7- MODULEPOPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS

Our global human population has now surpassed 7 billion. It took about thirty nine thousand years of human history to reach 1 billion, 130 years to reach the second billion, 45 years to reach 4 billion and the next doubling is likely within a span of a few decades.

Population Characteristics and variation among nations:

1) Exponential growth: Population growth takes place exponentially and that explains the dramatic increase in global population in past 150 years.

2) Doubling time: The time needed for a population to double its size at a constant annual rate is known as doubling time. It is calculated as follows:

Td = 70/ rWhere,

Td = Doubling time in years

r = annual growth rate of population

3) Total fertility rates (TFR); It is defined as the average number of children that would be born to a woman in her lifetime if the age-specific birth rate remain constant. The value of TFR varies from 1.9 in developed nation to 4.7 in developing nations.

4) Infant mortality rate: It is the percentage of infants dies out of those born in a year. Although the rate has declined in the past 50 years, but the pattern differs widely in developed and developing countries.

5) Age structure: Based upon the people belonging to different age classes like pre-reproductive (0-14 years), reproductive (15-44 years) and post reproductive (45 years and above) population of any country can be represented by age pyramids. It can be of three types:

Pyramid shape: It indicates the positive population growth and observed in nation like India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria etc. This is characterize by more number of very young population

Bell shaped: This indicates the stabilize population growth nation. In theses countries like France, USA and Canada the birth rate has decline in last two decades and there by not much growth is likely for the people entering into reproductive age group.

Urn shaped: In these countries like Germany, Italy ,Hungary, Sweden and Japan, number of individuals in very young age is smaller than the middle reproductive age class. So, indicating negative population growth in future decades.

6) Zero population growth (ZPG): When birth plus immigration in a population are equal to deaths plus emigration, it is said to be zero population growth. Nations such as Japan, Italy, Greece are showing Zero population or negative population growth.

7) Male-Female ratio: The ratio of boys and girls should be fairly balanced in a society to flourish. In India this ratio is 933/1000, in rural area this ratio is 946/1000 and urban areas it is 900/1000. Kerala is having the highest ration between states 1,058 and Haryana has the lowest ratio of 861.

8) Life expectancy: It is the average age that a newborn infant is expected to attain in a given country. In the last 100 years improved medical facilities and technological advancement has increased the average life expectancy on global scale from 40 to 60.5 years over the past century.

POPULATION EXPLOSION FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAM

Population explosion is the most serious problem facing our country today. With 16 per cent of the worlds population, India is toady the second largest populations country in the world. The population growth has been extremely rapid in the last 50 years. The phenomenal growth is now more appropriately termed as population explosion.

The phenomenal growth rate in population is largely because of the industrial and technological revolutions that had taken place in the recent times. The new technologies have not only brought down the death rate because of the vastly improved Medicare resulting in increased life expectancies, but had also facilitated increased food production to take care of food needs of the increasing population.

Though population explosion is a major problem being faced by several other countries too, with the world population estimated to reach 7 billion by the beginning of the 21st century, the problem is much more severe in India because of the increasing pressure on the limited resources of the country.

The phenomenal population growth exerts immense pressure on other basic necessities like education, health, housing, clothing, employment opportunities etc.

To check ill-effects of population growth on the socio-economic front, the Indian government had lunched the Family Planning Programme in 1951. This was later rechristened as the Family Welfare Programme. This programme promotes on a voluntary basis, responsible Planned Parenthood, through independent choice of family planning methods best suited to the people.

The government should also intensify its efforts to educate the people on the adverse effects of population explosion. The population explosion can be effectively checked only when the people are inclined towards smaller families. With increasing literacy rate and improved socio-economic status, the people can be educated to adopt a favorable attitude towards smaller families. When this happens, the population explosion can be checked.

Urbanisation is the physical growth of urban areas. It can be defined as the rapid and massive growth of, and migration to, large cities resulting in both positive and negative consequences. Urbanisation is also defined by the movement of people from rural to urban areas with population growth equating to urban migration. Hence, it is the increase over time in the population of cities in relation to the regions rural population. Urbanisation has intense effects on the ecology and economy of a region.

With employment opportunities in the rural areas becoming scarce, population explosion is resulting in increasing migration of rural poor to the urban areas in search of jobs. The increasing pressure on the urban areas is giving rise to more number of slums and this is multiplying the problems in the urban areas as health is the first casualty in slums.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH

According to World Health Organization (WHO) health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Human health is influenced by many factors like nutritional, biological, chemical or psychological.

1) Infectious organisms: Disease causing organism pose greater threats to health, more severely in the developing countries especially in the tropical one. Infectious organism can cause respiratory diseases (pneumonia, tuberculosis, influenza etc) and gastrointestinal diseases ( diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera etc). Beside these various type of parasites also causes disease such as malaria, filariasis, schistosomiasis etc.

2) Chemicals: Food contaminated by chemicals is a major worldwide public health concern. Contamination may occur through environmental pollution. of the air, water and soil. Toxic metals, PCBs and dioxins, or the intentional use of various chemicals, such as pesticides, animal drugs and other agrochemicals have serious consequences on human health.

3) Cancer and environment: Cancer is caused by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells that may affect almost any tissue of the body. Lung, colon, rectal and stomach cancer are among the five most common cancers in the world for both men and women.

More than 10 million people are diagnosed with cancer in the world every year. It is estimated that there will be 15 million new cases every year by 2020. Cancer causes 6 million deaths every year or 12% of deaths worldwide. Early detection and effective treatment is possible for a further one-third of cases. Most of the common cancers are curable by a combination of surgery, chemotherapy (drugs) or radiotherapy (X-rays). The chance of cure increases if cancer is detected early.

4) Water-related diseases: About 2.4 billion people globally live under highly unsanitary conditions. Poor hygiene and behavior pattern increase the exposure to risk of incidence and spread of infectious diseases. There are 4 major types of water related diseases:

Water borne diseases: These are caused by dirty water contaminated by human and animal wastes, especially from urban sewage, or by chemical wastes from industry and agriculture. Some of these diseases, such as cholera and typhoid, cause serious epidemics. Diarrhoea, dysentery, polio, meningitis, and hepatitis A and E, are caused due to improper drinking water.

Water based diseases: Aquatic organisms that live a part of their life cycle in water and another part as a parasite in man, lead to several diseases. In India, guinea worm affects the feet. Round worms live in the small intestine, especially of children. Water related vector diseases: Insects such as mosquitoes that breed in stagnant water spread diseases such as malaria, Dengue and filariasis. Water scarcity diseases: In areas where water and sanitation is poor, there is a high incidence of diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, tetanus, etc. which occur when hands are not adequately washed.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Environmental issues are closely linked to human rights. These include the equitable distribution of environmental resources, the utilisation of resources and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), resettlement issues around development projects such as dams and mines, and access to health to prevent environment related diseases.

The Universal declaration of Human Right (UNDHR) by the UN on December 10, 1948 provide comprehensive protection to all individuals against all form of injustice and human right violation.

On May 16, 1994 at Geneva, the United Nation drafted the first ever Declaration of Human Rights and Environment, which embodies the right of every human being to a healthy, secure and ecologically sound environment. The main points of this drafts are:

1) Part 1: It deals with human rights for an ecologically sound environment, sustainable development and peace for all.

1) Part 2 : It mainly deals with human right related to an environment free from pollution and degradation. It defines right to own native land or home.

1) Part 3: It deals with right of every person to environment education, information, awareness and also public participation in environmental decision making.

1) Part 4: It deals with the duties of states and citizens to protect and preserve the environment and prevent environmental harm.

1) Part 5: This lay stress on social justice and equity with respect to use of natural resources and sustainable development.

VALUE EDUCATION

Value education in the context of our environment is expected to bring about a new sustainable way of life. The different component of value education are as follows:1) Environmental Values: The Western, modern approach values the resources of Nature for their utilitarian importance alone. However true environmental values go beyond valuing a river for its water, a forest for its timber and non-wood forest products, or the sea for its fish. Environmental values are inherent in feelings that bring about a sensitivity for preserving nature as a whole.

2) Valuing Nature: We must appreciate that we belong to a global community that includes another 1.8 million known living forms. We need to develop a sense of values that lead us to protect what is left of the wilderness by creating effective National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Most of the current environmental movement focuses on issues that are concerned with the management of the natural environment for the benefit of man, however Deep Ecology promotes an approach that is expected to bring about a more appropriate ecological balance on Earth and is akin to a spiritual approach to Nature.

3) Valuing cultures: Every culture has a right to exist. Tribal people are frequently most closely linked with Nature and we have no right to force on them our own modern way of life. We have to take measures to provide them with modern health care and education that gives them an opportunity to achieve a better economic status without disrupting their culture and way of life.

4) Social justice: As the divide widens between those people who have access to resources and wealth, and those who live near or below the poverty line, it is the duty of those who are better off to protect the rights of the poor who do not have the means to fight for their rights. The developing world would face a crisis earlier than the developed countries unless the rights of poor people that are fundamental to life are protected.

5) Human heritage: Heritage preservation is now a growing environmental concern because much of this heritage has been undervalued during the last several decades and is vanishing at an astonishing pace.

6) Equitable use of resources: An unfair distribution of wealth and resources, based on a world that is essentially only for the rich, will bring about a disaster of unprecedented proportions. Equitable use of resources is now seen as an essential aspect of human well being and must become a shared point of view among all socially and environmentally conscious individuals.

7) Common Property Resources: The water that nature recycles, the air that we all breathe, the forests and grasslands which maintain our climate and soil, are all common property resources. The proper sharing and its management through community participation is essential for these resource conservation.

8) Ecological degradation: Changes in land use from natural ecosystems to more intensive utilization such as turning forests into monoculture forestry plantations, wetlands into agriculture land leads to its degradation. carry an ecological price. There is need for conserving such ecosystem before they get damage to a extent that we cant replenish them back.

HIV/AIDS

The Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which mainly spread from infected person to other individuals due to contact with tissue fluids during needle sharing, blood transfusion and unprotected sex.

HIV can also pass from infected mothers to their babies during pregnancy, delivery or breast feeding. HIV however doesnt spread through tears, sweat, and urine or by sharing utensils, towels, clothing's and insect bites.

AIDS itself does not kill humans, the HIV destroy or disables the T-cells in the human body which are the key infection fighters in the immune system, resulting into making human body more susceptible for the other infectious disease.

The AIDS was discovered in 1983, however yet not sufficient information is available regarding its primary source. Most evidence suggests that AIDS has spreads from Africa and the virus has been transferred from primates like African monkey or Chimpanzees.

Recent estimates indicate that about 40 million people are living with HIV/AIDS worldwide and 70% of them are in Sub Saharan African region. By 2002, India had an estimated 3.97 million infected individuals. HIV/AIDS has been identified as the fourth largest cause of mortality and about 3 million people died due to HIV/AIDS in 2003.

HIV/ AIDS has a serious impact on the socioeconomic fabric of society:

1) Household income: If the working head of family suffers from AIDS it reduces the household income which may have repercussions for every member of the family such as Children may be forced to abandon their education.

2) Basic necessities: The poor households coping with members who are sick from HIV or AIDS have to reduce spending on necessities such as clothing, electricity etc. even further.

3) Food production: The AIDS epidemic adds to food insecurity in many areas, as agricultural work is neglected or abandoned due to household illness. Some studies show that HIV/AIDS results into decrease in crop production by 20% in countries like Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE

Each year, close to eleven million children worldwide are estimated to have died from the effects of disease and inadequate nutrition. Seven out of 10 of childhood deaths in developing countries can be attributed to five main causes, or a combination of them. These are pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles, malaria and malnutrition.

Respiratory conditions:Crowded ill-ventilated homes and living in smokey households with open fires can trigger respiratory conditions especially in children. Pneumonia: Acute respiratory infections (ARI), most frequently pneumonia, is a major cause of death in children under five, killing over two million children annually.

Gastro intestinal conditions:Contaminated water and food causes widespread ill health especially in children. Two million children die each year in developing countries from diarrhoeal diseases, the second most serious killer of children under five worldwide. By promoting rapid and effective treatment through standardized management, including antibiotics and simple measures such as oral rehydration using clean boiled water with salt and sugar.

Poverty-environment-malnutrition:There is a close association between poverty, a degraded environment, and malnutrition. Although malnutrition is rarely listed as the direct cause of death, it contributes to about half of all childhood deaths.

Poor feeding practices - inadequate mother milk , providing the wrong foods, giving food in insufficient quantities, contribute to malnutrition. Malnourished children are more vulnerable to disease.

Women welfare:

Women, especially in lower income group families, both in the rural and urban sector, work longer hours than men. The daily collection of water, fuel wood and fodder is an arduous task for rural women.

Women are often the last to get enough nutrition as their role in traditional society is to cook the family meal and feed their husband and children. This leads to malnutrition and anemia due to inadequate nutrition.

The sorry plight of women includes the fact that the girl child is given less attention and educational facilities as compared to boys in India.

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

The understanding of environmental concerns and issues related to human health has exploded during the last few years due to the sudden growth of Information Technology.

The Internet with its thousands of websites has made it extremely simple to get the appropriate environmental information for any study or environmental management planning which helped in increase public awareness about environmental issues.

Specialized software can analyze data for epidemiological studies, population dynamics and a variety of key environmental concerns. Some of the key contribution of IT in environment and human health are as follows:

1) Database on Environment and Health: The ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has taken up the task of compiling database on various biotic communities. The comprehensive database includes wildlife database, forest cover database. The MOEF established Environmental Information System (ENVIS) in December, 1982 for providing information to decision makers, policy planners, Scientists and research workers.

2) Geographical Information System (GIS): It is a very important tool in environmental management. GIS is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number of inter-related or inter- dependent aspects. Main applications of GIS are:

It is useful in land use planning so provide important information for future project development.

Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded ecosystem or diseased crop can be made based on GIS.

GIS helps in providing correct, reliable and verifiable information about forest cover, success of conservation effort.

It provides information about atmospheric phenomenon such as approach of monsoon, ozone layer depletion, cyclone formation etc.

It can help in exploring new areas where navigation is difficult for human being.

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT

The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) was enacted by the Indian parliament in 1986. EPA was enacted soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy as umbrella legislation to:

To provide framework for co-ordination of central & state authorities established under Water and Air Acts.

To fills the gaps in the existing laws for tackling environmental problems.

The decline in Environmental quality has been evidenced by increasing pollution, loss of vegetation cover and biological diversity and in food chains, growing risk of environmental accidents and threats to life support systems. The world communitys resolve to protect and enhance the environmental quality found expression in the decisions taken at United. Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972.

Some of the important sections of the Act are as follows:

SECTION 2 - DefinitionsUnder Section 2, general definitions are provided. However it states that such definition is valid only unless the context otherwise requires. Some of these important definitions are:

Sec 2 (a) - environment Includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exits among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creature, plants micro organism and property;

Sec 2 (b) - environment pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be injurious to environment.

Sec 2 (c) - environment pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant.

Sec 2 (d) - handling in relation to any substance means the manufacture, the processing, package, storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion, and offering for sale, transfer or the like of a substance.

Sec 2 (e) hazardous substances means any substance or preparation which by reason of chemical or physic chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living creature plants and micro-organism, property.

Sec 2 (f) occupier in relation to any factory or premise, means a person who has control over the affairs of the factory or the premises and includes, in relation to any substance, person in possession of the substance;SECTION 3-6 Powers Conferred to the Central Government General powers conferred to Central government are provided under Section 3 to 6.

These powers include:

Making rules to regulate environmental pollution;

Notifying standards and maximum limits of pollutants of air, water, and soil for various areas and purposes;

Prohibiting & restricting the handling of hazardous substances, and location of industries.

Sec (3) Empowers government to constitute authority/s for the purpose of exercising powers and performing such functions (as conferred by the Act).

Sec (4) Grants power to appoint a person for fulfillment of powers conferred under section 3 such as inspection, examination, collection of samples, etc.

Sec (5) - Grants power to issue directions in writing to any officers/authority toComply.

Sec (6) Empowers government to make rules to achieve the object of the Act.

SECTION 7-17 - General Provisions

Sections 7-17 pertain to general provisions for Prevention, Control and Abatement of environmental pollution. These provisions empower central government to take measures necessary to:

protect/improve quality of the environment by setting standards for emissions and discharges regulating the location of industries; management of hazardous wastes, protection of public health and welfare.

These provisions also provide directions to both public and concerned authorities for-

maintenance of environmental quality, control & reduce pollution from all sources prohibition/restriction on setting up of and /or operation of any industrial facility/ unit on environmental grounds

SECTION 15, 16, 17 Penalties

While imposing penalties the onus lies on the occupier/owner of the unit polluting/ violating the Act. According to Sections 15, 16, 17, penalties are as follows:- Person contravening provisions of the is liable for punishment in form of imprisonment for a term extending up to 5years/ fine extending up to 1,00,00/ both- If failure to comply/ contravention continue, a fine of 5000 per day shall be imposed- If still failure of compliance/ contravention continues even after one year form this then imprisonment may extend up to 7 yearsSection 17 Onus will shift on the Head of Department/ in-charge of unit if owner / occupier produces enough evidence of innocence. State government can close/ cancel/ deny the authorization to run the unit causing pollution.

Miscellaneous Provisions

One of the most striking features of EPA is that the locus standi to approach the competent authority and make a complaint against any environmentally damaging activity or offence or any such violation under the Act is granted to not just to the victim or affected party but to every person who is genuinely concerned about the environment. This is because protection and conservation of environment is not a personal business but the duty of all as all are affected by its quality. Natural resources that constitute the environment are not a personal but a public property. It is our natural heritage, our common property. According to Section 19 of the Act, any person, even an ordinary citizen has the right to approach a court provided he/she gives notice of not less than 60 days of the alleged offense and his intention to make a complaint to the Central Government or the competent authority.

Some notifications issued under this Act are: Doon Valley Notification (1989), which prohibits the setting up of an industry in which the daily consumption of coal/fuel is more than 24 MT (million tonnes) per day in the Doon Valley. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), which regulates activities along coastal stretches. As per this notification, dumping ash or any other waste in the CRZ is prohibited. The thermal power plants (only foreshore facilities for transport of raw materials, facilities for intake of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated waste water/cooling water) require clearance from the MoEF. Dhanu Taluka Notification (1991), under which the district of Dhanu Taluka has been declared an ecologically fragile region and setting up power plants in its vicinity is prohibited. Revdanda Creek Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up industries in the belt around the Revdanda Creek as per the rules laid down in the notification. The Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects Notification, (1994 and as amended in 1997). As per this notification: All projects listed under Schedule I require environmental clearance from the MoEF. Projects under the delicensed category of the New Industrial Policy also require clearance from the MoEF. All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions must obtain MoEF clearance. Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million must obtain MoEF clearance and are further required to obtain a LOI (Letter Of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry, and an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the SPCB and the State Forest Department if the location involves forestland. Once the NOC is obtained, the LOI is converted into an industrial license by the state authority. The notification also stipulated procedural requirements for the establishment and operation of new power plants. As per this notification, two-stage clearance for site specific projects such as pit-head thermal power plants and valley projects is required. Site clearance is given in the first stage and final environmental clearance in the second. A public hearing has been made mandatory for projects covered by this notification. This is an important step in providing transparency and a greater role to local communities. Ash Content Notification (1997), required the use of beneficiated coal with ash content not exceeding 34% with effect from June 2001, (the date later was extended to June 2002). This applies to all thermal plants located beyond one thousand kilometers from the pit-head and any thermal plant located in an urban area or, sensitive area irrespective of the distance from the pinhead except any pit-head power plant. Taj Trapezium Notification (1998), provided that no power plant could be set up within the geographical limit of the Taj Trapezium assigned by the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority. Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999) the main objective of which is to conserve the topsoil, protect the environment and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from lignite-based power plants. The salient feature of this notification is that no person within a radius of 50 km from a coal-or lignite-based power plant shall manufacture clay bricks or tiles without mixing at least 25% of ash with soil on a weight-to-weight basis. For the thermal power plants the utilization of the fly ash would be as follows: Every coal-or lignite-based power plant shall make available ash for at least ten years from the date of publication of the above notification without any payment or any other consideration, for the purpose of manufacturing ash-based products such as cement, concrete blocks, bricks, panels or any other material or for construction of roads, embankments, dams, dykes or for any other construction activity. Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to environmental clearance conditions stipulating the submission of an action plan for full utilization of fly ash shall, within a period of nine years from the publication of this notification, phase out the dumping and disposal of fly ash on land in accordance with the plan.

Most important notifications were the EIA notifications of 1994 (as amended in 1997) and 2006. As per EIA process environmental clearance from MoEF is required for- Schedule I projects All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million. A two stage clearance for site-specific projects such as pit-head thermal power plants and valley projects is required. In first stage site clearance is given and in the second stage Environmental Clearance (EC) is given Public hearing is mandatory to provide transparency and a greater role to local communities.FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

OBJECTIVES

FC ACT, 1980 - a Regulatory Act, not prohibitory

The Act is an interface between conservation and development

Permits judicious and regulated use of forest land for non-forestry purposes

BACKGROUND

Indiscriminate and massive diversion of forest land for non forestry purposes since independence.

Approximately 4.3 million ha. of forest land diverted during 1950 to 1980 for non forestry purposes.

The subject forest was brought in the concurrent list in 1977.

In 1980, the Forest (Conservation) Act was enacted for providing a higher level of protection to the forests and to regulate diversion of forest lands for non forestry purposes.

FOREST CONSERVATION ACT MAIN FEATURES: the main features of Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amendment in 1988. The silent feature of this act is as follows:

1. The state government has been empowered to use the forests only for forestry purpose. Any diversion to other land use required the prior permission of central government.

2. Provision for the conservation of all type of forest areas.

3. Any illegal non-forest activity within the forest area are prohibited under this act, however some activity such as fencing, water holes, check post, wireless communication are allowed.

In 1992, the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution furthered governance through panchayats. It gives States the ability to provide power to the local panchayats to manage local forest resources. Some silent features of 1992, Amendment in the forest act are as follows:

1. Some non-forest activity such as drilling and hydroelectric project were allowed in forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval of Central government.

2. Tusser cultivation( silk yielding insect) in forest areas by tribal is treated as forestry activity however it should not involve some specific tree such as Asan or Arjun.

3. Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc. from river-bed located within the forest area fall under non-forestry activity.

4. Any proposal sent to Central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis and EIA report of the proposed activity.

Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:Felling, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarries or collecting any forest product is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months, or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both. Penalties for offences in Protected Forests:

A person who commits any of the following offences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark or leaves from any tree or sets fire to such forests, or kindles a fire without taking precautions to prevent its spreading to any tree mentioned in the Act, whether standing or felled, or fells any tree, drags timber, or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six month or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both.

Procedure for Forest Clearance Proposals recommended by the State / UT Govt.s Forwarded to the Central Govt. for approval under Section 2 of the Act. Proposals examined by Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) constituted under Section 3 of the Act. Decisions taken on the basis of the recommendations of the FAC. FC Rules, 2003 prescribe specific time limits for processing the cases.

IMPACT OF THE ACT

During 1950-80, the rate of diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes was 1,50,000 hectares per annum

After enactment of the FC Act, 1980, the rate of diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes came down to about 35,000 ha per annum

SECTOR-WISE AREA DIVERTED UNDER FC ACT, 1980 (IN PERCENTAGE)

FOREST ADVISORY COMMITTEE (FAC)

FAC is a seven member Committee under the chairmanship of DGF & SS, MoEF. Three non official members eminent experts in forestry and allied disciplines appointed for a period of two years. ADGF, MoEF; Additional Commissioner (Soil Conservation), Ministry of Agriculture. IGF (FC) -- Member Secretary Meeting not less than once a month, generally at New Delhi Quorum is Three.

Certain conditions are stipulated at the time of granting approval under FC Act:

Compensatory Afforestation, Catchment Area Treatment, Phased Reclamation of mining area Safety zone Area Rehabilitation of Project affected families, if any. Muck disposal plan Wildlife management plan etc.WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

The Water Act was passed under an urgent need for introducing a comprehensive legislation which would establish agencies at the centre and State level for the prevention and control of pollution of water.

This Act comprises of eight chapters. It lays down the basics like the definitions of relevant issues, the ambit of enforcement, the authorized body, their functions and powers, prosecution and punishment of the defying individuals, company or a government department.

Section 2(e) of the Act defines pollution. The definition is explanatory as it refers to the consequences of pollution, the causative substances, and the criteria to check the pollution taking the physical, chemical and biological properties in to consideration.

Section 2(g) defines sewage waste and section 2(j) states .streams. includes river, water course (whether flowing or for the time being dry); inland water (whether natural or artificial); sub-terrain waters; sea or tidal water to such extent or, as the case may be to such point as the State Government by notification in the Official Gazette, specify in this regard.

Section 2(k) points out trade effluent includes any liquid gaseous or solid substances which is discharged from any premises used for carrying on any industry operation, process, treatment or disposal system other than domestic sewage.

Sections 19 to 33A deal exclusively with the measures to be taken to prevent and control water pollution. It provides for .consent. Procedure wherein a person is required to seek consent from the Pollution Control Board before making discharge of sewage or trade effluents into streams. The provisions have been laid down to provide the financial resources of the instrumentalities under the Act for the performance of their functions.

The Water Act establishes Central and State Pollution Control Boards as the enforcement authority. The Central Board may advise the Central Government on water pollution issues, coordinate the activities of State Pollution Control Boards, sponsor investigation and research relating to water pollution.

Powers of the Central Pollution Control Board and Section 21: Section 21 of the Water Act deals with the power of a State Board or, any officer empowered in that behalf to take samples. It deals comprehensively as to how and when samples are to be taken and the admissibility of the report against polluters.

Power to Give Consent and Section 24: Section 24 of the Water Act imposes prohibition on the use of stream or well for disposal of polluting matter. Section 25 puts restrictions on new outlets and new discharges.

Offences by Corporate Bodies: The pollution of water due to flow of industrial waste in the stream has drawn a serious attention of the legislatures. The highly toxic substances have fatal effect on the fresh and wholesome quality of the water. Therefore, special reference to companies has been made in the Water Act. The companies, public corporation, firms and other associations of individuals may be held guilty of committing breach of the provisions of the Act. Section 47 provides specifically for offences by companies, which by virtue of the explanation annexed to it extends to other organizations viz. firm, association of individuals, or the corporations.

A few interesting points regarding the laws for water pollution control are:

The water Act is to maintain the wholesomeness of water in the streams (refers to all surface water resources) and wells (refers to all groundwater resources).

An area in the State can be excluded from the application of the Water Act by a notification by a State Government, but no area has been so excluded at any stage so far.

The cess is related to the quantity of water .drawn. by municipal bodies and industries, not to the quantity of waste water discharged by them. The pollution potential for various kinds of use is reflected in the applicable rate of cess (in paisa per kilolitre), and an incentive to treat waste water to prescribed standards is provided by a rebate in the cess. Dwellings and small establishments are exempt from the levy of cess.

To an industrial unit, the rebate in water cess provides little incentive to control pollution whereas for the State Pollution Control Board, cess may constitute 50 percent or more of its income.

The State Boards have the power to prosecute an offender but not to impose any fine or punishment. The State Boards also have the power to direct the closure of any activity that may cause pollution.WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT

The passing of the Wildlife Act of 1972 constitutes an important landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in the country. This Act passed in 1972, deals with the declaration of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and their notification. It establishes the structure of the States wildlife management and the posts designated for Wildlife Management.

This is because of the fact that the "Forest" including "Wildlife" was then a State subject falling in Entry 20 List II of Seventh Schedule, Parliament had no power to make law on the same except as provided in Articles 249,250 and 252 of the constitution.

Having regard to the importance of the matter, the Act has been adopted by all the States except that of Jammu and Kashmir which has a similar law enacted for the purpose of wildlife protection. The operation of the Act is mandatory}' in the Union Territories too.

1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provides the basic framework to ensure the protection and management of wildlife. The Act was amended subsequently in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993 to accommodate provision for its effective implementation.

2. The rationale for passing Act as stated in its Statement of Objects and Reasons are as follows:

3. The rapid decline of India's wild animals and birds, one of the richest and most varied wildlife resources of the country has been a cause of grave concern.

4. Some wild animals and birds have already become extinct in this country and the other in danger of being so.

5. Areas which were once teeming with wildlife have become devoid of it and even in sanctuaries and National Parks the protection afforded to wildlife needs to be improved.

6. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1935 has become completely outdated.

7. These existing laws not only have become outdated but also provide punishments, which are not commensurate with the offence and financial benefits that occur from poaching and trade in wildlife produce. Further, such laws mainly relate to control of hunting and do not emphasize the other factors which are also the prime reasons for the decline of India's wildlife namely taxidermy and trade in wildlife and products there from.

Salient features of the Act:The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 which we read today is a product of process which started long ago in 1887 for the protection of a few wild birds and after addition of wild animals in 1912 and specified plants in 1991 it covered almost all the wildlife resources which need protection and management. A few salient features of the Act are as follows:

1. The Wildlife Act of 1972 as amended in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993 has 7 Chapters, 66 Sections and 6 Schedules. The Act with its various amendments provides the necessary tool to prevent damage to the wildlife.

2. The rating of the Schedules I to V is in accordance with the risk of survival of the wildlife (fauna) enlisted in them. Animals included Schedule are provided for total protection from hunting and the trade and commerce related to such animals are strictly regulated. The schedule VI has been added to include the specified plant species to be protected by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 1991.

3. An expert committee, constituted by the Indian Board of Wildlife considers amendments to the Act, as and when necessary.

4. With the amendment of the Act in 1991, powers of the State Governments have been withdrawn almost totally. Now the State Governments are not empowered to declare any wild animal a vermin. Further by addition of provision, immunization of livestock within a radius of 5 km from a National. Park or sanctuary has been made compulsory. Broadly speaking the amendment provides the follows:

Greater powers to enforcement authority. Greater say to individuals or NGOs in matter concerning wildlife protection. The Central Government Officers as well as individuals now can file complaints in the court for offences. NGOs like WWF-India and Traffic-India will make available technical and legal guidance when needed. More impact on wildlife trade. Setting up of a Central Zoo Authority. Greater protection to wildlife through prohibiting hunting of wild animals other than vermin. Provision to prohibit collection and exploitation of wild plants which are threatened with extinction. Provision to extract and deal in snake venom for producing life saving drugs. Provision to ban trade in Africa ivory. Enhanced punishments for isolations. Payment of rewards to persons helping in apprehension of offenders.

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

1. It defined the wildlife related terminology.

2. It provide for the appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, wildlife warden, their power and duties.

3. The Act provides for the setting up of National Park, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.

4. Listing of endangered species has been done and special projects such as project tiger, lion crocodile were started.

5. It provide legal powers to officers and punishment to offender.

6. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animal.

The Amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act in 2002 is more stringent and prevents the commercial use of resources by local people.

Penalties:

The offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or with a fine of Rs 25,000 or with both.

An offence committed in relation to any animal specified as endangered species like the use of meat of any such animal, or animal articles like a trophy, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term not less than one year and may extend to six years and a fine of Rs 25,000.

In the case of a second or subsequent offence of the same nature mentioned in this sub-section, the term of imprisonment may extend to six years and not less than two years with a penalty of Rs.10,000.

Drawbacks:

1) The ownership certificates for animal are permissible.

1) Some states such as Jammu and Kashmir this law is not applicable.

Solid Waste Management

Waste, which is non-affective and comes from city, town or village as domestic and biomedical waste is termed as municipal solid wasteCauses of Solid Waste PollutionA. Over population:Pollution naturally increases with the growing number of persons, produce more waste.B. Affluence:The tendency to pronounce the things as fashion and check them out, when not required as out of fashion.C. Technology:Packaging of most of the gifts is considered as the source of solid waste pollution as most of these are non-biodegradable.D. Due to poor implementation of environment protection laws, urbanization, lack of awareness and lack of participation from the public, the problem of solid waste has increased at the highest level.E. Growth in consumption leads to consumption of items and on the other hand, wastes production.Affects of Solid Waste PollutionA. Contaminates water and air, resulting into diseases and dysentery in Human beings.B. Mosquitoes breed in the stagnant water, blocked due to waste choked in the drains.C. Decomposition of solid waste spreads obnoxious odour in the air, thus polluting it.D. Burning of waste, especially plastic adds up obnoxious fumes in the air.E. Garbage dumps and decomposed waste helps many harmful species to breed in them.F. The infected water supply also leads to large scale epidemics.Solid Waste ManagementThe process of transportation, storage, collection and processing of solid waste in a protective and economic manner is termed as solid waste management. The above steps are followed thoroughly in waste management, its first and foremost priority is waste avoidance by minimizing it. To reduce waste, reuse it and recycle, it is called waste prevention.It is our second priority to reuse, recycles it at the maximum level. Once the possibility of waste prevention is exhausted, the next priority is to reduce the volume of residual waste pass on for final disposal. In recycling, material is separated from the garbage for the process of recycling. For exampleA. Old cars are recycled in the German industry.B. Gas, oil, Chemicals and Tar are also retrieved from the old tyres.C. Papers, cans etc. are recycled to produce fresh papers.D. Glass is melted to prepare new articles.DisposalIt involves the following process:Sanitary landfill:The people in the city dump around 90% of the solid waste into natural or constructed pit or depression which compacts due to the surrounding dust.Composting:In this process, the materials like glass, rubber and plastic etc. are separated and the rest waste is exposed for bacterial action for decomposition for several months to produce manure.Incineration: Burning of waste to warm up residential units is termed as incineration. It is a convenient and quick method.Pyrolysis:Its the process of burning the waste in absence of 02- In it organic compounds split into gaseous and gaseous fractions (CO, C02, CH4, tar and charred carbon).Disposal into sea:Its a simple and cheap method in which the solid waste is disposed under deep sea water at a remarkable distance from the coastal areas.