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Aleks Pluskowski, Krish Seetah*

6. THE ANIMAL BONES FROM THE 2004 EXCAVATIONS AT STARI BAR, MONTENEGRO**

6.1 Introduction

Animal remains were recovered from a range of con-texts during the excavations at Stari Bar in 2004, but given the constraints of time, only a selection from all the major phases of archaeological interest could be analysed. 5855 animal bone fragments from 15 contexts ranging in date from the late-13th to 19th century were examined of which 2642 fragments (45%) could be identified to species (Table 6.1). All of the bones were recovered from room 161 of the citadel, in the north-east corner of the town (CALAON 2005). The majority of remains were dated to the periods of Byzantine/Serbian and Venetian occupation, the late-13th to early-16th centuries, whilst two contexts (1082, 1117) were residual and could not be incorporated into the final analysis. The final total number of fragments which could be identified to species was 2337. Measurements of bones follow von den Driesch (VON DEN DRIESCH 1976) for mammals and birds, and taxonomic identifications were made on-site and with the modern and archaeological comparative collections held in the Grahame Clark Labo-ratory at the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Since this is the first report on faunal remains recovered from a single building within Stari Bar, it serves only a preliminary assessment with more detailed conclu-sions, as well as inter-disciplinary synthesis, dependent on future recovery.

Recovery, preservation and taphonomic considerations

The recovered bones were all hand-collected; sieving was not part of the sampling protocol which would indicate a bias against smaller fragments. This has obvious implica-tions for the accuracy of estimated taxonomic abundance (in particular for micro-fauna), element distribution and mortality profiles, as well as limiting metric analyses. The use of sieving of select contexts in future excavations will invariably modify the following preliminary assessment of taxonomic abundance as well as element distribution. The overall preservation was mixed, with over 70% recorded as ‘poor’ or ‘quite poor’, and only 14% as ‘quite good’, however the highest number of fragments (72%) came from contexts with ‘moderate’ and ‘quite good’ preserva-

tion. The assemblage was generally quite fragmented, with 58% of elements recorded as only 25% or less complete. The bones had not been washed, which on the one hand preserved fragile elements, but on the other made identi-fication of cut marks, for example, difficult.

The taphonomic effect of gnawing appears to have been relatively insignificant; of the identifiable species only 19 sheep/goat, two cattle and five pig bone fragments had been gnawed by rodents, whilst a chicken pelvis and pig calcaneum exhibited signs of carnivore gnawing, alto-gether representing around 1% of the total. A more sig-nificant taphonomic factor was the re-deposition of bones within the site. Only one context (1043) represented a primary deposit in a refuse pit, whilst the majority of other depositions of animal bones were secondary, having been initially discarded in refuse pits, and subsequently removed and used as packing material for house founda-tions. Although the dating of their secondary deposition is relatively secure, the time-lag between this and their initial discard is difficult to estimate. This re-use of animal bones is the most important and potentially problematic taphonomic factor operating at the site. Given the preva-lence of re-deposition, it is unsurprising to note that all of the recovered bones were disarticulated.

The secondary deposition can be dated, and at this stage it is not possible to estimate the amount of time between the initial discard of animal remains and their re-use. It is difficult to specify which refuse pits these bones came from, whether they were associated with the property, or located elsewhere. Did animal bone represent a communally accessible raw material? Further research into the organisation of labour and the process of construction at the settlement is essential to further-ing our understanding of the taphonomic histories of its sub-pavement assemblages.

Species representation

Two techniques for abundance estimations were employed, NISP’s (Number of Identified SPecimens); and MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals) (REITZ, WING 2000, p. 191, KLEIN, CRUZ-URIBE 1984, pp. 24-37) in order to make quantitative estimates of the relative abundance of the mammal bones found. These particular methods were employed as they have been used widely (WATSON 1979) to analyse animal numbers and therefore facilitate comparisons with other sites (O’CONNOR 2000, pp. 54-68; GRANT 1971, 1975, MALTBY 1979). However, while these methods have considerable merit, a number

* Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge.** With a report on fish by Sheila Hamilton-Dyer.

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Table 6.1 – recovered and identified bones by context number, date and type.

of caveats must be noted when using the NISP and MNI counts. The main concern when using NISP’s is that of biased sampling of material in favour of larger bones (which are easier to recover), of species with a relatively greater number of bones (for example pigs when com-pared to cattle) (O’CONNOR 2000, p. 56; DAVIS 1987, p. 29) and that associated bones from a single individual cannot be accounted for when using fragment counts. MNI counts on the other hand can over represent rare taxa (WATSON 1979).

The NISP count was calculated as a sum of fragments for each species and split by period (Table 2). The MNI count for the assemblage as a whole was not calculated as a direct proportion of the NISP, but from the MNE (Minimum Number of Elements) by summing the zones of each element to find the most abundant, then taking the number for the most abundant element to represent the MNI for the species overall (HAMBLETON 1999).

The major domesticates – ovicaprids (Ovis aries / Capra hircus), cattle (Bos taurus) and pigs (Sus scrofa) – represent the largest proportion of identified species in all contexts (Plate 6.1), with wild mammals only representing a fraction (2.7%) of the overall assemblage (Plate 6.2).

The representation of birds is also comparable, with the overwhelming majority of identifiable bones belong-ing to chicken (Gallus gallus) (Plate 6.3).

In addition, 53 fragments of oyster (Ostrea edulis), 12 fragments of mussel, a single limpet, 51 fragments of unidentifiable shellfish and 3 fragments of crab claws were recovered, as well as 122 bones belonging to fish, of which 67 were submitted for analysis (see report below).

A diverse range of species is represented in the total assemblage, but since all the bones were hand-collected and sieving only commenced in 2005, there was an inevitable bias towards the recovery of larger animals (Table 6.2).

6.2 Domestic Mammals

6.2.1 Ovicaprids

Representation

Ovicaprids, of which 17 fragments could be confi-dently assigned to goats (all horn-cores, some attached to cranial fragments were assigned to goat, as well as a single astragalus, 2 metacarpals and 2 mandibles), consist-ently represented the most numerous domesticate on the site (Plate 6.5). In terms of element representation (Plate 6.5), there was a high proportion of mandible fragments and limb bones (femur and tibia and to a lesser degree humerus and radius), and a relatively low representation of extremities. In the process of re-deposition as pavement packing (see below), smaller elements would have been lost and so the prevalence of larger bones is to be ex-pected. Given this taphonomic factor, it is difficult to link the relative distribution of elements to distinct processing

Table 6.2 – Species representation at Stari Bar by NISP, according to period. Contexts are sub-divided as follows: End of 13th century (1102, 1104, 1108, 1116); 14th century (1100, 1094); 15th century (1071, 1085, 1090); 16th century (1053, 1054, 1067); 19th century (1043). ΣNISP=Total number of

identified specimens present.

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Ageing

Mortality profiles (i.e. age at death) for ovicaprids were constructed from mandibular tooth wear patterns (Plate 6.6) and fusion data (Plate 6.7). The sample sizes for the later phases (6c-d) are too small for even a basic reconstruction of mortality profiles, whilst mandibular (63% aged between 6-12 months) and epiphyseal fusion (56% unfused) trends indicate a relatively higher preva-lence of juvenile animals in the 14th century, a higher prevalence of juvenile animals in the 15th century (69% unfused) although taphonomic factors and the relative quantities of bones from each phase must be taken into consideration. There was not enough metrical data to estimate changes in size and shape from one phase to another.

Skeletal abnormalities

There were only a handful of examples of minor pathological conditions in the assemblage overall, pre-dominantly on sheep/goat limb bones. Bone remodelling on a first phalange (1100) was most likely the result of a localised infection. A distal fragment of a radius and ulna (1054) also demonstrated extra bone growth potentially arising from an infection; the animal had been butchered.

Discussion

It is clear that both young and old animals were being slaughtered and consumed at the site, support-ing the notion of a largely pastoral economy relying on the primary and secondary products of sheep and goats; i.e. meat, horn, leather as well as dairy products, wool and hair (GREENFIELD 1999, p. 23), although the specific character of pastoral production is impossible to determine from a single isolated assemblage (see below). Moreover, given the nature of the assemblage it is difficult to make meaningful comparisons between phases; however these observations provide a basis for future investigations into what appears to be a significant form of animal exploitation at Stari Bar.

6.2.2 Cattle

Representation

Cattle are the second most prevalent species on site. Analysis of their body part representation indicates a higher prevalence of larger bones, comparable to the representation of ovicaprid elements and explicable in the same way (Plate 6.6).

The presence of three cattle horn cores alongside the 17 examples from ovicaprids is too limited to gauge the relative importance of this aspect of dead-stock (ani-mal carcasses as raw materials for products) utilisation within the settlement. Future excavations, particularly of manufacturing waste pits, will clarify the extent of horn working, and indeed other industrial activities.

Plate 6.2 – The relative proportion of wild and domestic mammals.

Plate 6.1 – The relative representation of domestic mammals.

Plate 6.3 – The relative representation of wild and domestic birds.

Plate 6.4 – The relative proportions (% NISP) of major domestic animals by phase.

and secondary exploitation practices. However, the pres-ence of horn-cores and a high proportion of mandibles suggest that sheep were brought into the settlement on the hoof, slaughtered on site and elements of their carcasses re-distributed for culinary and industrial uses.

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Plate 6.5 – Relative percentages of ovicaprid element representation from all phas-es. HC=horncore; HYD=hyoid; MAN=mandible; MAX=maxilla; SKL=skull; MNT=mandibular tooth; MXT=maxillary tooth; SCAP=scapula; HUM=humerus; RAD=radius; ULN=ulna; CAR=carpal; MC=metacarpal; PEL=pelvis; FEM=femur; FIB=fibula; TIB=tibia; AST=astragalus; CAL=calcaneum; MT=metatarsal; PH1=phalanx 1; PH2=phalanx2; PH3=phalanx3; VC=cervical vertebra; VD=caudal vertebra; VL=lumbar vertebra; VS=sacral vertebra; VT=thoracic vertebra; VX= vertebra unassigned to region.

Plate 6.6a-d – Histograms representing the frequency of ovicaprid mandible wear stages sub-divided into phases: 6a. End of 13th c (n=14); 6b. 14th c (n=46); 6c. 15th c (n=1); 6d. 16th c (n=6). MWS: Estimated age= 1-2:0-2mths; 3-7:2-6mths; 8-18:6-12mths; 19-28:1-2yrs;

29-33:2-3yrs; 34-37:3-4yrs; 38-41:4-6yrs; 42-44:6-8yrs; 45+:8-10yrs.

Plate 6.7 – Epiphyseal fusion data for ovicaprids by phase.

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Ageing

Mortality profiles for cattle were constructed from fusion data (Plate 6.9) since tooth wear could only be recorded from four mandibles; 1 from the end of the 13th century and 3 from the 14th century. The fusion data tentatively indicates a slightly higher prevalence of adult animals, although taphonomic factors and the relative quantities of bones from each phase continue to qualify our interpretations. As with ovicaprids, the scarcity of metrical data meant that changes in cattle size and shape could not be detected.

Discussion

Although the number of ovicaprid bone fragments outnumber those of cattle, the meat obtainable from a single cow is equivalent to around 11 sheep carcasses and 6.1 pigs (STALLIBRASS 2002), and as a result cattle appear to be the most significance source of meat at the site (Plate 6.10).

It is difficult to assess the broader role of cattle in the context of this limited assemblage; however they feature alongside sheep and goats in numerous upland pastoral systems. Their relative significance will only become clear with future recovery.

6.2.3 Pig

Representation

Overall, pig bone fragments account for only 16% of domestic mammal remains. The representation of pig bone elements differed from both ovicaprids and cat-tle, in that a higher proportion of cranial and vertebral fragments were recovered. Since almost all body parts are represented, it is likely that whole carcasses were slaughtered on site and taphonomic factors have skewed the recovery of post-cranial elements (Plate 6.11).

Ageing

Toothwear could only be recorded on 8 mandibles; 2 from the late-13th century; 5 from the 14th century and 1 from the 15th century. Since pigs are a highly fecund species, and were bred exclusively for meat, one would expect to find a high proportion of juvenile animal re-mains. There is clearly a higher prevalence of elements with unfused proximal epiphyses (Plate 6.12), but with a NISP of 54 no definite conclusion can be reached at this stage.

Discussion

The limited number of pig remains from this as-semblage makes it difficult to move beyond generic conclusions. Clearly both juvenile and adult animals were slaughtered and consumed on site, although their limited presence cannot be used to infer any changes in breeding, or whether they were herded in nearby woodland or housed in sties.

6.2.4 Other mammals

Only two other domestic mammal species were represented in the assemblage; two fragments of a dog pelvis (1108, 1094) and small fragments of a horse fe-mur and unfused calcaneum (1071). Whilst indicating the presence of these animals at the site, little else can be interpreted from such small occurrences.

6.3 Wild Mammals

The most commonly occurring wild mammal is the hare, represented in most of the phases. Plate 6.13 shows the relative representation of elements and underlines the bias in the recovery of long limb bones over small-post cranial elements. Although the sample is small, it is clear that whole individuals were processed on site. Where proximal epiphyses had been preserved they were all fused, suggesting that adult animals had been hunted.

Red and roe deer remains were recovered from the late-13th and 14th century contexts, represented by a single roe deer antler (Plate 6.13), two pelvis fragments, part of a scapula and first phalange. Red deer were represented by two fragments of radii and three tibia. Although limited, these elements coupled with two unidentified cervid phalanges and a single metapodial, indicate the exploitation of deer for meat and antler.

Evidence for both of these conclusions comes from an intriguing find on the recovered antler (Plate 6.14). The antler shows a clear cut mark at the margin where the pedicle and cranium join (arrowed), indicating that the antler was not shed, but was in fact chopped off (Plate 6.15).

The left proximal half of a cat radius was recovered from 1054. This is from a large specimen and is consider-ably larger than any of the recent specimens of F. catus and is therefore unlikely to be domestic (Plate 6.16).

It is large in comparison with some recent specimens of wildcat, F. sylvestris but is too small for F. lynx. Of considerable interest is the clear diagonal cut mark near the proximal end (Plate 6.17).

Although it is common to cut at the wrist joint, or slightly above, when skinning for pelts, cuts on the radius and ulna can result when only the main part of the leg is required for the pelt and the cut is slightly further up the foreleg. Finally, two humeri, an ulna and a right os coxa from a rat (probably R. rattus) are chance finds; it is likely that more micro-fauna remains will be recovered with future systematic sieving.

6.4 Birds

With the exception of domestic fowl, identifiable bird remains are otherwise represented by 7 fragments with negligible evidence for the exploitation of wild species. The latter includes a complete, left, quail (Coternix cot-ernix) tarsometatarsus (1100), a cervical vertebra from a small passerine (1094) and the left radius of a buzzard

Plate 6.11 – Relative percentages of pig element representation from all phases (for legend see Plate 6.5).

Plate 6.8 – Element representation of cattle compared with ovicaprids (for legend see Plate 6.5).

Plate 6.9 – Proximal epiphyseal fusion data for cattle by phase.

Plate 6.10 – The relative proportions of meat obtainable from pigs, cattle and ovicaprids (compare to NISP values in Plate 6.4).

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Plate 6.12 – Proximal epiphyseal fusion data for pig by phase (NISP=54).

Plate 6.13 – Element representation of hare (NISP=35).

Plate 6.14 – Roe deer antler.

Plate 6.15 – Close up detail of cut mark on roe deer antler.

Plate 6.16 – Wildcat radius.

Plate 6.17 – Wildcat radius showing cut mark.

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Plate 6.18 – Relative percentages of chicken element representation from all phases (NISP=215). FUR=furcula; SKL=skull; SCAP=scapula; HUM=humerus; RAD=radius; ULN=ulna; CAR=carpometacarpus; COR=coracoid; SYN=Synsacrum; FEM=femur; FIB=fibula; TIB=tibiotarsus; TAR=tarsometatarsus; PHX=phalanx unassigned to

region; VX; vertebra unassigned to region.

(Buteo buteo) (1071), which, given its small size, is prob-ably from a male bird. Even in this minute sample, game and raptor species are represented, and future recovery of bird bones will hopefully increasingly clarify the roles of both groups in the culture and environment of Stari Bar. Analysis of chicken element representation indi-cated an expected bias towards the larger bones (Plate 6.18), with the overwhelming majority (92%) of bones preserving distal epiphyses deriving from adult birds. Long bones were measured and whilst the total number was too small for any meaningful metric analysis, this data will contribute to the analyses of larger assemblages recovered from the site in the future.

Only 3 of the 28 tarsometatarsus fragments indicated the presence of spurs, and combined with evidence for medullary bone within the marrow cavity of 7 long bones (indicating female birds in-lay), points to a predomi-nantly higher number of adult hens. It is likely that the purpose for keeping chickens at the site was primarily for eggs, and secondly for meat; 5 fragments of chicken bone exhibited butchery marks.

6.5 Reptiles

A tortoise shell fragment, humerus and femur from 15th and 16th century contexts contribute to an impres-sion of diverse animal exploitation at Stari Bar. The consumption of tortoise has been noted in sites such as Apigliano and Ordona in southern Italy and Brucato in Sicily (DE VENUTO 2006 in press).

6.6 Butchery data

The butchery data from this site has the potential to lead to specific and valuable indications of socio-eco-nomic practice. Culturally mediated butchery activity should, in the future, allow us to distinguish between groups with different ethnic affiliations as well as inter-pret aspects of ritual, cultic and trade activity. With the

limited sample herein, it would not be appropriate to over-interpret the butchery data, although the recorded cut mark data, coupled with the unique nature of the site bodes well for future research.

Cattle remains appear to have undergone the highest degree of butchery, with approximately 18% of cattle bones indicting signs of butchery. This compares with 9% for sheep bones and 6.5% of pig fragments. This should come as no surprise due to the disparity in size between these domesticates. However, this may also be indicative of specific cookery techniques; future research should attempt to link pottery finds with those from the butchery data to draw together potential indictors of spe-cific alimentation practice. For example, as highlighted in Plate 6.19 below, these rib fragments demonstrate chop marks at one, and often both, ends. This results in meat portions of a specific size (tentatively this activity has been referred to as ‘pot-sizing’) more than likely for the express desire to fit easily within cooking vessels. This site, with its distinctive ethnic transitions, offers a useful opportunity to develop research into alimentation practices from a multidisciplinary basis, in particular linking ceramic and faunal lines of evidence.

All parts of the carcass are represented within the butchered assemblage, and in general it would appear that a butchery protocol favouring large, heavy bladed cleavers predominated for all species. One might expect knife butchery (slicing rather than chopping) for the smaller domestic species; however this was not the case. This indication of the same overall technique used for all species points to less specialization. Unfortunately, in the absence of metallurgic finds, potential tools can-not be linked to the butchery, although, this indicates a promising area for future research.

6.7 Worked Bone

Examples of worked bone from the assemblage include an example of a smoothed shaft fragment with perforations (Plate 6.20), perhaps in the process of

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Plate 6.20 – Fragment of bone that has been smoothed with perforations.

Plate 6.21 – The distal end of a sheep/goat tibia with a flute hole cut into the shaft.

Plate 6.19 – Chopped rib fragments.

being made into a belt fitting, as well as a sheep/goat tibia being prepared as a flute (Plate 6.21). Both pieces were discarded unfinished and hint at a diversity of manufacturing activities at Stari Bar utilising bone as a primary raw material.

6.8 Depositing animal bones in room 161: towards a sequence and social context

The amount of animal bone deposited in room 161 varies, with the highest number in the 14th century rep-resenting 60% of all identifiable fragments, whilst the late-13th century and 16th century phases contain 15%, and the 15th century phase 8.5%. The stratified phases of room 161 and the interpretations of their archaeological contexts have already been outlined by Calaon (CALAON 2005). From at least the mid-14th century, the room ap-pears to have functioned as a space for the preparation of food. However, the remains of animals butchered for consumption were unlikely to have been deposited within this room, but in waste pits elsewhere and then re-deposited here at later dates as sub-pavement prepara-tions and fills. It is therefore difficult to say, with any cer-tainty at this stage, that the remains are directly related to dietary regimes within the citadel. This can only be verified with the systematic recovery of faunal remains from a diverse range of contexts across the town and elsewhere within the citadel. Nonetheless, 451 fragments displayed clear butchery marks and whilst it is impossible to demonstrate which waste pits they derived from, it is very likely that kitchen waste was deposited nearby, and equally plausible that bones re-used for pavement preparation and fills were also obtained nearby, from what would have been easily accessible and convenient sources. The significant increase in deposited animal bones in the 14th century may therefore be linked to the establishment of the room as a space for the preparation of food – supplying external waste dumps which are ultimately re-deposited within the room – perhaps in turn reflecting increasing investment in the provisioning of the citadel. Interestingly, even though animal bones continue to be used for pavement packing in the 15th century, the amount decreases significantly, perhaps im-plying a decrease in availability or alternatively simply reflecting the construction of a shallow sub-pavement layer. It will be interesting to compare this chronological trend with other parts of the citadel.

In medieval Italy, the consumption of wild game be-came closely associated with the seigneurial class from at least the 12th century (VALENTI, SALVADORI 2006 in press) and so the presence of deer, wild boar and wild fowl remains at a medieval (second millennium AD) site is typically interpreted as a biological signature of high-status activity. Evidence for fur-processing on the other hand remains limited to a single fragment of wild cat, and at present contributes little to our understanding of social and commercial aspects of fur consumption at the site, or in the region as a whole. However, there is a wealth of data on the late-medieval Mediterranean fur

trade and the role played by Venetian merchants (DELORT 1978), so there is a good basis for contextualising the remains of fur-bearers recovered in future excavations. At Stari Bar, the representation of wild mammals and birds is consistently below 5% (Plate 6.22), although this trend, particularly in the case of wild fowl, has been heavily influenced by the taphonomic and recovery fac-tors discussed above.

Our understanding of the control of animal resources in medieval Serbia is currently limited, a situation which

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Plate 6.22 – The relative proportions (%NISP) of domestic and wild animals by phase.

will become increasingly clarified with future faunal analyses from a range of identifiable social contexts. Within the citadel of Stari Bar, the highest numbers of game fragments appear in 14th century contexts, cor-responding in part to the relative quantity of animal bones from this phase which is significantly higher than from earlier or later phases, and it will be interesting to compare the distribution of game across the settlement in order to ascertain whether socially distinct dietary regimes (and related access to animal resources) existed, particularly during the Serbian period and how this may have changed following Venetian occupation.

6.9 The environmental context

Many of the species recovered from the assemblage are associated with specific habitats, enabling us to sketch the ecological profile of the settlement’s economic hinterland. The extent of this hinterland is currently uncertain and will require more detailed landscape studies, but the high representation of ovicaprids at the site is unsurprising given its situation within upland and mountainous terrain (Plate 6.23).

Sheep and goats have been domesticated by humans for millennia but continue to differ in their foraging strategies due to physiological and anatomical differ-ences (GORDON, ILLIUS 1992, p. 155). Goats can digest stems, bark and other products of trees and bushes, whereas sheep tend to be more selective, preferring grasses and food with a higher nutritional value; goats are also more agile in mountainous terrain, whilst sheep are adapted to relatively level areas and are clumsy in rocky landscapes (RIPOLL 2003, p. 293). Since the assem-blage is isolated from a regional context, it is impossible to determine whether its livestock ‘harvest’ profiles re-flect transhumance, although specialised, market-driven transhumance is widely viewed as a phenomenon of historical times, particularly in southern Europe (GREEN-FIELD 1999, p. 23). On the other hand, the presence of a range of wild terrestrial and marine fauna indicates that the settlement’s economic links stretched down to

the coastal plain and the shoreline (a distance of 5 km); with hare obtainable from a mixed open landscape of grasslands and farms. Hares can be found in upland regions, although they are most abundant in arable ar-eas where cereal growing predominates as they can be deterred by high numbers of livestock. This combined with the relative difficulty of hunting these animals in rugged terrain indicates they were less likely to have been obtained from upland pastures.

The analysis of animal remains from Stari Bar has enabled us to begin to construct an impression of con-nections between the settlement and its surrounding environment. This view will remain relatively crude until it is complemented by other forms of environmental analyses. Future excavations should aim to recover a broad range of environmental data, including micro-faunal and micro-botanical remains from multiple phases of occupation. Once the broader ecological role of the settlement (HORDEN, PURCELL 2000, pp. 108-112) has been established for the Byzantine/Serbian and Turkish occupation phases, the impact and distinct character of Venetian colonisation can be more readily assessed, and ultimately compared and contrasted with its signature on other forms of material culture, such as ceramics, metal-work and buildings. As environmental data is recovered from contemporary sites in the surrounding region, it may be possible to determine to what extent the farming practices associated with (and stimulated by) the town changed the landscape, as pastoral economies elsewhere in southern Europe are associated with deforestation and the creation of upland grasslands (CHANG 1999, p. 141). Such changes may be detectable in the palaeobotanical record; for example, sustained overgrazing will limited the number of coarse grasses and result in reduced spe-cies diversity, whilst under grazing will enable scrub and brush to develop (ZERVAS 1998, p. 985). Pastoral sites are typically found in marginal locations and in mountainous environments good preservation of archaeological data is unlikely, however a regional survey combined with an ethnographic understanding of recent pastoralism may be used as a baseline to examine earlier pastoral production systems around Bar (ibid). In addition, it will

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Plate 6.23 – View of nearby mountainous terrain from the citadel of Stari Bar: its immediate hinterland.

Table 6.3 – Species representation at Stari Bar by MNI, calculated from MNE for each context and sub-divided

according to period. See legend above.

Table 6.4 – Epiphyseal fusion data for ovicaprids by phase: A=end of 13th century; B=14th century; C=15th century;

D=16th century.

be important to integrate a zooarchaeological and ethno-archaeological understanding of animal husbandry with a detailed understanding of local agricultural systems, as livestock require extra provisioning during the winter months. In summary, a holistic environmental archaeo-logical approach is recommended as an integral element of future research at Stari Bar.

6.10 Synthesis: animal exploitation at Stari Bar

Animals were used for a range of primary and second-ary products, and their bones were subject to multiple phases of re-use, particularly as foundations for pave-ments. The most important species were sheep and goat, ideally suited to the mountainous terrain of the sur-rounding hinterland, although cattle, pigs and domestic fowl were also exploited for a range of products. Wild species played a relatively minor role, but indicate that a range of habitats were consistently exploited by the inhabitants of the citadel throughout the Middle Ages and into the Turkish period. A range of marine and freshwater resources were also exploited, suggesting the settlement’s economic hinterland or sphere of influence extended down to the Hylliric coast, and extending in-land at least as far as Lake Skodar (see below). Finally, there is tangible evidence for the processing of animal bone (e.g. butchery, horn working, artefact manufactur-ing, skinning) and clear and consistent examples of its recycling as packing to support new pavements within the citadel from the late-13th to 15th century.

6.11 Future prospects

The assemblage recovered from the citadel in 2004 represents an important foundation for building an un-derstanding of human interactions with local and distant

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Table 6.5 – Epiphyseal fusion data for cattle by phase: A=end of 13th century; B=14th century; C=15th century; D=16th

century.

Table 6.6 – Epiphyseal fusion data for pig by phase: A=end of 13th century; B=14th century; C=15th century; D=16th century

(BULL, PAYNE 1982).

environments, the economic and social roles of diet, the provisioning of culinary and industrial outlets and the relative impact of Venetian and Turkish occupation at Stari Bar. Although this is the first assemblage to have been analysed, the potential quantity and quality of data which may be recovered from a site such as Stari Bar – an abandoned settlement with a broad distribution of well-preserved deposits from multiple periods of occupation – is vast. A larger assemblage of animal bones was re-covered from excavations in 2005, which included both hand-collected and sieved fragments from other sites in the town. The recording and analysis of this material will provide a significant contribution to our understanding of animal exploitation and environmental interaction outlined above, as well as a framework for evaluating future recovery of faunal remains from Stari Bar.

6.12 Fish

6.12.1 Introduction

A total of 87 specimens of fish were submitted for analysis. Taxonomic identifications were made using the author’s modern comparative collections. All fragments were identified to anatomical element and taxon where practicable. Recently broken bones were joined where possible and have been counted as single specimens. Measurements mainly follow von den Driesch (VON DEN DRIESCH 1976) for mammals and birds and Morales & Rosenlund (MORALES, ROSENLUND 1979) for fish and are in millimetres unless otherwise stated. General data for fish is taken from Fishbase (FROESE, PAULY 2006).

6.12.2 Results

The 87 fish remains are comprised of at least ten taxa (Table 6.7).

Undiagnostic fin rays and other fragments account for 28 of the specimens. Both freshwater and marine taxa are present. Cyprinids (carp family) dominate; both in

Plate 6.24 – Carp dorsal spine, basioccipital, opercular and inferior pharyngeal.

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Table 6.7 – The representation of fish remains at Stari Bar.

numbers of bones and in frequency of occurrence. These are obligate freshwater fish and have many representa-tives in Europe. The cyprinid bones were discriminated to species on the inferior pharyngeal, opercular, dentary and dorsal spine. At least three species are represented: common carp, chub and nase. The 36 specimens include at least 11 definitely of, or comparable with, carp, some of very large size (Plate 6.24).

The carp, Cyprinus carpio, is thought to be native to the Danube basin of eastern Europe, but also has a long history of cultivation (HOFFMAN 1995). Little is known of its distribution in the Balkan region and the confirmed presence in the deposits at Stari Bar suggests that it was well known in this area from the late-13th century. A Roman date has been suggested for the first cultivation (BALON 1995), but certainly carp are known from outside the probable native distribution area by 1100 AD, from both documentary and archaeological evidence (HOFFMAN 1994, 1995). Earlier deposits from Stari Bar may indicate when this valuable food fish be-came available in the region.

There are 7 cyprinid bones from 1108, two are dor-sal spines comparable with carp but the remains also include inferior pharyngeals not of carp. These match chub, Leuciscus cephalus and are from two different individuals (Plate 6.25).

There are 9 species of this genus in Montenegro and not all were available as reference specimens, however, only chub grows to large size (over 35 cm total length) and both of these specimens are judged to be from chub over 45 cm. There was a similar find in the residual 1082.

Two inferior pharyngeals are of the genus Chondros-toma, nase, one from 1100 and the other from 1085 (Plate 6.26).

There are at least nine species of this genus recorded for Europe, the common nase, C. nasus, is a commer-cially important fish now present over much of Europe especially in the Danube and Rhine basins. It is cur-rently found in the Lake Skodar basin in Montenegro but its status as a native in this area is not clear to this author. The closely related Dalmation nase, C. knerii, is of restricted range to the northwest and is a less likely candidate. A further species, C. skodrense, which has been recorded only from Lake Skodar, is now considered extinct (MARIC 1995, KOTTELAT 1997) but is perhaps the most likely species if the specimens are definitely not of C. nasus. Neither skodrense or knerii specimens were available for checking.

All of the other identified fish remains are of marine species or, in the case of salmon, are anadromous. Sev-eral vertebrae of large salmon were identified from 1100 (Plate 6.27) and another from 1108.

The premaxilla of a wrasse was recovered from 1090; it was not possible to identify this further (Plate 6.28).

Mullet vertebrae were recovered from 1100, 1094 and the residual 1082. This last was from a large fish and had been obliquely chopped caudally. Bass is rep-resented by caudal vertebrae of medium to large sized fish in 1082, 1085 and 1100. The two from this last context had been obliquely chopped. A sparid dentary was recovered from 1053 (Plate 6.29) but could not be positively identified to species.

Plate 6.30 – Large jack vertebra.

Plate 6.25 – Chub inferior pharyngeal.

Plate 6.26 – Chondrostoma inferior pharyngeal.

Plate 6.27 – Salmon vertebra.

Plate 6.28 – Wrasse premaxilla. Plate 6.29 – Sparid dentary.

It does not quite match specimens of gilthead bream, Sparus aurata, of about 30-40 cm total length in the author’s collection, being broader in comparison to the length and does not have the enlarged molar usual for this species. The shape is more similar to Diplodus annularis, but would have to have been an unusually large specimen. Two further species are represented by two vertebrae each. From 1094 there are two incom-plete vertebrae from an extremely large fish. One is a small part of the centrum, chopped across obliquely.

The other is more complete but chopped in the same manner (Plate 6.30).

It seems probable that these represent a ‘steak’ cut from the mid region of a carangid (jack). The white trevally, Pseudocaranx dentex, and the Leerfish, Lichia amia, both reach lengths of well over 1 m and have been reported from the area but insufficient comparative material was available for confirmation. The remaining two vertebrae, from 1100, are perciform but have not been identified to date.

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6.12.3 Fish sources for Stari Bar

The inhabitants of Stari Bar would have had easy access to marine fish from the Adriatic, either directly or through trade. For freshwater and migratory fish this part of Montenegro contains a very large lake and a major river as well as having small local streams. Lake Skodar lies 15 km to the northeast of Stari Bar and is approximately 391 km2. It has an outlet to the Adriatic via the Bojana river and some marine migrants are able to reach it. The lake is fed by a number of waters includ-ing the well-known salmon river Moraca. Presently it contains 37 species of 15 families, though not all are

native. The ichthyofauna is dominated by cyprinids with carp and bleak being of major commercial importance (DILL 1990, DHORA, BEQUIRAJ, DHORA 2001).

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Professor Sauro Gelichi and his team from the Università Ca’ Foscari, Venezia, for their gener-ous and extensive hospitality, and for providing us with the opportunity to contribute to this pioneering project. We would also like to thank Sheila Hamilton-Dyer for her contribution and additional help in the preparation of this report.

Sheila Hamilton-Dyer