6 INTRODUCTION TO THE CODE OF MAIMONIDES

MAIMONIDES' LITERARY OEUVRE: UNITY AND DIVERSITY

Equally important but less prominent is the fact that Maimonides' life's work-a fastidious interpretation and thoughtful reformulation of Jewish belief and practice--seems to have been clear in his mind from an early age. All the formal-thematic heterogeneity and conceptual div:rsity ing, there is a conscious unity and progressive m.his literary career, suffused as it is with originality and boldness and thoroughness, in which there is no room for lei-surely and discursive writing. It is as if he were following a care-fully etched blueprint and as a result was never free, was never "between performances." He was always, in the literal sense, preoccupied. What is most striking is how early his ideas, ideals, and aspirations were formed, how logically they hang and how consistently and creatively they have been applied. For all the frenetic activity, professional and communal commit-ments, personal tensions, social conflicts, cultural complexities, and intellectual challenges, there is a steady momenrum and rhythm to his writing and a clear focus to his activity. He began early-with zeal, almost with a sense of mission-and prodigiously to the end of his life. As he moved from one literary form to another, from texrual explication to systematic exposi-tion, and from one level of exposition to another, the unified, if multidimensional, themes of development shine forth, and the firm structures of his consciousness, perception, and motivation are clearly discernible. The dynamic force behind the ble juridical-philosophical labors of Maimonides seems. to desire to realize a grand goal. A quick glance at Mrumomdes literary biography, which we are able to reconstruct with con-siderable accuracy, will provide a natural organic framework in which the Mishneh Torah is to be seen, and this in turn will au-tomatically underscore its centrality, both in terms of chronologi-cal symmetry as well as substantive importance.

ha-Ruah "Ha-'Iiiyyul wi-Dorah Qerusalem, I964), pp. 93ff. See, generally, G. Pose, Salaries and-Student Fees," Speculum, VII (I932), I8Iff., and his note in Archives

d' his loire doclrinale, XXI (I 954), I 3 s, concerning the adage vere philosophantes pecuniam con-lemnunl; also W. M. Watt, Muslim Intellectual: a Study of ai-Ghaziilf (Edinburgh, I963), p. II4.

INTRODUCTION 7 Three Sources of Information

Three sources are particularly informative: (I) a passage from the introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah conjoined with a few items in the Commentary; (2) a responsum to R. Nehorai had-Dayyan; (3) the beginning of the introduction to the Sefer

I. Toward the end of the introduction to his Commentary on the Mishnah, after candidly and curtly characterizing Gaonic literary activity in the area of halak:ah, its achievements and short-comings, he leaps or lapses into an autobiographical account:

When it was our time, we undertook, in the footsteps of our pre-decessors, to investigate and study and exert ourselves according t""o.-co"'ue>or..--------abilities to attain that which we .hope will benefit us before God. I col-lected all that happened to come into my hand from the glosses of my father, may the memory of the righteous be for a blessing, and others, in the name of R. Joseph hal-Levi [ibn Megas]. I testifY that that man's understanding of the Talmud astounds everyone who takes note of his statements and the profundity of his perception, so that it is possible for me to state about him And like unto him was there no king [scholar] before him (2 Kings 23:25) in his method of study. I also collected all the laws that I myself gleaned from his own commentary as well as those expla-nations of mine which seemed right, according to my weak ability; and whatever I attained from [the study of] science ('ilm, f?o/§mah). I com-posed commentaries on three orders of the Talmud, Mo'eg, Nafim and

·with the exception of four tractates on which I am now trying to write something, but have yet to find free time for this. I also com-posed a commentary on the tractate lfullin as a result of the great need for it. This is what I have been busy with, together with the study of everything that I studied. Afterwards I deemed it proper to compose a work on the Mishnah, for which there was compelling need, as I shall explain. [He then proceeds to pinpoint some of the complexities of the Talmud which dissipate its usefulness as a commentary on the Mishnah.F

Students of Maimonides will appreciate the hurried glimpse into his workshop which this compact passage provides and what it tells us about his concerns and interests and his religious-historical motivations. It establishes, first of all, his authorship of

7· PhM, introduction (p. 47).

BOOK OF COMMANDMENTS

as the Book of Commandments was a byproduct of M1shne?. Torah-actuaiiy an indispensable preparation for it-it

rs not surpnsmg that the introduction to the former contains the ful-of the Mishneh Torah and pointedly notes its most

d1stmct1ve features. In this introduction, Maimonides reveals the decision-making process that affected the scope, style, and structuring of his code. The introduction also stresses his deep-seated independ-ence consistently critical attitude toward predecessors, especiaiiy the e1ghth-century author of the Halakhot Gedolot. His plea is for objective evaluation of the cogency and persuasiveness of arguments, not blind reliance on whatever has already been printed. Maimonides

· does not conceal the fact that he finds the whole mood of inteiiec-tual conservatism uncongenial. It should be noted that his sharp arraignment of poets who sacrifice substance for style and whose scholarship is generaiiy defective is usually taken as referring to Solo-mon ibn Gabirol (cf. Guide, I, ch. 59).

The Book of Commandments was written in Arabic and only subsequently translated into Hebrew; hence, it was not widely stud-ied and its impact on rabbinic literature was not so great or extensive as that of the Mishneh Torah.

BOOK OF COMMANDMENTS 42 5

Besides the introduction, I have included a few paragraphs which iliustrate Maimonides' method, brevity of presentation, and skiiiful definitions (e.g., the striking ethical emphasis in num?er 317). The last selection broaches the very fundamental questwn elaborated in the Mishneh Torah and the Guide-of the rationaliza-tion of the Law.

INTRODUCTION

After having completed our previous well-known work wherein we included a commentary to the whole Mishnah-our goal in that work having been satisfied with the explanation of the substance of each and every halakhah in the Mishnah, since our intention there was not to include an exhaustive discussion of the law of every com-mandment which would embrace all that is necessary (to know) of the prohibited and the permissible, liable and free, as will be ma?e clear to him who studies that work-! deemed it advisable to comp1le a compendium which would include all the laws of the Torah and its regulations, nothing missing in it. In this compendium I would try, as I am accustomed to do, to avoid mentioning differences of opinion and rejected teachings, and include in it only the established law, so that this compendium would embrace all the laws of the Torah of Moses our Teacher-whether they have bearing in the time of the exile or not.

It also appeared to me to be advisable to omit the asmakhtot* and the proofs brought (for the various laws), by mentioning the bearers of the tradition; thus, I would not say with each and every law, "These are the words of this Rabbi," or "This Rabbi says so-and-so" but instead I would mention in a general way at the beginning of this compendium all the sages of the Mishnah and the Talmud, peace be upon them, and I would say that all the laws of the Torah-that is, the Oral Torah-have been received and handed down from teacher to pupil (through the ages) until Ezra (and thence) until Moses our Teacher. Together with the leader of every

•scriptural texts used as a support for rabbinic enactments.

3 6 MISHNEH TORAH

Although the Oral Law ·was not committed to writing, Moses taught the whole of it, in his court, to the seventy elders as well as to Eleazar, Phineas, and Joshua-all three of whom received it from Moses. To Joshua, his disciple, our teacher Moses delivered the Oral Law and charged him concemipg it. So too, Joshua, throughout his life, taught orally. Many elders received the Oral Law from Joshua. Eli received it from the elders and from Phineas. Samuel, from Eli and his court. David, from Samuel and his court ....

R. Judah, our teacher, the saint, compiled the Mishnah. From the time of Moses to that of our teacher, the saint, no work had been composed from which the Oral Law was publicly taught. But in each generation, the head of the then existing court or the prophet of that time wrote down for his private use a memorandum of the traditions which he had heard from his teachers, and which he taught orally in public. So too, every student wrote down, according to his ability, the exposition of the Torah and of its laws, as he heard them, as well as the new matter evolved in each generation, which had not been received by tradition but had been deduced by application of the thirteen hermeneutical rules and had been adopted by the Supreme Court. This was the method in vogue till the time of our teacher, the saint.

He gathered together all the traditions, enactments, interpreta-tions, and expositions of every portion of the Torah, that had either come down from Moses our Teacher or had been deduced by the courts in successive generations. All this material he redacted in the Mishnah, which was diligently taught in public, and thus became universally known among the Jewish people. Copies of it were made and widely disseminated, so that the Oral Law might not be forgot-ten in Israel.

Why did our teacher. the saint, act so and not leave things as they were?· Because he observed that the number of disciples was diminishing, fresh calamities were continually happening, the wicked government was extending its domain and increasing in power, and Israelites were wandering and emigrating to distant countries. He therefore composed a work to serve as a handbook for all, the con-tents of which could be rapidly studied and not be forgotten. Throughout his life, he and his colleagues were engaged in giving public instruction in the Mishnah ....

All these sages ... were the great men of the successive genera-tions; some of them were presidents of colleges, some Exilarchs, and

MAIMONIDES' INTRODVCTION 3 7

some were members of the great Sanhedrin; besides them were thou-sands and myriads of disciples and fellow-students. Ravina and Rav Ashi closed the list of the sages of the Talmud. It was Rav Ashi who compiled the 1Babylonian Talmud in the land of Shinar (Babylon), about a century after Rabbi Johanan had compiled the Palestinian Talmud. These two Talmuds contain an exposition of the text of the Mishnah and an elucidation of its abstruse points and of the new subject matter that had been added by the various courts from the days of our teacher, the saint, till the compilation of the Talmud. The two Talmuds, the Tosefta, the Sifra and the Sifre, and the Toseftot are the sources, from all of which is elucidated what is for-bidden and what is permitted, what is unclean and what is clean, what is a penal violation and what involves no penalty, what is fit to be used and what is unfit for use, all in accordance with the tradi-tions received by the sages from their predecessors in unbroken suc-cession up to the teachings of Moses as he received them on Sinai. From these sources too, are ascertained the decrees, instituted by the sages and prophets, in each generation, to serve as a protecting fence about the Law, in accordance with Moses' express injunction, "You shall keep My charge" (Lev. 18:30 ), that is, "Ordain a charge to pre-serve My charge." From these sources a clear conception is also obtained of the customs and ordinances, either formally introduced in various generations by their respective authorities or that came into use with their sanction; from these it is forbidden to depart, as it is said, "You shall not tum aside from the sentence which they shall declare to you, to the right hand, nor to the left" (Deut. 17:ll). So too these works contain the clearly established judgments and rules not received from Moses, but which the Supreme Court of each generation deduced by applying the hermeneutical principles for the interpretation of the Law, and which were decided by those venera-ble authorities to be the law-ali of which, accumulated from the days of Moses to his own time, Rav Ashi put together in the Gemara.*

After the Court of Rav Ashi, who compiled the Gemara which was finally completed in the days of his son, an extraordinarily great dispersion of Israel throughout the world took place. The people emigrated to remote parts and distant isles. The prevalence of wars and the march of armies made travel insecure. The study of the *See Book XIV, Rebels, ch. I; also Book III, Sanctification of the New Moon, v, 3·

38 MISHNEH TORAH

Torah declined. The Jewish people did not flock to the colleges in their thousands and tens of thousands as heretofore; but in each city and country, individuals who felt the divine call gathered together and occupied themselves with the Torah; studied all the works of the sages; and from these learned the method of legal interpretation.

If a court established in any country after the time of the Talmud made decrees and ordinances or introduced customs for those residing in its particular country or for residents of other coun-tries, its enactments did -not obtain the acceptance of all Israel because of the remoteness of the Jewish settlements and the difficul-ties of travel. And as the court of any particular country consisted of individuals (whose authority was not universally recognized), while the Supreme Court of seventy-one members had, several years before the compilation of the Talmud, ceased to exist, no compulsion is exercised on those living in one country to observe the customs of another country; nor is any court directed to issue a decree that had been issued by another court in the same country. So too, if one of the Geonim taught that a certain way of judgment was correct, and it became clear to a court at a later date that this was not in accord-ance with the view of the Cemara, the earlier authority is not neces-sarily followed but that view is adopted which seems more reason-able, whether it be that of an earlier or later authority.

The foregoing observations refer to rules, decrees, ordinances, and customs that originated after the Talmud had been compiled. But whatever is already mentioned in the Babylonian Talinud is binding on all Israel. And every city and country is bound to observe all the customs observed by the sages of the Gemara, promulgate their decrees, and uphold their institutions, on the ground that all the customs, decrees, and institutions mentioned in the Talmud received the assent of all Israel, and those sages who ·instituted the ordinances, issued the decrees, introduced the customs, gave the deci-sions, and taught that a certain ruling was correct, constituted the total body or the majority of Israel's wise men. They were the leaders who received from each other the traditions concerning the funda-mentals of Judaism in unbroken succession back to Moses our Teacher, upon whom be peace.

The sages, however, who arose after the compilation of the Talmud, studied it deeply and became famous for their wisdom, are called Geonim. All these Geonim who flourished in the land of Israel, Babylon, Spain, and France, taught the . method of the

MAIMONU>ES' INTRODUCTION 39

elu_cidated its obscurities, and expounded the various topics With which It deals. For its method is exceedingly profound. Further-more, the work is composed in Aramaic mixed with other

been the vernacular of the Babylonian Jews at the bme when It was compiled. In other countries, however, as also in Babylon in the days of the Geonim, no one, unless specially taught, understood that dialect. Many applications were made to the <?aon of day_ by. residents of different cities, asking for explana-tions of ddliculbes m the Talmud. These, the Geonim answered, according to their ability. Those who had put the questions collected the responses which they made into books for study. The Geonim also, at different periods, composed commentaries on the Talmud. Some of laws; others, particular chapters that presented difficulties to their contemporaries; others again expounded

treatises and entire orders of the Talmud. They also made of settled rules as to things permitted or forbidden, as

to mfracbons. which penal or were not liable to a penalty. All these dealt With m regard to which compendia were needed, that could be studied by one not capable of penetrating to the

of the Talmud. This is the godly work in which all the Geomm of Israel engaged, from the completion of the Talmud to the present date which is the eighth year of the eleventh century after the destruction of the Second Temple.*

In days, vicissitudes prevail, and all feel the pressure(-of hard The wisdom of our wise men has disappeared; the understandmg of our prudent men is hidden. Hence, the commentar-ies . of the Geonim and their compilations of laws and responses, which they took care to make clear, have in our times become hard to understand so that only a few individuals properly comprehend

Needless to add that such is the case in regard to the Talmud Itself-the Babylonian as well as the Palestinian-the Sifra, the Sifre and the T?sefta, al_l of which works require, for their comprehension, a broad mmd, a WISe soul, and considerable study, and then one can learn from them the correct practice as to what is forbidden or per-mitted, and the other rules of the Torah.

On these grounds, I, Moses the son of Ma·imon the Sefardi be-and, relying on the help of God, blessed be 'He,

mtently studied all these works, with the view of putting together *Cf. to this date (1177), Book III, Sanctification of the New Moon XI 16· Book VII, Laws of the Sabbatical Year, X, 4· ' ' '

40 MISHNEH TORAH

the results obtained from them in regard to what is forbidden or per-mitted, clean or unclean, and the other rules of the Torah-all in plain language and terse style, so that the might become systematically known to all, Without Citing difficulties and solutions or differences of view, one person saying so, and another something else-but consisting of statements, .clear and con-vincing, and in accordance with the conclusions drawn from these compilations and commentaries that have appeared from the bme of Moses to the present, so that all the rules shall be accessible to young . and old, whether these appertain to the (Pentateuchal) precepts or to the institutions established by the sages and prophets, so that no other work should be needed for ascertaining any of the laws of Israel, but that this work might serve as a compendium of the entire Oral Law, including the ordinances, customs, and decrees instituted from the days of our teacher Moses till the compilation of the Talmud, as expounded for us by the Geonim in all the works com-posed by them since the completion of the Talmud. Hence, I have entitled this work Mishneh Torah (Repetition of the Law), for the reason that a person who first reads the Written Law and then this compilation, will know from it the whole of the Oral Law, without having occasion to consult any other book between them.

I have seen fit to arrange this compendium in large divisions of the laws according to their various topics. These divisions are distrib-uted in chapters grouped according to subject matter. Each is subdivided into smaller paragraphs so that they may be systemati-cally memorized. Among the laws in the various topics, some consist of rules in reference to a single Biblical precept. This would be the case when such a precept is rich in traditional matter and forms a single topic. Other sections include rules referring to several precepts when these all belong to one topic. For the work follows the order of topics and is not planned according to the number of precepts, as will be explained to the reader.

The total number of precepts that are obligatory for all genera-tions is Of these, 248 are affirmative; their mnemonic is the number of bones in the human body. 365 precepts are negative and their mnemonic is the number of days in the solar year.

Blessed be the all-merciful who has aided us.

These are the 613 precepts which were orally imparted to Moses on Sinai, together with their general principles, detailed applications,

MAIMONIDES' INTRODUCTION 41

and minute particulars. All these principles, details, particulars, and the exposition of every precept constitute the Oral Law, which court received from its predecessor. There are other precepts wh1ch originated after the Sinaitic Revelation, were instituted by prophets and sages, and were universally accepted all Israel: Su_ch are the reading of the Scroll of Esther (on Punm) , the kmdlmg of the Hanukkah lights, fasting on the Ninth of Av: ... Each thes: pre-cepts has its special interpretations and details, all of which will be expounded in this work .

All these newly established precepts, we are duty bound to accept and observe, as it is said, "You shall not turn aside from the sentence which they shall declare to you, to the right hand, nor to the left" ( Deut. 17: 11) . They are not an addition to the precepts of the Torah. In regard to what, then, did· the Torah warn us, "You shall not add thereto, nor diminish from it" (ibid. 13: 1)? The pur-pose of this text is to teach us that a prophet is not permitted to make an innovation and declare that the Holy One, blessed be He, had commanded him to add it to the precepts of the Torah or had bidden him to abrogate one of these 613 precepts. But if the Court, together with the prophet living at the time, institute a?

. precept as an ordinance, judicial decision, or decree, this IS not an addition (to the precepts of the Torah). For they did not assert that the Holy One, blessed be He ... ordered the reading of the Scroll of Esther at the appointed time. Had they said this, they would been adding to the Torah. We hold, however, that the prophets, m conjunction with the Court, enacted these ordinances, and com-manded that the Scroll of Esther be read at the appointed time so as to proclaim the praises of the Holy One, blessed be He, recount the salvations that He wrought for us, and that He was ever near when we cried to Him, and that we should therefore bless and laud Him and inform future generations how true is the reassurance of the Torah in the text, "For what great nation is there that has God so near to them, as the Lord our God is [to us], whensoev:r we call upon Him" (ibid. 4:7). In this way every precept, affirmative or neg-ative, instituted by the Scribes, is to be understood.*

I have seen fit to divide this work into fourteen books.

"'This refutes the Karaite contention that Talmudic law is an illegitimate accre-tion to Biblical law. See also the anti-Karaite polemic in Book VIII, Daily Offerings, VII, u; and Book III, Sabbath, ch. II; Commentary on the Mishnah, Avot 1:3.

32 INTRODUCTIONTO THE CODE OF MAIMONIDES integrated with earlier statements. The letter is thus as challeng-ing as it is informative: . . . In your letter you also wrote as follows: "The words of your com-position are surely illuminating for all the world, but solely for the per-son who has already studied the Talmud and knows the names. of the Rabbis who had preoccupied themselves with, and engaged 10, the dialectics of the Oral Law (Talmud) and Gemara; and as a result (such a person) will not preoccupy himself exclusively with the words ?f your composition, for this would result in the names of and Amoraim being blotted out from the world. And certa10ly thts ts the case for those persons who study but do not know what they are study-ing; who misunderstand the subject matter and of the composition, and fail to comprehend real (ultimate) 10:ent and from what source the fountain (of your wtsdom) flows. such persons, the Tanna said, 'Scholars, take great care wtth your words ... lest (your students) die and the name of God be dese-crated ... .' "These were your words verbatim; elsewhere 10 your letter you also wrote the following: "It would be proper f?r Excellency to instruct everyone not to abandon their preoccupation wtth the study of Gemara .... "

Now concerning this entire matter, it is necessary for me re-buke you and to inform you that I promptly understood the mtentwns of your words though you never specified them. Know therefore. that I have never said, Heaven forbid, "Do not preoccupy y?urself wtth the study of the Gemara, of o.fRabbi .Isaac Alfas1, or of any other text.'' In point of fact, God himself ts my wttness that for past year

a half (the students who have come to me) have not stud ted my own · · 1"th me· quite the contrary three students came and compos1t10n w • ' . d h

studied various books; the majority of the w.tshed stu Y t e Halakot of Rabbi Alfasi, and I taught it to them 10 1ts entirety several time;; -two other students desired to study the Gemara, and I also taught them the tractates they wished to learn. Have I ever commanded or .has it ever occurred to me to burn all the books composed before my time because of my regard for my own work? · . .

In· the introduction to my composition, I exphcttly wrote that my sole purpose in composing it to the burden of those stu-dents who because of their impatience of spmt were not able to to the depths of the Talmud, and therefore could not from.lt the way of determining what is permissible and what ts forbtdden: I dts-cussed this matter at great length there. As for your statement about the

INTRODUCTION 33 names of the Tannaim and Amoraim, I already mentioned the names of most of the Sages at the beginning of my composition. Is it in fact the case that anyone who attempts to decide the halakah and to make (out of the law) a clean fine flour is guilty of desecration of His name, just as has occurred to you? Already before me there were Geonim and other great scholars who composed works and compiled codes, in Arabic as well as in Hebrew, in which they adjudicated the on given subjects. No one before my time, not at least since the time of Rabbi Judah and the other holy scholars of his period, adjudicated all the in the Tal-mud and all the laws of the Torah. Yet that I should be held responsible for desecrating His name solely because my work is comprehensive as-tonishes me greatly. As for those readers who do not know how to study my composition, no author can accompany his book wherever it goes and allow only certain persons to read it.

Futhermore, in the introduction to my composition I wrote that I had composed the work according to the method of the Mishnah and in the style of the Mishnah. But you have not paid sufficient attention to my words, nor have you understood the difference between the method of the Mishnah and the method of the Talmud. Because of your ignorance of this matter, you wrote the following criticism in your letter: "Even when I study your composition, I find in it many matters which remain unclear to me because you have not given proofs for them, while my own mind is not clear enough to comprehend them." This was the gist of your criticism; permit me now to explain.

You should know that every author of a book-whether it deals with the laws of the Torah or with other kinds of wisdom, whether it was composed by one of the ancient wise men among the nations of the world or by physicians-always adopts one of two ways (structures and styles): either that of the monolithic code (/tibbur) or that of a discursive commentary (peru'S). In a monolithic code, only the correct subject mat-ter is recorded, without any questions, without answers, and without any proofs, in the way which Rabbi Judah adopted when he composed the Mishnah. The discursive commentary, in contrast, records both the correct subject matter and other opinions which contradict it, as well as questions on it in all its aspects, answers, and proofs as to ·why one opin-ion is true and another false, or why one opinion is proper and another improper; this method, in turn, is that of the Talmud, which is a dis-cursive commentary upon the Mishnah. Moreover, if someone should object to my distinction between the code and the commentary, and claim that because the names of the Rabbis are cited in the Mishnah-as when one Rabbi holds one opinion about a law and another Rabbi holds

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