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Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Woman and the Role of Sā in the

Portrayal of Women in Sanskrit Court Poetry

Author(s): Kenneth Langer

Source: Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 101, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1981), pp.

177-193Published by: American Oriental Society

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/601758

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COMPARTMENTALIZATION AND CLUSTERING OF WORDS

FOR WOMAN AND THE ROLE OF SA IN THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN

IN SANSKRIT COURT POETRY

KENNETH LANGER

This paper attempts to illustrate various effects achieved through a careful choice of words for

woman. The following topics are considered: 1) compartmentalization of words for woman, i.e.,

the use of a distinct set of words for the heroine and another for all other females, 2) the

suggestive value of words for woman, 3) the dynamics of long clusters of epithets, especially as

these words demarcate various stages in the life of a heroine, and 4) the employment of s6 to

further the mood of wonder and reverence in the idealized portrayal of women. Works discussed

are: MeghadCita, Kurnirasamnbhava, Taghuvamnsa, GTtagovtnda, and selected poems from

various traditional anthologies.

1. DESPITE- THE WEALTH OF SANSKRIT WORDS and epi-

thets for woman which may be considered synonymous,

it is possible to show that Sanskrit poets carefully com-

partmentalized these words in order to help distinguish

the heroine from less important women. In assigning

certain words to the central female and others to all

women of less significance, classical poets empha-

sized the unique status of their heroines. Such com-

partmentalization assured that the connotations which

accrue to words through their application to one group

of women, i.e., all women peripheral to the central

female, did not become associated with another

"group," i.e. the heroine(s).

Let us first consider the Meghaduita. In order to

discover how Kaliddsa emphasized the unique and

separate status of the wife of the banished ivaksa, it is

necessary to examine the referential scope of each

word for woman (listed below) encountered in this

lyric poem.' To the right of each word appear numbers

corresponding to the verses in which the particular

word is found. The enumeration of verses in the edition

used2 ends with verse 66 and then begins again,

dividing the poem into two halves; numbers after "P"

belong to the puirvaniegha, those following "U" to the

uttaramegha. Asterisked numbers refer to instances in

which the i'aksT is designated, numbers enclosed in

parentheses represent instances of words having as

their referent women in general, including the yaksT,

while unmarked numbers indicate instances of words

which designate women other than the wife of Kubera's

banished servant. The entire referential scope3 of each

word is summarized in the far right-hand column.

Thus each word may fall into one of the following five

categories: 1) words which denote the yaksi alone (all

words followed only by asterisked numbers), 2) words

which refer to the 'aksJ in one or more verses and, in

one or more other verses, to groups of women, includ-

ing the vaksl (represented by asterisked numbers and

numbers enclosed in parentheses), 3) words which on/v

indicate women in general, including the vaksT (words

followed only by numbers set off by parentheses),

4) words denoting both women, including the vaksT,

and, women excluding the yaksT (words followed by

numbers in parentheses and unmarked numbers), and

5) words which consistently refer to women other than

the XaksT (all words followed on/v by unmarked

numbers).

word instances scope

ahgana P: (9), 14, 28/ U: (27) ........... 4

abala P2*/U33*, (39), 41* ........... 2

avidhava U39* ...................... 1

asitanayana U52* ...................... 1

kny P53 5

kaatra P41 ...................... 5

' I have not included hahuv'rThi compounds which are purely

adjectival and possess no referential value.

2 Kdliddsa, Meghadlfta, ed. with the commentary of Mal-

linatha bv M.R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969).

3 By "referential scope" I shall refer throughout this paper to

the heroine, women in general (including the heroine), and all

women other than the heroine. I am not distinguishing

women peripheral to the heroine in any way other than in

relation to the heroine.

1 77


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178 Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.2 (1981)

kalyani U:49* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

krnta P:I*/U15*, 19* ............ . 1

kamn P66/ U 1 ............. 5

gehin U17* ............... 1

gunavati U47 ......................

catulanayand U48* .

candT U 44* .....................

aydP8,9* . 2

tanvi U 22* ..................... 1

dayta P4*1 ........ 1

(eka)patn P9* ........ I

priya P:7*, 23*/U24*. .......... 1

baa U23*1 ........

m anini U :38* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

mgakTU35*1

yuvati P:36,641 U22.. ...... . 5

yosit P40,42 ........ 5

vadhii P: 16,19,50 / U:2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

vanita P(8),35,61/ U 1,U 14 ........... . 4

sat U28*. ..............

simantin U(40. ............ 3

str P(29,32 U5,9 .............. 4

If we group together all those words of category 1

(words which always refer to the vaksT), category 3

(words which consistently denote women in general,

including the _vaksT), and words of category 5 (words

which regularly apply to women other than the beloved

wife), the sum is 23 or 82% of the 28 word total. ln

other words, more than four-fifths of the words for

woman employed by Kalidasa in his Meghaduita do not

alter their referential scope.

Of the mere five words remaining, only abald and

jd'd alternatively designate the vaksT, on the one hand,

and women including this figure, on the other. A

parallel situation is represented by anigand, vanita, and

strT, all of which shift their denotation between women

inclusive of the v'aksi and women distinct from the

central female figure. The aforementioned data may be

represented as follows. Let "Y" stand for the vaksT and

"W" for all other women.

category + referential .... . total % hased % of words

scope ...... on all words which do not

alter denota-

tion

1 Y .............. 56

2. Y or (Y + W) . . ....... ..... 07%

3 (W Y. . 04 82

4. (W+ Y or W.... . 11%

5W . 28

Although certain designations (5 or 18%') shift their

denotation between two referential "sets," there is

always an overlapping element. Thus, the words of

category 2, constituting 7% of the total, designate the

vaksT in certain instances and women in general,

including the 'aksT, in others. Both of these referential

sets, i.e., "Y" and "(Y + W)," include "Y." Category 4

represents words ( 1% of the total) which either denote

women in general, including the yaksT, "(W + Y)," or

women other than the heroine, "W." Again we may

note the common element "W," women in general. The

Meghaduta is without a single instance where the same

word for woman alternatively applies to the vaksT and

women other than the wife of Kubera's banished

guardian.

Of the instances of words which shift from one

object of denotation to another during the course of

this lyric poem, we may isolate those occurrences

where such a transformation is effected in a relatively

short space, let us say within five verses. Kaliddsa's

poem was intended for an audience far less critical than

today's, at least in respect to the type of analysis to

which I am subjecting this work. No reader, much less

listener, would be expected to remember that a certain

word for woman was employed in reference to the

vaksT in one verse and to women in general twenty

verses later. In this sense, we may dismiss the second

shift of denotation in the word ahgand which occurs

after sixty-four verses. Similarly, we need not be

disturbed by the change in the denotation of vaniti

which leaps twenty-seven verses. It must be granted

that the impact of these shifts is imperceptible to even

the most astute audience.

Nevertheless, a change of certain other words' scope

of reference indeed occurs within a short space. We

may consider these shifts operative, since they need not

defy the memory of the reader or listener. Such

instances deserve an explanation, lest we conclude that

these transformations of a word's denotative scope

within a noticeably short space are deviants within an

otherwise well-structured system of compartmentaliza-

tion. In pausing to consider these few instances, we

shall see that Kalidasa is not merely permitting himself

a margin of arbitrary usage; rather, the skilled poet can

achieve suggestion through the use of a word in one

context shortly after that same word has been em-

ployed in another. The denotative power of the word in

the former instance may be transformed to a connota-

tive level in the latter, thus enhancing the word's

meaning.

In verse 33 of the uttaramegha, Kaliddsa employs the

word abald in reference to the laks7; she is so weak and


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LANGER: Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Women 179

distressed from separation that even the cloud-

messenger will shed tears in the form of raindrops:

sd samnyastdhharanam abala pe~alam dhdrayant

sayyotsafige nihitam asakrd duhkhaduhkhena gatram/

tvam apy asram navajalamayam mocayisyaty avagyam

prayah sarvo bhavati karundvrttir ardrantaratmad/

The use of the same word in the generalization of verse

39 (padas c and d) to denote all women of such a weary

emotional state serves to link the vaksT with the larger

class of disjointed females. This is especially important,

since it is said that the apostrophized cloud is wont to

urge travellers back home, thus indirectly relieving the

suffering of women in general. Verse 39:

viddhi maim ambuvaham...;

yo vrndani tvarayati pathi Wramyatam prositanam

mandrasnigdhair dhvanibhir abalavenimoksotsukani//

The association of the iaksT with this class of women,

effected by the use of the same word applied to both

referents within a short space, suggests that the poor

woman of Alaka deserves the same relief. Kalidasa

leaves no doubt as to his intention when he again shifts

the denotative scope of ahald back to the vaksT- in

verse 4 1.

In verse 9 ( parvamegha), the i'aksa, in addressing the

cloud, refers to his wife as bhrdtr/jdyd. This is spoken to

impress upon the cloud its kin relationship to the

suffering woman, thus evoking its sympathy. In vs. 8,

the preceding verse, the 'aksa generalizes that no man,

excepting one in his constrained position, would refuse

to answer the call of the monsoon and return to his

wife, jrdv. Of course, nobody, man or cloud, could

deny the truth of this statement. Again, the vaksa is

playing on the cloud's sense of compassion toward

women in general, only to direct this feeling of obliga-

tion to his own wife one verse later.

The remaining words in our poem which alter their

scope of denotation within five verses and which thus

demand explanation are strT and anigana. The former

word is applied to all women in a generalization in

pCdrva. 29 and then, three verses later, to a specific

community of ladies to be encountered by the cloud.

Both contexts are erotic, the former describing the

general coquettish gestures of the fairer sex (stri), the

latter portraying the beautiful women along the gipra

river, weary from love-making. It is not unlikely that

Kalidasa purposefully employed the same word in the

latter instance in order to evoke the coquettish con-

notations of the former verse. Anigand's shift of deno-

tative scope from women in general (pCirva. 9) to the

mugdhasiddhdtganis of vs. 14 is more easily ex-

plained. In the latter compound ahgan& is serving its

well-known function as a "female-marker." As such

afigand need hardly be considered a proper designation

for woman.

Thus the connotative power which naturally ac-

cumulates in a word through usage may be operative in

a subsequent use of the same word.4 This process helps

explain the repeated use of the same word in reference

to different people. Nevertheless, the majority of words

indeed reflects rigid compartmentalization which, un-

fortunately, cannot be proven to have been consciously

intended by Kalidasa. We shall witness the same

tendency of words in the other works to be discussed in

this paper. As I have shown elsewhere,5 every word for

woman indeed falls within a more or less defined scope

in regard to the semantic weight it bears and the

referents it designates. That a skilled poet, aware of

these subtle nuances, should employ certain words for

the beloved wife of the central figure and other desig-

nations for the remaining women in the poem (women

usually characterized by different moods and situa-

tions than the vaksT) seems only natural. For example,

certain words lend themselves to the designation of

women in separation, others to the erotic; certain

epithets are more readily employed in reference to

individual women, others to women in general. I

believe that it is relatively unimportant to know exactly

the extent to which a poet like Kalidasa arranged the

words for woman, or any other set of words, with a

conscious effort to achieve the kind of symmetry that

we have noted. In a sense, it is only a matter of

perspective whether we see the locus of this distinction

in the words themselves or in the poet's manipulation

of these words. Suffice it to say that the words for

woman lend themselves to the type of rompartnientali-

zation we have been discussing; by means of repeated

use within a confined scope of reference (which in-

cludes a margin of variation), words for woman accrue

connotative power which enhances them, thereby en-

riching the poetry itself.

Before turning to the Kumdrasambhava, it is worth

noting that all of the less frequently appearing words

for woman which occur in the Meghadata are clustered

4 For another possible explanation motivating the repeated

use of a single word, see Schubring, "Jinasena. Mallindtha.

Kalidasa," ZDLMG 105 (1955).

For a detailed study of Sanskrit words for woman, see

Langer, "Women and Love in Sanskrit Court Poetry: A

Semantic Approach," Diss., Harvard University, 1978.


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180 Journal of the American Oriental Societv 101.2 (1981)

between the closing verses of uttaramegha 39-55. The

use of such words, especially in the vocative, helps

produce the climactic effect which ends the work. We

shall encounter the same stylistic phenomenon in other

poems to be considered.

II. The Kuntrasambhava invites the same type of

analysis. Let us first list all words for woman which

appear in this work, isolate the individual instances in

which each word is found, and determine the entire

scope of denotation for each word. We shall discover

that the distinction between ParvatT and all other

women is emphasized by compartmentalization of

words; furthermore, the dynamic clustering of epithets

and of the pronoun sa appears to demarcate distinct

stages within the life of the heroine.

Words for woman in the Kumdrasambhava6 are listed

below. The numbers which follow each word refer to

the individual verses in which the given word appears.

Asterisked numbers represent instances where the

word in question denotes the heroine, ParvatT. Num-

bers enclosed in parentheses indicate instances of

words which apply to women in general, including the

heroine. Unmarked numbers correspond to instances

in which words designate women distinctly other than

Parvati.

The column of numbers to the far right summarizes

each particular word's entire scope of denotation. To

category 1 are alloted instances which refer to Parvati

alone. The group designated by number 2 is intended

for those instances which use a word for woman in

reference to women in general, including ParvatY.

Occurrences denoting women other than ParvatT are

assigned to category 3. Each word may be qualified by

category 1, 2, 3. or a combination thereof. For ex-

ample, ahhisdrikii is a word only applied to women

distinct from Parvati in the Kurmdrasamhhava. There-

fore, "3" appears to the far right of this word on the list

below. Kan vd, on the other hand, alternatively denotes

Parvati, women in general, including the heroine, and

a group of women from which Parvati is excluded.

Consequently, the numbers 1, 2, and 3 all appear to the

far right of this word. In the list to follow, I have

isolated the more unusual epithets denoting aspects of

traditional feminine beauty and have placed these

words after the others; such a division will enable the

reader to observe quickly the way in which the less

familiar words are clustered in certain passages.

wrdintances scope of

denotation

abhisarika ......... . VI.43.. . ; 3

anigana ........... . 1.14, 111.33. 3

anndta ......... 137* 1

animittakopana . . . . . . VIII.51 * . . . . . . . . . 1

utpaldksi ......... . 1.40*, V35* 1

kanya ........... . . 1.18, 1.21*, 1.50*, 11.17*,

111.53*, V.56, VI.31*,

Vl.63*, (VI.79), (VI.85),

VII.94*, VIII.73 . . . 1,2,3

kaydnT .......... VI.87* 1

kdmn .......... IV20 3

kumdr .......... VI.74* 1

krsodar ......... V42* 1

cand ........... VI171* 1

jaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.37, VII.88* . . . . . 1,3

tanv ........... VI.13* 1

dayta .......... IV28 3

dara ............. . (VI. 13), Vl.63 2,3

narn ............ . . 1.37, VII.9, 13,

64 65 3

nitambini . . . . . . . . . . (111.7) . . . . . . . . . . . 2

pativrata . . . . . . . . . . . VI.86, VII.12 . . . . . . 3

patni ........... . . 1.19,21*, 111.7, IV.40

(V1112) 1,2,3

parigraha . . . . . . . . . . VI.34 . . . . . . . . . . . 3

pramdV 12 33 3

priya ........... . . 111.36 38, IV1,

VIII.13*, 25*, 82*, 84*,

87*, 88*, 90* 1,3

bala ............ . . 1.39*, V55*, 84*,

V8 1

bharya . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.92 . . . . . . . . . . . 3

bhdvnV37* 1

manasvini .111.32, V6*, 42* 1,3

mann 11153*, VII52* 1

mgdhV57* 1

mrgdks 146*, V72* 1

yuvati . . . . . . . . . . . . . (VIII.17) . . . . . . . . . 2

yosit 1164, 11116, V39 3

vadho ............ . 1.20, 21, 50*, 11.41,

111.39, IVi, 46, (V.67),

VI.82*, 89*, VII.73*,

78*, 82*, 83*, 84*, 90*,

VIII.8*, (12), 16*, 25 1,2,3

vanita ............ . 1.10, VIII.28* .1..3.. . 1.3

vilasini .VII....... . V11.69, VIII.76* . . . . 1,3

sobhana V44* 1

sati ............ . . 1.21*, IVA, V.1*,

V11.27 ........... 1.3

6 Kdliddsa, Kumarasambhava, ed. with the commentary of

Mallindtha by M.R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967).


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sahadharmacdrifin .... . VIII.29.. .3

sddhvi .......... V. 1 3

stri .............. 11.7, 111.9, (74), IV.5,

(VI.12), 45, VII.6, (22) 2,3

sutanu . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.52* . . . . . . . . . I

sundari ........... . 1.7, 111.5, 26, VII.56 . 3

subhru .......... V43*

less standard words

avanataigi ....... V86*

avastunirbandhapard . . . V.66* . .1

avikalpasundari ..... . VIII.68* . .1

ayataks . . . . . . . . . . . 1.46* . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

udaradaran V36* . 1

kutilakegi ........ VIII.45* . .1

candrabimbanihitdksT . VIII.74* . . . . . . . . . 1

cdrumukh ........ VIII.73* . .1

tapodhand V40* . 1

dlrghanayan .VIII.55* . . . . 1

netrakaumudi . . . . . . . V.71 * . . . . . . . . . . . I

pfvororu .... VIII.36* . .1

pundarikamukhi . . . . . . VIII.58* . . . . . . . . . . 1

mtakatha . . . . . . . . . . VIII.34*. .1

samnatagatr . ... . . V39* . .1

samnatafig . . . . . . . . . 1.34*. .1

sarasangayast . . . . . . . V85* . .1

suke.6* ..1 . ... . .

sudat ........ V53* . .

sumadhyama . . . . . . . . V20* . .1

suvibhaktagatri . . . . . . VII. 18* . . . . . . . . ..

sucismta ....... V20*

stimitayataksT..... . VII.22* . .

If we add the total number of words which consis-

tently denote the same referent, i.e., either Parvati,

women in general (including the heroine), or women

excluding Parvatli-add all words followed by the

arabic numbers 1, 2, or 3-the total is fifty-four words

or 83% of the sixty-five word list. That is to say, 83% of

all words for woman employed by Kalidasa in his

Kumdrasambhava do not alter their scope of denota-

tion. For the purpose of the following discussion, let us

assign roman numeral I to this set of words.

Another two words, dara and strT (3% of all designa-

tions), divide their scope of reference between women

in general, encompassing ParvatT, and women other

than Parvatt. We may group these words together

under the heading II.

Nine other words, totalling 14%, shift their denota-

tion between distinct objects. Of these, six words

alternatively apply to Parvati and women other than

the female protagonist. Another three words designate

PdrvatT, women inclusive of the heroine, and other

women in the course of the poem. Let us assign III to

these words and summarize the aforementioned data

in a table. Let "P" stand for ParvatT and "W" for

women other than PdrvatL.

I. Total % of words denoting the following referents

(words which do not alter their scope of reference)

W+ P 83

W

II. % of words denoting referents having the com-

mon element "W"

(W + P) and W ...........3%

I1l. % of words denoting various referents

P and W..4

P and (P + W) and W } 14%

Group III indicates a set of words which, during the

course of the poem, refer to wholly different referents.

We recall that this phenomenon was not encountered

in the same author's Meghadata. The 14% of all words

in this grouping show such radical polarization in their

denotative scope as to merit our attention. They are:

kanyd, jdyd, patnT, priyd, manasvinr, vadhui, vanitd,

vildsin7, and satT. It is indeed noteworthy that this list

contains three words for "wife," a word for "maiden"

or "daughter," one word for "proud woman" or

"woman of strong will," and one designation which

translates "good woman." In short, six of the mere nine

words employed by Kalidasa to designate wholly dif-

ferent referents are technical terms denoting a specific

marital status or personality trait. (Vildsin7, a word

which fairly consistently denotes coquettish women,

might well be included.) It is not surprising that the

more clearly defined words for woman are those which

overstep the boundaries of the type of compartmentali-

zation under discussion. A word's primary function is,

of course, denotative. Words which have the capacity

to denote a specific family relationship such as wife or

daughter, or a defined quality such as obstinacy, will

do so when the context demands this information.

Vanitd and vildsin7 are the only two "proper" words for

woman. In the case of the former designation, the shift

from denoting women other than Parvatli to Parvati

herself occurs after seven cantos, nearly the entire

poem. The same change of referents occurs from VI I.69


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to VIII.76 in the case of vilisini. Again, the space inter-

vening between these variant uses of the word is large;

no reader or listener could be expected to remember the

transformation of denotation. In this sense it is not

operative.

I do not want to suggest, however, that it was

Kalidasa's intention to create a system of compartmen-

talization that resisted such referential shifting at all

costs. As was the case with certain words examined in

the Meghaduita, here too the desire to achieve sugges-

tive import could very well have motivated a change of

denotation. It is necessary to cite only one example for

clarification. In VII.94, Kalidasa employs kanyd to

denote Siva's new bride. In fact, this word is so

regularly applied to Parvatt that the reader undoubt-

edly associates kanyd with the mountain-daughter.

When we encounter this word in VIII.73, its referent is

less specific.

esa carumukhi yogataraya yujyate taralabimbaya gaiT/

sadhvasad upagataprakampaya kanyayeva navadTksya

varah/ /

Siva's comparison of the moon and star to a bride-

groom and bride not only brings poetic light to a

traditionally auspicious lunar conjunction; by employ-

ing the word kanya, repeatedly used to denote Parvati,

Kalidasa strengthens the association of the macro-

cosmic phenomenon above with the microcosmic event

of Siva's union with his bride below.

The compartmentalization of words for woman is

not the only factor distinguishing Kalidasa's method of

naming women. A close examination of the long

passage in canto V depicting ParvatT as a forest ascetic

is illustrative of another device, i.e., the replacement of

all words for woman, from the most common designa-

tions to the most highly original epithets, in favor of

the personal pronoun sa. In verse 6 of the fifth canto,

the last verse before ParvatT repairs to the woods, this

obstinate woman is called manasvinT. After receiving

parental permission (vs. 7), Parvati, designated Gauri,

leaves her family in order to pursue her ascetic goals.

Beginning with vs. 8 we witness the beautiful mountain-

daughter cloaked in a garment of bark practicing

severe austerities. This verse through verse 50 marks

one of the most poetic passages of the Kumdrasam-

bhava, if not of all Sanskrit poetry. Consider the

designations used to denote the central figure PdrvatT,

beginning with verse 8.

8. sa 15 tasyam 23. sa

9. tad- 16 tam 24. tasyah

10. sa/ asyah 18. sa 25 tam

1 1. taya 19. ya/ taya 26. sa (krpavatT)

12. ya/ sa 20. gucismita 27. sa

sumadhyama

13. taya 21. tadlyam 28. taya priyam-

vadam/ tam

Aparna

14. sa 22. tasyah 29. sa

The use of the personal pronoun sa, together with its

oblique, stem, and correlative forms, is outstanding

in this passage which poignantly marks a transition of

Parvati's personal character as well as of the whole

poem. We should also note the large number of verses

in which there is absolutely no word which designates

this woman being portrayed in her harsh ascetic behav-

ior. PdrvatT is never named-I exclude verse 28 where

the heroine's name Aparna is explained etiologically-

and only occasionally alluded to by epithets.

The use of sucismitd and sumadhyama can be

understood for their suggestive value. Consider the

verse in which these two words appear, V. 20:

iucau caturnam jvalatam havirbhujam iucismita

madhyagata sumadhyama/

vijitya netrapratighatinTmr prabham ananyadrstih

savitaram aiksata/ /

The alliteration of iucismitd with iucau and sumadh-

yamd with madhyagatd emphasizes the identity of

Parvati with the summer heat and the fire of asceti-

cism, thus suggesting that this woman is not holding

back in her austere pursuits. At the same time, how-

ever, the semantic contrast of a "woman of beautiful

smiles" practicing such severe self-mortification re-

minds the reader of the incongruity of her behavior,

thus dramatizing the portrayal. The alliteration of

k rpdvatT with cakravakayoh in vs. 26 may be inter-

preted similarly:

ninaya satyantahimotkiranilah sahasyaratrar udavasa-

tatpara/

parasparakrandini cakravakayoh puro viyukte

mithune krpavati//

Here k -pavatT functions more to describe PdrvatT's

behavior than to designate her. Like gucismita and

sumadhyamd, the word k rpdvatr emphasizes GaurT's

association with her environment. The alliteration of

the "k," "r/r," and "v" sounds, as well as the assonance

of long "a," strengthens the bond between the heroine

"k rpavatf" and the lonely "cakravdka" birds. The


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sound correspondences between these two words sug-

gest an intimate relationship between Parvati and these

birds, leaving no doubt that the yoginT's pity is sincere.

It is not unlikely that the bond between these living

beings, strengthened by alliteration, foreshadows fu-

ture events; Parvati, like the lonely birds, will soon be

united with her beloved. Thus the occasional use of

epithets to denote ParvatT suggests important bonds;

these words are not merely referential.

The clear majority of epithets designating the

mountain-daughter in the passage from Kum. V. 8-29

are forms of the personal pronoun sa. This sharply

contrasts with the next section which is characterized

by the presence of Siva. The disguised trident-bearing

god appears in vs. 30. Immediately in vs. 31, when

Parvati goes forward to greet her future husband, the

former mood is broken and the mountain-daughter is

designated by her proper name, ParvatT. The next

verse, 32, refers to the female ascetic as Uma. The

naming of Parvati in these two verses bridges the

former passage, portraying the yoginT's solitary as-

ceticism, with the next, describing the conversation

between Parvati and Siva. In the discussion which en-

sues, the mountain-daughter is addressed with fourteen

epithets (and twice named). The designations, if not

newly invented, are particularly uncommon words for

woman.

VS .

35. utpalaksi

36. Parvati udaradargana

38. bhavinT

39. samnatagatri

40. tapodhana

42. manasvini, kriodari

43. subhrO

50. Gauri

(break-Parvati's confidante reveals

the motives of the YoginT)

66. avastunirbandhapard

71. netrakaumudi

72. balamrgaksi

(break-Parvati's personal defense

against Siva's accusations)

86. avanatahgi

The piling of epithets is common to Sanskrit court

poetry. There is hardly a poem in which a man, having

discourse with his beloved, does not repeatedly inter-

ject more or less original vocative compounds. These

epithets usually flatter, but sometimes condemn, the

woman addressed in an effort to dissuade her from

suffering caused by jealous anger (mdna). The designa-

tions uttered by Diva in the passage under considera-

tion are generally complimentary, reminding ParvatT

of her delicate frame. Thus the "brahman" emphasizes

the incongruity of such a person practicing asceticism

and strengthens his argument against these pursuits.

The assemblage of epithets in V. 35 ff. serves another

purpose; it contrasts the passage in question with the

former one. With the intrusion of another person,

Diva, the mood changes. Parvatd, who became "name-

less" during her solitary experience in the forest, is

renamed and, if you will, reborn. The cluster of

vocatives beginning with V. 35 reestablishes the hero-

ine's identity through designations which were not

employed to denote her in the first half of the poem.

ParvatT's test of asceticism is over; the arrival of Siva

marks the completion of transformation from woman

to goddess. This journey and testing of a hero in the

"other world" has parallels in mythology of every land.

It is the rite de passage of the newly born hero. I

suggest that the extreme lack of words for woman

between verses 8 and 29 reflects stylistically the un-

doing of the matrix of Parvat-'s personality. Through

severe penance, the mountain-daughter has succeeded

in effecting a temporary loss of character, at least in

regard to traditional feminine roles. Her lack of ego is

well-mirrored by the dominant use of pronominal

forms which, unlike the majority of Sanskrit words for

woman, carry no semantic weight. Parvati has ceased

to be a member of her sex, in so far as tradition's

definition is concerned. It would be incongruous to call

the forest dwelling PdrvatT a nitambinT or abald. She

has, in fact, withdrawn from the stereotyped behav-

ioral patterns associated with these words. Seen from a

different perspective, the use of the pronoun sd may be

considered the ultimate referential; it is she and she

alone being portrayed (not just any nitambinT or

abald). The heroine has transcended all categories

which would unite her with other women of her

community.

Verses 31 and 32 mark the transition from the

description of Parvati alone in the forest to Parvati

defending her asceticism in the face of Siva. The

heroine is designated by the name ParvatT and Uma. In

addition to stylistically framing the preceding passage

and changing the mood in preparation for the next

scene, the use of these names may reflect the beginning

of Parvati's reincorporation into society. Similarly, the

heroine is addressed by the name Gauri in verse 50,

culminating the first passage in which the trident-

bearer is questioning ParvatT's motives for practicing

asceticism. The initial stage of testing is over; the

vocative may thus reflect a second step in the journey


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184 Journal of the American Oriental Societv 101.2 (1981)

back to society into the new role of giva's honored

wife. The naming of PdrvatT foreshadows and perhaps

even prepares the mountain-daughter for a married

life, rooted in family law and lore; it establishes her

in the world of given names, the world of tradition

and continuity. That proper designations are employed

immediately before PdrvatT's exit from society (when

she leaves her parents' house in verse 7) and at the end

of giva's first series of interrogations, helps to frame

the important passage of canto five and demarcate

Parvatd's exit and gradual reentry into the societal

realm. (Note that the names Parvati and Uma in vss. 31

and 32 fall in the middle of the forest drama, further

accentuating the liminal stages and poetic symmetry.)

Thus Parvati's changing relationship to society in this

chapter of the Kumarasambhava is mirrored by the

designations applied to this heroine. The most striking

shift is that from the forms of the personal pronoun sa,

denoting the voginT, to the highly ornamental epithets,

reflecting the phases of reincorporation. The actual

transitions of these turning points are, then, marked by

the use of the proper names Parvati, Uma, and Gauri.

During the marriage of Parvatd to giva, the new

bride is invested with the modest but significant desig-

nation vadhii. It is not until the honeymoon, however,

that we encounter the next and last cluster of vocatives

addressed to the goddess. Consider Kum. VIII. 34 ff.

34. mitakathe 58. pundarlikamukhi

36 pivoru68. avikalpasundari

45 kutilakegi 71. candi

48. valguvadini 73. cdrumukhi

51. animittakopane 74. candrabimbanihitaksi

52. sutanu, manini 76. vilasini

55. dirghanayane

The majority of these epithets alliterate with words

used by Diva in his vivid portrayal of the beautiful

sunset. Through these word-plays, the identification of

Parvatd and the twilight is suggested. In this way, Diva

minimizes the insult as he turns away from his new

bride and devotes himself to his samdhyd rituals. The

alliterative function of words in this passage has been

discussed elsewhere.7

In addition to the alliterative value of many of these

words, their clustering may serve to reflect Parvati's

reincorporation into society following the rite of mar-

riage. During the nuptial ceremony, the new bride is

generally designated by the word vadhl. This word

establishes Parvatl's new status as wife. Nevertheless, it

is not until the honeymoon of this divine couple that

the mountain-daughter's personality is allowed to

flourish in her new role. The cluster of epithets which

are attached to ParvatT, a confirmed vadha, function in

a manner not unlike the vocatives which followed the

portrayal of the ascetic designated by sa. The concen-

tration of ornate epithets is a reflex of a rite of

renaming. It also contributes to the climactic tenor of

the final canto in much the same way we witnessed in

the Meghadita. Finally, the clustering of these voca-

tives, together with the many original epithets of canto

I and V, succeeds in nicely framing the Kumdra-

sambhava.

Turning to the first canto, let us examine the words

employed in reference to young Pdrvatt. We may

isolate the designations beginning with verse 22, which

describes the birth of the heroine, and ending with

verse 49, where it is said that the beautiful young

ParvatT is God's most perfect accomplishment, em-

bodying all the various excellences of the created

world.

22. sa . . . bhavya 36. tad-

23. tat- 37 aninditayah

24. taya duhitra 38. tasyah/ tan-

25 sa 39 sa baa

26. tam "Parvati 40. utpalaksyah

.. "Uma"

27. tasminn apatye 41. tadTyau

28. taya 42. tasyah

29 sa 43. Urma

30. tam 44. tasyah

31 sa 45 tasyam

32. tasyah 46. ayataksi/ tayd/

tatah

33 tat- 47 tasyah

34. sa. . . samna- 48. parvatarajaputryah

tahgi

35 tadye 49 sa

The passage which depicts Pdrvati's birth and growth

to young womanhood, important in underlining her

divine beauty, is dominated by mere pronominal forms

of sa.8 Only on rare occasions is Parvati named or even

7 Langer, "Some Suggestive Uses of Alliteration in Sanskrit

Court Poetry," JAOS 98.4 (1978), 442.

8 1.22: sa bhodharanam adhipena tasyam samadhimatyam

udapadi bhavya/

samyakprayogad apariksatayam nitavivotsahagu-

nena sampat /


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designated by a substantive.9 With access to more than

two dozen words for woman, it is indeed curious that

Kalidasa almost entirely resorts to the aforementioned

pronominal forms in this central passage. The words

kanyd (vs. 50) and sutd (vs. 52) are introduced only

after the formal description ends and the narrative

resumes.

Regardless of Kalidasa's motivations, the heavy use

of pronominal forms again seems to reflect the liminal

period where personality is not yet defined. The female

heroine is undergoing a rite of passage, in fact several.

She is not yet a nitambinT or pramadd, for example.

But ParvatT is indeed a kanyd. Both physical and

mental personality growth are assumed in a kany vi.

Kalidasa's reluctance to use this and other words which

would not have been incongruous may have been

motivated by a desire to prevent the reader from

superimposing the qualities of more ordinary kanyds-

characteristics evoked by the very word-onto the

extraordinary young ParvatL.'0

Before turning to the Raghuvamsra, it is important to

distinguish between the semantic effect of the repeated

use of sa and any conscious or semi-conscious intent of

the poet. There is little proof that Kaliddsa attempted

to enhance the thematics of his poetry through a

planned use of pronominal clusters.

In the sections discussed, the concentration of sd

forms is stylistically logical and need not have further

implications. Rites of passage of a heroine usually treat

of that woman alone. In the event occurring in Kum. V.

8-29, PdrvatT is the only female, in fact, the only person

under discussion. The use of pronominal forms is

reasonable since there can be no confusion to whom

such words refer. Nevertheless, this explanation is

troublesome; although it offers a justification for the

pronominal forms, it does not help us understand why

a skilled poet does not denote the heroine with more

picturesque epithets in the descriptive passage.

The clusters of feminine pronouns can be explained

as a stylistic method intended to promote the conti-

nuity between verses in a well-defined passage. Such a

technique was not unobserved by the alamkdras'dstra

writers. As an example, we may cite Bhojadeva who, in

the third chapter of his ?rhgdraprakdKsa enunciates

two methods by which the continuity of one or more

sentences might be preserved: union (or linking)

through case endings (vibhaktivojitam) and union

through pronouns (sarvandmayojitam).1l W. Schrub-

ring's study of the Meghadita also testifies to the

ability of Sanskrit poets to interlace verses and pro-

mote poetic continuity through the repeated use of

words. 12

Turning from the purely stylistic realm, there are

certain reasons which may have influenced Kalidasa to

shy away from the use of "standard" words for woman

in a passage such as Kum. V. 8-29. Words like pramadd

would have been more or less inappropriate in refer-

ence to a yogini of serious intent. The connotations of

nitambinT or bdld, for example, would give a wrong

It should be observed that Kdliddsa refrains from the use of a

particular word for baby or girl in the verse which proclaims

the mountain-daughter's birth. In this event, of no small

significance, Pdrvati is denoted by the pronoun sd which

appears in the beginning of the first plida and agrees with

bhav'rJ which ends pada b; by standing far apart from

hhaij l, which ultimately binds pJdas a and b, vs alone is

permitted to echo in the reader's ear. Mallindtha glosses

hhah'vi with the substantive kal'dnT; this is not vet her proper

name. In fact, the naming of PdrvatT does not occur until

verse 26. In verse 29 the mountain-daughter first appears as a

playful child. Here, too, Kalidasa employs the designation sa-

in the emphatic first position of the verse. Verse 25 portrays

the splendid growth of this girl by comparison to the newly

waxing moon. Of course, the use of sa- in this verse also serves

to associate Parvat with cdndrainasf /ekha- grammatically

feminine.

9 These instances are logically explained. In vs. 37. anindita-

is employed to distinguish PdrvatT from the other women

(ndr ). BdId of vs. 39 promotes the alliterative effect of pdda b:

"valitrayam caru babhara bala"; Parvati is thus identified with

her "vali-bearing" function. The epithets of vss. 40 and 46, the

name Umd in vs. 43, and the designation ParvatardjaputrT of

vs. 48 all serve to strengthen the comparisons which are set

forth in these respective verses.

'' Additional passages in the Kumdrasambhava which ex-

hibit concentrations of pronominal forms need not be dis-

cussed. See VII. 5 ff. which treats the wedding preparations.

Within this passage, covering 23 verses, PdrvatF is referred to

by forms of the feminine pronoun 24 times and once desig-

nated by a word for woman, bal/ (vs. 8). Only in the closing

verse of the section, vs. 24, is the heroine called Umd.

Similarly, from VIII. 2-15, describing the amorous interplay

between the newlyweds, Pdrvati is predominantly designated

by forms of sj.

" Bhojadeva, SrnhgraprakaXa, Rev. and ed. by G.R.

Josyer (Mysore, 1955), p. 119 ff. It is noteworthy that Bhoja

cites passages from the Kumn. in order to illustrate his two

categories. I am indebted to my colleague Gary Tubb for

bringing my attention to this reference.

12 Schubring, "Jinasena, Mallinatha, Kdlidasa," ZDMG 105

(1955).


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impression, serving to associate our heroine with the

class of women in general; thus, the individuality of

PdrvatT may have been threatened. Similarly, it is she

and she alone being denoted. The use of sd serves as

a referential par excellence.

Furthermore, it is clear that the majority of words

for woman had become well associated with the poetic

passages of epic and lyric style by the time of Kdliddsa.

Words for woman were well standardized and insepa-

rable from the ornamental kdvya style as early as the

beginning of classical poetry. It required a wholly

different designative system to mark passages which

deserved special attention, owing to their portrayals of

distinct turning points in the psychological or social

drama. By discarding all standard words for woman

and "reverting" to the well-known sd, Kalidasa (un-

knowingly?) uplifted his poetry from the flowery lyric

style and mood, endowing it with a quality of poi-

gnancy and transcendence. Kalidasa's avoidance of

words such as pramadd to denote Parvati the ascetic

helped create a passage which not only marks the

turning point of the poem, but which, like Parvati

herself, transcends all worldly style. Of course

Kumrrasawhhava V. 8ff. is poetry, and poetry at its

best. Nevertheless, by temporarily abandoning a desig-

native system integral to kdvva, i.e., all of the more

common words for woman, for another designative

"system," i.e., the pronominal forms of si, Kumdra-

saublhax'a V. 8ff. acquires a refreshing quality, a

distinct tone which may otherwise have been difficult

to attain.

One need hardly search beyond the stylistic realm in

order to justify the concentration of pronominal forms.

But, of course, no literature stops with the conscious or

even unconscious motivations of its author. Sanskrit

poetry is no exception. Regardless of the reasons lying

behind KUlidasa's decision to designate ParvatT in the

passages discussed by forms of si, it can hardly be

doubted that the effect of these simple words reaches

beyond their face value, reflecting and augmenting

various liminal stages in the life of the heroine.'4 That

this view was shared by later Sanskrit poets is evi-

denced by their very special use of sa in individual

verses extolling women as distant and unreachable

beings, God's most perfect creation. We shall look at

some of these poems following a discussion of the

Raghuvamsra and GItagovinda."5

13 Is it possible that the passages discussed, treating major

rites of passage, represent the oldest sections of the stories of

[Pdrvati, IndumatT, et. al. They are perhaps the most authori-

tative sections inherited by Kalidasa and therefore resistant to

change. This explanation is troublesome, since Sanskrit poets

of the early oral tradition, as evidenced by the language of the

epics, were inclined to employ the vast majority of words for

woman that are encountered by the reader of kave a. It

remains to be shown that the epic poets, too, employed the

pronoun sa more frequently in the type of passage we are

discussing.

14 1 do not want to suggest that every liminal period in the

life of a heroine or, for that matter, hero, in the works of

Kdliddsa or other poets, exhibits a dominance of pronominal

forms. In fact, it is not without hesitation that I distinguish

certain stages in the lives of heroines as rites of passage, since

the proper subjects of a karma are, according to alatakdrasds-

trakdras like Dandin, practically one rite of passage after

another: birth, marriage, war, victory, etc. Perhaps it is more

precise to speak of major and minor rites of passage, at least

in regard to our heroine. The transformation of PFrvati in the

penance-forest surely qualifies as a major turning point in the

life of the mountain-daughter as well as in the poem itself. If

one is to insist that Sanskrit poetry is merely a string of rites

of passage, all of equal weight, then it is still valid to remark

that the use of pronominal forms may reflect the mood of

certain of these transitions.

15 Anandavardhana was the first to recognize the suggestive

value of individual letters, words, etc., including pronouns.

Following kdrika 3.4. he quotes the following verse, intended

to exemplify the situation of a word bearing suggestive

import: "utkampini bhayapariskhalitdrs~nukanta te locane

pratidi~am vidhure ksipantT krurena ddrunatayd sahasaiva

dagdhd dhrmrndhitena dahanena na vTksitdsi Without

elaborating, Anandavardhana says that the word we ("those"

eyes) is clearly suggestive to the sensitive reader. Abhinava-

gupta elaborates in the opening of his commnentary on this

verse: "te locane iti tacchabdas tallocanagatasvasamvedyav-

yapadesyanai-ntagunasmaranak~-iradvotako rasasva asqdhhra-

nanimittatam prdptah. (The word 'those' in the phrase 'those

eyes' has become a unique cause of poetic sentiment, suggest-

ing a form of remembrance of the indescribable and infinite

qualities of those eves which are known only to the speaker)."

Mammata (KP 7, p. 307 of BORI ed.) was undoubtedly

influenced by these passages. Without speaking of their

suggestive value, he admits that the pronoun tot may be

employed without the correlative Volfi under 3 conditions:

I) when the thing referred to has already been mentioned and

is under discussion (prakranta), 2) when the thing referred to is

well-known (prasidldha), and 3) when the thing referred to is

remembered (Wnuhhlata). Mahinmabhatta enters into a similar

discussion in V'i akti'i eka 2, p. 199 (Revaprasad Dvivedi's ed.

with Hindi comm.).


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LANGER: Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Wotnen 187

III. Since the Raghuvapmsa"6 offers not one but several

important female heroines, it is best to limit our

discussion to distinct passages which exhibit significant

clusters of words for woman.

In VI. 25ff. we witness the first series of epithets

designating a central woman. The passage describes

the svayamvara of Indumati. Among the words used to

denote the young bride are: rambhorui (vs. 35),

ivartamanofflandbhi (vs. 52), cakoraksT (vs. 59),

ardlakes'T (vs. 81), and karabhopamora (vs. 83). Certain

of these epithets"7 are of particular interest; they do not

simply reincorporate Indumati into her new role in

society-the svayamvara surely marks the first stage of

a rite of passage but rather serve to integrate the

heroine into specific environments should she marry

one or another of her suitors. Sunanda, Indumati's

attendant, is guiding the bride through the row of kings

desiring her hand in marriage. It is Sunandd's job to

praise each king for his virtues and wealth. In reality,

the attendant does more. In extolling the beauty of the

tree-lined gardens of the king of Avanti, for example,

Sunanda interjects the vocative rambhoru, woman

of (smooth and tapering) legs like the (trunk of) the

plantain tree. In reminding Indumati of her tree-like

legs, Sunanda suggests that the tree-lined gardens of

this king's estate would make a suitable home for the

heroine. Thus, through a deliberate choice of voca-

tives, the attendant shows great skill of salesmanship.

Another word in the list above may be mentioned in its

capacity to enhance a simile. In vs. 52, IndumatT, the

dvartamanoqjiandbhi, is compared to a river which

naturally avoids a mountain in its desire to reach the

ocean.

The tragic incident of Indumati's bizarre death

occurs in canto VIII. Aja, shocked and at first utterly

speechless, falls to the ground where his beloved

IndumatT lies. In referring to this woman, Kalidasa

twice employs the nominative sa, once the instrumental

of the same pronoun, tayd, and, on another occasion,

the word arigand. This last choice was obviously moti-

vated by a desire to create a word-play on ahga,

the lap of her husband on which she is lain. The

repeated use of the pronoun sj is a necessary element

in view of the fact that this woman can no longer be

aptly labelled a nitambinT, etc. The employment of the

noncommittal sa may reflect Indumati's liminal state

as she crosses into the other world, defying all tradi-

tional terms of categorization. Beginning with verse 49,

however, we witness a long series of rare and original

vocatives (non-vocatives are noted).

49. gucismitd 63. sugdtri

50. daytd 64. knnarakanth1

(non-voc.)

53. karabhorii 67. grhinT

54 pryd (nonvoc)

57 vamori 68. madiraksT

As in previous clusters, these colorful epithets bear

suggestive weight. Through alliteration, the vocative

sucismite emphasizes the everlasting bond between

Indumati and Aja, who speaks of himself with the

words asmi iathah. The epithet karabhora alliterat-

ing with words which describe the gentle breezes,

suggests that the deceased woman is still a part of the

dynamic, living environment.'8 Priye, alliterating with

pratibhodena, implies the ease with which IndumatT

is expected to revive herself. The vocative vamoru

reminds Indumati of her delicate body, suggesting the

inappropriateness of the funeral pyre. It is hardly

necessary to elaborate. The majority of voca-

tives serve to reassociate or reintegrate Indumati into

the world where she belongs. These epithets, as a

Thus, Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta may be said to

recognize the suggestive value of pronominal forms referring

to something remembered. Neither critic exemplifies the

suggestive use of a pronoun which refers to a thing previously

established (prakranta) or well-known (prasiddha). Although

the use of sd in the muktakds or independent verses, to be

discussed later, belongs to Mammata's third category, i.e., the

use of the pronoun in reference to something remembered, the

pronouns which denote Parvati in the passages of the

Kumdrasatnhhava analyzed above belong to Mammata's first

grouping. ParvatT is named and the pronomial forms which

follow refer back to this character about whom a discussion is

undertaken (prakranta). I see no reason why the discussion of

Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta cannot extend to in-

clude this use of the pronoun, i.e., reference to something

previously established (prakranta). In fact, the long cluster of

pronominal forms allows the effect of the original mention of

Parvati to recede and produces the feeling of continual

remembrance. Furthermore, there is no reason why the

pronoun tat in reference to well-known things (prasiddhartha)

cannot also bear suggestion.

16 Kalidasa, Raghuvamsa, ed. with the commentary of Mal-

linatha by Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar (Poona: Arya-

Bhusana Press, 1897).

17 Raghu. VI. 25ff. also denotes Indumati with words which

do not bear suggestive import, e.g., kanjd and kunn-rT.

18 Raghu. V111.53: "kusumotkhacitan vallmataR calayan

bhrhgarucas tavalakan/ karabhoru karoti marutas tvad-

updvartana~anki me manahI{"


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whole, contrast sharply with the pronominal forms

which begin the passage. The sudden shift from mere

personal pronouns to the colorful words which follow

reinforces the mood of excitement and sudden change.

The piling of epithets is typical in climactic passages of

highly emotional content.

kurpanakha, Ravana's sister, attempts to seduce

both Rama and his brother Laksmana in XII. 32-38.

This otherworldly woman is introduced in verse 32

with the designation Ravanavaraja, Ravana's sister.

Two verses later, the hero calls the raksasT "bdld,"

clearly emphasizing her naivete. Only in verse 38 is the

"monstress" designated by her name, Surpanakha. This

is appropriate since it is then that the seductress,

frustrated in her attempts, assumes her natural form as

surpanakha, woman with nails like a winnowing

basket In another four of the verses between XII. 32-

38, Ravana's sister is denoted by forms of the pronoun

sa. I call the reader's attention to Siirpanakha's desig-

nations since they contrast vividly with those denoting

the heroine STta. Rama's wife is never alluded to by

pronominal forms and thrice called by the name Sita

or the epithet MaithiIt. (In verse 34 Rama informs

Siirpanakha of his marital status with the words

kalatravin aham.) The battle between the Iksvdku

heroes and the raksasas rages from verse 38-52. The

poem again focuses its attention on Slta, beginning

with verse 53, in which the heroine is abducted and

carried away to Ravana's kingdom in Sri Lafika.

Kalidasa continues to denote Sita by her new name,

patronymics, and designations deriving from her

homeland and its capital. Unlike Sirpanakha, Sita is a

highborn, rooted member of society. The designations

which refer to this heroine help establish this fact.

53. SRta 61. Janak

54. Sita 62. (tasyai/ tad-)

55 Maithili 63. Sita

59. VaidehT 64. VaidehT

60. (tasyah)

It is only after Rama has learned of his beloved's

whereabouts that she is denoted by another word,

priyd. The tone of the canto changes as soon as Rama

gains this information in battle and there is little doubt

that Slta will be restored to her proper place. It is no

longer so important to preserve Sita's identity in the

other world through designations which remind us of

her lineage. Rather, the verses which now speak of Sita

anticipate the reunion of the heroic couple. The mood

is that of loving feeling, reflected in the repeated use of

priya.

65. priya 90. Sita

66. priya/ tat- 97. priyd

74. STta 104. priya

75. (sn)

Kalidasa smooths the transition between canto XII

and XIII with the vocative vaidehi (vs. 2). With this

name and the word jayd (vs. 1), the stage is set for the

journey of the reunited couple back home. During the

period when Rama and Sita cross the vast ocean, the

hero refrains from the use of vocatives. We have

already noted that the use of epithets often emphasizes

the reincorporation of a heroine into society. The

crossing of the ocean is only the first stage of Sitd's

journey home. The couple has not yet reached the

Indian sub-continent and it would be premature to

begin this subtle process of reincorporation. There is

perhaps another reason why Rama withholds vocatives

with which he will soon address Sita. In portraying the

ocean, Rama primarily describes its cosmic (other-

worldy ) aspect. For example, the sea is compared to

Visnu in measure and said to be the place where the

mountains took shelter from Indra. It would have been

inappropriate for Rama to have compared Sita to such

a body of water, even through the "suggestive" device

of alliteration. Nevertheless, as soon as the first traces

of land become noticeable, Rama seizes the opportu-

nity to reassociate his beloved with India through the

utterance of well-chosen vocative epithets. In verse 18,

Rama points back to the ocean which recedes into the

distance behind them. PMdas a and b read: "kurusva

tavat karabhoru pascan marge mrgapreksini drsti-

patam." Thus, Rama addresses Sita as "she whose legs

are (lovely like the smooth and tapering) trunk of an

elephant" as the couple approaches the forest, abode of

elephants. In so doing, the hero leaves little doubt that

his wife has entered her proper homeland. The allitera-

tion of karabhoru and the verb kurusva intensifies the

comparison. The second epithet of this verse,

mrgapreksini, alliterating with mdrge, serves the same

purpose. Verse 20, without the use of a vocative,

portrays the breeze, here cool from contact with the

Ganges. Not only does the word trimargagd alliterate

with mrgapreksini of verse 18, but Kalidasa has

succeeded in having Sita enjoy the benefits of the holy

celestial Ganges and, by implication, the terrestrial

Ganges of northern India. In verse 24 Rama directs

Slta's attention to the vines which silently pointed the

way to Rama through lowered leaves. The vocative

bhTru, interjected by Rama, can easily suggest the same

quiet timidity formerly exhibited by other members of

Sita's society, i.e., the vines and, in the next verse, the


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deer which were also instrumental in showing the hero

the path to Lanka. The words banduragdtri and

anavadydtiigi offer striking examples of vocatives

which bind the heroine to the landscape. They have

been discussed elsewhere. Thus the shift from those

names, patronymics, and epithets such as MaithilT to

the colorful words which here refer to Sita is logical.

Where Sita lay captive in the other world, it was

necessary to preserve her identity through the former

type of designation. These names, in recalling her

respectable birth and home, evoked our sympathy; the

majority of epithets in the passage where Rama and

STt5 journey home function to reincorporate the hero-

ine back into society in specific and gradual stages. The

contrast of these epithets with the designations of the

former passage may demarcate a new stage in the poem

and life of STta. These words, focusing on the heroine's

physical beauty, might even reflect a return to the

traditional woman's role as wife, a return to social and

psychological normalcy.

It is interesting to note that Rama, immediately after

learning of his subjects' disapproval of STta,

suspected of infidelity during her captivity, refers to his

beloved as Vaideht. XIV. 33 reads:

kalatranindagurund kilaivam abhyahatam kirtivipar-

yayena/

ayoghanenaya ivabhitaptam vaidehibandhor hrdayam

vidadre /

This is followed by Vaidehasutdm in verse 39,

Janakdtmaj- in verse 43, Vaidehasutd in verse 47,

VaidehT in verse 72, Vaidehasutad in verse 84, and

similar epithets running through canto XV. 74, after

which follows the realization of Sita's chastity. It may

be argued that these designations also confirm the fact

that Sitd is of good family and background, thus

serving to win the audience's sympathy for the mis-

judged heroine. We have suggested that this same

technique is operative in XII. 53 ff. which treats of Sitd

in captivity. It deserves to be mentioned that Rdma's

wife is fairly consistently denoted by the names STtd,

VaidehT, etc. For this reason, it may be meaningless to

isolate the dramatic passages of Sitd's captivity and the

period when she is accused of infidelity, arguing that

the reader's sympathy is here demanded. It is indeed

true that Sita is one of the rare heroines of Sanskrit

literature who rather successfully evades the traditional

words for woman such as pramadd. Perhaps STtd's

reputation in Sanskrit literature as the ideal or "good"

woman in general is largely due to (or reflected in) the

fact that she is so often called by name, patronymic, etc.

IV. Let us now examine the Gltagovinda, a work

central to Vaisnava theology. Parallels extend beyond

the realm of stylistics; the manipulation of words for

woman is here, as before, instrumental in isolating and

extolling the heroine. We may note that the use of

words for woman, especially in contrast to sd,

helps to demarcate progressive stages in the lives

of earthly and divine females. Only when we perceive

these similarities can we fully recognize and appreciate

the "religious" flavor of Sanskrit verses which depict

devotional love within a human context.

Below is a complete list of words for woman em-

ployed by Jayadeva.'9 As with the treatment of the

texts of Kalidasa, asterisked instances denote the fe-

male heroine, Radha. Instances enclosed in paren-

theses refer to women in general, including the female

protagonist, while unmarked occurrences designate

women other than Krsna's favored gopT.

To the far right of each word is a number or several

numbers summarizing the entire denotative scope of

that word. Thus, the numbers 1, 2, and 3 signify the

following referential possibilities: Radha, women in

general (including Radha), and women excluding

Rddha, respectively. For example, abhisdrikd, fol-

lowed by "2," always denotes women in general,

inclusive of Rddha. On the other hand, kdmin7, marked

by "1" and "3," shifts its denotation between Rddha

and women other than the heroine. Words for woman

in the GTtagovinda are separated into two lists. The first

comprises more or less regular words for woman, the

second, somewhat original epithets. This division en-

ables the reader to note at a glance that the rarer words

are generally clustered in a few distinct passages and

that they rather consistently apply to Radha alone.

regular words

abhisdrika .......... (XI. 12) ....... . 2

abadVII8. 2

kanta ......... .... V 16* ........... I

kaminil ........ .... VII.6, 11, XII.2* ... . 1,3

tanvT ............. 111.7*, 13*, X.5*, 12*,

14* ............ I

tarun ......... .... X12*, (XI.4) ...... 1,2

narf .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 1.37 . . .. . .. .. . . . 3

nitambinT ...... 1.... .41, (11.4), V.8* ... . 1,2,3

priya ............. I I 1. 1 *, X. 2-9*,

XI. 1* ...... ...

'9 Jayadeva, Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jav adeva v

GTiagovinda, ed. and trans. by Barbara S. Miller (New York:

Columbia University Press, 1977).


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mugdhd (-aksi) ...... V.17*, X.12*, XI.2-9*. 1

mrgaksT/ mrgadrg ...... . VI.10*, XI.l*, 33* 1

yuvati ............. (1.27-34), 1.43, (11.5),

11.10, IV.9*, VII.13-20,

IX5 1,2,3

vadhfi ............. (1.38-45), 1.39, 11.18*,

111.3, (VIII.8) . . 1,2,3

strI . ............. (X II. 10) ... ....... 2

sudrg ........ ..... VII.28, (XI.II) ..... 2,3

sundari ............ (1.46), 11.19, 111.1, 9* 1,2,3

ornamental words of less frequent use

alasap-najaghana . . . . . XI.20* . . . . . . . . . . . I

karabhor-9 .......... XI.5* . . . . . . . . . . . I

kalahantarita ....... . IX 1* .1......... . I

kucakalasataralahara . . . XI. 15* .......... . I

kundabhadanti ...... . X 13* .1......... . I

kusumasukumaradeha . . XI. 16* . . . . . . . . . . . I

kuvalayadrg ........ . (VII.40) ........ .. 2

krtatanka ........ . . X 1o* .......... . I

kriatanu.1........ . . IV 11 * .......... . I

ghanajaghanastana-

bharabhara . . . . . . . XI.3* . . . . . . . . . . . I

candT . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI.7* . . . . . . . . . . . I

da~anaruciruciragikhara XI. 19* ........ .. 1

pankajanayana ...... . V 13* ........ .. 1

bhavini . . . . . . . . . . . . X11.6* . . . . . . . . . . . I

madanarasasarasabhava XI. 18*. . I

ratirabhasahasitavadana XI. 14* .

ramaniyavadand . . . . . . VII.22 . . . . . . . . . . . 3

rasavalitalalitag-ta . . . . XI. 17* . . . ..1..... . I

rama .......... (144) ....... . 2

varatanu .......... . IV.19*, VI.ll * .1... . I

vallabha . . . . . . . . . . . VI I. 30 . . . . . . . . . . . 3

WaiimukhT . . . . . . . . . . XII.7* . . . . . . . . . . . I

sudat . . . . . . . . . . . . . X. 3* . . . . . . . . . . . . I

sumukhT .... . . . V. 19*, X. I*, 12* . . I

(Words in XI. 14-21 are bahuvrThi compounds in

grammatical agreement with the vocative of Radha

which appears in the refrain to these verses.)

The data reveal that 25 of the 40 words and epithets

denoting woman in the GTtagovinda apply solely to

Radha. Another 5 designations refer merely to women

in general, including the favored cowherdess. Three

other words always denote women other than Radha.

Thus, the combined number of words which consis-

tently apply to the same referent, i.e., words catego-

rized in group 1, 2, or 3, is 33 or 82.5% of all

designations. It is already apparent that the author of

the GTtagovinda, like Kalidasa, generally denotes his

heroine with a different set of words than he applies to

all other women.

Only one word, tarunT, alternatively designates

Radhd (X.12) and women in general (XI.4). It should

be noted that the instance in canto XI is suffixed by

-Jana. Sudrg is the only word which refers to both

women including and women excluding Rddha, of

course at different times. Thus 2 of the 40 words used

by Jayadeva alternate their scope of denotation in such

a way as to always include a common element, i.e.,

Radha or women other than the heroine.

KdminT is the only word which fluctuates between

the referents Radha and women excluding the central

female figure. NitambinT, vadhi, yuvati and sundarT

form a sub-classification in that these 4 words desig-

nate all three referential sets during the course of the

poem. Thus the total number of words which alternate

their scope of denotation between dissimilar objects is

5 or 12.5%. The only word which vacillates within the

same canto is vadhi7, the common word for wife (1.39).

There is, then, a curious parallel with the Kumdrasarn-

bhava where an overt change in the scope of denota-

tion was primarily confined to words for wife and

other designations of a specific semantic scope.

The majority of standard words for woman, as well

as the newly invented epithets denoting Radha, are

clustered in 5 distinct passages in which either Rddha's

friend or Krsna himself is addressing the heroine,

urging her to abandon her jealous love-anger. If we

eliminate these clusters, i.e., 111.7-13, V. 2-19, X. 1-14,

XI. 1-21, and XII. 2-7, there remain only 8 words

denoting Radha in the poem. They are: vadha (II. 18),

yuvati (IV.9), k ratanu (IV.ll), varatanu (IV.19, VI.

11,) mrgaksT (VI.10), mrgadrK (XI.33), kalahdntaritd

(IX.l), and priyd (XII.l). A wealth of vocabulary

appears in the passages of appeasement alone, com-

mon to Sanskrit poetry.

That aspect of the GTtagovinda which, more than

any other, distinguishes it from "secular" poetic style is

its refrain. And it is precisely in these repeated verses,

the strength of which derives from their incantatory

nature, that we witness a designative system which is

most unlike that of the ornamental flourish charac-

teristic of kavya. Here is the list of words which denote

Radha in refrain passages.20

20 I have omitted forms of the first personal pronoun by

which Rqdhq occasionally refers to herself.


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1. 27-34 sakhi

111. 3-10 sa

IV 2-9 sa

IV. 11-18 Rqdhika

V. 2-6 sakhi

VI. 2-9 Radhq

IX. 2-9 mdnini

X. 2-9 priyd

XI. 2-9 mugdhd

Radhika

XI. 14-21 Rqdhd

XI. 24-31 sa

XIII. 2-9 Rqdhikd

12-19 sa

With the exception of the vocatives mdnini, priye, and

mugdhe, all centered in cantos IX-XI, designations

employed in reference to Radha alternate between the

words sakhT, Radha, Radhika, and sa.

In a manner similar to that which we have encoun-

tered in other texts, sd offers a striking contrast

to-and even culminates in-a long list of standard

and original words for woman. In XI. 14-20 Radha's

friend addresses the hesitant cowherdess with a mass of

vocative epithets, all of which stand in apposition to

the name Radha: ratirabhasahasitavadane, kucakala-

sataralahdre, kusumasukumaradehe, rasavalitalalita-

glte, madanarasasarasabhdve, daianarueirucirasikhare

and alasapTnajaghane. In the refrain which follows this

unusual cluster (vss. 24-31), Radha is denoted by the

simple feminine pronoun:

harim ekarasam ciram abhilasitavilasam/

sd dadarga guruharsavasamvadavadanam anargani-

vasam/ /

Jayadeva has employed the entire range of epithets,

including Radha's proper name and the pronoun sa-

in short, his complete designative system for Radha-

within vss. 1-31 of canto XI. This passage marks the

climax, or at least the beginning of the climax, of the

poem. It is in this canto that Radha is at last success-

fully urged into final confrontation and reconciliation

with Krsna. Here the tension of forces between the

hero and heroine, between God and soul, is, of course,

symbolized by the sexual tension that finds fulfillment

in the twelfth and final canto.

It is, however, the pronoun sa which, in the end,

denotes Radha. The refrain of canto XI1, verses 12-19,

reads: "nijagdda sa yadunandane kridati hrdayanan-

dane." In verse 20, which formally concludes the

narrative of the poem, we are presented with Radha's

final commands to Krsna. Despite her authoritative

imperatives demanding various erotic pleasures, Radha

is not designated by her name, a word for woman, or a

pronoun. The verse ends with the impersonal "iti

nigaditah pritah pitambaro 'pi tathakarot." Again, we

may note a skillful poet's juxtaposition of simple and

complex designations. It is, of course, Krsna who

must, in the end, be extolled with a climactic cluster of

epithets. Thus we encounter the following words de-

noting the dark blue hero: yadunandana (vs. 12), prii'a

(vs. 13), iubhavesa (vs. 14), kamal/nana (vs. 16),

manada (vs. 17), subh&asaya (vs. 18), pTtambara (vs. 20),

and finally Krsna (vs. 21).

Jayadeva has, then, succeeded in governing the

dynamics of the psychological interplay between the

two symbolic characters throughout his poem; he has

skillfully shifted the emphasis back and forth between

Radha and Krsna. This has been accomplished pri-

marily by the staging of the scenes as we turn from one

chapter to the next. Nevertheless, stylistic and semantic

techniques also contribute to this end. For it is largely

how the poet refers to Radha and Krsna that both

polarizes and unifies the two protagonists.

V. We have seen that long clusters of the feminine

personal pronoun, especially in the poems of Kalidasa,

often mirror the thematic content of the passages in

which they occur. As mentioned, the motivations lying

behind the use of s& clusters may well be stylistic.

Nevertheless, tradition itself supports the view that a

concentration of pronominal forms reached into the

semantic arena, affecting the contents as well as the

style (cf. note 15 above). The use of sa in a class of

verses from traditional anthologies leaves little doubt

that the feminine pronoun is intended to promote the

image of idealized women. Nor is it unthinkable that

the effect of s&, to be illustrated below, was established

in part through the well-known passages of Kalidasa

which we have discussed.

The following verses exemplify a large number of

poems in which women are virtually worshipped,

sometimes even turned into the objects of meditation

or spoken of as the rewards of long ascetic practice in

former lives. This type of idealization is often reminis-

cent of many poems of the medieval troubadours and

Minnesdnger. The manner in which the women are

"worshipped" may also recall the devotional acts of


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certain Indian bhakti sects.2 Let us first consider

22

Amarugataka 102, where the use of sa functions as a

sort of religious mantra echoing throughout the verse.

prasade sd diii di~i ca sa prsthatah sd purah sd

paryahke sd pathi pathi ca sa tadviyogdturasya/

harmho cetah prakrtir apard ndsti me kdpi sd sd

sa sa sa sa jagati sakale ko 'yam advaitavadah//

To be sure, this pronoun functions as a referential; it is

she and she alone whom the poet is extolling. But

the literary effect of sa transcends this usage. Sa is a

designation which is non-restrictive, neither defining

nor confining its referent. In this poem, as well as in

those to follow, the use of this pronoun conveys the

image of a woman who is so idealized that she defies

description and therefore naming. Words such as

nitambini would not have created this mood. One is

reminded of the old philosophical descriptions of the

Absolute or God in which these ineffable entities were

denoted by mere pronouns such as tat, e.g., Katha

Upanisad 4. 3 ff.

Amaru. 34 offers another example of a verse in

which sa helps create the picture of a woman who is at

the same time both mysterious and distant.

sa bala vayam apragalbhamanasah sa stri vayam

katarah sa pinonnatimat payodharayugam. dhatte

sakheda vayam/

sakranta jaghanasthalena guruna gantum. na ?aktd

vayam dosair anyajandirayair apatavo jatah sma ity

adbhutam/ /

Arjunavarmadeva, in commenting on this verse, ex-

plains that the repeated use of sa reflects the woman's

ineffable character (anirvacanTyatd-dyotakah); through

her power of being, the "bad" qualities of woman-

hood23 are incorporated by the enamoured poet.

Although the plural vavam is employed for a singular

subject, a grammatically acceptable feature which need

not bear semantic import, the use of vayam, as well as

apatavo, accentuate the singular beauty of the woman

designated by sa (vayam is perhaps best compared to

our editorial "we," which is not without suggestive

coloring).

The pronoun sa may serve to exalt a mere feature of

a woman's body. In ?rigdraiataka 15,24 it is the

beloved's romavali, the streak of hair above the navel,

which becomes the excitant of man's desire. The sd,

which grammatically belongs with romavali, is not

only separated from the noun by kena, but closes the

verse and thus echoes in the reader's ear. The fourth

pdda reads: "madhyasthapi karoti tapam adhikam

romavalih kena sa."

The emphatic final position of a verse is occupied by

sa in the 16th and 17th poems of the same anthology.

The women to which these pronouns refer are eulo-

gized in an irrefutable fashion:

mukhena candrakantena mahn-ilaih Riroruhaih/

panibhyd

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