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Structural Collapse

Search and Rescue

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Objectives (1 of 3)

• Identify the need for structural collapse search and rescue operations.

• Describe the various types of structural collapse events.

• Describe the resources needed to conduct a structural collapse search and rescue operation.

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Objectives (2 of 3)

• Describe response planning and incident management requirements related to a structural collapse search and rescue incident.

• Describe site control operations at a structural collapse incident.

• List general hazards associated with a structural collapse incident.

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Objectives (3 of 3)

• Identify building construction types and their associated collapse characteristics.

• List the five types of collapse void patterns.

• Describe the FEMA USAR search, building, victim location, and structure marking systems.

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Skills Objectives

Remove readily accessible victims from a structural collapse incident.

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Structural Collapse Scenarios

• Vary in difficulty based on significance of collapse and size, type, and occupancy of building involved

• Require standard, flexible rescue plan of action

• Require various resources, tools, personnel

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Various Factors Cause Collapse(1 of 3)

• Nature:– Hurricanes, tornadoes, high winds,

earthquakes, mudslides, landslides, floods, snow or ice loads on roofs

• Fire damage

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Various Factors Cause Collapse(2 of 3)

© Baloncici/ShutterStock, Inc.

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Various Factors Cause Collapse(3 of 3)

• Interior or exterior blast: – Gas leak explosion, boiler explosion, terrorist

activity

• Human error:– Impact by transportation vehicle, faulty

engineering, improper building materials

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Applicable Standards

• NFPA 1006, Standard for Technical Rescuer Professional Qualifications: job performance requirements for responders at technician-level

• NFPA 1670, Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents: organizational requirements

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Awareness Level Responders

• Serve as equipment runners.

• Help move and care for casualties.

• Maintain perimeter control.

• Provide command post assistance.

• Direct traffic.

• Perform other important tasks within training level.

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Hazard Control Resources Include (1 of 2)

• Firefighting assets

• Utility company assistance

• Trained professionals to control secondary collapse hazards

• Hazardous materials response teams

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Hazard Control Resources Include (2 of 2)

• Law enforcement

• Search and rescue teams trained in structural collapse rescue

• Search assets:– Physical search teams, canine search teams,

search teams with technical equipment

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Technical Search Resources (1 of 3)

• Acoustic devices pick up noises from within collapsed building.

• Seismic devices sense vibrations, movement from within or around building.

• Visual search devices pick up visual or thermal image.

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Technical Search Resources (2 of 3)

Courtesy of CON-SPACE Communications

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Technical Search Resources (3 of 3)

© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of Glen E. Ellman and Texas Engineering Extension Service, Texas A&M System.

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Extrication

• Actions taken by responders to remove victim from entrapment at building

• Involves:– Lifting heavy objects– Cutting through building materials– Breaching structural building components

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Special Training Required Includes

• Use of hand, power tools to lift and stabilize heavy objects and possibly move heavy loads safely to access victims

• Knowledge of mechanical advantage, classes of levers, pneumatic lifting bags, cribbing stabilization systems

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Rescue Resources Include (1 of 4)

• Breaching: cutting through wood, steel, concrete, furniture, appliances, to access victims

• Shoring: using tools, equipment to support and stabilize damaged buildings and structural members to access victims and avoid secondary collapse

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Rescue Resources Include (2 of 4)

© Glen E. Ellman

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Rescue Resources Include (3 of 4)

Courtesy of Robert Rhea

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Rescue Resources Include (4 of 4)

• Victim packaging: using equipment (stretchers, baskets) to load and move victims to safety

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EMS Resources (1 of 2)

• May be significant at collapse event, especially with mass-casualty

• Requires BLS and ALS care

• Manage injuries, medical complications typical at collapse, including:– Fractures, respiratory distress, dehydration,

compartment syndrome, crush syndrome

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EMS Resources (2 of 2)

Courtesy of Robert Rhea

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Hazardous Materials Resources• Include personnel trained and equipped to

detect chemical, biological, nuclear, WMD hazards:– WMD threats: chemical, biological,

radiological/nuclear, explosive

• Involve atmospheric monitoring to determine dangerous atmospheres and establish control zones

• Include specialized PPE, equipment, procedures

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Law Enforcement Resources

• Establish perimeter control.

• Perform site security.

• Control traffic flow.

• Maintain force protection for emergency responders.

• Interview witnesses, bystanders, and co-workers.

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Logistical Support Resources

• Nighttime lighting, bathroom facilities, food and shelter items for rescue workers

• Apparatus maintenance, refueling, field repair of tools and equipment, procurement of rescue tools, supplies, and equipment

• Provide on-site ER with physician and nurses for victims.

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Strategic Objectives

• Evaluate the scene and identify potential victims and locations.

• Initiate operations to minimize hazards to operating personnel and trapped victims.

• Search structure, rescue, and remove trapped victims.

• Minimize further injury to victims during search, rescue, and removal operations.

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Minimum ICS Management Personnel

• Incident commander (IC)

• Operations section chief

• Planning section chief

• Logistics section chief

• Safety officer

• Public information officer

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Incident Action Plan (IAP)

• Identifies overall control objectives for collapse emergency

• Makes provisions for long-term staffing

• Makes tactical and resource assignments

• Identifies operational work periods and safety messages

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Organizational Needs Assessment Includes

• Types of buildings that may fail and construction materials used

• Emergency response resource needs • Written procedures to request resources,

mutual aid, contracts with private-sector companies, agreements with regional, state, or federal assets

• Capability of agency personnel

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Light-Frame Buildings (1 of 2)

• Primarily wood frame, 1–4 stories high, residential

• Inherent lateral stability weakness at foundation, connections between building components, windows, doors:– May cause weak walls to rack over

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Light-Frame Buildings (2 of 2)

© Sue Ashe/ShutterStock, Inc.

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Assess Light-Frame Buildings For

• Cracked or leaning walls• Offset of building from foundation• Leaning first story• Cracked or leaning chimney, loose

masonry • Cracked or loose brick veneer• Separation between main building and

additions

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Heavy Wall Buildings (1 of 3)

• Characterized by URM or tilt-up concrete walls, steel or concrete frames with masonry infill walls, other low-rise designs incorporating concrete and/or masonry walls

• Used for residential, commercial, industrial purposes, 1–6 stories

• Lack of lateral wall strength and weakness of connections between walls, floors, roofs primary weakness

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Heavy Wall Buildings (2 of 3)

• Collapse problems related to load-bearing walls of brick, hollow concrete block, or stone

• Falling hazards from bricks, rubble, and ornamentation are common during collapse event.

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Heavy Wall Buildings (3 of 3)

© wheatley/ShutterStock, Inc.

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Assess Heavy Wall Buildings For

• Cracked walls at building corners and near wall openings

• Unsupported and partially collapsed floors or roofs

• Damaged connections between walls or columns and floors or roof structures

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Heavy Floor Buildings (1 of 2)

• Concrete frame, 1–13 stories

• Some built with URM infill walls

• Weakest designs may lead soft first-story collapse and include:– High, open ground-level floors – High open areas on corners of multistory

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Heavy Floor Buildings (2 of 2)

Courtesy of Robert Rhea

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Assess Heavy Floor Buildings For• Exposed reinforcing steel or lack of

concrete on column• Concrete cracking in columns at floor line

both above/below floor• Diagonal shear cracking in beams where

supported by columns or walls• Cracking in flat concrete slabs • Loose infill masonry walls, cracks in

concrete shear walls and/or stairs

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Pre-cast Buildings (1 of 2)

• Concrete

• One or more stories

• Factory pre-made individual building components

• Primary weakness occurs at interconnection of various components

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Pre-cast Buildings (2 of 2)

Courtesy of Robert Rhea

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Assess Pre-cast Buildings For

• Stability by observing connections for broken welds, cracked corbels, or broken connector bolts

• Cracking of concrete in columns

• Adequate support of wall panel connections

• Badly cracked walls

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Lean-to Void Spaces (1 of 2)

• Victims are most likely located under floor within void space or on top of collapsed floor at lower end where debris slides down to bottom.

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Lean-to Void Spaces (2 of 2)

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V-Shape Collapse Voids (1 of 2)

• Victims can be found: – Under each side of created V-shape near

exterior walls– On top of collapsed floor in middle of created

V-shape, along with all other floor contents, will shift to lowest position when floor fails

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V-Shape Collapse Voids (2 of 2)

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Pancake Collapse Voids (1 of 2)

• Do not result in many survivable spaces except sometimes in void where floor assembly falls and rests on furniture or appliances

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Pancake Collapse Voids (2 of 2)

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Cantilever Voids (1 of 2)

• Victims are often found under unsupported cantilever in very dangerous locations.

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Cantilever Voids (2 of 2)

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A-Frame Voids (1 of 2)

• Victims are typically found under void spaces created on either side of middle support area or outside void spaces near side walls where floors failed at connection.

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A-Frame Voids (2 of 2)

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Approach Hazards (1 of 2)

• Include numerous natural or human-made factors that can limit responders’ ability to reach the incident location quickly and hamper rescue:– Natural disasters (earthquakes, tornadoes) – Terrorist bombings – Damaged local infrastructure (roadways,

bridges, electrical wires)

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Approach Hazards (2 of 2)

Courtesy of Lara Shane/FEMA

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Reconnaissance of Collapse Scene

• Perform from safe location, away from potential secondary collapse hazards

• Assesses area for hazards and determines needed hazard mitigation actions

• Identifies access problems

• Requires calm, slow, methodical manner

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Utility Hazards and Other Hazardous Materials (1 of 2)

• Damaged building utilities may cause fires, hazardous environments, and explosions.

• Commercial and residential buildings may have hazardous materials onsite.

• Nuclear or biological weapons, chemical agents, WMD as an incident cause should be considered.

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Utility Hazards and Other Hazardous Materials (2 of 2)

© Steve Allen/Brand X Pictures/Alamy Images

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Secondary Collapse Indicators (1 of 3)

• Leaning walls• Smoke or water seeping through breaks or

joints in wall• Creaking, groaning, snapping, falling

debris sounds• Sagging floors or roof • Missing, strained, or damaged building

components or connections

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Secondary Collapse Indicators (2 of 3)

• Excessive loading of structural elements due to debris shift

• Racked (leaning) or twisted structure

• Significant vibration sources in the area

• Aftershock conditions or potential

• Active fire in building

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Secondary Collapse Indicators (3 of 3)

© A.S. Zain/ShutterStock, Inc.

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Surface Hazards

• Result from presence of:– Unstable debris pile– Loose and uneven rubble– Sharp materials

• May cause personnel to slip, fall, suffer twists, strains, sprains, and other injuries

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Void Space Hazards

• Entering collapse void to perform search and rescue operations is inherently dangerous.– May cause secondary collapse– Requires stability assessment first

• Awareness-level rescuers must be trained to at least awareness level for confined-space rescue.

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Basic Hazard Mitigation

• Recognize surface and avoid hazards and possible injuries.

• Recognize and avoid collapse hazards.

• Limit exposure to hazardous areas by denying entry and establishing collapse safety zones.

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WMD Event (1 of 2)

• Involves responses by multiple agencies

• Anticipate multiple events or secondary devices.

• Maintain situational awareness.

• May become a mass casualty incident

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WMD Event (2 of 2)

Courtesy of FEMA

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Basic Search Methods

• Physical search:– Similar to physical search in fire-ground

situation

• Hailing system:– System for locating victims

• Structural collapse marking systems:– Different systems used to identify buildings,

locations, hazard assessments, victims

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Building and Structure Marking System

Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1670, Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents, Copyright © 2009, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02169. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.

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Victim Location Marking System

Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1670, Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents, Copyright © 2009, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02169. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.

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Patient Care Considerations

• Walking wounded may be suffering from typical collapse injuries.

• Adequate EMS resources are necessary.

• Surface victims should be recovered as quickly as conditions permit.

• Extrication of entrapped victims may require special hand tools.

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Summary (1 of 2)

• Types of buildings involved in structural collapse vary.

• Resource requirements include search, rescue, EMS, heavy equipment, structural engineers, utility companies, and other resources.

• Effective planning is critical to structural collapse emergency management.

• IMS implementation is the key to controlling the emergency.

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Summary (2 of 2)

• Collapse characteristics differ based on the building type.

• Types of collapse voids and potential victim locations are based on building’s construction.

• Thorough hazard assessment and ongoing assessment is necessary.

• Initial search measures by first responders include physical search and implementation of hailing system.