventuality, there are a number of key itemsthat are frequently lost and need replacing. These include belts and sashes,under-dresses for sheer costumes and eighteenth century stomachers and petticoats. Reproductions requiring more professional cutting and sewing skillsshould be contracted out to costume makers specialising in historical dress. For simpler items, the instructions below can be used to help create suitablereplacements. No matter which item is needed, any proposed work should bediscussed thoroughly with a curator or costume historian.


Threads should behidden underneaththe sash ratherthan on top

Tie threads at backof costume andconceal beneaththe sash

Figure 6.14

Tying a sash with aninvisible thread.

One of the common difficulties when making reproductions for authentichistorical costume is finding suitable fabrics. Not only the colour but also thetexture must be matched and, as the fabrics available today are often differentto those woven in the past, this can be a problem. Specialist dying is regularlyneeded to match colours, while techniques of a far more complex nature arerequired to reproduce patterned or embroidered fabrics. To avoid excessivelabour and expense, designers and curators often choose to use plain, neutralcoloured fabrics, rather than attempting to duplicate complicated designs andtextures. While maintaining the integrity of the overall effect and shape of theoutfit, this approach has the additional advantage of being easily recognised asa replica, leaving viewers in no doubt about what they are looking at.

Replica belts and sashes

Since belts and sashes are usually made as a detachable part of an outfit, theyoften become separated and lost. In many cases, belts and sashes are purelydecorative and making replacements may not be necessary, as the garment canbe displayed perfectly well without. For some costumes however, the belt orsash can have a much more significant function. For example, they can be usedto cover unsightly joins between skirts and bodices or to hide crudely madewaistbands, the sight of which can spoil the appearance of an outfit and givethe wrong impression to the viewing public. In other cases, belts and sashes canplay an important structural role in controlling the waist of a garment, creatingthe correct historical silhouette. In these situations, a replica belt or sashshould be made. The following instructions can be used as a basic guide.


Making a simple belt

1. To make the pattern for a belt, you will need the following measurements:(a) The length of the belt, i.e. the circumference of the outside waist of

the costume.(b) The width of the belt. If the costume has an obvious waistband, the

belt should be cut to the same size. If there is no waistband and youare unsure about this dimension, cut out sample strips of tissue paperin different widths and hold them up against the costume to gauge thecorrect proportion.

2. Using these two measurements, draw out the long rectangular belt patternon a piece of tissue paper.

3. Add an additional 2–4 cm to one end of the pattern. This will be used as anoverlap, to which belt fastenings can be attached.

4. The belt is made of three layers. The inner piece gives shape and substanceto the band and should be made of something robust, such as bump,heavy-weight domette, Reemay® or even a lightweight museum board ifnothing else is available. Once an appropriate fabric has been selected, usethe pattern as a template and cut out the inner band.


5. Using a fine lawn, lightweight cotton or polycotton as the middle layer,cut out a strip of fabric using the following measurements:(a) The length of the belt plus 4 cm.(b) Twice the width of the belt, plus 4 cm.

6. Iron the fabric flat and lay the inner band exactly in the centre of the stripso that it is overlapped evenly on all sides. Secure with pins, keeping thefabric as smooth as possible.

7. Stitch both layers together, keeping close to the edge of the inner band.This can be done by hand or machine.

8. Using an appropriate finishing fabric as the top layer, cut out a strip thesame dimensions as the middle layer.

9. Lay the top piece of fabric over the middle layer, exactly covering it andsecure with pins. Make sure the fabric is as smooth as possible.

10. Fasten both layers of fabric to each other by stitching them togetheraround the outside of the inner band. This should be done a few millimetres away from the edge. From now on, the two upper layers offabric should be treated as one.

Inner belt band 2 cm

b 2 × b + 4 cm

2 cm

Middle la y er of f abr ic a + 2–4cm

Figure 6.15

(a) Step 1.

(b) Step 2.

— Inner belt band

Middle la y er of f abr ic

Stitching both la y ers of f abr ic together around the outside of the inner band

T op la y er of f abr ic


11. Place the belt face down on a table. Neatly fold in the raw edges at bothends and herringbone flat to the inner band.

12. Using the same technique, fold in the raw edge of one side of the beltand herringbone flat to the inner band.

13. Before finishing the second side, neaten the raw edge by folding in 2 cm and pressing with an iron. Wrap this edge around the inner band,overlapping the first side and slipstitch in place. All herringbone stitchingshould now be hidden from view and the inside of the belt neatly finished.

14. With the costume dressed on the figure, wrap the belt around the waistand mark the position of the fastenings with pins. For invisible fixings usehooks and bars or press-studs.

Inner belt band

T op of f abr ic

Ra w edge f olded in and pressed

(c) Step 3.

Sashes

Making a sash is quicker and less complicated than the construction of a belt.To avoid time-consuming hemming, the easiest method is to make up the sashwith a double layer of fabric. These two layers can be stitched together on amachine and then bagged out like a duvet cover, producing a sash that is neatlyfinished on all sides.


Making a sash using the bagged out technique

1. Bearing in mind that sashes can be cut on the straight of grain or on thebias, cut out two lengths of fabric using the following measurements:(a) The length of the sash. This is the circumference of the outside waist of

the costume, plus enough additional length to tie a bow or knot.Include an additional 4 cm for seam allowance and be prepared to seamlengths of fabric together to make the sash long enough.

(b) The width of the sash plus 4 cm for seam allowance. If unsure about thisdimension, cut out rough sample sashes made of scraps of fabric andhold them up against the costume to gauge the correct proportion.

2. With right sides together, lay the two pieces of fabric exactly on top of eachother and secure with pins.

Figure 6.16

Striped wool dressdesigned by ClaireMcCardell with replicasash. 1955. American.T.77-1978. Mounted ona modern dress standmade by ProportionLondon.

3. With a 2 cm seam allowance on all sides, stitch the two pieces of fabrictogether on a sewing machine, keeping the seams as straight and even aspossible. Leave an opening of approximately 6 cm in the centre of onelong seam through which the sash can be bagged out.

4. Reinforce the four corners of the sash by sewing a second line of stitchingon top of the first. Start the stitching approximately 2 cm from eachcorner and continue until a further 2 cm has been reached on the far side.

5. Trim back the seam allowance to approximately 1 cm on all sides. Tominimise bulk, cut off the seam allowance at the four corners as close tothe stitching as possible.

6. Press the sash with an iron to smooth out the stitches.7. Bag out the sash by pulling it through the opening left in the seam, until

it is the right way out. Use a blunt point, such as a knitting needle, topush out the four corners, taking care not to poke through.

8. Press the seams of the sash with an iron, so that they fold neatly alongthe stitch line. Take time doing this, rolling the seam between finger andthumb before flattening.

9. Close the opening in the sash with invisible slipstitches.10. The sash can now be tied around the waist of the costume (see

instructions on p.185).

Replica under-dresses for sheer costumes

Although the use of sheer fabrics in fashionable dress might be considered afairly modern development, semi-transparent materials were also used in earlierperiods of history. For example, lightweight and diaphanous muslins and gauzeswere regularly used for women’s dresses at the end of the eighteenth andbeginning of the nineteenth century. Unlike the provocative use of such fabrics


a

b

6 cm opening

Reinforced corners Snip off cornerto reduce bulk

1 cm

2 cm

Figure 6.17

Making a replica sash.


today, historical costumes made of translucent materials were never worn with-out several layers of underclothes, such as petticoats, chemises and slips.Unfortunately, these garments are rarely preserved and Empire line dressesfrom this period generally survive alone. As it would be extremely misleadingto display such a garment without anything beneath, it is essential that a replicaunder-dress is made of a suitable size and style.

Making a petticoat that exactly fits under an already existing costume can seem a daunting task. In order to create an undergarment of exactly theright dimensions, an individual pattern must be taken from the original dress.If an accurate toile has already been made of the costume, constructing anunder-dress is straightforward, as the toile pattern can simply be reused. As this is rarely the case, however, and time is usually pressing, a pattern must beevolved using an alternative system. The simplest way of doing this is to use thequick toile method described on p. 37. This is a drafting technique whichenables a three dimensional pattern to be taken from the bodice of a costumewhile it is dressed on a figure. As explained in Chapter 2, varying degrees of accuracy can be achieved with this method. In this case, care should be taken to create a pattern that is as exact as possible. The skirt pattern should also be drafted using instructions from this chapter, while the sleeves can bemade up as individual soft arm supports, rather than attempting to make andfit what can sometimes be the most complicated part of a costume (see p. 103).

Selecting a suitable fabric for this kind of under-dress is not always straight-forward and advice should be obtained from a curator. As a general rule,undergarments worn beneath muslins and gauzes should be made of a fabricwith a slippery surface, such as a silk or a satin weave. Muslin in particular hasa clinging quality that makes it difficult to dress over matt fabrics. As the colourof the under-dress will also be visible, care must be taken in its selection.Historically, slips of pastel shades were often worn beneath Empire line dresses,glowing through as a tinted backdrop. However, it is unusual for any evidenceto survive indicating the colour of such slips and decisions should be reachedin consultation with a curator or dress historian.

Using neutral tones, such as cream or ivory, is often a simpler option. Even withthese colours, care must still be taken, as period muslins are often stained andsoiled and the shade of the under-dress can play a large part in improving orexaggerating this problem. For example pure white can make muslins appeardirtier than they are, while creams and pale yellows will usually make soiling lessnoticeable. Although more than one undergarment would have been wornbeneath a muslin dress to make it respectable, it should not be necessary to replicate all these different layers. To avoid having to make numerous petticoatsand chemises, thin silks and satins should be backed onto more robust cottonfabrics to create a single under-dress of a more opaque finish. To create a suitable silhouette, underpinnings of net and calico can be made up separatelyand applied to the figure beneath the under-dress (see Chapter 5).


Figure 6.18

Under-dress made outof silk habotai backedwith cotton. Thisgarment was custom-made to fit under the1830’s sheer, muslinfrock that can be seenon p. 162. The patternwas made using the‘quick toile method’.

Making the bodice for an under-dress

1. Using the quick toile method on p. 37, pieces of tissue are fitted over thetop of each individual bodice panel and the seam and grain lines carefullymatched to create a pattern that is as accurate as possible.

2. Once the pattern of the bodice has been taken and the seams marked witha soft pencil, remove the tissue from the costume. Even up the pattern asnecessary.

3. Check the pattern size by comparing it to corresponding inside measure-ments taken from the costume. As the pattern is likely to be slightly bigger,adjust the stitch lines to fit the measurements.

4. To ensure that the petticoat will not be visible above the neck of thecostume, redraw the neckline cutting it back by approximately 0.5 cm allthe way round.

5. Add balance marks to the pattern and use to make up the bodice for theunder-dress, following instructions from the sewing appendix (p. 234). If thefabric is too thin, back each panel onto a layer of cotton and make up as one.

6. To avoid using bulky fastenings and to keep the under-dress as smooth aspossible, the opening of the bodice can be stitched closed.


Replica stomacher

As a small and detached part of an eighteenth century costume, stomachers areoften missing from gowns surviving from this period. These small, triangular-shaped accessories were used to fill the front part of a bodice left exposed byopen gowns, hiding the corset from view. Although stomachers could be veryornate and decorative, their function was highly practical and it would bemisleading to display a gown of this type without one.

Constructing a stomacher is straightforward and can be made successfullyout of a shaped piece of museum board or Reemay®, stiffened with polyesterboning and covered with a layer of fine padding and fabric. Perhaps the mostproblematic part of the job is finding a fabric that will match the costume.Replicating complicated woven brocades or embroidered fabrics is extremelydifficult and it is usually easier to select a plain material that matches the background texture and colour of the gown.

Making the skirt for an under-dress

1. Measure the skirt of the costume and draft the pattern for the under-dressusing the method on p. 36.

2. Add an additional 5–8 cm to the bottom of the pattern and do not attemptto mark the exact hemline.

3. Use the pattern to make up the skirt of the under-dress, following instruc-tions from the sewing appendix.

4. Gather or pleat the skirt as appropriate and join to the bodice with a waistseam, creating one garment.

5. Do not finish the hem of the under-dress before trying it on underneath thecostume. With both garments dressed on the figure, mark the hemline ofthe costume onto the under-dress using instructions from the sewing appen-dix (p. 239).

Making the sleeves for an under-dress

Without some previous experience, drafting sleeve patterns and fitting them into the armholes of garments can be a difficult process. To avoid this, it is possible to make a pair of soft sleeve supports instead, using theinstructions on p. 103. This is far quicker and easier, and as long as the sleevesupports are made out of the same fabric as the under-dress, the join between the two will not be visible. This method essentially kills two birds withone stone, by creating the sleeve and making a supportive arm in a single process.


Making a replica stomacher

1. To work out the dimensions and shape of the stomacher, some research isnecessary. Advice should be obtained from a curator or costume historianand relevant reference books depicting portraits of the period are useful.With the dress on the figure, cut out a sample stomacher shape made outof tissue paper and try it against the costume. This will help to gauge itsproportions. Pay particular attention to the length of the pattern and makesure it is positioned at the correct bust level. Stand back from the costumeto get a clearer view. The top of the stomacher is not always straight, butcan be cut in a convex or concave curve. Adjust the template, making anyalterations and redrafting as necessary. Only when satisfied with the shapeand size of the template should you proceed.

2. Using the tissue pattern as a template cut out the stomacher in a piece ofmedium-weight museum board or Reemay®.

3. To reinforce the stomacher, stitch strips of polyester boning directly to theback of the shape, using a machine zigzag stitch. Before starting, mark thebone lines onto the card at regular intervals. The bones should be appliedboth vertically and horizontally. Depending on the size of the stomacher,two or three running in both directions is usually adequate. When applyingthe horizontal strips, use the natural bend in the bones to help mould thestomacher into a gentle curve. The vertical bones should be flattenedbefore stitching in place, by pressing with an iron.

4. Cover the back of the card and boning in a layer of calico. To do this, laythe stomacher on a piece of calico and trim around it, leaving turnings of approximately 2 cm on all sides. Fasten the calico to the cardboard bystitching through both layers close to the edge of the card. Trim away theexcess fabric from around the shape, leaving no turnings.

Boning stitched directly to the bac k of the stomacher

Figure 6.19

(a) Step 1.

Continued


5. Turn the stomacher over and cover the front in a thin layer of polyesterwadding. Secure the wadding with pins and leave a 1 cm turning on allsides. Fold the wadding over the edge of the cardboard and herringbone tothe calico on the back.

6. Using a fabric of an appropriate colour and texture, cover the wadding in afinal layer of display fabric. Secure the fabric with pins, keeping it as smoothas possible with the grain running vertically up and down the stomacher.Pink the raw edges leaving a 2 cm turning on all sides. Fold the fabric overthe edge of the shape and herringbone to the calico on the back. To fit thefabric smoothly around the point of the stomacher, cut small slits in theturning and overlap as necessary.

7. Using slipstitch, fasten the stomacher directly to the figure, sewing downboth sides. Leave the point of the stomacher unattached so that the skirtcan be slipped underneath. Alternatively, tapes can be fixed to the back ofthe stomacher and tied around the figure to secure it in position.

Stitching the calico to the stomacher

F ront of the stomacher

Calico

2 cm

(b) Step 2.

Ba ck of stomacher

T op f abr ic

W adding

(c) Step 3.


Replica eighteenth century petticoats

Another part of eighteenth century dress that is frequently lost is the petticoat.This part of the costume should not be confused with undergarments, as thepetticoats of this period were often designed to be seen. In the same way thatthe stomacher was used to fill in the exposed upper part of an open gown, petti-coats were used to fill the area below the front waist. Displaying a dress with thispart of the outfit missing would be both historically inaccurate and misleadingand a replica should be used in its place. Petticoats of this period were oftenmade from fabrics that matched the gown and were decorated with trimmingsor quilted in intricate designs. As with replica stomachers, finding or creatinga fabric that exactly matches a gown is very difficult. Once again, it is usuallyeasier to select a plain fabric that matches the background texture and colourof the costume.

Throughout the eighteenth century, the shape of the petticoat and theextent to which it can be seen varies according to the fashion of the time. Forexample, towards the latter part of the century, when the polonaise was invogue, gowns were often looped up at the back and the petticoat was visible allthe way around. Methods for making more comprehensive reproductions suchas these are described in detail in Period Costume for Stage & Screen by JeanHunnisett and may require a certain amount of sewing and cutting expertise.In some cases it may be necessary to contract work out to a professional costume maker. Forreplica petticoats that are only partially exposed, however, a simplified tech-nique can be used. Rather than constructing a complete skirt, a false petticoatfront can be made and used to fill in the uncovered area.

To protect the gown from structured frames and hooped underpinnings, asimple gathered top petticoat should be made first and secured around thewaist of the figure (see p. 132). The false petticoat front can then be positionedover this. Cut with a generous overlap; the replica is made to cover the areaexposed by the open gown. The top of the false front is pleated onto a simplecotton waist tape and the hem can be turned up as appropriate. The replica isfastened into position by tying the waist tape around the figure and, if neces-sary, large tacking stitches can be used to secure the two sides of the false front to the undergarments. With the gown dressed over the top, these edges will not be visible and the false front will appear as a credible replica of an eigh-


Making a false front replica of an eighteenth century petticoat

1. With the appropriate underpinnings fastened to the figure, make up asimple gathered top petticoat following the instructions on p. 132.

2. With this in place on the figure, cut a rectangular piece of fabric using thefollowing dimensions:(a) The width of the exposed area, plus a minimum of 15 cm for overlap.

Bear in mind that some styles of petticoats require more generous pleatsand a greater appearance of fullness. For these types of replicas, extraease in the width of the fabric must be allowed.

(b) The length of the petticoat from waist to floor, plus 13–15 cm for turnings and waist shaping.

3. Finish the two sides of the fabric with pinking shears, overlocking or zigzag.

4. Select one end of the fabric and fold in half to find the centre. Pin thispoint to the centre front of the figure, 8–10 cm above the waistline.

5. Working down the centre front axis, use several more pins to secure thefront of the fabric to the figure and under-petticoat. Keep the hem fairlystraight, smoothing the fabric across the exposed area. Integrate any extraease included for fuller petticoats.

6. Disregarding the excess fabric above the waistline, pleat up the false petticoat at waist level, securing each tuck with a pin. Always begin pleatingfrom the centre front and work outwards, matching the pleats on eitherside as closely as possible. In some cases, it may not be necessary to pleat upthe entire width of the fabric and any excess can be tucked out of the wayor trimmed. The arrangement of the pleats will vary according to therequired fullness and style of the petticoat and should be carefullyresearched before starting work. Petticoats with a shaped waistline and acentre front point can also be created using this method. Depending on theextent of the shaping, begin pleating a few inches below the waistline,rising gradually upwards towards the sides of the figure.

b

a

False petticoat front

Finishedside edge

Centre point

(a) Cutting out the false petticoat front.

Figure 6.20


7. Cut a length of tape approximately 2 cm wide and long enough to tiearound the waist of the figure. Matching the mid point of the tape to the centre front of the false petticoat, wrap the tape smoothly around theoutside of the pleats at waist level and tie in a bow at the back. Forshaped waistbands, fold the centre of the tape into a point and securebelow the waistline, positioning the tape in an appropriate curving line.

8. Work around the waist, securing each pleat firmly to the tape with a pin.At the same time remove all previously positioned pins from the pleats,releasing the false petticoat from the figure.

9. Turn up the hem of the false petticoat as required and secure with pins.10. Remove the false petticoat from the figure and trim away the excess fabric

at the waist, so that nothing is visible above the top of the tape. Using tworows of stitching, fasten the fabric to the tape, securing the pleats firmly inposition. If necessary, the raw edges of the petticoat can be finished bysandwiching between a second length of cotton tape.

11. Finish the hem of the petticoat, using a hand slipstitch rather than machinetopstitching.

12. Return the false petticoat to the figure and tie in position around thewaist. If required, the sides can be secured to the gathered top petticoat,using large tacking stitches and a curved needle.

Tr im ex ess f abr ic and stitch pleats to tape

CF

Cotton tape

F alse petticoat front

Pin up hem

(c) Securing the pleats to a cotton tape.

8–10cm

CF

F alse petticoat front

(b) Pleating up the false petticoat front.

7Alternat ive

Methods forMount ingCostumes

Mannequins and dress stands are not the only mounts that can be usedfor costume display. Although this book deals principally with tech-niques relating to these, there are a number of alternative mounting

methods that can also be used. For instance, costumes can be exhibited flat onboards, suspended from poles and hangers or supported by Perspex® mounts.These kinds of display techniques can be employed for a variety of differentreasons and usage will depend on both the costume and the exhibition. Forexample, some garment styles are simply better suited to a flat support, while onother occasions, the display design and budget may dictate a less conventionalmounting approach. In some cases, alternative supports of these kinds can alsoprovide a practical solution for costumes that are considered too weak to bedressed on conventional figures.

This chapter also covers some additional techniques for constructing andcustomising figures to fit a garment. Instead of purchasing ready-made dummiesfrom manufacturers, or commissioning expensive mannequins from a sculptor,home-made torsos can be made out of materials such as buckram andPlastazote®/Ethafoam®. The ability to develop figures in this way is a particu-larly useful display tool, affording versatile and cheaper mounting solutions.

F la t Cos tume Mounts

As an alternative to more conventional three-dimensional supports, techniquesused to mount costumes flat are a useful display tool. Garments prepared in this way have several advantages; they can be slipped into narrow spaces,

Figure 7.1

Black nylon body stocking from Marks and Spencer. 1973. British. T.54-1986. Displayedon a buckram mount. Pink satin corset, designed by Agent Provocateur. 1995. British.T.12-2002. Displayed on a buckram mount with Perspex® inner support. Bra and pantsby Rigby and Peller. 2004. British. T.259-2004. Displayed on a Perspex® mount.

201

used as an interesting background for other objects and sometimes even securedto a wall like a picture.

Flat mounting can be roughly divided into two different categories; costumesthat are suspended and costumes that are attached to boards. Suspended techniques tend to be more popular and are particularly suitable for garmentswith bold and interesting textiles, where the fabric is more significant than the construction and shape of the object. Costumes can be suspended from anumber of different mechanisms such as poles, hangers and T-bars. Displayingcostumes on boards tends to be less common and is principally used for costumesof extreme fragility that cannot be exhibited safely in any other way. In boththese different categories, additional support is generally required to help defineand control the shape of the garment. More complex Perspex® mounts can also be used to assist with these mounting techniques and will also requiresupplementary padding. Therefore, preparing to display costumes in this way,can involve more work than might be supposed.

Suspending costume from poles, hangers and T-bars

Using poles and hangers as mounts for costumes can be a simple and effectivedisplay method. Before starting work, it is important to select the appropriatestructure for the costume. For example, poles and T-bars should be used forcostumes that are made without shoulder shaping, such as Asian tunics andkimonos. These garments tend to be cut very simply in a straight line from neckopening to sleeve cuffs and can be suspended from a horizontal pole with thesleeves fully extended, to dramatic effect. Poles can vary from minimalist Perspex®

rods, suspended from above, to heavy T-bars on metal bases. Whatever style ischosen, care must be taken to establish how the garment will be dressed ontothe pole. For instance, some T-bars are constructed with retractable arms makingit easier to mount the garment.

Pole supports are not always suitable and cannot be used for costumes withshaped shoulders and set-in sleeves. This includes most western dress and forthese garments, an angled hanger support should be used instead. Sleeves inthis instance are usually left to hang down naturally. Although it is possible touse standard hangers for display, more sophisticated versions can be commis-sioned from specialist mount makers. For example, using materials such asPerspex®, hangers can be refined into inconspicuous mounts and suspendedunobtrusively from wires.

To help control and define the shape, most suspended costume will requirean inner support. To establish whether one is necessary, mock up a temporarymount using a hanger or length of pole. If the garment is under any strain,hangs crookedly, falls into unattractive creases or looks limp and shapeless, aninner support is required.


Supports for suspended costume should be constructed to fit exactly insidethe garment. Made out of Reemay® or medium weight museum board, theinner should be cut in two pieces, one to support the back of the costume andone the front. These two pieces are stitched together along the shoulders,creating one large shape that flaps over the pole or hanger, taking the pressureoff the costume. Alternatively, for garments displayed on poles with a straightshoulder line, the support can be cut as a single piece and folded in half. These foundations should be extended to include the sleeves. For costumessuspended from hangers, sleeve supports (if required) should be cut separatelyand attached to the inner with Velcro® tabs. If the support is visible at the neckopening of a costume, the card or Reemay ® can be cut away and hidden fromview, or left intact and covered in a neutral coloured fabric.

Although this style of flat support is suitable for most suspended costume,there are some exceptions to the rule. For example, a fitted curvaceous bodicecan look completely shapeless if displayed in this way and may require a morethree-dimensional inner. This can be achieved by applying padding to a flatsupport, or constructing a mount made of buckram or Plastazote®/Ethafoam®.

A LT E R N AT I V E M E T H O D S F O R M O U N T I N G C O S T U M E S 203

Making flat supports for suspended costume

1. Lay the costume face up on a table and arrange as it will appear whensuspended. Remember the sleeves of costumes, displayed on poles shouldbe fully extended, while those on hangers will dangle down.

2. Lay a large piece of tissue paper over the costume and with a soft penciltrace around the garment. For those requiring a concealed support, markon the shape of the front neckline (If the back neckline is cut lower thanthe front then mark this instead).

3. Remove the tissue from the costume and even up the pattern as necessary. 4. To ensure that the support will fit comfortably inside the costume, work

around the tissue pattern reducing its overall dimensions. The amount bywhich the pattern will need reducing will depend on how much smaller thecostume is on the inside compared to the outside. Take some inner andouter measurements to help establish this quantity and always add a fewmillimetres extra for ease. The sleeve lengths and hem of the support willalso need reducing by a minimum of 1 cm, while for costumes requiring aconcealed support, the neckline of the pattern should be trimmed back bya minimum of 0.5 cm on all sides.

5. Using the pattern as a template, cut out a single support piece in mediumweight museum board or Reemay®. For larger garments, you may need toseam together lengths of material to make a piece big enough. Forconcealed supports, the shape of the front neckline should also be cut away.

6. Insert the support inside the costume to ensure that it is a good fit andmake any alterations necessary.

Continued


7. Using the altered support as a template, draw a second shape onto apiece of museum board or Reemay®. Add a 2 cm seam allowance to theshoulder line and cut out the silhouette.

8. Cover the outside of both support pieces in a layer of fabric to isolatethem from the garment. Using a slippery fabric, such as silk habotai, willhelp the support slide into place when positioning it inside the costume.Cut the covering fabric larger than the support and wrap around the edgeof the card/Reemay®, stitching it in place by hand or on the machine.

9. Stitch the supports together along the shoulders, overlapping by 2 cm.This can be done by hand or on a sewing machine.

10. Using a fabric that matches the colour of the inside of the costume, bindany edges of the support that might be visible when displayed. Fabric canbe cut in strips of approximately 8 cm, ironed in half and secured over therelevant edges using herringbone or a simple tacking stitch. If binding theneckline, cut the fabric on the bias to accommodate the curve. For garmentsdisplayed on poles, make sure that bindings applied to the cuffs of thesupport are cut wider and extend well up inside the sleeves, as this area canoften be seen. For non-concealed supports, the visible neck area should becovered in a smooth layer of an appropriately coloured fabric.

11. Once completed, insert the support inside the costume by laying thegarment flat on a table. Prepare the support by folding in any extendedsleeves. Ease the support into position from the bottom up. The sleevescan then be carefully unfolded and inserted down the armholes. Forcostumes displayed on hangers, sleeve supports should be made sepa-rately, slipped down the sleeves of the costume individually and securedto the support at the shoulder with Velcro® tabs.

Support covered inIsolating fabric

Wider bindingextending upinside thesleeves

Stitch the supportstogether along the shoulder

Cut awayneck for aconcealedsupport

Neck binding cut onthe bias

Figure 7.2

Making a flat supportfor costume displayedon a T-bar.

Displaying costumes flat on boards

Flat mounting on boards is not an ideal way of exhibiting three-dimensionalobjects, but occasionally it can be a useful and necessary display technique. In particular, fragile costumes that are too weak to be displayed in any otherway can be mounted flat on boards as a last resort. When implementing thistechnique, a padded support must be made as part of the process. This will notonly help define the shape of the garment and give it more depth, but can alsobe used as a means of securing the textile to the board. To avoid stitching intothe costume, the edge of the support is fastened to the board instead, holdingthe garment in place. If any additional stitching into the costume is required,this work should always be carried out by a textile conservator.

Supports of this type should be made with an inner core of Reemay® or mediumweight museum board to provide a shape of more strength and stability. Bothsides of the card are then covered in polyester wadding followed by a layer ofisolating fabric. To make it less conspicuous, the support can be covered or boundin a fabric that matches the colour of the inside of the costume. Depending onthe textile’s fragility, boards can be displayed at various angles, from flat to vertical.Something half way between these two extremes is usually a safe compromise.

Figure 7.3

Evening dress designedby Madame Paquin.1925. French. T.50-1948. Mountedflat on a board with aninner padded support.



Making padded supports for costumes mounted on boards

1. Before starting work, study the costume carefully and decide how the innersupport will be attached to the board once it has been made. In some casesit may be necessary to extend the support beyond the neck or hemline, sothat it can be fastened in position without danger of stitching through theunderside of the costume.

2. Make a pattern for the inner core using No. 1–6 of the instructions forsuspended costume supports. Ensure that the pattern is extended at theneck and hemline if necessary. In addition, the amount by which thepattern will need reducing must be increased to accommodate the additional layers of soft padding.

3. Once the inner core of Reemay® or museum board has been cut out, cover both sides of the support with a layer of polyester wadding. To do this, lay the first piece of padding over the shape and secure with afew pins, keeping it as taut as possible, without buckling the card. Trim the wadding around the shape and whipstitch to the edge of theinner core. Lay a second piece of padding over the uncovered side andsecure with pins. Trim around the support leaving a 1 cm turning. Fold the wadding around the edges of the inner core and herringbone in place.

Second layer ofcovering fabricslipstitched to theedge of the support

First layer ofcovering fabric

Second layerof wadding

First layer ofwaddingwhipstitched tothe edge of thesupport

Figure 7.4

Making an innerpadded support for acostume mounted flaton a board.


Perspex ® Mounts

Mounts made of Perspex® are often used in displays of costume as alternativesupports for garments and accessories. Perspex® is a popular material as it hasseveral advantages. It is strong, inert and can be cut or manipulated into differentshapes and sizes. One of its most desirable characteristics is its transparency andit can be effectively used to create mounts that are discreet, allowing the bestpossible view of the object. Perspex® supports tend to be custom-made to suitindividual items and for this reason they can be time consuming and expensive.Some museums and collections are lucky enough to have the appropriate in-house technical expertise, enabling mounts to be developed internally. Forthose who do not have this advantage, work of this nature can be contracted outto specialist companies and workshops.

Having a tailor-made Perspex® mount constructed to support an object, is a similar process to having a customised figure sculpted to fit a costume. Thesupport should be designed and developed collaboratively between the mountmaker, conservator, curator and designer. Depending on the complexity of thesupport, a number of fittings may be required and practical assistance with thegarment should always be on hand at such moments. As mount makers rarelyspecialise in costume, it is important to provide any relevant information andreference material that will help with the project, such as a clear explanation of the required silhouette. For some costumes, it may be necessary to make atoile which can be substituted for the garment during fittings (see Chapter 2).This will reduce the handling of the object and will give the mount maker

4. Cover both sides of the padded support in a layer of isolating fabric, suchas silk habotai. For supports that extend beyond the neck or hemline, it isusually better to use a fabric that matches the colour of the board, whilefor those that do not, a colour that matches the inside of the costume ispreferable. To cover the support, lay a piece of the chosen fabric over oneside and secure with pins. Trim around the shape leaving a turning ofapproximately 2.5 cm on all sides. Fold the excess around the edge of thesupport and herringbone in place. Lay a second piece of fabric over theuncovered side and secure with pins. Trim around the shape leaving turnings of approximately 1 cm. To finish, turn under the raw edge and slip stitch in place.

5. Once completed, slide the padded support inside the costume and secureto the board with invisible slipstitches.


something that can be continually referred to while working on the support.Besides a toile, there are a number of other items that can also be useful tomount makers when working with Perspex®. For example, when making flatsupports, a paper template of a garment will often be required, while for three-dimensional mounts, a suitably sized torso can be used to mould the Perspex®

around.Perspex® is a hard material and it may be necessary to pad concealed parts of

a support with polyester wadding covered with fabric to protect a garment orhelp create a shape of more fullness and volume. Combining other costumemounting techniques with Perspex® supports can often work well and it isimportant to be as creative as possible when developing ideas. For example, softsleeve supports, net frills, fabric underpinnings and cardboard or Reemay®

structures can all be used in combination with Perspex® as well as padding. Anyadditions of this nature should be discussed thoroughly with the mount makerat an early stage and small holes drilled through the Perspex® to facilitate anystitching. When constructing mounts, it is sometimes necessary to screw piecesof Perspex® together; in such cases ensure that the metal screws are properlycountersunk and cannot catch on the object.

Figure 7.5

A buckram bust madeto assist a mount makerconstruct a complexPerspex® support for abra. This invisible bramount can be seen inuse on p. 200.


Buckram F igures

Using buckram to create figures can be an extremely useful technique whenpreparing costume for display. Buckram is essentially a fabric-based product andhas many advantages. It is light, strong, rigid, easy to cut and can be stitched intowith a needle and thread. It is also inexpensive and though construction timemust be taken into account, it is particularly valuable for displays with small budgets. Buckram is an easy material to use and so versatile that it can be fashionedinto shapes that will fit costumes of any dimensions. As figures made of thismaterial are hollow and can be cut away as desired, this method is also partic-ularly suitable for making concealed costume supports. This way of displayinggarments has become increasingly popular and is especially useful whenmounting smaller items such as corsets and stretch underwear.

Buckram is a cotton or linen fabric impregnated with a starch-based size,which acts as both a stiffener and glue. When wet, the material becomes sticky and easy to manipulate and when dry, it hardens into a rigid shell. As buckram is principally used in the hat making industry, it can be purchasedfrom millinery suppliers. Unfortunately, manufactured buckram is oftentreated with supplementary adhesives, which can make it less chemically stableand consequently unsuitable for long-term display. Fortunately, buckram is relatively simple to produce, using pieces of scoured cotton or linen fabric,dipped into a paste of water and wheat starch powder. Making buckram in thisway, not only ensures the quality of the materials, but also creates a particularlysticky and flexible form that is often easier to work with than manufacturedvarieties.

Before casting a buckram mount, a mould must be prepared of a suitable sizeand shape. For this, it is necessary to have access to at least one, small, manu-factured figure that can be used as a foundation. For modern garments, it maybe possible to use the foundation figure as it is, but for historical costume someshape adaptation will usually be necessary. Using layers of polyester wadding,the foundation figure can be shaped to fit individual garments and developedinto the correct historical silhouette. Foundation figures should always be madeseveral centimetres smaller than the costume, to allow for a layer of padding andfabric to cover the buckram shell. Once the correct shape has been created oreven if no re-shaping was required, the foundation figure is covered in a tightlayer of cling film to provide a non-stick barrier between the gluey buckram andthe mould.

No matter what kind of buckram is used, the basic application technique isthe same. The material is cut into strips, dipped in water or starch paste asappropriate and applied to the mould in overlapping pieces. The technique isvery similar to the process of working with papier mâché and several layers ofbuckram should be applied to make the support strong enough. Once the


material has fully dried, the newly cast form can be removed from the mould,trimmed to size and covered in a layer of polyester wadding and fabric. Tocomplete the process, a base and pole fixing can be secured inside the formready for display. Alternatively, figures can be prepared with suitable suspen-sion fixings and hung from above.

Preparing the mould

1. Select a figure that is smaller than the finished costume and pad up asrequired, using polyester wadding and instructions from Chapter 4. As thepadding is only temporary, it can be secured with pins rather than stitching.Smooth out the wadding by covering in a layer of nylon tights or cottonjersey. To allow space for a soft layer of padding and fabric over the buckram shell, make sure that the finished mould is a minimum of 3 cmsmaller than the inside of the costume.

2. Cut out a strip of thin cardboard approximately 4 cm wide and apply to thecentre back of the mould from neck to base. The strip can be held in placewith masking tape. This will be used to protect the figure when cutting thebuckram from the mould.

3. To provide a non-stick surface, cover the mould in a layer of cling film,keeping the shape as smooth as possible. To do this, wrap the plasticaround the figure in one continuous piece.

Making and using buckram Using ready-made millinery buckram

1. Using the recipe on p. 212 mix a paste 1. Purchase ready-made buckram of wheat starch powder and water. from a millinery supplier.

2. Prepare the cotton or linen fabric by 2. Prepare the buckram by cutting cutting into strips of approximately it into strips of approximately 10 × 30 cm. If possible, use a 10 × 30 cm. fabric with a loose weave as this will make the finished form easier to stitch into. Cheap linen scrim is a particularly good fabric for this job.

3. Wearing protective gloves, submerge 3. Submerge the already a piece of fabric in the starch paste. impregnated buckram This is easier to do while the paste is into warm water to soften.still warm. Strip off any excess starch between fingers and thumb and apply the fabric directly to the mould, smoothing out all creases.


Making and using buckram Using ready-made millinery buckram

If necessary the paste can be thinned with a little warm water. (For instructions on making starch paste see the recipe on p. 212.)

4. Using the same technique, apply further pieces of buckram to the mould,overlapping in a crisscross formation to make the structure as strong aspossible. If the mount is to be cut down, make sure that the buckram stripsoverlap the cutting line by a minimum of 5 cm.

5. Once the mould has been fully covered in one layer of buckram, allow it to dry before applying a second layer. Depending on the temperature,drying times can take many hours, but can be accelerated using heaters.

6. Repeat the process applying a second and third layer, allowing the buckramto dry between applications.

Figure 7.6

The first stage of makinga buckram mount, usingstrips of linen scrimdipped in wheat starchpaste and applied to afigure covered in clingfilm.


Concealed supports and marking cut lines on the buckram mount

Concealed supports are made by cutting away areas of the mount that are visibleabove and below the line of the costume. In most cases this will be the parts of thesupport that appear above the neckline. For sleeveless garments, the armholeswill also need cutting away, while for items such as corsets, bodices and jackets,the lower part of the torso may likewise need cropping to match the line of thehem. In order to cut down a mount, the areas that are to be removed must bedrawn clearly onto the buckram. This should be done while the cast is still on themould. Once the buckram is fully dried, cover in a layer of protective tissue andtry the costume on. The neckline of the garment and any other relevant open-ings or edges are then marked onto the buckram using the following directions.

Starch paste recipe

■ Add wheat starch powder and water to a saucepan in a ratio of one partpowder to four parts water. The quantity of paste required will depend onthe size of the buckram mount, but for a standard figure, approximately1.5–2 litres will be needed. Do not make too much starch paste at once, asit is smoother and easier to use if freshly made for each layer of buckram.

■ Place the saucepan on a low to medium heat and bring the mixture slowlyto the boil, stirring constantly. The white liquid will thicken and becomemore translucent.

■ Continuing to stir, simmer the mixture until it has thickened into a gluti-nous paste. This will take approximately 10 minutes. To check whether it isready, spoon a small amount onto a plate and leave to cool. Dip a fingerinto the paste and test between finger and thumb. If the starch is stickyand stretchy the paste is ready.

■ Remove the pan from the heat and add a little cold water to cool. Once itis safe to handle, use immediately.

Marking cut lines

1. Once the buckram is fully dry, use a pair of scissors to snip off any sharpcorners or edges and ensure the form is as smooth as possible.

2. Cover the buckram in a layer of tissue paper, fitting it snugly around thefigure, using folds and darts where necessary. Secure the covering with afew tacking stitches as required. (Fine soft spider tissue is easier to use thanstandard tissue paper.)

3. Dress the costume over the top of the tissue layer and make sure that it issitting symmetrically on the figure.


4. Before marking the cut lines, the buckram must be uncovered and theedges of the costume protected. To do this, tear into the tissue and fold itback over all the edges of the costume, revealing the buckram beneath. Do not use scissors for this process but rip the tissue by hand.

5. The neckline and any other appropriate parts of the costume can now bemarked using a soft pencil or tailors chalk. This can also be done with tacking stitches caught into the buckram with a curved needle.

6. While the costume is in situ on the figure, the general fit can also beassessed. Any additional padding that may be required should be noteddown on a diagram.

7. Remove the costume and tissue from the figure and even up the markedlines on the buckram form as necessary.

8. To ensure that the support will be properly concealed when the costume is mounted, all lines should be re-drawn a minimum of 0.5 cm inside the original markings. Use a tape measure and draw on the new cutting linesas evenly as possible with a soft pencil.

Mould

Buckram cast

Costume

Tissue paper

Figure 7.7

Marking cutting lineson a buckram mount.


Applying pole or suspension fixings

Pole or suspension fixings should always be attached before finishing the outsideof the buckram. This will ensure that any fastening method used to attach thefixings will be hidden from view and fully covered in a protective layer of polyesterwadding.

To suspend a figure, small metal rings or trouser hook bars can be fixed tothe inside of the buckram form and used as an attachment for fishing line.These suspension fastenings should be stitched to the figure, using a strongneedle and thick, waxed, polyester thread. A thimble will also be required toassist with this process. To ensure maximum strength, each stitch should passfully through the buckram shell. A minimum of four rings or bars should be usedto suspend a mount and care should be taken to position them so that theycannot be seen once the figure is on display.

Fitting a buckram figure with a pole fixing is less straightforward, and mayrequire assistance from someone with more technical experience and equipment.To carry out this job, the buckram form should be fitted with an inside plate,

Removing the buckram from the mould

1. To remove the cast from the mould, the buckram must be slit down thecentre back from top to bottom. Before cutting, mark the line with a penciland make sure that it overlaps the protective cardboard strip. Cut throughthe buckram using a sharp craft knife or scalpel.

2. With the buckram fully severed, pull apart the two sides, easing the openingwider until the mount can be removed from the mould. This may requirefairly brutal handling, but the buckram should be strong enough to withstandthis and will spring back to shape.

3. Once the buckram is free of the mould, the support can be trimmed to size using a scalpel or craft knife. Taking appropriate safety precautions, cutalong any previously marked lines and crop the support to the correctshape.

4. The centre back opening of the support can be refastened by applyingsmall strips of sticky buckram across the cut line. To make this easier, tie alength of cotton tape around the waist of the figure to hold the two edges together and apply the pieces of buckram to the inside of thesupport. Allow the buckram to dry before removing the cotton tape. Forincreased strength, apply a final layer of buckram strips across the cut lineon the outside of the support. Alternatively the centre back opening canbe held together with stitching, using a strong needle and thick, waxed,polyester thread.


positioned a minimum of 8 cm above the bottom of the figure. Preferably, theplate should be made from Hexlite® (Aluminium Honeycomb board) which isnot only strong and inert, but also particularly lightweight. Alternatively,plywood can be used, though this is not ideal as it is heavier and far less chem-ically stable. Before cutting the plate, make a cardboard template and ensurethat it fits inside the figure. Using this as a pattern, cut out the plate and markthe central point. To allow the pole to fit up inside the figure, drill a hole in thecentre of the plate, wide enough for this to pass through. Position a cuff andscrew fixing over this hole and screw or rivet in place. Strong metal poles andcuff and screw fixings can be purchased from mannequin and dress stand manu-facturers. Once the plate has been prepared in this way, it can be fixed inside thefigure, by nailing or riveting through the buckram shell, from the outside. Whenusing Hexlite®, this process is simplified by securing two angles to the undersideof the plate at the front and back. The angles are then riveted through thebuckram, holding the plate firmly in position.

Finishing buckram supports

To complete the mount, the buckram is covered in a layer of polyester waddingand fabric. The following instructions apply specifically to figures that havebeen cut back for use as concealed supports, but the same techniques can be employed for figures with necks. For mounts such as these, the top of the buckram torso will require finishing with a neck disc (p. 71).

Buckram mount

Cuff and screw fixing

Angles rivitedthrough the buckram

Aprox 8 cm

Inside plate

Figure 7.8

Fixing an inside plateinto the base of a buckram mount.


Finishing a concealed buckram support

1. To smooth the surface of the mount and provide a soft support for thecostume, the buckram is covered in a layer of polyester wadding. Do notattempt to wrap the torso in a single piece of wadding, but apply in two ormore parts, cutting darts where needed to ensure a snug fit. If necessary,wadding can be secured to the buckram by catching a thread through thetop layer, using a curved needle.

2. To soften the sharp edges of the mount, fold the wadding over them andsecure in place with a small whipstitch, trimming away any excess.

3. Using the instructions in Chapter 3 (p. 57), isolate the padding from thecostume by covering in a layer of stretch fabric. Finish the edges in thesame way as the wadding, folding the fabric over the top and bottom ofthe mount and whip stitching in place.

4. To ensure the mount is as inconspicuous as possible, the top edge of thesupport should be covered in a fabric matching the colour and texture ofthe costume. This must extend down inside the support, as glimpses of theinterior are often visible through armholes or low necklines. To do this,prepare a band of suitable fabric, cut on the bias. The band should be longenough to wrap around the figure and wide enough to cover any parts ofthe inner support that are visible from the outside, plus turnings.

5. Neaten one edge of the band by folding under and slipstitching to theoutside of the figure around the top edge. Flip the band over the top ofthe support and pin to the inside. Herringbone the lower edge in place,using a curved needle to catch the fabric to the buckram. Join the band by

Slipstitching the f olded edge of the band to the outside of the mount

Bu ck ram cov ered in a la y er of w adding and

stretched f abr ic

Binding cut on the bias

Figure 7.9(a)

Binding the top edge ofa buckram mount witha band of fabric cut onthe bias.


overlapping the two ends and folding under the visible raw edge. Positionthis seam wherever it is least conspicuous when the figure is on display.

6. For costumes with narrow straps it is usually easier to make separate strapsupports and add them at a final stage. Strap supports can be made out oflengths of wire or Rigilene®, covered in an appropriately coloured fabric.When using Rigilene®, strengthen the support by stitching a double layertogether, with the natural curve of the boning running in opposite direc-tions. Trim the strap supports to an appropriate length before covering andsecure to the outside of the figure with stitching. If necessary the straps ofthe costume can be tied or bound to the supports with an invisible thread.

7. When appropriate, underpinnings, such as petticoats and soft armsupports, can be added to the buckram mount in the same way that theyare applied to standard figures (see Chapter 5).

Strap suppor ts made of poly ester boningco v ered in f abr ic

Bu ck ra m mount

T ube petticoat

Figure 7.9(b)

Example of a buckrammount with strapsupports and a tubepetticoat.

P las tazote ® or E thafoam ® F igures

The practice of carving Ethafoam® to create a figure is a technique that has beenwidely developed in the USA. As this subject has already been well published, itis unnecessary to repeat the work of others. The method described here is anextremely simplified way of using Plastazote® or Ethafoam® to create a torso.


Figure 7.10

Nineteenth century silkcorset. 1864. British. T.169–1961. Mountedon a basic Plastazote®/Ethafoam® figure andpadded with polyesterwadding to fit thecostume.

Rather than carving a three-dimensional figure out of this material, a basic flatbody shape is cut out and used as an inner core. Polyester wadding is thenapplied to this shape, developing the flat form into a three-dimensional torso.

To make the material easier to cut, the inner core is made up of three sepa-rate layers of Plastazote® or Ethafoam® approximately 2.5–3 cm deep. Once cut to shape, these can be fastened together with hot-melt glue, creating asilhouette of greater depth. To reduce the amount of padding required andgive the flat figure a more three-dimensional shape, a further two pieces areadded to the front and back. Once completed, this basic form can be coveredin a layer of stretch fabric and polyester wadding used to build up a suitablesilhouette. As knives are used with this technique, health and safety issues mustbe considered and any relevant precautions taken.


Drafting the pattern for the inner-core

1. The shape and dimensions of the inner-core can vary considerably and willobviously depend on the size of the costume. The diagram included herecan be used as a basic guide and once padded up will produce a torso withapproximately the following measurements: waist 52 cm, bust 80 cm andbottom 80 cm. The dimensions indicated on the diagram can be adapted asrequired to create a larger or smaller figure. Bear in mind that the verticalmeasurements will not be altered by padding, while the horizontal (orcircumference measurements) will be considerably increased. The onlyexception to this rule are the shoulders. In order to keep this part of thefigure as strong as possible, the shoulders should be cut only slightlynarrower than the required finished width.

2. Once the dimensions of the inner-core have been established, draw thepattern onto a piece of tissue paper. To keep the shape symmetrical, foldthe tissue in half and using this as the centre line, draw one side of thepattern only. Turn the tissue paper over and trace through the shape tocreate the second half of the pattern.

3. Using the diagram as a guide, mark the inside panel onto the pattern. This should exactly mirror the shape of the inner-core and is positionedapproximately 1.5 cm inside the outer edge.

4. Finally, a central pole socket must be marked onto the bottom of thepattern. As poles can vary in size, the diameter of the relevant pole shouldbe measured, reduced by approximately 2 mm and used as the width of thesocket. The length of the socket can also vary, but to ensure the stability ofthe figure, a minimum of 20 cm should be allowed.

5. It may be necessary to trace off several versions of this pattern, as the tissuepaper is often damaged when marking the pattern onto the material.

7

412.5

5

17

31

50

12

27

2027

2.5

6615

26

31

Scale = 5cm Figure 7.11

Pattern for aPlastazote®/Ethafoam®

figure.


Marking and cutting out the Plastazote®/Ethafoam®

1. Choose a sheet of Plastazote®/Ethafoam® with a depth of approximately2.5–3 cm. Lay the tissue pattern on top of the material, holding it in placewith a few pins.

2. Mark the pattern onto the surface of the Plastazote® using a tracing wheel.Do not mark the pole shaft, but make sure that both the inner panel andouter pattern lines are transferred. Move the pattern and repeat thisprocess, marking out a second shape identical to the first. Label thesepieces 1 and 2.

3. Move the pattern once more and mark a third shape. This time the poleshaft should be marked, but the inner panel shape can be omitted. Labelthis piece 3.

4. To clarify the markings, go over all the wheeled tracing lines with a permanent marker pen.

5. With a cutting board positioned beneath the Plastazote®, cut out pieces 1, 2and 3, using a large craft or kitchen knife. In addition cut out and removethe pole shaft marked on piece 3.

6. Using a sheet of Plastazote® with a depth of approximately 1.5 cm, markand cut out two inside panels, following the inner line on the pattern.Label these pieces F and B.

Preparing and assembling the inner-core

1. Before sticking the inner-core together, the edges of each piece should bechevroned to help create a more rounded shape. Start work on pieces 1 and2, carefully slicing off the corner edges on one surface of each shape. Use theinside panel line as a guide, angling the chevron from this line and slicingthrough approximately half the thickness of the Plastazote® (see Figure 7.12(a)).

2. 5–3 cm

Angle the knif e, cutting through half the thic kness of the Plastaz ote ®

Inside panel line

1.5

1.5

Figure 7.12(a)

Using a knife tochevron the edges ofpieces 1 and 2.


Leave the bottom of the Plastazote® intact, but trim down the corners ofthe neck. Piece 3 will not need shaping, but panels F and B should also betrimmed. For these two pieces, the chevron should be angled to include theentire thickness of the Plastazote®, (see Figure 7.12(b)) while the areaacross the shoulders should be whittled to a greater extent, graduating the chevron over a wider expanse.

2. Assemble the inner-core by sticking pieces 1, 2 and 3 together with hot-meltglue. Make sure that piece 3 is positioned in the middle, with the chevronedges of pieces 1 and 2 facing outwards.

3. Glue panel F and B on top of pieces 1 and 2, making sure that they areplaced evenly.

4. Once dry, the inner-core can be positioned onto a pole and stand by slidingthe pole up the central shaft.

Angle the knif e, cutting through the entire thic kness of the Plastaz ote ®

1.5 1.5 cm

Figure 7.12(b)

Using a knife to chevronthe edges of panels Fand B.

Panel B

Panel F

Piece 1

Piece 2

Piece 3

Chevronedges

Figure 7.12(c)

Completed inner core.


Padding the inner-core

1. Before padding can be applied, the inner-core must be covered in a layerof cotton jersey (see p. 57). To ensure the jersey is as tight and firm aspossible, stitch the side seams by hand rather than removing the jersey formachining. Secure the hem of the cover by stitching the front and backtogether beneath the base of the inner-core, leaving a gap for the pole.

2. Once the inner-core has been covered, polyester wadding can be applied,using the same techniques described in Chapter 4 (p. 78). Before startingwork, use pins to mark the level of the bust, waist and bottom on theinner-core. As the shape of the figure is essentially built up from scratch, agreater amount of padding will be required and the diagrams below canbe used to assist with this process. To develop particular historical bodyshapes see the relevant sections in Chapter 4.

3. Once the figure has been padded to the correct shape and size, a neck canbe constructed out of museum board and calico, using the instructions onp. 54. Although the inner-core is cut with a basic neck shape, this should beused as a support rather than the neck itself. Once the new neck has beenmade, position it over the Plastazote® stump, ensuring that it is angledforwards. Smooth out the shape by covering in a fine layer of polyesterwadding.

4. Complete the figure with a fabric top cover (see p. 57) and finish with aneck disc (p. 71).

(a)

Using pins tomark the level ofthe bust, waistand bottom.

Figure 7.13

Padding up a Plastazote®/Ethafoam® figure.

(b)

Padding thefront of thefigure.


(c)

Padding the sideof the figure.

(d)

Padding the backof the figure.

Appendix

Bas ic SewingTechniques

This chapter is for the benefit of those with limited sewing experience, cover-ing all needlework techniques that are required for the projects in this book.Methods are kept simple, making them easy to learn and use.

Usefu l K i t

Cutting tools

Dressmaking scissors/shears Used to cut dressmaking fabrics. To prevent the blades from becoming blunt, these scissors should be reserved for use with fabric only.

Pinking shears Used to neaten raw edges of fabric. The serrated blades are not easily sharpened and to prevent them from becoming blunt, scissors should be reserved for use with fabric only.

Embroidery scissors Small sharp snips used for more intricate cutting and trimming.

Craft scissors Used to cut paper, cardboard, nylon net, polyester wadding etc.

Scalpel and blades Used for cutting cardboard, Reemay®, buckram etc.

Large kitchen knife Used for cutting Plastazote®/ Ethafoam®.

Measuring tools

Dressmakers tape measure Essential for work with costume. A narrow tape measure (approximately 1 cm wide) is particularly recommended. If not available, standard tape measures can be trimmed down or cut in half.

Steel tape measure Useful for measuring longer distances such as the height of mannequins.

Rulers Standard length rulers used for drawing patterns etc.

Yardstick Used for drawing larger patterns.

Tailor’s L-square or set square Not essential, but a useful tool for drawing patterns.

Compass Needed for drafting certain patterns.

Continued225


Marking tools

Tailor’s chalk Used to mark patterns onto fabric. Can be purchased in a variety of different dispensers.

Pencil Used to mark patterns onto fabric.

Tracing wheel Used to mark patterns onto fabric. Tracing wheels are designed to work in combination with carbon paper, however, to avoid possible off-set onto original textiles, carbon paper should not be used for costume mounting purposes. Fabrics can be marked instead with indentations only. Available in various different styles, a spiked wheel generally achieves the best results.

Piece of thick cardboard This can be used in combination with the tracing wheel and will help improve the clarity of the indented markings. The cardboard should be positioned beneath the fabric, to provide a softer surface for the wheel to press into.

Hand tools

Coloured glass headed pins Particularly useful when working with polyester wadding, as pins remain visible and are less likely to get left in the padding.

Dressmaking pins Can be used with all sewing projects. Longer, finer varieties such as wedding dress or lace pins are usually better.

Entomological pins Particularly fine pins that can occasionally be employed for use with original costume. Pins are available in different thicknesses and should always be cleaned before use (p. 12).

Needles A variety of hand sewing and curved needles.

Thimble Used to protect the middle finger when sewing by hand.

Tweezers Useful for removing tacking stitches, threading machine needles, picking off small pieces of fluff from a costume and a variety of other uses.

Fine sculptor’s spatula A practical tool that can be used to assist with the final tweaks and adjustments when mounting a costume.

Basic threads – 100% polyester thread, weight No: 70, used for machine gathering and heavy hand sewing.

– 100% polyester thread, weight Black, white and No: 120, used for standard machine neutral.and finer hand sewing.

– 100% polyester heavy weight buttonhole thread, No: 30.

�

Machinery and accessories

Sewing machine A basic sewing machine is perfectly sufficient to carry out the techniques in this book. The only two essential stitches are straight and zigzag stitch.

Sewing machine accessories

– General purpose foot – This foot will accommodate both straight stitch and zigzag.

– Machine needles – Depending on the type of machine, a stock of domestic or industrial machine needles will be required. Generally, size No: 70 and 80 are most useful. Machine needles should be changed regularly.

– Spare bobbins – Keeping a number of bobbins supplied with the most frequently used threads saves time and wastage.

– Sewing machine manual – This will contain vital information about using the machine, including the method for threading up, stitch settings and maintenance etc.

Overlocker (or Serger) This is not an essential piece of equipment and all techniques in this book can be carried out without overlocking. However, these machines are extremely useful and can considerably reduce making time.

Overlocker accessories

– Needles – A stock of machine needles will be required.

– Spare blades – The cutting blades will become blunt over time and will need replacing periodically.

– Overlocking thread – Cheap and fine overlocking thread can be purchased on large cones.

– Tweezers – Used to assist with threading up.

– Overlocker manual – This will contain vital information about using the overlocker, including the method for threading up the machine, stitch settings, changing the blades and needles and machine maintenance etc.

Steam iron Used to press fabrics and seams etc.

Iron accessories

– Ironing board – A standard domestic ironing board is adequate.

– Sleeve board – Designed for pressing narrow parts of a garment, such as a sleeve, that will not fit onto a standard ironing board.

– Tailor’s ham – Designed to assist with the pressing of curved seams.

– Pressing mitt – An ironing pad, designed to be worn on one hand. Useful for pressing small areas of a garment that cannot be supported on an ironing or sleeve board.

– Iron cleaner and rags – Essential for cleaning the plate of the iron.

B A S I C S E W I N G T E C H N I Q U E S 227

Usefu l Hand S t i t ches

Running stitch: The simplest hand stitch, formed by weaving the needle inand out of the fabric in one direction. The size of the stitch can vary accordingto the task being carried out, from approximately 2–8 mm.

Gathering stitch: This is the same as a running stitch, but is used to pull fabricinto gathers. Use a sturdy thread and make sure that one end is securely knottedto the fabric and the other end left loose. Once the line of running stitch has beenworked, draw the fabric into gathers by pulling on the loose end and pushing thefabric in the opposite direction.


Use and Ma in tenance o f Sewing Mach ines

Although it may take a short while to become accustomed to using a sewingmachine, they are generally very straightforward and user friendly. To maintaina high standard of stitching, change the needles frequently and ensure that thebobbin and upper spool are threaded up correctly, using a matching thread.Difficulties with stitching are usually caused by superficial problems withtension or needles and can be quickly adjusted. Having access to the machine’smanual will make this easier. To keep machines in good working order, makesure they are regularly cleaned and serviced. Older machines will also requireoiling.

Troubleshooting machine problems

Frequent problems Possible causes

Skipping stitches The needle may not be positioned high enough or could need replacing.

Breaking thread and puckered The needle may be inserted the wrong way stitch lines round or could need replacing. The upper spool

or bobbin tension may be too tight.

Needle unthreading The needle may be inserted the wrong way round.

Loops forming on the underside The machine may not be threaded up correctly. of the fabric The upper spool tension may be too loose or the

bobbin tension too tight.

Loops forming on the upper side The machine may not be threaded up correctly. of the fabric The upper spool tension may be too tight or the

bobbin tension too loose.

Tacking or basting: This is a large running stitch, used temporarily to holdlayers of fabric or seam lines together. Each stitch is approximately 1–2 cm longand set 1–2 cm apart. Tacking should be removed once the fabric has beenpermanently stitched.

Flat tacking: A term applied to the temporary tacking stitch used to securetwo flat pieces of fabric together when backing one layer with another. Thiskind of tacking should be carried out flat on a table.

Tailor’s tacks: This is a traditional way of marking a pattern onto fabric andcan be useful for delicate materials that might be disfigured by other tech-niques. With the tissue still pinned to the fabric, fold back the pattern along theseam lines and use as a guide. Using a double thread, work a line of runningstitch along the folded edge leaving a large loop between each stitch. To sepa-rate the two layers, remove the pattern and gently pull the fabric apart, snip-ping the tacks in between and leaving thread markings on each piece. Tailor’stacks can also be stitched directly through a tissue pattern, but in order to removethe paper, the upper loops of thread must be cut, as well as snipping the tacksbetween the layers of fabric.


Figure A.1

Running stitch.

Figure A.2

Tailor’s tacks.

Prickstitch: This is a variation of backstitch, forming a stitch that is almost invisible from the front of the fabric. Carry out the same instructions for back-stitch, but reduce the size of each backwards stitch to the width of a pinprick.A less robust, but similar effect can be created using a running stitch.


Thread tracing: Using a running stitch, this is a simple method for transferringessential pattern markings from the wrong side to the right side of the fabric.

Backstitch: This is one of the strongest hand stitches and can be used as analternative to a machine straight stitch. On the front, the stitches form a neatcontinuous line with no gaps, while on the back, the stitches overlap. Pass theneedle through the fabric, from back to front. Take a small stitch backwardsand push the needle up through the fabric so that it comes out approximately3 mm ahead of the previous stitch. Repeat this process, always inserting theneedle through the end of the last stitch.

Figure A.3

Backstitch.

Figure A.4

Prick stitch.

Ladder stitch or drawing stitch: This can be used as a variation to slipstitchand is a useful way of securing folds under tension. Working from the right sideof the fabric, alternate stitches are taken in the folds. Pull the thread taut andbegin each new stitch parallel to the end of the last (see Figure A.7).

Herringbone stitch: This stitch is used for sewing down a raw edge and keep-ing it flat. The stitch is always worked from left to right. Set in from the edge ofthe top fabric by approximately 0.6 cm, alternate backstitches are taken acrossthe raw edge, creating a cross-stitch effect (see Figure A.8).


Slipstitch: This is an invisible stitch used to fasten down a folded edge andcan also be used for hemming. Slide the needle through the edge of the fold.Catch a small stitch through the under fabric and pass the needle back into thefold, sliding along for approximately 3–8 mm. Repeat the process. To preventstitches from showing on the right side of the fabric when securing a hem,ensure that the needle only picks up a few fibres from the under fabric.

Figure A.6

Slipstitch.

Figure A.5

Whipstitch.

Whipstitch: A simple diagonal stitch, generally used to join two edges together.

Blanket stitch: As this stitch is generally used as a decorative edge finish, it isnot often required for costume mounting. With the edge of the fabric towardsyou, the stitch should be worked from left to right. After anchoring the thread,push the needle through the fabric towards you, approximately 0.6 cm fromthe edge. Loop the thread under the point of the needle and pull taut.


Figure A.9

Blanket stitch.

Figure A.7

Ladder stitch.

Figure A.8

Herringbone stitch.

Worked loops: These can be used as an alternative to buttonholes and metaleyes and bars for hooks. Using buttonhole thread, make two or three longstitches in the garment, the required length and position of the loop or bar andsecure the ends. To strengthen the long stitches, work a line of blanket stitchover them creating a sturdy fastening.

Usefu l Mach ine S t i t ches

Straight stitch: This is the most important and frequently used machine stitchand can be used to sew seams together etc. The length of the stitch can usuallybe varied according to requirement, but a standard stitch length is 2.5–3 mm.

Gathering stitch: Machine gathers are created using a straight stitch set on thelongest stitch length. Leave at least one end of the stitch line with loose ends anddraw the fabric into gathers by pulling on the bobbin thread. To prevent this fromsnapping, a thicker thread can be used and the upper spool tension loosened.

Topstitching: Although topstitching in dressmaking can be decorative, forthe purposes of this book it is highly functional and used to secure foldedhems, necks and waistlines etc. Topstitching is basically a straight stitch used sothat it is visible on the right side of the fabric.


Figure A.10

Buttonhole stitch.

Buttonhole stitch: This is used to strengthen the raw edges of button or eyeletholes, preventing them from fraying. Before starting, secure the thread to thewrong side of the fabric and pass the needle through the eyelet or buttonhole.Work the first stitch by pushing the needle down through the fabric approxi-mately 3 mm away from the cut edge and up through the hole. Before pullingthrough, wrap the thread around the point of the needle, in the direction inwhich you are working. Draw the needle through the fabric, forming a smallknot, which should be positioned along the top of the cut edge. Repeat thisprocess keeping the stitches fairly close together.

Machine thread tracing: This is a simple method for transferring essentialpattern markings from the wrong side to the right side of the fabric, using astraight stitch.

Zigzag: This is a useful stitch, most commonly used for neatening raw edges,or applying polyester boning to fabric. The size and length of the stitch canusually be varied according to requirement.

Stretch overlocking stitch: This stitch is not essential to the techniques in thisbook and can be replaced with a small zigzag stitch. Many sewing machines providean overlocking stitch which is particularly valuable for use with stretch fabrics.When seaming together materials of this kind, the overlocking stitch should beprogrammed to a small narrow setting. Once the seam has been stitched, trimaway any excess fabric close to the stitch line, leaving a small neat seam.

Reverse stitch: Most machines have a mechanism that allows the stitch direc-tion to be reversed. Using reverse stitching is a simple way of securing thethreads at the beginning and end of a seam to prevent them from undoing.

Making and Us ing Pa t te r ns

Although making paper patterns can seem daunting to someone with littlesewing experience, for the purposes of costume mounting, they can be keptvery simple. Patterns can be made out of any kind of paper, but using a semi-transparent tissue paper is usually the best option. Use a sharp pencil, makinguse of rulers when necessary and label pattern pieces clearly, so that they canbe easily identified, writing on any additional notes or instructions.

Marking stitch lines and seam allowance: Although standard dressmakingpatterns generally include seam allowance they do not always have clearlydefined stitch lines. When drafting your own, stitch lines and seam allowanceshould always be drawn onto the pattern as two separate markings. Havingclearly defined stitch lines will not only make the pattern more straightforwardto draft, but will also be more accurate and easier to use. Stitch lines should bemarked onto the tissue with a continuous or dotted line. Once the panel hasbeen drawn, a seam allowance of approximately 2 cm can be added around theperimeter. Complete the pattern by cutting out the tissue panel along thisouter line. For centre front and sometimes centre back pieces, the pattern canoften be drawn as a half panel, with a straight line running down one side, toindicate the central axis. To duplicate the second half of the pattern whencutting out, match this line to the fold in the fabric and cut out the panel asone. Mark this line on the pattern clearly with the words ‘CUT ON FOLD’ anddo not add seam allowance to it.

Marking on the straight of grain: In order to position the pattern correctly on the fabric, all pieces must be marked with the straight of grain. On fabrics,the straight of grain is the strongest part of the cloth and runs up and down,


parallel to the selvages. It can be represented on a pattern by a single straightline drawn onto each paper panel.

Checking the length of the stitch lines: Where two separate panels will bestitched together into a seam, always double check that the length of the stitchlines match each other. This can be done by measuring with a tape measure orby overlapping one semi-transparent pattern piece with another and visibly testingwhether the relevant lines marry up. Where curved stitch lines diverge, use thepoint of a pencil to hold the two patterns together, pivoting the top piece overthe bottom so that the stitch lines remain exactly on top of each other. For verycurved seams, this process may need to be carried out several times.

Balance marks: Balance marks are used to help match up seams when sewingthem together and will make the construction of a garment much easier. Theycan be represented on a pattern as a dot or a dash on the stitch line. Whenincorporating these useful markers into a pattern, select one stitch line anddraw on the balance marks (one or two is usually sufficient). Transfer thesemarks onto the corresponding pattern piece by measuring the matching stitchline with a tape measure or by laying the second pattern piece over the top of thefirst and tracing the balance points through. Where curved stitch lines diverge,use the point of a pencil to hold the two patterns together, pivoting the top pieceover the bottom so that the stitch lines remain exactly on top of each other. Forvery curved seams, this process may need to be carried out several times.

Using a pattern to cut out the fabric: It is customary when making patternsto draw only half of the required panels, as these can generally be reversed andduplicated for the second half of the pattern. To speed up the cutting process,it is standard practice to lay out the tissue panels on a double layer of fabric,thereby cutting out all garment pieces simultaneously. Prepare the fabric byfolding it in half, matching selvage to selvage and lay it out on a flat surface.Position the pattern pieces on the folded fabric, matching the marked straight ofgrain to the line of the selvages. Hold the pattern pieces in place with pins and cutalong the outside edge of the tissue. For centre front and sometimes centre backpieces, the pattern is often drawn as a half panel with a straight line running downone side to indicate the central axis. To duplicate the second half of the patternwhen cutting out, match this line to the fold in the fabric and cut out the panel asone. In some cases pattern pieces may be too wide to fit on doubled fabric. Whenthis occurs, unfold the fabric and cut out the panels individually or fold the fabricthe other way.

Marking patterns onto the fabric: It is essential to transfer the stitch linesonto the fabric and this can be done in several different ways. The easiestmethod is to use a tracing wheel. This tool is designed to work in combinationwith carbon paper, however, to avoid possible off-set onto original textiles, this material should not be used for costume mounting purposes. Fabrics can bemarked instead with indentations only. Using a spiked tool, roll the wheel along


Cutting on the bias: Cutting a garment on the bias will give a fabric greaterelasticity and can create some interesting effects. Using this technique however,is less straightforward than working with the fabric on the straight of grain andshould only be used in costume mounting when absolutely necessary. Patternpieces should be positioned diagonally on the fabric, with their vertical axisrunning at 45° to the straight of grain. To assist with this process, it is a good ideato find and mark the angle of this line before laying out the pattern. One of the


Str

aigh

t of g

rain

Cut

on

f old

Tissue paper

patter n

2 cm

Balance ma rk s

Mar king the stitch line

Stitch line Seam allo w ance

F olded f abr ic

Sel

v age

edg

e

Figure A.11

Making and usingpatterns.

the stitch lines, pressing the teeth firmly through the pattern and into thefabric, creating a series of dents. The clarity of these markings will be improvedby placing a piece of cardboard beneath the fabric. Wheel markings should bevisible on both the front and back panels. Make sure that all stitch lines,balance marks, darts and any other construction points are marked onto thefabric before removing the pattern. If necessary, lines can be clarified once thepattern is removed by going over the indentations with a light pencil or tailor’schalk. Make sure that any marks are drawn onto the wrong side of the fabric.

simplest ways of doing this is to fold the fabric diagonally and press lightly withan iron to create a slight but visible crease. Alternatively the fold line can be marked with pins or a line of tacking. To create a fold with an accurateangle, match the horizontal edge at the top of the fabric with one of the vertical selvages. This technique is especially useful when cutting out long biasribbons for binding.

St i t ch ing Seams

Stitch lines should always be pinned or tacked together before seaming. Begin theprocess by pinning the top and bottom of the stitch lines together and matchingany balance marks or notches in between. The remainder of the stitch lines canthen be pinned together between these anchor points. Pins should be positionedexactly on the stitch lines, making sure that the lines on each panel tally. To dothis, keep checking the far side of the seam to ensure the pins are placedcorrectly. Make sure that the pins are positioned with the points away from youwhen you are sewing. In this way, they will remain in the fabric as long as possibleand can be easily removed. Once prepared, the seams can be stitched. Whenusing a machine, use a standard length straight stitch (2.5–3 mm) and sewalong the marked stitch lines, removing the pins as you reach them. To preventthe stitches from undoing, reverse stitch at the beginning and end of each seam.

F in i sh ing Raw Edges

Pinking shears: Using pinking shears is the simplest way of finishing a rawedge to prevent it from fraying. Use the shears to trim the fabric, leaving aneatly cut zigzag edge. This technique is not suitable for all materials, particu-larly those that are excessively prone to fray.


Figure A.12

Finishing a raw edgewith machine zigzag.

Overlocking: Using an overlocker is a quick and effective way to finish rawedges as the fabric is trimmed and stitched in one process. Seam allowances canbe pressed open and finished individually or overlocked together.

Zigzag: Machine zigzag can be used as an effective finish for raw edges, thoughslightly more time consuming than the previous two methods. When usingzigzag as a finishing technique, position the stitch line so that it is set in fromthe raw edge. Once completed, the excess fabric can be trimmed away as closeto the zigzag stitching as possible. Seam allowances can be pressed open andfinished individually or stitched together and trimmed as one.

I ron ing

Although most of the supports and underpinnings described in this book willbe hidden beneath the costume, using an iron when sewing will make construc-tion easier, as well as improving the garment’s finished appearance. Beforepressing, seam allowances must be trimmed and finished with pinking shears,zigzag or overlocking and curved seams should be clipped into. When pressingseams, work from the wrong side of the garment and start by running an ironalong the stitch line, to smooth out any puckers. The seam allowance can thenbe ironed to one side or pressed open. Once the seam allowance has been flat-tened as required, turn the garment the right way out and press the seam fromthe front. To assist with curves or particularly narrow parts of a garment, suchas the sleeves, a ham, ironing mitt or sleeve board may be required.

Dar t s

A dart is a wedge-shaped fold of fabric, pinched together and stitched to helpmould a garment to fit the body. Tapering to a point, darts can be single ordouble ended. For example, those used to reduce the waist of a petticoat will


Figure A.13

Stitching a dart.

be shaped like an upside down triangle, wide at the top, narrowing to a pointfurther into the garment. A dart used to create the elbow in a sleeve support willbe diamond shaped, wide in the middle and narrowing to points at both ends.

Stitching a dart: Always pin or tack darts together before stitching. Whenusing pins, make sure that they are positioned with the points away from youwhen you are sewing. For triangular darts, always start at the widest end andstitch down into the point. To keep the end of the dart as smooth as possible,do not finish with a reverse stitch, but continue machining off the fabric, creat-ing a short tail of woven thread, approximately 2 cm long. Remove the fabric fromthe machine leaving the tail intact as this will prevent the dart from undoing.

Pressing darts: Darts can be ironed in several different ways. For those madein finer fabrics, darts can either be pushed to one side (generally towards theback of the garment) and pressed flat, or ironed so that half the dart is on oneside of the stitch line and half on the other. To reduce the bulk of those made inthicker fabrics, the dart can be snipped down the fold, stopping approximately1/2 cm from the point and the edges pressed open.

Hemming Techn iques

Marking a hem with a ruler: In the context of costume mounting, petticoatsand underpinnings will generally be invisible beneath the costume and will notrequire a special fitting to establish an exact hemline. Instead, the hem can bemarked using the ruler method. Place the petticoat or underpinning on thefigure and, using a pin, mark onto it the waist to hem measurement of thecostume. Raise the pin by a minimum of 2.5 cm to ensure that the petticoat willbe shorter than the costume. Place a ruler vertically on the ground and meas-ure up to this level. Using this measurement, continue around the petticoatmarking the hemline with more pins. This process is usually easier with thefigure placed on a table.

Marking a hem from a costume: In some cases, the hemline of an underpin-ning must correspond more exactly to that of the costume (for example, visible petticoats constructed for skirts made out of sheer fabrics). In order to do this, a specialist fitting will be required. Place the petticoat on the figurewith the costume positioned over the top. Using dressmaking pins or a tackline, mark the hem of the costume onto the petticoat. If pins are used, ensurethat all sharp tips are pointing inwards so that the costume is in no danger ofcatching on them. The hems of historical costumes are often warped ormisshapen and the marked line should exactly mirror these discrepancies.Once completed, remove the costume and petticoat from the figure. To ensurethe petticoat will not dip below the bottom of the costume, mark a second lineof pins or tacking 1–2 cm above the first and turn the hem up along this line.



Inside of costum e

Inside of costum e

T op stitching F old up along ma rk ed line and iron

0.5 cm

1 cm

Figure A.14

Quick method forfinishing a hem.


Quick method for finishing a hem: With the underpinning or petticoat thewrong way out, fold up the hem along the previously marked line of pins ortacking and press with an iron. Leaving a turning of approximately 1 cm, trimand finish the raw edge with pinking shears, overlocking or zigzag. Workingfrom the wrong side of the fabric, secure the fold with a line of topstitching,approximately 0.5 cm from the edge. Press the finished hem with an iron.

P lacke t s

Plackets are slits or openings inserted into a fitted garment, such as the waist of a petticoat or skirt, making it wide enough to dress on and off a figure.There are many different techniques for making plackets, but for the purposes of costume mounting, they can be kept as simple as possible. Whencreating a placket, ensure that it is long enough to allow the garment to bedressed with ease and always position it where it will be least noticeable, such as the centre back or sides. Regular fastenings such as hooks, bars and press-studs can be used to close the opening, but in most cases, a smoother flatterfinish is created by stitching the placket shut once the garment is dressed onthe figure.

Making a placket opening in a seam: The easiest way to create a placket is to leave part of a seam unstitched. For example when making a petticoat, stitching can be terminated 15 cm from the top of the centre back seam, creat-ing a natural opening. To give the placket a more characteristic under-lap, clipinto the seam allowance at the bottom of the opening. Finish the raw edgeswith pinking shears, overlocking or zigzag and fold in one side along the orig-inal stitch line, securing the fold with topstitching. Leave the other side to flap naturally across, creating an under-lap. To secure the bottom of the placket, top stitch through all layers, holding the seam allowance in this position.


T opstitching secur ing the f old

Inside of gar ment

Clipped seam allo w ance

Seam line

Figure A.15

Making a placket opening in a seam.

Simple slit placket: In some cases, it is necessary to create an opening in apiece of fabric where there is no seam. To do this, mark the slit onto the wrong side of the fabric with tailor’s chalk or a pencil. Using a small straight stitch,machine down one side of the marked slit line, at a distance of approximately3 mm. At the bottom of the slit, leave the needle in the fabric, release the pres-sure foot and rotate the fabric by 90°. Work a few stitches across the bottom of the slit before rotating the fabric once more and stitching back up the farside. Snip down the slit line, using a pair of pinking shears. Fold the pinkededges to the inside of the garment and stitch in place by hand or machine (see Figure A.16).

Gather ing Techn iques

Gathers are a series of small folds or tucks made in a garment to reduce its over-all width to a narrower dimension. Gathers can be made as full or as sparse asnecessary and will depend on the width of the ungathered fabric compared tothe required finished width.

Draw-thread method: This is the most basic gathering technique and is achievedby pulling the fabric up on lines of hand or machine stitching. Whether gath-ering by hand or machine, two parallel lines of stitching approximately 1/2 cm apart, should be used. This will reduce the strain on the thread whendrawing up the fabric and help keep the gathers straight. If using a machine forthis job, always make sure that the two lines of stitching are worked in the samedirection and on the same side of the fabric. When working with large quanti-ties of fabric or net, it is a good idea to leave the threads loose at each end, sothat the gathers can be pulled up from both sides. To help draw up the gathersevenly, mark the centre of the fabric with a pin and lock the gathering stitchesat this point by reverse stitching. Once the fabric has been pulled up, knot theends of the threads to prevent the gathers from undoing. To secure the gath-ers further, stitch them down with a small zigzag or hand backstitch.


Inside of garment

Stitch line

Marked slit

Inside of garment

Slit with pinking shears

Figure A.16

Making a simple slitplacket.


Quick-gather method: This technique can only be carried out on a machineand is particularly useful when manufacturing frills made of heavier nets. Inthis case, the finished appearance of the frill is not important and a morerough and ready approach can be taken to gathering. To carry out this method,set the sewing machine to a standard straight stitch. Starting at one end, use thepoint of a pair of scissors to push the net into small pleats beneath the foot ofthe machine, stitching them in place as you go. Continue to gather the net inthis way until you have reached the far end. Remove the net from the machineand check its width. If the frill is too long, return it to the machine and repeatthe process, gathering up as much or as little as required. Remember that theemphasis of this method is on speed rather than accuracy.

Drawstring method: As an alternative to the two previous methods, the waistlineof petticoats or underpinnings can be gathered using a drawstring. This is doneby creating a simple channel in the top of the garment and threading a lengthof tape or cord through it. To make the channel, first neaten the raw edge atthe top of the petticoat with pinking shears, overlocking or zigzag. Fold in thefinished edge by approximately 1.5–2.5 cm and hold in place with pins. Securethe fold with a line of topstitching positioned as close to the top edge as possi-ble. Work a second line of stitching below the first, making sure that the distanceseparating them is slightly wider than width of the drawstring. For skirts with noplacket, a small slit in a seam must be opened to allow the drawstring to beinserted. When threading the drawstring through the channel, attach a safetypin to one end and feed it between the two lines of stitching. Once fully in posi-tion, the drawstring can be used to pull the waist of the petticoat into gathers.


Opening in seam

Figure A.17

Gathering the top of a skirt using the drawstring method.

P lea t ing Techn iques

Pleats are essentially a series of folds or tucks taken in the fabric and held inplace with stitching. For the purposes of costume mounting, they are princi-pally treated as an alternative to gathers and used to shape and reduce fabricaround the top of a petticoat or underpinning. By comparison, using pleats forthis job will create a flatter smoother finish and in some instances can be quicker.

Distributing pleats around a waistband: Although pleating techniques used indressmaking tend to be very exact, in the context of costume mounting, pleatscan usually be arranged by eye. Depending on the quantity of fabric involved,pleats can be pinched into folds of any size and spaced out as required. To keepeach side as symmetrical as possible, halve and quarter the top of the petticoatand mark each point with a pin. Dress the petticoat onto the mannequin, secur-ing the centre front and centre back points to the appropriate position on thewaist of the figure. The quarter points should be secured to the side waist. Withthe petticoat anchored in this way, pleat up the excess fabric between these fourpoints, creating the same number of pleats on each side.


Figure A.18

Different pleats.Knife pleats: These pleats are used

most frequently and are formed bypinching the fabric into folds andflattening them to one side. Knifepleats can be pushed in either direc-tion, but are generally arranged sothat the folds point towards the back.This means that the pleating eitherside of a petticoat should fan outfrom the centre front in oppositedirections.


Inverted pleats: These are formedby two knife pleats facing towardseach other with the folds exactlymeeting in the centre.

Box pleats: These are formed bytwo knife pleats facing away from eachother with the under-fold meetingexactly at the centre.

Bon ing

Boning is a general term that describes the material used to stiffen garmentssuch as bodices and structured skirt supports. Originally made from whale-bones, it is now made out of man-made materials, such as polyester. A heavy-duty variety manufactured out of strips of flexible steel is also available.

Applying polyester boning directly to fabric: Rigilene® or polyester boning isthe easiest type of stiffening to use, as it can be sewn directly to the fabric. Applythe boning to the fabric by stitching through both layers, using a machine zigzagstitch. When using Rigilene® to stiffen cylindrical underpinnings, always applythe boning to the inside of the garment and overlap the ends by approximately10 cm. As Rigilene® is often stored in a tight coil, it is generally bent into acurve. Make sure that this curve corresponds to the curve of the finishedunderpinning. If necessary, Rigilene® can also be pressed with an iron to flattenit, but take care not to melt the polyester.

Boning channels or casings: To attach non-stitch boning such as steels to anunderpinning, a casing or channel must be created through which the steel canbe threaded. Casings can be made out of twill or cotton tape, applied to the insideof the underpinning. Position the tape as appropriate and fasten to the fabric withtwo parallel lines of stitching, creating a channel. Make sure that the channel isslightly broader than the width of the steel, so that it can be threaded comfortablyinto the casing, but snugly enough to prevent it from twisting. An opening shouldbe left in the casing through which the steel can be inserted, although this will notbe necessary when making the crinoline frame described in Chapter 5. To facili-tate the threading of a steel, the sharp ends can be temporarily covered with smallpieces of masking tape, to prevent them from snagging on the tape.


Tape Steel or boning

Garment

Figure A.19

Making channels orcasings for boning.

Back ing o r Mount ing One Fabr i c onto Another

This is a useful way of stiffening a light-weight or transparent fabric and isachieved by mounting one layer of material on top of another. Unlike thelining of a garment, which is usually made up independently and inserted at alater stage, items stiffened using this technique should be backed before theseams are stitched. Any fabric can be stiffened using this method. Sturdyfabrics, such as plain cottons are generally selected as a backing. Cut out a setof pattern pieces in the chosen top and backing fabrics, making sure that thestraight of grain is correctly positioned on all panels. Using a tracing wheel,mark the stitch lines etc. onto the backing fabric only and remove the tissuepattern. With the fabric flat on the table, mount each panel of top fabric ontoa corresponding backing and smooth out any wrinkles. Pin the two piecestogether around the perimeter and turn the fabric over. Using a needle andthread, work a line of flat tacking along the outside edge of each stitch line andremove the pins. The two separate pieces of fabric can now be treated as one.


Bibl iography

Pat te r n Books

Arnold, J. (1977). Patterns of Fashion 2: Englishwomen’s dresses and their construction, C. 1860-1940. Macmillan, London. ISBN 0 333 13607 1.

Arnold, J. (1984). Patterns of Fashion 1: Englishwomen’s dresses and their construction, C. 1660-1860. Macmillan, London. ISBN 0 333 13606 3.

Hunnisett, J. (1988). Period Costume for Stage and Screen, Patterns for Women’s Dress, 1800-1909. Unwin Hyman Limited, London. ISBN 0 04 440086 1.

Hunnisett, J. (1991). Period Costume for Stage and Screen, Patterns for Women’s Dress, 1500-1800.Players Press, Studio City, CA. ISBN 0887346103.

Waugh, N. (1987). The Cut of Women’s Clothes, 1600-1930. Faber and Faber Limited,London. ISBN 0 571 08594 6.

Waugh, N. (1993). Corsets and Crinolines. Routledge/ Theatre Arts Books, New York.Waugh, N. (1994). The Cut of Men’s Clothes, 1600-1900. Faber and Faber Limited,

London. ISBN 0 571 05714 4.

Genera l Cos tume H i s to ry

Buck, A. (1979). Dress in Eighteenth Century England. B.T. Batsford Ltd, London. ISBN 0 7134 0415 9.

Byrde, P. (1992). Nineteenth Century Fashion. Batsford, London. ISBN 0713455462.Carter, A. (1992). Underwear, the Fashion History. Batsford, London. ISBN 0713462211.Chenoune, F. (1993). A History of Men’s Fashion. Flammarion, Paris. ISBN 2 8013 536 8.Costantino, M. (1997). Men’s Fashion in the Twentieth Century, from Frock Coats to Intelligent

Fibres. B.T. Batsford Ltd, London. ISBN 0 7134 7203 0.Davis, R. I. (2000). Men’s 17th & 18th Costume, Cut and Fashion: Patterns for Men’s Costumes.

Players Press, Studio City, CA. ISBN 0 88734 637 5.De Marly, D. (1989). Fashion for Men: An Illustrated History. Batsford. London. ISBN

0 7134 4494 0.Doyle, R. (1997). Waisted Efforts, an Illustrated Guide to Corset Making. Sartorial Press

Publications, Halifax, N. S. ISBN 0 9683039 0 0.Ewing, E. (1978). Dress and Undress: a history of women’s underwear, Batsford, London.

ISBN 0 7134 1630 0.Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century: The Collection of the Kyoto

Costume Institute (F. Akiko, ed.) (2002). Taschen Köln, London. ISBN 3 8228 1206 4.Foster, V. (1986). The Nineteenth Century, a Visual History of Costume. Batsford, London.

ISBN 0 7134 4095 3.Gernsheim, A. (1981). Victorian and Edwardian Fashion, a Photographic Survey. Dover

Publications, New York. ISBN 0 486 24205 6.Gibbs-Smith, C. H. (1960). The Fashionable Lady in the 19th Century. London: Her Majesty’s

Stationery Office, London. ISBN 0112902294.

249

Ginsburg, M., Hart, A. and Mendes, V. D. (1992). Four Hundred Years of Fashion. TheVictoria and Albert Museum, London. ISBN 185177 116 6.

Hart, A. and North, S. (2000). Historical Fashion in Detail, the 17th and 18th Century.V&A Publications, London. ISBN 1 85177 2588.

Johnston, L. (2005). Nineteenth-Century Fashion in Detail. V&A Publications, London. ISBN 1 85177 4408.

Mansfield, A. and Cunnington, P. (1973). Handbook of English Costume in the 20th Century1900-1950. Faber and Faber Limited, London. ISBN 0 571 09507 0.

Ribeiro, A. (1984). Dress in Eighteenth Century Europe, 1715-1789. Batsford, London. ISBN 0 7134 4650 1.

Ribeiro, A. (1986). The Eighteenth Century: A Visual History of Costume. Batsford, London. ISBN 0 7134 4091 0.

Shep, R. L. (1993). Corsets: A Visual History. Mendocino, Calif. ISBN 0 914046 20 9.Sichel, M. (1984). History of Men’s Costume. Batsford, London. ISBN 07134 1513 4.Warren, P. (2001). Foundations of Fashion, the Symington Corsetry Collection, 1860-1990.

Leicestershire County Council, Leicester. ISBN 0 85022 4365.Wilcox, C. and Mendes, V. (2002). Modern Fashion in Detail. V&A Publications, London.

ISBN 1 85177 032 1.Willett Cunnington, C. and Cunnington, P. (1970). Handbook of English Costume in the

Nineteenth Century. Faber and Faber, London. ISBN 0 571 04703 3.

Other Use fu l Read ing

Brunn, M. and White, J. (2002). Museum Mannequins. Alberta Regional Group ofConservators, Alberta, Canada. ISBN 0 9730549 0 5.

Haldane, E. A. (1999). The Search for the Perfect Body – or How to Choose Your Mannequin.Unpublished MA research project, RCA/V&A Conservation, London.

Robinson, J. and Pardoe, T. (2000). An Illustrated Guide to the Care of Costume and TextileCollections. Museums and Galleries Commission, London. ISBN 0 948630 95 7.

Wood, J. (2001). A Guide to Accurate Measuring, from Figure to Fashion. Historic RoyalPalaces, London.


Suppl iers L is t

UK Supp l i e r s US Supp l i e r s

Fabric and Haberdashery/Notions Suppliers

Whaleyes (Bradford) Ltd.Harris CourtGreat HortonBradfordWest Yorkshire BD7 4EQTel: 01274 576718www.whaleys-bradford.ltd.uk

MacCulloch and Wallis25-26 Dering StreetLondon W1S 1ATTel: 020 76290311www.macculloch-wallis.co.uk

Wolfin Textiles Limited359 Uxbridge RoadHatch EndMiddlesex HA5 4JNTel: 020 84289911www.wolfintextiles.co.uk

Streets Interior TextilesFredrick HouseHurricane WayWickford Business ParkEssex SS11 8YBTel: 01268 766677www.streets.co.uk

Pongees (specialists in silk)28-30 Hoxton SquareLondon N1 6NNTel: 020 77399130www.pongees.co.uk

Baer Fabrics515 E. MarketLouisvilleKY 40202Tel: 800-769-7778www.baerfabrics.com

Testfabrics, Inc.415 Delaware AvenueP.O. Box 26West PittstonPA 18643Tel: 570-603-0432www.testfabrics.com

Thai Silks252 State StreetLos AltosCA 94022Tel: 650-948-3426

800-722-7455www.thaisilks.com

Richard the Thread8320 Melrose AvenueWest HollywoodCA 90069Tel: 800-473-4997www.richardthethread.com

251

S U P P L I E R S L I S T252


Fabric and Haberdashery/Notions Suppliers—cont’d

John Heathcoat and Co Ltd.(Nylon net)WestexeTivertonDevon EX16 5LLTel: 01884 244238/254949www.heathcoat.co.uk

Jacob Cowen and Sons Ltd (Polyester wadding)Ellers MillDalstonCarlisle,Cumbria, CA5 7QJTel: 01228 710205www.jacobcowen.com

Conservation Suppliers

Preservation Equipment LimitedVinces RoadDissNorfolk IP22 4HQTel: 01379 647400www.preservationequipment.com

Conservation By Design LimitedTimecare Works5 Singer WayWoburn road Ind. EstateKempstonBedford MK42 7AWTel: 01234 853555www.conservation-by-design.co.uk

Atlantis European Ltd (Paper products)7-9 Plumber’s RowLondon E1 1EQTel: 020 73778855www.atlantisart.co.uk

Talas20 West 20th Street5th FloorNew YorkNY 10011Tel: 212-219-0770www.talas-nyc.com

University Products, Inc.517 Main StreetP.O. Box 101HolyokeMA 01041-0101Tel: 800-628-1912www.universityproducts.com

Gaylord Bros.P.O. Box 4901SyracuseNY 13221-4901Tel: 800-448-6160www.gaylord.com

S U P P L I E R S L I S T 253


Conservation Suppliers—cont’d

Museum Services Corporation385 Bridgepoint DriveSouth St PaulMinnesotaMN 55075-2466Tel: 651-450-8954

800-672-1107www.museumservicescorporation.com

Archivart (Paper products)40 Eisenhower DriveParamusNJ 07652Tel: 800-804-8428www.archivart.com

Conservation Net

Dukeries Textiles & Fancy Goods LtdSpencia House15A Melbourne RoadWest BridgfordNottingham NG2 5DJTel: 0115 9816330

Dukeries Textiles & Fancy Goods LtdSpencia House15A Melbourne RoadWest BridgfordNottingham NG2 5DJTel: 0115 9816330

Entomological Pins

Watkins & DoncasterP.O. Box 5CranbrookKent TN18 5EZTel: 01580 753133www.watdon.com

Carolina Biological Supply2700 York RoadBurlingtonNC 27215Tel: 800-222-7112www.carolina.com



Steels and Boning

Devine and Co. Ltd.57a Brightwell AvenueWestcliff-on-seaEssex SS0 9EBTel: 01702 352500

MacCulloch and Wallis25-26 Dering StreetLondon W1S 1ATTel: 020 76290311www.macculloch-wallis.co.uk

Lacis3163 Adeline StreetBerkeleyCA 94703Tel: 510-843-7178www.lacis.com

Corset Making SuppliersDC EnterprisesP.O. Box 15743PhiladelphiaPA 19103Tel: 215-413-8259www.corsetmaking.com

Richard the Thread8320 Melrose AvenueWest HollywoodCA 90069Tel: 800-473-4997www.richardthethread.com

Plastazote®/ Ethafoam®

Ramplas Ltd.84 Birmingham RoadDudleyDY1 4RJTel: 01384 453160

University Products, Inc.517 Main StreetP.O. Box 101HolyokeMA 01041-0101Tel: 800-628-1912www.universityproducts.com

Talas20 West 20th Street5th FloorNew York,NY 10011Tel: 212-219-0770www.talas-nyc.com


Plastazote®/ Ethafoam®—cont’d


S U P P L I E R S L I S T 255

Melinex®/Mylar®

Polyester Converters Ltd.Polymex House49-53 Glengall RoadLondon SE15 6NFTel: 020 77409740www.polyesterconverters.co.uk

Talas20 West 20th Street5th FloorNew York,NY 10011Tel: 212-219-0770www.talas-nyc.com


Hexlite®/Aluminium Honeycomb Board

Technical Resin Bonders Ltd12 Clifton RoadHuntingdonCambridgeshirePE29 7ENTel: 01480 52381www.trbonders.co.uk

Museum Services Corporation385 Bridgepoint DriveSouth St PaulMinnesotaMN 55075-2466Tel: 651-450-8954

800-672-1107www.museumservicescorporation.com

Archivart (Paper products)40 Eisenhower DriveParamusNJ 07652Tel: 800-804-8428www.archivart.com



Dress Stands and Mannequins

Proportion London9 Dallington streetLondon EC1V OLNTel: 020 72501798www.proportionlondon.com

H&H Sculptors LtdUnit 2Sherwood CourtLondon SE13 7SDTel: 020 82971474

Gems StudioUnit 2 The Acorn Centre30-34 Gorst RdLondon NW10 6LETel: 01923 855858www.gems-studio.com

Adel Rootstein Ltd.Shawfield HouseShawfield StreetLondon SW3 4BBTel: 020 73511247www.rootstein.com

Kyoto Costume Institute MannequinsWacoal Corp.103, Shichi-jo Goshonouchi MinamimachiShimogyo-kuKyoto 600-8864JapanTel: +81(0)75-321-9221www.kci.or.jp

Siegel and Stockman126 West 25th StreetGround floorNew YorkNY 10001Tel: 212-366-0575www.siegel-stockman.com

Dorfman Museum Figures, Inc6224 Holabird AvenueBaltimoreMD 21224Tel: 410-284-3248

800-634-4873www.museumfigures.com

Adel Rootstein Inc.205 West 19th streetNew YorkNY 10011Tel: 212-645-2020www.rootstein.com

Kyoto Costume Institute MannequinsWacoal Corp.103, Shichi-jo GoshonouchiMinamimachiShimogyo-kuKyoto 600-8864JapanTel: +81(0)75-321-9221www.kci.or.jp

Index

A

Abaca fibre, 9Accurate toile, 17, 26, 27, 29–31, 35,

36, 43, 192Acid-free tissue paper, 9Across back, 23Across front, 23Aluminium Honeycomb board, 10Arms, 43, 45, 103, 202

B

Backing one fabric onto another, 247

Bagged out, 140, 189, 191Balance marks, 235, 237Basque, 148Basque petticoats, 129–131Belts, 186–189Bias, 19, 63, 159, 183, 216, 236Bias-cut, 18Bias-cut dresses, 3, 160, 161Bodice, 19, 29, 39, 211Bodice block, 19, 20Boning, 246Boning casings, 150, 151, 246Bottom, 24Bra, 91, 93, 201, 203Braces, 169, 178Brassiére, 91Britches, 113, 117Buckram, 11, 42, 201, 203, 208Buckram figures, 201, 203, 208–217Bump, 11, 187Bum-pads, 135, 137–140, 145,

148, 169Bust, 22, 208Bust pads, 165Bust points, 5, 22, 82, 88Bustle, 146, 152Bustle frame, 154, 155Bustle pad, 152, 153Bustles, 152–155Buttonhole thread, 226

C

Calico, 10Cheese cloth, 10Child-sized figures, 45, 86, 98, 99, 147Collar supports, 170–175

Concealed buckram support, 209, 216

Concealed supports, 203, 209, 212, 215, 216

Condition checking, 15Conservation grade net, 11, 111Corsets, 75, 80, 86, 87, 94, 209,

211, 212Costume fittings, 79Costume liners, 100Cotton duck, 10Cotton jersey, 11, 57, 61, 62, 164,

210, 222Cotton lawn, 10Cotton sheeting, 10Cotton stockinette, 11Cotton tape, 11, 177Cotton/Polyester, 10Covering figures with fabric, 57–73Crinoline, 119, 123, 145, 146,

148–151Crotch, 24, 113Cuirasse, 85, 90Custom-made figure, 42, 76, 207Cutting on the stand, 19, 37

D

Darts, 19, 31, 238, 239Dolman, 152Domette, 11, 187Drawstring, 148, 243Dress stand, 46–48Dressmaking pins, 226Dust, 8, 13

E

Eighteenth century body shapes, 81Eighteenth century skirt, 135–145Empire line, 81, 87, 137, 146, 192Entomological pins, 12, 29,

176, 226Eyelet, 85, 182, 184

F

Fastenings, 175–186, 240Fibreglass figures, 41, 43, 44, 60, 61Finishing raw edges, 237Fishing line, 12, 127, 214Flat costume mounts, 201–208

Flat mounting costume on boards, 202, 205

Flat packing costume, 13Flat pattern, 19, 28, 37Flat supports, 203, 208Fold-down collars, 170–173

G

Gathering techniques, 242Girdle, 91Gloves, 4Gored petticoat, 146, 156Gussets, 31, 85

H

Hand stitches, 228–233backstitch, 230blanket stitch, 232buttonhole stitch, 233flat tacking, 229gathering stitch, 228, 242herringbone stitch, 231, 232ladder stitch or drawing stitch, 231,

232, 257prickstitch, 230running stitch, 228, 230slipstitch, 231tacking or basting, 229tailor’s tacks, 229thread tracing, 230whipstitch, 231worked loops, 233

Hangers, 202, 203Heads, 43, 45, 46Hemming techniques, 231, 233,

239, 240Hexlite®, 10, 215Hip pads, 81, 135–140, 169Hip yoke, 129Hoops, 81, 135Hot melt glue, 12, 218, 221

I

Ironing, 8, 227, 238Ironing mitt, 227, 238

J

Jackets, 46, 98, 165, 211

257

L

Lacing, 182–185Leg support, 113–118Legs, 43, 45, 113Legs of tights, 60, 105Light levels, 12Linen scrim, 11, 210, 211Long-term fatigue, 12Loose pads, 100, 165–167Lounge suit, 98Lux levels, 12

M

Machine stitches, 233, 234gathering stitch, 233, 242machine thread tracing, 234polyester boning, 234reverse stitch, 234straight stitch, 233stretch fabrics, 234stretch overlocking stitch, 234topstitching, 233zigzag, 234, 238

Making a pattern, 234Male body shapes, 95–101Male dress, 95Mariano Fortuny, 160Marking patterns onto the fabric, 235Marvelseal®, 42Materials testing, 9Measuring costume, 21–26, 119, 120Melinex®, 10, 126Melinex® skirt supports, 125–128, 160Moistop®, 42Mounting one fabric onto

another, 247Multi-venue loans, 15Museum board, 9Muslin, 10, 145, 163, 191, 192Mylar®, 10

N

Nape of neck, 22Nape to waist, 22, 26, 45Neck, 68, 71, 98, 221Neck discs, 72Necks, 54–56Net frills, 103, 104, 110, 111, 118, 129,

131, 208, 243Nineteenth century body

shapes, 86Nineteenth century corsets, 85Nineteenth century skirt, 145–159Non-custom-made figure, 45Non-stretch fabrics, 63–70Nylon net, 11, 110, 128Nylon netting, 11

O

Off-gas, 42Open display, 13Overlocker, 227Overlocking, 238

P

Packing instructions, 15Packing mounted costume, 14Padding, 75–101Pads, 163–175Paint finishes, 42Panier, 81, 119, 135, 136, 142–145Pantyhose, 11Pattern-cutting, 18–21Perspex® mounts, 76, 201, 202, 207Pinking shears, 225, 237Placket, 178–180, 240

placket in a seam, 241simple slit placket, 241

Plastazote® or Ethafoam® figures, 10, 42,76, 201, 203, 217–223, 225

Pleated tube petticoat, 123–125Pleating techniques

box pleats, 245inverted pleats, 245knife pleats, 244

Pocket hoops, 135, 136, 140–142Pole fixings, 113, 214, 215, 219, 221Poles, 46, 202, 214, 219, 221Polycotton, 10Polyester batting, 10Polyester boning/Rigilene®, 11, 124,

234, 246Polyester wadding, 10, 78, 79, 226Polyurethane foams, 14, 42PVA (Archival), 12

Q

Quick toile, 17, 37–39, 76, 192, 193Quick-gather method, 128, 129, 158, 243

R

Reemay®, 9Replica eighteenth century petticoats,

197–199Reproductions/Replicas, 186–198Ribcage, 7, 11, 22Rigilene®, 11, 246Rouleau, 184

S

Sashes, 185, 186, 189–191S-bend, 90, 93, 159Scissors, 225, 243

Seam allowance, 234Selvage, 19, 235Sewing machine, 227, 228Shoulder point, 22Shoulders, 48–53, 81, 86, 98, 202, 219Signs of deterioration, 4Silk habotai, 11, 104, 193Skate, 7Skirt supports, 118–134Skirts, 6, 21, 36, 39, 169, 178

hobble skirts, 159knitted skirts, 126miniskirts, 160narrow skirts, 159, 160pencil skirts, 125, 126

Sleeve board, 227, 238Sleeve covers, 100, 112Sleeve supports, 5, 6, 60, 103–112, 176,

194, 204, 208Sleeveless garments, 65, 66, 211Sleeves, 6, 35, 100, 192, 194, 202, 203

bishop sleeves, 110gigot sleeves, 110puffed sleeves, 110sleeve cuffs, 105, 107, 112sleeve flounces 110sleeve pads, 110

Slips, 160, 161, 192Slotted placket technique, 178Spider tissue, 9, 37Spigot, 7, 15Spoon busk, 85, 87, 90Stand-up collars, 173, 174Stays, 80, 81, 84, 85Steels, 11, 142, 144, 146, 148–150, 246Stiffened pads, 167–169Stitch lines, 234, 235, 237Stitching seams, 237Stomacher, 183, 194Straight of grain, 19, 234, 235Strap supports, 217Strapless bodies, 169, 170Stretch fabric, 57–63, 79, 164, 234Suspension fixings, 214, 215

T

Tailor’s chalk, 226Tailor’s ham, 227, 238Tape measure, 21, 28, 225T-bars, 202, 204Threads, 226Tights, 11, 57, 61, 62, 210Toiles, 17–39, 119, 207Top petticoats, 128, 129, 132–134Tracing wheel, 226, 235Train supports, 155, 156Training collars, 175Training costumes, 176

I N D E X258

Transport, 3, 5, 7, 8, 13–15Trousers, 7, 35, 96, 98, 113, 114, 117,

118, 178Tube petticoat, 121–123, 146,

147, 160, 217Twentieth century body shapes, 91–95Twentieth century corsets, 90, 91Twentieth century skirt, 159–161Twill tape, 11, 145, 150Tyvek®, 10

U

Under-dresses, 147, 160, 163, 186, 191, 193

Underpinnings, 103–161Using a pattern, 235

V

Velcro® (Hook and Loop fastener), 12, 177

W

Waist, 21Waistbands, 169, 177, 178, 180–182,

187, 244Waistcoats, 46, 96, 98, 100Wax, 42Wax figures, 41, 42Whalebones, 135, 146, 246Wheat starch, 12, 209, 211, 212

I N D E X 259

53376065 a practical guide to costume mounting

Documents

hubert de

historic royal

aluminium

appropriately

wheat starch

female costumemale

basic conservation

costume mounters