6663558 some linux commands

8/22/2019 6663558 Some Linux Commands

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Some Useful Linux Commands

Steve Ambler

February 2002Contents

1 Introduction

2 Shorthand at the Command Promt

! "yical #ot Files

$ Useful Files

% Imortant #irectories

& Imortant 'ash Shell (ariables

) Imortant #aemons and Startu Services

* +indo, -ana.ers

/ Alhabetical List of Princial Commands

10 otes on Alications

101 -ail "ransfer A.ents -"As3

102 -ail User A.ents -UAs310! 4ditors

10$ 5ther

11 Some ifty Slo.ans

12 6eferences

1 Introduction

"his is my o,n summary of useful Linuxabbreviations7 directories7 files7 and commands I

use my o,n annotations to recall useful otions

and ar.uments that are not necessarily

documented in easy8to8find laces I 9uite often


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call u this file ,hen I can:t remember the syntax

of a command that I use often but not often

enou.h to remember the syntax;3 I also

editoriali


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&B 8 tyical romt ,hen lo..ed in as ordinary

user

) 8 tyical romt ,hen lo..ed in as root or

sueruser

*; 8 reeat secified command

/;; 8 reeat revious command

10^^8 reeat revious command ,ith

substitution

11D 8 run a ro.ram in bac=.round mode12[Tab][Tab]8 rints a list of all available

commands "his is >ust an examle of

autocomlete ,ith no restriction on the first

letter

1!xE"abE"ab 8 rints a list of all available

comletions for a command7 ,here the

be.innin. is ??x::

14[Alt][Ctrl][F1]8 s,itch to the first

virtual text console

15[Alt][Ctrl][Fn]8 s,itch to the nthvirtual

text console "yically7 there are six on a Linux

PC system

16[Alt][Ctrl][F7]8 s,itch to the first GUI

console7 if there is one runnin. If the .rahical

console free


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.ivin. roblems7 and s,itch bac= to the

.rahical console usin. this shortcut

17[ArrowUp]8 scroll throu.h the command

history in bash3

18[Sh!t]["a#eUp]8 scroll terminal outut

u "his also ,or=s at the lo.in romt7 so you

can scroll throu.h your boot messa.es

19[Sh!t]["a#e$own]8 scroll terminal

outut do,n

20[Ctrl][Alt][%]8 s,itch to next H server

resolution if the server is set u for more than

one resolution3

21[Ctrl][Alt][&]8 chan.e to revious H

server resolution

22[Ctrl][Alt]['(Spc]8 =ill the current H

server Used ,hen normal exit is not ossible

23[Ctrl][Alt][$el]8 shut do,n the system

and reboot

24[Ctrl]c8 =ill the current rocess

25[Ctrl])8 lo.out from the current terminal

26[Ctrl]s8 sto transfer to current terminal27[Ctrl]q8 resume transfer to current

terminal "his should be tried if the terminal

stos resondin.


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28[Ctrl]*8 send current rocess to the

bac=.round

2/reset 8 restore a terminal to its default settin.s

30[+e!tmousebutton]8 old do,n left

mouse button and dra. to hi.hli.ht text

6eleasin. the button coies the re.ion to the

text buffer under H and if .m is installed3 in

console mode

31[,))lemousebutton]8 Coies text from

the text buffer and inserts it at the cursorlocation +ith a t,o8button mouse7 clic= on

both buttons simultaneously It is necessary for

three8button emulation to be enabled7 either

under .m or in HF*&Confi.

! "yical #ot Files

"here is some redundancy across these ro.ramsFor examle7 the loo= and behavior of emacs can

be customi


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1bashlo.out 8 file executed by bash shell on

lo.out

2bashrofile 8 initiali


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12,mstyle 8 .ives choice of default ,indo,

mana.er if one is not secified in startx

1!Hdefaults 8 sets u H resources for individual

user "he behavior of many different alicationro.rams can be chan.ed by modifyin. this file

1$xinitrc 8 initiali


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drive -ost often7 there is a symbolic lin= called

@dev@cdrom ,hich is >ust a lin= to the true

cdrom driver file

)@dev@null 8 used ,hen you ,ant to send oututinto oblivion

*@etc@aliases 8 file containin. aliases used by

sendmail and other -"As mail transort

a.ents3 After udatin. this file7 it is necessary

to run the ne,aliases utility for the chan.es to

be assed to sendmail/@etc@bashrc 8 system8,ide default functions and

aliases for the bash shell

10@etc@confmodules 8 aliases and otions for

confi.urable modules

11@etc@crontab 8 shell scrit to run different

commands eriodically hourly7 daily7 ,ee=ly7monthly7 etc3

12@etc@#I6C5L56S 8 used to store colors for

different file tyes ,hen usin. ls command "he

dircolors command uses this file ,hen there is

not a dircolors file in the user:s home

directory Used in con>unction ,ith the eval

command see belo,3

1!@etc@exorts 8 secifies hosts to ,hich file

systems can be exorted usin. FS -an

exorts contains information on ho, to set u


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this file for remote users

1$@etc@fstab 8 contains information on artitions

and filesystems used by system to mount

different artitions and devices on the directorytree

1%@etc@5S"A-4 8 stores the name of the

host comuter

1&@etc@hosts 8 contains a list of host names and

absolute IP addresses

1)@etc@hostsallo, 8 hosts allo,ed by the tcddaemon3 to access Internet services

1*@etc@hostsdeny 8 hosts forbidden by the tcd

daemon3 to access Internet services

1/@[email protected] 8 similar to @etc@ass,d but for

.rous

20@etc@inetdconf 8 confi.ures the inetd daemonto tell it ,hat "CP@IP services to rovide ,hich

daemons to load at boot time3 A .ood start to

securin. a Linux box is to turn off these services

unless they are necessary

21@etc@inittab 8 runs different ro.rams and

rocesses on startu "his is tyically thero.ram ,hich is resonsible for7 amon. other

thin.s7 settin. the default runlevel7 runnin. the

rcsysinit scrit contained in @etc@rcd7 settin. u

virtual lo.in terminals7 brin.in. do,n the


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system in an orderly fashion in resonse to

[Ctrl][Alt][$el]7 runnin. the rc scrit in

@etc@rcd7 and runnin. xdm for a .rahical lo.in

romt only if the default runlevel is set for a.rahical lo.in3

22@etc@issue 8 re8lo.in messa.e "his is often

over,itten by the @etc@rcd@rcS scrit in

Slac=,are3 or by the @etc@rcd@rclocal scrit in

-andra=e and 6ed at7 and erhas other

rm8based distributions3 "he relevant linesshould be commented out or chan.ed3 in these

scrits if a custom re8lo.in messa.e is desired

2!@etc@liloconf 8 confi.uration file for lilo boot

loader

2$@etc@motd 8 messa.e of the day file7 rinted

immediately after lo.in "his is often

over,ritten by @etc@rcd@rcS Slac=,are3 or

@etc@rcd@rclocal -andra=e@6ed at3 on

startu See the remar=s in connection ,ith

@etc@issue

2%@etc@mtab 8 sho,s currently mounted devices

and artitions and their status

2&@etc@ass,d 8 contains ass,ords and otherinformation concernin. users ,ho are re.istered

to use the system For obvious security reasons7

this is readable only by root It can be modified

by root directly7 but it is referable to use a


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confi.uration utility such as ass,d to ma=e the

chan.es A corrut @etc@ass,d file can easily

render a Linux box unusable

2)@etc@rintca 8 sho,s the setu of rinters

2*@etc@rofile 8 sets system8,ide defaults for

bash shell It is this file in Slac=,are that sets u

the #I6C5L56S environment variable for the

color ls command Also sets u other system8

,ide environment variables

2/@etc@resolvconf 8 contains a list of domainname servers used by the local machine

!0@etc@securetty 8 contains a list of terminals on

,hich root can lo.in For security reasons7 this

should not include dialu terminals

!1@etc@termca 8 ASCII database definin. the

caabilities and characteristics of differentconsoles7 terminals7 and rinters

!2@etc@H11@HF*&Confi. 8 H confi.uration file

"he location in Slac=,are is @etc@HF*&Confi.

!!@roc@cuinfo 8 cu information

!$@roc@filesystems 8 rints filesystems currently

in use!%@roc@interruts 8 rints interruts currently

in use

!&@roc@ioorts 8 contains a list of the i@o

addresses used by various devices connected to


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the comuter

!)@roc@=core 8 "he command ls 8l @roc@=core

,ill .ive the amount of 6A- on the comuter

It:s also ossible to use the free command to .etthe same information and more3

!*@roc@version 8 rints Linux version and other

info

!/@var@[email protected] 8 used by syslo. daemon to

store =ernel boot8time messa.es

$0@var@lo.@lastlo. 8 used by system to storeinformation about last boot

$1@var@lo.@,tm 8 contains binary data

indicatin. lo.in times and duration for each

user on system

% Imortant #irectories

#ifferent distributions have different directorystructures7 desite attemts at standardi


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$@etc 8 files used by subsystems such as

net,or=in.7 FS7 and mail Includes tables of

dis=s to mount7 rocesses to run on startu7 etc

%@etc@rofiled 8 contains scrits that are run by@etc@rofile uon lo.in

&@etc@rcd 8 contains a number of shell scrits

that are run on bootu at different run levels

"here is also tyically an rcinet1 scrit to set u

net,or=in. in Slac=,ar37 an rcmodules scrit

to load modular device drivers7 and an rclocalscrit that can be edited to run commands

desired by the administrator7 alon. the lines of

autoexecbat in #5S

)@etc@rcd@initd 8 contains most of the

initiali


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10@etc@H11 8 confi.uration files for the H

+indo, system

11@home 8 home directories of individual users

12@lib 8 standard shared library files

1!@lib@modules 8 modular device driver files7

most ,ith o extensions

1$@mnt 8 tyical mount oint for many user8

mountable devices such as floy drives7 cd8rom

readers7 etc 4ach device is mounted on a

subdirectory of @mnt

1%@roc 8 virtual file system that rovides a

number of system statistics

1&@root 8 home directory for root

1)@sbin 8 location of binaries used for system

administration7 confi.uration7 and monitorin.

1*@tm 8 directory secifically desi.ned for

ro.rams and users to store temorary files

1/@usr 8 directory containin. a number of

subdirectory ,ith ro.rams7 libraries7

documentation7 etc

20@usr@bin 8 contains most user commands

Should not contain binaries necessary forbootin. the system7 ,hich .o in @bin "he @bin

directory is .enerally located on the same dis=

artition as @7 ,hich is mounted in read8only

mode durin. the boot rocess 5ther filesystems


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are only mounted at a later sta.e durin.

startu7 so uttin. binaries essential for boot

here is not a .ood idea

21@usr@bin@H11 8 most often a symbolic lin= to@usr@H116&@bin7 ,hich contains executable

binaries related to the H +indo, system

22@usr@doc 8 location of miscellaneous

documentation7 and the main location of

ro.ram documentation files under Slac=,are

2!@usr@include 8 standard location of includefiles used in C ro.rams such as stdioh

2$@usr@info 8 rimary location of the GU info

system files

2%@usr@lib 8 standard library files such as libca

Searched by the lin=er ,hen ro.rams are

comiled2&@usr@lib@H11 8 H +indo, system distribution

2)@usr@local@bin 8 yet another lace to loo= for

comon executables

2*@usr@man 8 location of manual a.e files

2/@usr@sbin 8 other commands used by sueruser

for system administration!0@usr@share 8 contains subdirectories ,here

many installed ro.rams have confi.uration7

setu and auxiliary files


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!1@usr@share@doc 8 location of ro.ram

documentation files under -andra=e and 6ed

at

!2@usr@src 8 location of source ro.rams used tobuild system Source code for ro.rams of all

tyes are often unac=ed in this directory

!!@usr@src@linux 8 often a symbolic lin= to a

subdirectory ,hose name corresonds to the

exact version of the Linux =ernel that is

runnin. Contains the =ernel sources!$@var 8 administrative files such as lo. files7

used by various utilities

!%@var@lo.@ac=a.es 8 contains files7 each of

,hich has detailed information on an installed

ac=a.e in Slac=,are "he same file can also be

found at @var@adm@ac=a.es7 since the admsubdirectory is a symbolic lin= to lo. 4ach

ac=a.e file contains a short descrition lus a

list of all installed files

!&@var@lo.@scrits 8 ac=a.e installation scrits

in Slac=,are are stored here ou can insect

these scrits to see ,hat secial features are

included in individual ac=a.es

!)@var@sool 8 temorary stora.e for files bein.

rinted7 mail that has not yet been ic=ed u7

etc


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& Imortant 'ash Shell (ariables

"hese variables are most often inherited or

declared ,hen a shell is started A .reat reference

for bash shell variable7 bash builtin commands7and bash in .eneral is SSC 20003

15-4 8 home directory7 abbreviated as ~

2-AIL 8 name of file that mail is stored in

mailbox3

!-AILC4CM 8 sets the fre9uency at ,hich

bash chec=s for mail

4PA" 8 directory aths to search for executable

files Accordin. toA Practical Guide to Linux7

!2/7 the PA" is set in @etc@rofile 5n my

Linux box7 @etc@rofile adds @usr@H116&@bin to

the ath7 ,hich means that the ath must be set

before by another confi.uration file "hebashrofile file in my home directory adds

@home@ambler@bin to the ath 5n my Linux

box7 the first command to set the ath ,ould

seem to be in @etc@rcd@rcsysinit7 ,hich is one of

the shell scrits invo=ed by the init rocess

inittab3 "hen7 @etc@rofile adds @usr@H116&@bin

Finally7 bashrofile adds @home@ambler@bin

5PS1 8 romt strin. "hin.s that can be ut in

the romt strin. include -h hostname37 -u

username37 -, absolute athname of ,or=in.


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directory37 -+ name of ,or=in. directory ,@o

ath37 -d date37 -t time3 See !!1 ofA

Practical Guide to Linuxfor more details 5n my

6ed at boxes7 the rimary romt strin. is setin the @etc@bashrc file "he romt is also set in

@etc@rofile7 but the settin. in bashrc seems to

ta=e recedence I also have a bashrc file7 ,hich

in turn runs @etc@bashrc7 ,hich sets the romt

"his means that the same romt is used by

xterm and rxvt in H sessions 5n my Slac=,are

box7 the command line romt is set in

@etc@rofile "he xterm and rxvt romts are

different7 since I don:t have a bashrofile file

,hich is run ,hen an xterm is started In fact7 I

don:t =no, ,here the romt is set in H

sessions It is not set by @usr@H116&@lib@H11@a8

defaults@H"erm&PS2 8 secondary romt strin.

) Imortant #aemons and Startu Services

"hese are ro.rams or rocesses ,hich are run at

boot time Some remain in memory to execute

various tas=s ,hen re9uired daemons3 -ost are

started and stoed ,ith scrits in the@etc@rcd@initd directory see above3 "he exact

contents of this directory ,ill deend on ,hich

ac=a.es from a articular distribution are

installed For examle7 installin. the Aache


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ac=a.e ,ill cause an httd scrit to be laced in

@etc@rcd@initd

"here are man a.es on most of these "he 6ed

at ro.ram t=sysv ntsysv is the non .rahicalversion3 allo,s root to automatically confi.ure

,hich of these are started automatically at boot

time "he linuxconf ro.ram does the same thin.7

althou.h I haven:t tried it "he utility ch=confi. is

also desi.ned to 9uery and confi.ure runtime

services for different runlevels "hewww.man)ra(euser.or#site has a .ood a.e

on common services@daemons7 esecially those

included in recent versions of the -andra=e

distribution

A .ood source of information on daemons and

services is the ??Linux #evices7 #aemons7

Services:: chater of the C"#P 2000a3 document

1amd 8 runs the automount daemon for remote

filesystem mountin. such as nfs

2anacron 8 chec=s delayed ?cron: tas=s see

belo,3 at boot time and executes them Useful if

you have cron >obs scheduled but don:t run your

machine all the time!amd 8 Advanced Po,er -ana.ement 'I5S

daemon For use on machines7 esecially

latos7 that suort am -onitors battery

status and can shut do,n the system if o,er is


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too lo,

$ar,atch 8 =ees ,atch for ethernet IP address

airin.s that are resolved usin. the A6P

rotocol

%atd 8 runs >obs 9ueued by ?at:

&autofs 8 control the oeration of automount

daemons7 used to mount and unmount devices

on demand

)bootaramd 8 allo,s comuters to boot from a

Linux machine usin. the '55"P net,or=rotocol A server rocess that rovides

information to dis=less clients necessary for

bootin.

*crond 8 automatic tas= scheduler -ana.es the

execution of tas=s that are executed at re.ular

but infre9uent intervals7 such as rotatin. lo.files7 cleanin. u @tm directories7 etc

/cus 8 daemon for rint services under the

Common Unix Printer System7 a relacement

for ld

10dhcd 8 imlements the #ynamic ost

Confi.uration Protocol #CP3 and theInternet 'ootstra Protocol '55"P3 Used to

lease out IP addresses to remote machines

11dra=font 8 font server in -andra=e

12fetchmail 8 daemon to fetch mail at re.ular


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intervals from mail servers

1!ftd 8 ft server daemon

1$.ated 8 routin. daemon that handles multile

routin. rotocols and relaces routed and

e.u

1%.m 8 useful mouse server for alications

runnin. on the Linux console

1&httd 8 the Aache ,ebserver hyertext

transfer rotocol daemon

1)identd 8 "he identd server rovides a means

to determine the identity of a user of a

articular "CP connection Given a "CP ort

number air7 it returns a character strin. ,hich

identifies the o,ner of that connection on the

server:s system

18inetd 8 listens for service re9uests on net,or=connections7 articularly dial-inservices "his

daemon can automatically load and unload

other daemons ftd7 telnetd7 etc37 thereby

economi


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20ichains 8 daemon for ac=et for,ardin.

Used for confi.urin. a .ate,ay@fire,all

21isdn rovides IS# net,or= interfacin.

services

22isdn$linux 8 for users of IS# cards

2!=erneld 8 automatically loads and unloads

=ernel modules

2$=eytable 8 loads the aroriate =eyboard

ma from @etc@sysconfi.@ =eyboard

2%=header 8

2&=ud


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system does not have a ortmaer7 then a ort

should be manually secified ,ith the 8 otion

see belo,3

!0mys9l 8 database server daemon

!1named 8 rovides #S services

!2netfs 8 net,or= filesystem mounter Used for

mountin. nfs7 smb and nc shares on boot

!!net,or= 8activates all net,or= interfaces at

boot time by callin. scrits in

@etc@sysconfi.@net,or=8scrits

!$nfsd 8 used for exortin. nfs shares ,hen

re9uested by remote systems

!%nfsloc= 8 starts and stos nfs file loc=in.

service

!&numloc= 8 loc=s numloc= =ey at init runlevel

chan.e

!)cmcia 8 .eneric services for cmcia cards in

latos

!*ortma 8 needed for 6emote Procedure Calls

!/ostfix 8 mail transort a.ent ,hich is a

relacement for sendmail o, the default on

des=to installations of -andra=e

$0ost.res9l 8 database server daemon

$1random 8 random number .eneratin.

daemon7 related to security and encrytion


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$2routed 8 mana.es routin. tables

$!rstatd 8 =ernel statistics server Allo,s users

on a net,or= to .et erformance statistics for

any connected machine

$$rusersd 8 rovides services that allo, users to

find one another over the net,or=

$%r,alld 8 allo,s users to use r,all to ,rite

messa.es on remote terminals

$&r,hod 8 server ,hich maintains the database

used by the r,ho13 and rutime13 ro.ramsIts oeration is redicated on the ability to

broadcast messa.es on a net,or=

$)sendmail 8 mail transfer a.ent "his is the

a.ent that comes ,ith 6ed at 5thers7 such as

smtd7 are not included

$*smb 8 needed for runnin. SA-'A$/snmd 8 rovides Simle et,or=

-ana.ement Protocol suort

%0sound 8 daemon for mana.in. sound

%1s9uid 8 ,eb a.e roxy server daemon

%2syslo.d 8 mana.es system lo. files

%!smtd 8 Simle -ail "ransfer Protocol7

desi.ned for the exchan.e of electronic mail

messa.es Several daemons that suort S-"P

are available7 includin. sendmail7 smtd7


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rsmtd7 9mail7


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"he ??+indo, -ana.ers for H:: site is extremely

useful for =eein. trac= of ne, Linux ,indo,

mana.ers See http//wnman.or#

1Afterste 8 'ased on Fv,m #esi.ned to .ive a

similar loo= and feel to the extSte interface

2AnotherLevel 8 a custom confi.uration for

fv,m2 ,hich mimics the loo= and feel of

+indo,s/%

!'lac=box 8 a li.ht7 fast7 ,indo, mana.er It

doesn:t clutter the screen ,ith too much >un=7but it .ets the >ob done efficiently

$C#4 8 Common #es=to 4nvironment "his is

the default ,indo, mana.er on many

commercial Unix systems "here is no free

version

%4nli.htenment 8 (ery confi.urable7 androbably the coolest loo=in. ,indo, mana.er7

but a bit of a resource ho.

&Fl,m 8 Fast7 Li.ht +indo, -ana.er It has

very fe, features7 but is very small

)Fv,m 8 F N3 (irtual +indo, -ana.er "his7

alon. ,ith Fv,m27 are old standbies in theLinux ,orld "hey are 9uite confi.urable7 but

confi.uration involves editin. text files ,hich

are sometimes obscure

*Fv,m2 8 ne,er version of above


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/Fv,m/% 8 imlementation of Fv,m2

confi.ured to loo= and feel li=e +indo,s /%

10Gnome 8 Gnome des=to environment A

themable collection of des=to utilities that canbe used ,ith different ,indo, mana.ers "he

current default ,indo, mana.er for a .nome

session is Sa,fish

11Ice,m 8 Ice +indo, -ana.er (ery small7

very fast7 9uite confi.urable 5n lo,

memory@small hard drive machines7 this one ismy favorite Confi.uration involves editin. text

files7 but the syntax is extremely easy to

understand "here are also a coule of third8

arty ro.rams available ,hich allo, the user

to confi.ure Ice,m usin. a .rahical interface

12M#4 8 M #es=to 4nvironment -any of the

des=to utilities can be run under different

,indo, mana.ers I may be ,ron.7 but I

believe =i=bd is the only ro.ram out there that

allo,s the user to reconfi.ure the =eyboard

layout to different national =eyboards on the fly7

,ith one8clic= s,itchin. from one to the other

Unfortunately7 this utility is no lon.er availableunder M#4 2x

1!M,m 8 the ,indo, mana.er that comes ,ith

the M#4 des=to environment

1$-,m 8 -otif ,indo, mana.er


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1%5l,m 8 5en Loo= ,indo, mana.er

1&Sa,fish 8 a small7 efficient7 confi.urable

,indo, mana.er that is no, the default ,indo,

mana.er ,ith Gnome

1)",m 8 "ab ,indo, mana.er

1*U#4 8 Unix #es=to 4nvironment In early

develoment sta.es An attemt to create a ne,

tye of des=to environment for Unix machines7

includin. Linux

1/+indo,ma=er 8 5ne of the more oular,indo, mana.ers i.hly confi.urable and

themable

20HFce 8 ??Cholesterol8Free #es=to

4nvironment:: Includes its o,n ,indo,

mana.er7 a toolbar7 a sound mana.er7 a

bac=.round mana.er7 and a file mana.er It hastearoff menus7 u to t,elve virtual des=tos7 etc

It is comletely confi.urable ,ith menus Its

toolbar loo=s li=e the one in C#4 I find it easy

to use and to confi.ure7 and easy on system

resources

/ Alhabetical List of Princial Commands

In the follo,in. command list7 the distinction

bet,een uer case and lo,er case letters is

imortant -ost of the commands are utilities that

are run by invo=in. their o,n executable files In


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some cases7 they are commands ,hich are internal

to a shell such as bash shell builtins3 "he shell

builtins are indicated "here are no, many

utilities that are included ,ith either the Gnomeor the M#4 des=to environments7 so many that it

,ould be difficult to include them all here In

many cases7 they dulicate the functionality of one

or more of the ro.rams listed belo, I ,ould

su..est consultin. the online documentation for

these ac=a.es

Another .ood source of information on commands

is the C"#P 2000b3 document "here are

different chaters ,hich .rou commands in

different cate.ories

5n rm8based systems7 to find out ,hich ac=a.e

o,ns the command !oo,here !oois a

standalone executable37 use the command rpm &q&! !oo

1a2 8 translation utility from a,= to Perl

2a2s 8 translation utility from ??any:: to

Postscrit

!ac 8 rint statistics concernin. user connect

time

$access 8 determine ,hether a file can be

accessed

%acroread 8 Adobe utility for vie,in. df files


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&adduser 8 used by root to add user to system

o usa.eO adduser userid

)afio 8 utility to coy or restore files to an

archive file "his utility is not art of the basic

internal and external ro.rams under 6ed at

Linux It is available as an rm on the

rmfindnet site

*a.etty 8 enables lo.in on terminals See .etty7

m.etty7 and uu.etty

/ali 8 list mail aliases

10alias 8 assi.n name to secified command list

"his is actually a shell builtin 5n my 6ed at

system7 I have .lobal alias commands in my

@etc@bashrc file and in my @bashrc file 5n my

Slac=,are box7 I have made the rm command a

little bit safer ,itho alias rm:rm 8i:

so that you can:t recursively delete your @dev

directory ,ithout tellin. the system you:re

sure you ,ant to do it

11alien 8 utility to convert to and from different

Linux ac=a.e formats Can handle #ebiandeb37 Stamede st37 6ed at rm3 and

Slac=,are t.


31/89

o usa.eO aroos keyword

1!asfilter 8 rinter filter called by ld to deal

,ith rintin. different tyes of files "his is a

fairly sohisticated rint filter It is not set u by

default in Slac=,are It used to be available on

the second cd of a Slac=,are distribution Since

$07 it is available as one of the main ac=a.es in

the a set 6ead the mail that the installation

ro.ram sends to the root user I believe that

6ed at uses its o,n rinter filters1$ar 8 create7 modify and extract from archives

1%arch 8 rint machine architecture tye

1&as 8 the ortable GU assembler

1)asam 8 AfterSte lato advanced o,er

mana.ement utility

1*ash 8 a shell7 a very simle shell ro.ramsometimes used on boot dis=ettes since it ta=es

u much less sace than bash7 tcsh7


32/89

2$at 8 executes a shell scrit at secified time

Use at9 to sho, endin. >obs7 and atrm to

remove >obs from the 9ueue

o usa.eO at time

o orO at 8f file time

2%at9 8 sho,s endin. >obs 9ueued by at If run

by root7 sho,s everybody:s endin. >obs

2&atrm 8 removes endin. >obs 9ueued by at

Use at9 to determine the identities of various

>obs

o usa.eO atrmjob

2)a,= 8 searches for and rocess atterns in a

file

2*banner 8 rint banner to standard outut

Syntax is

o banner Eotion Echaracters

2/bash 8 'ourne a.ain shell "his is the default

shell in the 6ed at installation

!0batch 8 9ueue7 examine7 or delete >obs for

later execution See at

!1bc 8 a lan.ua.e comiler3 similar to C7 ,ithunlimited recision arithmetic

32b. PI# 8 send rocess ,ith id ??PI#:: to the

bac=.round "his is the same as executin.

[Ctrl]*,hile interactin. ,ith the runnin.


33/89

rocess "his is a shell builtin

!!bh 8 uts a >ob in the bac=.round "his is a

shell builtin

!$biff 8 mail notification utility otifies user of

mail arrival and sender:s name

!%bind 8 dislays or redefines =ey bindin.s "his

is a shell builtin

!&bison 8 arser .enerator similar to yacc

!)bru 8 a o,erful bac=u utility ro.ram

Commercial #emonstration versions are often

included ,ith Linux distributions such as 6ed

at

!*bsh 8 e9uivalent to ash

!/bun


34/89

standard outut Used to >oin or dislay files

$&cd 8 chan.e ,or=in. directory "his is a shell

builtin in bash7 tcsh and


35/89

ermission See umas= for default file

ermissions uon file creation Chmod can also

be used to chan.e the suid bit on files "he

syntax for the symbolic version iso chmod Eotions ,ho oeration

ermission file8list

"he syntax for the absolute version is

o chmod Eotions mode file8list

"o set the uid to the o,ner:s ermissions7 use

o chmod u Qs file8name

"o set the uid to the .rou:s ermissions7 use

o chmod . Qs file8name

"here are lots of security issues related to

allo,in. a ro.ram to have root:s ermissions

,hen run by an ordinary user I don:t retendto understand all of these issues

%!cho,n 8 chan.es o,nershi of a file Can be

used recursively

o usa.eO cho,n userid files

o orO cho,n 86 userid files

%$chsh 8 chan.e default shell

%%ci 8 creates or records chan.es in an 6CS file

%&clear 8 clear screen command

%)cm 8 comares t,o files for differences


36/89

o usa.eO cmfile1 file

%*co 8 retrieves an unencoded version of an 6CS

file

%/comm 8 comares sorted files

&0confi.ure 8 automatically confi.ures soft,are

source code

&1color8xterm 8 color xterm ro.ram Under

6ed at7 this is >ust a lin= to xterm8color

&2control8anel 8 .rahical systemconfi.uration tool under 6ed at

&!c 8 coies on or more files 6ecursive coyin.

is one simle ,ay of archivin. art of a

directory structure Use the command as

follo,sO

o c 8r @sourcedirectory @tar.etdirectory

&$cio 8 direct coy of files to an outut device

Allo,s creation of archive file sannin. multile

dis=ettes Allo,s one directory structure to be

mirrored else,here on the artition or on

another artition In order to bac= u an entire

directory structure on dis=ettes7 cd to the

directory and use the follo,in. commandOo find 8deth 8rint cio 8ov @dev@fd0

"o restore from dis=ettes7 useO

o cio 8iv T @dev@fd0


37/89

"he cio command ,ill romt the user to

insert more dis=ettes as they are needed "he

command for mirrorin. a directory structure

is the follo,in.O

o find 8deth 8rint cio 8v

@destinationdirectory

"his coies the ,or=in. directory and its

contents7 includin. subdirectories7 into

@destinationdirectory In order to coy an

individual file ,hich is lar.er than a floy7useO

o find 8name nameoffile 8rint cio 8iv

@dev@fd0

&%c=.tool 8 Slac=,are tool to install7 uninstall

and 9uery ac=a.es Front end to install=.7

remove=.7 ma=e=. "his is the .rahicalversion that uses ncurses

&&c 8 GU C8comatible comiler

rerocessor

&)crontab 8 schedules command to run at

re.ularly secified time

&*csh 8 run C shell&/cslit 8 searate files into sections See also

slit

)0cvs 8 mana.es concurrent acces to files in a


38/89

hierarchy Stands for concurrent version system

Is built on 6CS It stores successive revisions of

files efficiently and ensures that access to files

by multile develoers is done in a controlledmanner Useful ,hen many develoers are

,or=in. on the same ro>ect

)1cut 8 selects characters or "A'8searated

fields from lines of inut and ,rites them to

standard outut

)2date 8 dislays or sets date and timeo usa.eO date

o orO date date

)!dd 8 direct coy of file from one device to

another Can be used to ma=e coies of boot or

root dis=ettes for installin. Linux It can be

used7 for examle7 to ma=e and exact coy of afloy dis=7 as follo,s First7 lace the dis=ette

to be coied in the floy drive "hen7

o dd if@dev@fd0 ibs%12 floycoy

o 6elace the dis=ette ,ith a fresh dis=ette

o dd iffloycoy bs%12 of@dev@fd0

"he ibs and bs otions secify the bloc= si


39/89

commands above

)$declare 8 declares attributes for a variable

same as tyeset3 "his is a shell builtin

)%df 8 dislays caacity and free caacity on

different hysical devices such as hard drive

artitions and floy drives that are mounted

on the file system Gives free sace in bloc=s

+ith the undocumented3 otion 8h7 the

ro.ram .ives free sace in -b or Gb "his is

useful for those accustomed to thin=in. of thecaacity of a hi.h8density !% inch dis=ette as

1$$0=

)&diff 8 dislays differences bet,een t,o files

o usa.eO difffile1 file

))diff! 8 comares three files and reorts on

differences)*di 8 used to set u a SLIP or PPP connection

It can be used to set u an out.oin. SLIP

connection or an incomin. connection

)/dilo.in 8 used for settin. u incomin. di

connections See the man a.e for di

*0dir 8 a variation of the GU ls command thatdefaults to rintin. file names in columns

*1dircolors 8 set colors for GU ls command In

Slac=,are7 this command is run by the

@etc@rofile scrit "hen7 ,henever xterm is run


40/89

,ith the 8ls lo.in shell3 otion7 ls dislays

different colors for different tyes of files

"yical usa.e is eval ?dircolors 8b? In 6ed at

and -andra=e7 I .et color directories byaliasin. the ls command see belo,3

*2dislay 8 set dislay for outut of ro.ramms

under H +indo,s Can be used to run a

ro.ram on a remote machine ,hile dislayin.

the outut on a local machine "he remote

machine must have ermission to send outut tothe local machine "his is actually an

environment variable See the more detailed

discussion in connection ,ith the xhost

command belo,

*!dmes. 8 dislays messa.es from @var@lo.

relative to the most recent boot

*$dos 8 invo=e the #5S4-U #5S emulator

*%du 8 dislays information on dis= usa.e "he

command

o du @ 8bh less

,ill dislay detailed dis= usa.e for each

subdirectory startin. at root7 .ivin. files si


41/89

*)dvil> 8 send a dvi file to a Laser>et rinter

"here are secialiet rinter

**dvil>2 8 seciali for theII series of rinters See above

*/dvis 8 send a dvi file to a Postscrit rinter7

to a Postscrit caable Laser>et rinter7 or to a

file ,ith the 8o otion3 "here is a s,itch to

rint only a subset of the a.es7 and another

s,itch to rint in landscae mode Use 8tlandscae7 ,hich is one of the ar.uments to the

aer tye s,itch If you have one a.e of a

document that is a ,ide table7 and you ,ish to

rint this in landscae mode7 use

o dvisfilename -pp pagenumber -t

landscape

/0e2fsc= 8 chec= an ext2 filesystem "he syntax

is

o e2fsc=!de"!de"icename

,here the filesystem is on @dev@devicename

"he device should not be mounted7 and this

ro.ram must be run as root/1echo 8 ,rite ar.uments to standard outut

5ne use is to rint out information about

environment variables7 as in

o echo BPA" 8 list aths to search


42/89

o echo B5-4 or echo ~8 list name of

home directory

"his is a shell builtin

/2editres 8 a dynamic resource editor for H

"ool=it alications Allo,s the user to chan.e

H resources for individual alications

/!efax 8 fax ro.ram

/$efix 8 convert bet,een fax7 text7 bit8ma and

.ray8scale formats

/%e.re 8 search files for lines that match

re.ular exressions 6uns faster than .re and

f.re

/&elm 8 an interactive mail system

/)elvis 8 a version of the vi text editor

/*emacs 8 screen oriented text editor//env 8 deslay the current environment or set a

variable e9ual to a ne, value

100eval 8 scans and evaluates the command line

See dircolors command "his is a shell builtin

101ex 8 interactive command8based editor "he

man a.e lists it as bein. the same as vim7 animroved version of vi

102exec 8 system call ,hich creates a subshell to

execute a binary or a scrit "his is a shell

builtin


43/89

10!execve 8 a variation of the exec command

10$exit 8 exit a shell "his is a shell builtin

10%exand 8 convert tabs in files to saces and

,rite to standard outut

10&exect 8 a ro.ram that ??tal=s:: to other

interactive ro.rams accordin. to a scrit

Follo,in. the scrit7 4xect =no,s ,hat can be

exected from a ro.ram and ,hat the correct

resonse should be An interreted lan.ua.e

rovides branchin. and hi.h8level controlstructures to direct the dialo.ue In addition7 the

user can ta=e control and interact directly ,hen

desired7 after,ard returnin. control to the

scrit

10)exort 8 lace the value of a variable in the

callin. environment ma=es it .lobal3 "his is ashell builtin

10*exr 8 utility evaluates an exression and

dislays the result

10/f2c 8 F56"6A to C translator

110f)) 8 F56"6A )) comiler

111false 8 null command that returns anunsuccessful exit status

112fax 8 simle user interface to efax and efix

ro.rams

11!fc 8 vie,s7 edits7 and executes commands for


44/89

the history list "his is a shell builtin

11$fdformat 8 lo, level format of a floy

device

11%fetchmail 8 retrieve mail from a remote mail

server and ass it to local S-"P a.ents on the

local machine

11&fdis= 8 used to artition hard drives

o usa.eO fdis= de"ice

11)f. PI# 8 brin. a bac=.round or stoedrocess ,ith id ??PI#:: to the fore.round "his

is a shell builtin If only one rocess is runnin.

in bac=.round mode7 f. ,ith no ar.ument is

sufficient to brin. it to the fore.round

11*f.re 8 search for atterns in files

11/file 8 dislays classification of a file or files

accordin. to the tye of data they contain

120find 8 find files accordin. to a lar.e variety

of search criteria "he find command that I use

the most is

o find 8name filename 8rint

in order to find files matchin. a articular

name on the ,or=in. directory and all

subdirectories Find can be incredibly

o,erful7 but it is incredibly obscure

121fin.er 8 dislay information about a


45/89

secified userid or userids

122fmt 8 simle text formattin. utility "ries to

ma=e all nonblan= lines nearly the same len.th

12!fold 8 brea= lines of secified files so they are

no ,ider than a secified len.ths

12$fortune 8 available in the bsd.ames ac=a.e

in Slac=,are and other distributions Put a call

to fortune in @etc@rofile and .et somethin.

insirational or amusin. every time you fire u

an xterm as a lo.in shell12%free 8 .ives used and free memory on system

alon. ,ith other useful information

12&fromdos 8 ta=es a #5S text file from stdin

and sends a UIH file to stdout

12)fsc= 8 file system chec= and reair

12*ft 8 file transfer over net,or=

12/.QQ 8 CQQ comiler

1!0.)) 8 GU Fortran )) comiler

1!1.a,= 8 GU a,=7 mostly for rocessin.

delimited text files

1!2.cc 8 invo=e C7 CQQ comiler

1!!.etits 8 arses ar.uments to a shell scrit

"his is a shell builtin

1!$.et=eycodes 8 rint =ernel:s scancode8to8

=eycode main. table


46/89

135.hostscrit 8 set of rintin. utilities It seems

to be obli.atory to have this if a "4H installation

such as te"4H is installed o, they

communicate ,ith one another is some,hatobscure

1!&.hostvie, 8 Aladdin .hostscrit

interreter@revie,er

1!).im 8 ima.e maniulation and aint

ro.ram

1!*.lint 8 6ed at .rahical front end for therm ac=a.e installer and mana.er

1!/.re 8 used to find a strin. ,ithin a file "he

8i otion returns matches ,ithout re.ard to

case "he 8n otion means that each line of

outut is receded by file name and line

number "he 8v otion causes non8matched linesto be rinted

o usa.eO .repattern files

o orO .re 8ipattern files

o orO .re 8npattern files

o orO .re 8vpattern files

1$0.rouadd 8 create a ne, .rou on the system

1$1.rous 8 sho,s ,hich .rous you are in

1$2.rub 8 Gnu .rand unified bootloader Can be

used instead of lilo to boot multile oeratin.


47/89

systems I encountered a coule of snafus tryin.

to install .rub on my home machine after

installin. -andra=e *0 and choosin. the lilo

bootloader durin. the initial install "he-andra=e installation ro.ram set u

@boot@vmlinu< as a symlin= to the actual =ernel7

vmlinu


48/89

of the Linux system ote that .rub has its

o,n conventions for namin. devices and

numberin. artitions7 so that for examle a

artition ,hich is called hda& under Linux,ill be called hd07%3 by .rub

1$!.rub8install 8 command to install .rub on the

hard drive or floy drive3

1$$.un


49/89

@etc@5S"A-4

1%%h,cloc= 8 used to 9uery and set the

hard,are cloc=

1%&hylafax 8 commercial fax ro.ram

1%)id 8 dislay userid and .rouid

1%*inetd 8 daemon ,hich starts u other

daemons on demand Confi.ured in

@etc@inetdconf

1%/ifconfi. 8 dislay as root3 information on

net,or= interfaces that are currently active

First ethernet interface should be listed as eth07

second as eth17 etc First modem connection

should be listed as 07 etc "he ??lo::

connection is ??loobac=:: only

1&0ifdo,n 8 shut do,n the net,or= interface

1&1ifu Einterfacename 8 start u the interface

1&2info 8 dislay system information "his is the

GU hyertext reader

1&!init 8 the mother of all rocesses7 run at

bootu7 executes commands in @etc@inittab Can

be used ,ith root rivile.es3 to chan.e the

system run levelo usa.eO init run#le"el

1&$insmod 8 used by root3 to install modular

device drivers


50/89

1&%install=. 8 Slac=,are command to install

one of the ac=a.es from the ro.ram sets

1&&intr 8 interrut =ey7 usually ECtrl8C

1&)isell 8 chec=s files for sellin. errors

o usa.eO isellfiles

168>ed 8 ro.rammer:s file editor 'ehaves li=e

emacs as modes for "4H7 F56"6A7 C7 etc

1&/>obs 8 dislays list of current >obs in the

bac=.round "his is a shell builtin1)0>oe 8 simle +ordStar8li=e text editor It can

be invo=ed in emacs emulation mode ,ith

>emacs and in +ordStar emulation mode ,ith

>star

1)1>ove 8 Voseh:s 5,n (ersion of 4macs A

simle emacs clone

1)2=bdmode 8 rint current =eyboard mode

1)!=ernelcf. 8 GUI to add@remove =ernel

modules as root in H terminal3

1)$=erneld 8 =ernel daemon7 a rocess that

stays in memory and does all sorts of useful

stuff7 li=e automatic loadin. of device driver

modules

1)%=i=bd 8 a utility ro.ram that comes ,ith

M#4 that allo,s users to s,itch on the fly

amon. different international =eyboards It can


51/89

be used under different ,indo, mana.ers than

=fm

1)&=ill 8 sends a si.nal to esecially to

terminate3 a >ob or rocess "his is a shellbuiltin in bash7 tcsh and


52/89

.iven executable deends7 and ,here they are

located

1*$leave 8 dislay reminder at secified time

1*%less 8 Linux alternative to ??more::

command #islays text files7 one screenful at a

time +hen less auses7 there is a lar.e number

of available commands to tell it ,hat to do next

5ne can scroll both for,ards and bac=,ards

1*&let 8 evaluates a numeric exression "his is a

shell builtin1*)lilo 8 installs boot loader on the boot sector of

a hard drive7 of a dis=ette7 or in another

location -y $*& has a hard drive that is too

lar.e for the machine:s 'I5S7 so I have to boot

from a floy "o create a boot dis=ette7 I do the

follo,in. as root3Oo @sbin@fdformat @dev@fd01$$0

o @sbin@m=fsext2 @dev@fd0

o mount 8t ext2 @dev@fd0 @mnt@floy

o c 8d @boot@K @mnt@floy

o @sbin@lilo 8C @etc@liloflo

"he 8C otion to lilo has lilo use the liloflo

file instead of the default liloconf

1**linuxconf 8 interactive tool for confi.urin.

Linux system Uses H if loaded "his is a Gnome


53/89

tool It comes ,ith my 6ed at distribution7 and

is not included ,ith Slac=,are It ,ould seem to

be the easiest ,ay to confi.ure Linux under

Slac=,are (ersion 11% is available forSlac=,are "here is a retty .ood introduction

to the use of linuxconf in the 6ed at %2

installation manual7 ,hich is available online at

their ,eb site

1*/ln 8 creates a lin= to a file Used to create

hard lin=s and7 ,ith the 8s otion7 symboliclin=s ,hich can lin= files on different dis=

artitions "he syntax is

o ln Eotions source Edest

1/0locate filename 8 find the file name ,hich

contains the strin. ??filename:: "he syntax is

easier than the find command

1/1loc= 8 temorarily loc= terminal

1/2loc=file 8 create semahore files37 used to

limit access to a file

1/!8 lo. in to system

1/$lo.name 8 consult @etc@utm for user:s lo.in

name1/%lo.out 8 execute lo.out as individual user

and brin. u lo.inO romt

1/&loo= 8 loo= for strin.s in files


54/89

1/)l9 8 sho, rint >obs that are ,aitin.

1/*lr 8 send file to be rinted

1//lrm 8 cancel a >ob from rint 9ueue

200ls 8 list directory contents "o .et colored

directory listin.s under 6ed at7 -andra=e7

etc7 use

o ls 8color

"o .et this all the time7 add

o alias ls:ls 8colorauto:to bashrc "he follo,in. command

o alias ls:ls 8Fs=b 8colorauto:

,ill .ive directory listin.s in color7 ,ith file

si


55/89

20%m$ 8 an imlementation of the traditional

UIH macro rocessor It can be used ,ith the

sendmail confi.uration ac=a.e in 6ed at

and Slac=,are3 to .enerate a sendmailconfconfi.uration file ,ithout havin. to edit the

confi.uration file directly

20&ma.icfilter 8 .eneral urose rinter filter

See asfilter above asfilter is the rinter filter

that comes ,ith the 6ed at and Slac=,are

distributions20)mail 8 sends or reads electronic mail

20*ma=e 8 =ees a set of ro.rams current "his

is a utility that hels ,hen develoin. a set of

ro.rams It ,or=s by executin. a scrit called

ma=efile7 -a=efile or GUma=efile in the

,or=in. directory It is very often used in

combination ,ith confi.ure ,hen comilin. and

installin. noncomiled soft,are ac=a.es

20/ma=ebootdis= 8 command in Slac=,are to

do >ust ,hat the name says

210-AM4#4( 8 executable scrit to ma=e

device files on @dev

211ma=es,a 8 confi.ures s,a sace

212man 8 dislays information from online Unix

reference manual

21!manath 8 attemt to determine ath to


56/89

manual a.es

21$mc 8 -idni.ht Commander file mana.er and

visual shell

21%mes. 8 enables@disables recetion of

messa.es

21&minicom 8 terminal ro.ram

21)m=dir 8 create a directory

21*m=fs 8 create a file system format3 on a

device or artition Should be invo=ed after

lo,level formattin. of the dis= usin. fdformat

It has several versions ,hich are all lin=s to the

basic ro.ram7 such as m=fsext2 and

m=fsmsdos

21/m=s,a 8 creates a Linux s,a sace on the

secified hard dis= arition root rivile.es

neede3o usa.eO m=s,a de"ice

220more 8 list file contents7 stoin. after each

full screen

221mount 8t Efstye Edevice Emountoint 8

mount device usin. filesystem of tye Efstye

,ith device name Edevice at the locationEmountoint in the filesystem directory tree

222mount 8a 8 mount all filesystems accordin. to

the secifications in @etc@fstab


57/89

22!mouseconfi. 8 mouse confi.uration utility

under 6ed at Located in @usr@sbin

22$ma.e 8 rint multile a.es er sheet on a

Postscrit rinter Can also be used to rint aa.e in landscae mode

22%-tools 8 ac=a.e of -S8#5S utilities

Includes the follo,in. commands

o mcd 8 chan.es ,or=in. directory on #5S

dis=

o mcoy 8 coies #5S files from one

directory to another

o mdel 8 deletes #5S files

o mdir 8 lists contents of #5S directories

o mformat 8 adds #5S formattin.

information to a dis=o mtye 8 dislays contents of a #5S file

"he default device for execution of these

commands is @dev@fd0 and can be referred to

as ??aO::

22&mv 8 moves renames3 files

22)netconf 8 used as root3 to set u net,or=22*ne,aliases 8 rebuilds the @etc@aliases

database used by sendmail -ust be rerun every

time @etc@aliases is modified for the chan.es to

ta=e effect


58/89

22/ne,.r 8 similar to lo.in Chan.es user:s

identification

2!0nice ro.ramname 8 sets the riority of the

ro.ram ??ro.ramname::

2!1nm 8 lists the symbols from ob>ect files

ob>file If no ob>ect files are .iven as ar.uments7

nm assumes ?aout:

232nohu 8 runs a command that =ees runnin.

after lo.out "he command is in rincile

immune to han.us7 and must have outut to anon tty Accordin. toLinux in a Nutshell7 this is

necessary only in the 'ourne shell7 since modern

shells reserve bac=.round rocesses by default

2!!ntsysv 8 run level editor under 6ed at "his

is the e9uivalent of t=sysv7 but does not re9uire

a .rahical interface2!$nxterm 8 color xterm ro.ram "he man

a.e for nxterm under 6ed at brin.s u the

same a.e as xterm

2!%od 8 dums contents of a file

2!&ass,d 8 chan.e lo.in ass,ord

2!)aste 8 >oins corresondin. lines from files2!*atch 8 udates source code Attemts to

udate a file from a file of chan.e information7

or athces7 created by diff

2!/athch= 8 determine validity and ortability


59/89

of filenames

240dflatex 8 art of the dftex ro.ram suite

Produces df outut from a LA"4H file

2$1dftex 8 roduces df outut from a "eH file

See also dflatex "his ro.ram is art of the

tetex 0/ distribution that is included ,ith 6ed

at %2 and above7 and ,ith Slac=,are $0 and

above It is also available as a searate ro.ram

2$2erl 8 ractical extraction and reort

lan.ua.e2$!. 8 dislay data one screenful at a time

2$$ico 8 simle screen oriented text editor It is

included as art of the Pine ro.ram

2$%in. 8 chec= if Internet comuter is

resondin. Can also measure the time it ta=es

the 9ueried comuter to resond2$&=.tool 8 Slac=,are tool to install7 uninstall

and 9uery ac=a.es Front end to install=.7

remove=.7 ma=e=. "he c=.tool is the

ncurses .rahical version of this ro.ram

2$)oclient 8 retrieve mail via the Post 5ffice

Protocol Suorts P5P2 and P5P!2$*od 8 os the to directory of the

directory stac= and uses cd to chan.e to that

directory "his is a shell builtin

2$/r 8 a.inates files for rintin.


60/89

2%0rintenv 8 dislay list of environment

variables

2%1rinttool 8 run as root3 in an H terminal to

confi.ure your rinters3

2%2s 8 dislays status of rocesses Use the 8a

otion for rocesses for all users Use the 8x

otion to include rocesses not attached to a

terminal

2%!stree 8 dislay rocesses in the form of a

tree structure Millin. a arent rocess ,ill also=ill all the children and their descendants

2%$ushd 8 ushes the ar.ument onto the to of

the directory stac= and uses cd to chan.e to that

directory "his is a shell builtin

2%%,d 8 rint absolute ath of ,or=in.

directory "his is a shell builtin2%&,ch= 8 chec=s the inte.rity of ass,ord

and shado, files

2%),conv 8 converts ass,ords to the shado,

ass,ord format

2%*,unconv 8 unconverts ass,ords from the

shado, ass,ord format Generates a standardUnix ass,ord file

2%/ython 8 interreted7 interactive7 ob>ect8

oriented ro.rammin. lan.ua.e

2&0rc 8 coy one or more files to or from


61/89

remote comuter "he syntax is oorly

exlained in the documentation that I have7

includin. the man a.es Usa.e isO

o rc filename usernameWremotehostOath

"he user:s home directory on the remote

system must contain the file rhosts ,ith a list

of users receded by the full domain name or

exact IP address of their machine3 ,ith access

rivile.es

o localhostname username

2&1rcs 8 creates or chan.es the attributes of an

6CS file Stands for 6evision Control System

2&2rdev 8 9uery@set ima.e root device7 s,a

device7 6A- dis= si


62/89

messed u from7 for examle7 tryin. to dislay a

binary file in an xterm

2&*return 8 exits from a function "his is a shell

builtin

2&/rlo. 8 rints a summary of the history of an

6CS file

2)0rlo.in 8 lo. in to remote comuter "he

.eneral syntax is as follo,s7 usin. the URA-

obel machine as an examleO

o rlo.in 8l userid nobelsiu9amca

"he remote comuter must reco.ni


63/89

2)&rm 8 invo=es the 6ed at ac=a.e mana.er

in command line mode I often use this

command in 9uery mode to 9uery ac=a.es

about ,hat files they contain and to find out,hich ac=a.e o,ns a articular file 4xamles

are

o rm 89il foo Gives ac=a.e information

and a file list for the ac=a.e foo

o rm 89fil foo Gives ac=a.e information

and a file list for the ac=a.e that o,nsthe file foo Foo must be in the ,or=in.

directory7 or the full ath to foo must be

secified

+e need to find out about installin. the rm

ac=a.e on a Slac=,are box It:s robably

better to use a ac=a.e converter such as

alien

2))rm2t.< 8 an extremely useful utility on

Slac=,are systems that converts rm ac=a.es

to t.< format "hey can then be installed usin.

the install=. command or =.tool3

2)*rsh 8 execute shell command on a remote

comuter See rc and rlo.in

2)/rstat 8 summari


64/89

2*1rusers 8 list ,ho is lo..ed on local machines

2*2r,all 8 ,rite to all users over a net,or=

2*!r,ho 8 sho, ,ho is lo..ed in on a LA "he

r,ho service must be enabled for this command

to run If it isn:t7 run ??setu:: as root I don:t

understand this last remar=7 ,hich comes from

??Linux e,bie Administrator Guide::

2*$rxvt 8 a terminal ro.ram similar to xterm7

but ,hich has less features and uses less

memory2*%sed 8 edits a file not interactively3 Also a

tool for rocessin. text files

2*&set 8 set or dislay value of shell variables

"his is a shell builtin "he command

o set less

rints the current user environment7 .ivin.

the values of currently defined variables

2*)setenv 8 set or dislay value of environment

variables

2**setserial 8 used by root to confi.ure a serial

ort

2*/setterm 8 set terminal attributes for a virtual

console

2/0setuid 8 set the id of a ro.ram ,hen it is

run Used7 for examle7 to .ive root rivile.es to


65/89

a ro.ram run by an ordinary user "his is

actually done by runnin. the chmod ro.ram as

root See the chmod command for the syntax

2/1setu 8 Slac=,are ro.ram to set uro.ram sets and confi.ure system Setu

devices and file systems7 mount root file system

2/2sh 8 standard UIH shell 5n Linux7 >ust

another name for bash

2/!shift 8 romotes each command8line

ar.ument "his is a shell builtin2/$sho,mount 8 sho, information about an nfs

server

2/%shutdo,n 8 reboot or shut do,n system as

root7 after secified amount of time +ith the 8r

otion7 reboot +ith the 8h otion7 halt the

systemo usa.eO shutdo,n 8r minutes

2/&slee 8 creates rocess that slees for

secified interval

2/)slilo.in 8 attaches a SLIP interface to

standard inut Used to allo, dialin SLIP

connections2/*sort 8 sorts and@or mer.e files

2//slit 8 slit file into secified number of

se.ments


66/89

!00ssh 8 secure shell Aarently has many of

the same functionalities as rlo.in7 telnet7 ft7

rsh7 etc7 ,ith better security and encrytion

features +e may ,ant to learn ho, to set thisu and use it

!01startx 8 front end to xinit in Linux "his is a

scrit ,hich starts u H clients and shuts do,n

the H server on exit from the ,indo, mana.er

302startx &&O1 8 start the next H ,indo, session

on the dislay 1 the default is oened on dislay03 5ne can s,itch bet,een different .rahical

dislays usin. [Ctrl][Alt][F7]7

[Ctrl][Alt][F]7 etc

!0!stty 8 sets or dislays oeratin. otions for

terminal

!0$su 8 lo. in as another user7 includin. root!0%sudo 8 allo,s individual users to have root

ermission to erform secified tas=s

!0&s,aoff 8 disables s,a dis=

!0)s,aon 8 enables s,a dis=

!0*symlin=s 8 rovide list of and information

about symbolic lin=s!0/sync 8 ,rites memory buffers to hysical

devices

!10systat 8 9uery host for system information


67/89

!11tac 8 rint file in reverse

!12tail 8 dislays the last art of a file

!1!tal= 8 visual communication ro.ram that

coies lines from one terminal to that of another

user

!1$tar 8 file comression and archivin. utility I

find the syntax of this command to be

frustratin.ly oa9ue "he follo,in. ,or=s for

me "o use this command to un


68/89

ne, tae or dis=ette Use the follo,in.

command to bac= u to floiesO

o tar 8cvf @dev@fd0 filenames3 or

directorynames3

"he bac=u can be restored ,ith

o tar 8xvf @dev@fd0

"ar can be used for other thin.s "o mirror all

the files and subdirectories in from8stuff to to8

stuff7 use the commands

o cd from8stuff

o tar cf 8 cd @to8stuffX tar xvf 83

o tar file is ever ,ritten to dis= "he data is

sent by ie from one tar rocess to another

"his examle is ta=en from$unning Linux7

1)) "o list the table of contents of a tararchive7 use

o tar tvf tarfile

"o extract individual files from a tar archive7

use

o tar xvf tarfile files

,here files is the list of files to extract +henextractin. files7 tar creates missin.

subdirectories underneath the current

directory in ,hich the cammand is invo=ed

!1%tcl 8 scritin. lan.ua.e


69/89

!1&tcsh 8 extended version of the C shell

!1)tee 8 coy standard inut to standard outut

and one or more files

!1*telinit 8 used to chan.e run level 4xact run

level that corresonds to sin.le8user7 multi8user7

and H levels deends on distribution

!1/telnet 8 remote lo.in over net,or=

!20test 8 evaluates an exression or comares

ar.uments "his is a shell builtin in bash7 tcsh

and


70/89

of a file If the file does not exist on dis=7 an

emty file is created

!2/tr 8 translation utility that can be used7 for

examle7 to relace secified characters in a textfile

!!0tra 8 tras a si.nal "his is a shell builtin

!!1true 8 null command that returns a

successful exit status

!!2tset 8 initiali


71/89

and remove it from the active filesystem "he

command umount 8a ,ill re3mount all file

systems listed in @etc@fstab

!!/unalias 8 remove name reviously defined byalias "his is a shell builtin

!$0uname 8 dislays information about the

system +ith no ar.uments7 it dislays the name

of the oeratin. system +ith the 8a otion7 it

dislays information about the oeratin.

system7 the host name7 and hard,are!$1uni9 8 dislays lines of a file that are uni9ue

!$2unset 8 removes a variable or function "his

is a shell builtin

!$!un


72/89

!$/vdir 8 variant of the GU version of the ls

command #efaults to rintin. out the lon.

version of directory entries

!%0vi 8 standard screen oriented Unix editor

!%1vie, 8 vi in read8only mode

!%2vim 8 imroved vi editor

!%!vrfy 8 9uery remote host to verify the

accuracy of an email address

!%$, 8 dislay info about userids and active

rocesses

!%%,ait 8 ,aits for a bac=.round rocess to

terminate "his is a shell builtin

!%&,c 8 dislays number of lines7 characters

and ,ords in a file

!%)+harf 8 the AfterSte alication doc=

module

!%*,hatis 8 dislay one8line summary of

secified command

!%/,hereis 8 use to find utilities in standard

locations

!&0,hich 8 used to find utilities in search ath

+ill return the absolute directory ath of the

named utility ro.ram

!&1,ho 8 dislay information about currently

lo..ed in userids


73/89

!&2,hoami 8 dislay information about userid

that is currently lo..ed in

!&!,ish 8 front end to t=7 an H ,indo,

extension of tcl

!&$,or=bone 8 console based cd layer

!&%,or=man 8 .rahical cd layer ro.ram

!&&,rite 8 send messa.es to another local user

!&)H 8 starts u the H server Can be invo=ed

,ith

o H 89uiet 89uery remotemachineaddress

in order to .et a .rahical lo.in screen on the

remote machine See the discussion in

connection ,ith xdm belo,

!&*xadm 8 dislay advanced o,er

mana.ement 'I5S information!&/xar.s 8 converts standard outut of one

command into ar.uments for another "his is

one of those o,erful but obscure commands

Har.s reads ar.uments from the standard

inut7 delimited by blan=s ,hich can be

rotected ,ith double or sin.le 9uotes or a

bac=slash3 or ne,lines7 and executes thecommand default is @bin@echo3 one or more

times ,ith any initial8ar.uments follo,ed by

ar.uments read from standard inut 'lan=

lines on the standard inut are i.nored


74/89

!)0xbiff 8 .rahical mail delivery notification

utility

!)1xcalc 8 simle calculator ro.ram

!)2xcliboard 8 name says it all

!)!Hconfi.urator 8 6ed at utility for

confi.urin. settin.s for H

!)$xdm 8 used to start an H lo.in session "his

can be used to start a lo.in session on a remote

system See the discussion on the follo,in. siteO

o

http//www.menet.umn.e)u/~(as*eta/un2/2termnal/n)e2.html

See the man a.es for H7 xdm7 and Hserver

As usual7 the man a.es are retty obscure

"he best sin.le source seems to be the Hserverman a.es After H is confi.ured7 H needs to

be started at bootu ,ith the command in

@etc@rcd@initd@xterm3O

o H 89uiet 89uery remotemachineaddress

If the address of a nameserver is not

confi.ured7 then the numeric address of the

remote machine rather than its name should

be entered If the machines are connected

throu.h ethernet cards and the net7 then

obviously basic net,or=in. has to be set u


75/89

Gnome and M#4 come ,ith their o,n

versions of H [email protected] mana.ers7 called

resectively .dm and =dm

375xdvi 8 vie, a dvi file comiled under LA"4H

!)&xedit 8 a simle text editor for H

!))xf*&confi. 8 .rahical confi.uration tool for

H

!)*HF*&Setu 8 .rahical confi.uration tool for

H

!)/xfd 8 dislay an available font in H Creates

a .rid in an x8term ,ith one character er

rectan.le

!*0xfi. 8 utility for interactive .eneration of

fi.ures

!*1xfm 8 .rahical file mana.er for H

!*2xhost 8 tell H server that remote comuter

has access to your machine and that you ,ill use

the remote comuter "his can be used to set u

remote H sessions "o set u a remote H session

on the URA- obel machine7 run the follo,in.

command on the local machine one doesn:t

have to be root to do this3o xhost Qnobelsiu9amca

"hen7 lo. onto the remote machine usin.

rlo.in see above3 or telnet 5nce lo..ed in7


76/89

use the follo,in. command to .et the remote

H server to oen an H terminal on the local

machineO

o setenv #ISPLA localhostnameO0 X xtermD

"his is valid for csh7 ,hich is the default lo.in

shell on obel For =sh7 and I thin= bash3

relace ,ith

o #ISPLAlocalhostnameO0

o exort #ISPLA X xterm

5ther H8based ro.rams such as etscae or

Gauss .rahical version3 can also be run on a

remote machine ,ith dislay on the local

machine ,ith little trouble "he local H server

is the ro.ram that has all of the information

concernin. the roerties of the .rahics cardand terminal7 so it must be necessary to have

H runnin. on the local machine "he follo,in.

should also ,or= After usin. xhost to .ive

ermission to the remote machine to dislay

on the local machine7 use

o netscae 8dislay localhostnameO00RuestionO can one start the H session on the

local machine and then run a remote coy of a

,indo, mana.erN

!*!xinit 8 start H +indo, "he command startx


77/89

is a front end to xinit in Linux7 includin.

Slac=,are

!*$xload 8 dislays a .rahic of the system load

!*%xl9 8 .rahical interface to rint mana.er

"his is included on one of the HFC4 menus7 but

does not seem to be a art of the base 6ed at

distribution

!*&xlsfonts 8 list fonts available under the H

+indo, system

!*)xman 8 bro,sable command reference#islays manual a.es under H

!**xmh 8 .rahical front end under H to the

nmh mail handlin. system "his ro.ram is art

of the HFree*& ac=a.e in 6ed at

!*/xmodma 8 utility for modifyin. =eymas

and ointer button main.s in H Can be usedto install a French Canadian =eyboard

#o,nload the Hmodmacf file from

,,,linux89uebecor.7 and insert the command

o xmodma @etc@H11@Hmodmacf D

into the xession ,ith xdm3 or the xinitrc

,ith startx3 file!/0xosvie, 8 dislays bar .rahs of system load7

load avera.e7 memory usa.e7 and s,a usa.e

!/1xaint 8 simle aint ro.ram for H


78/89

!/2xdf 8 GPL:d utility for revie,in. dvi files

#oesn:t seem to ,or= too ,ell on texts ,ith a lot

of math

!/!xlaycd 8 H +indo, audio cd layer utility

!/$xsetroot 8 utility to confi.ure root ,indo, of

an H terminal

!/%xsysinfo 8 .rahical dislay of load and

memory usa.e

!/&xterm 8 start an H +indo, terminal session

!/)xterm8color 8 color version of xterm

!/*xv 8 utility for vie,in. and maniulatin.

many tyes of ima.e files "his is a share,are

ro.ram

!//xvidtune 8 utility for fine tunin. of monitor

settin.s under H

$00yacc 8 arser .enerator

$01ytal= 8 multi8user ro.ram similar to tal=

$02


79/89

to .re

$0&Yharf 8 AfterSte button anel module

$0)


80/89

14xim 8

2Fetchmail 8 seemin.ly one of the fe, ,ays

Pine is able to do this as ,ell3 to do,nload mail

automatically from a P5P or I-AP server andass it to local mail handlin. a.ents Use the

follo,in. line in @fetchmailrcO

o oll ou9amca roto o! user

US46A-4 ass PASS+56#

Use the follo,in. to have fetchmail loaded as

a daemon that ,ill do,nload mail at re.ularintervalsO

o fetchmail 8d &000

"he interval is secified in seconds Fetchmail

,ill oll all of the o servers listed in

@fetchmailrc

!Getmail 8 #esi.ned as a relacement forFetchmail

$--#F 8

%Postfix 8 a mail transort a.ent and otential

relacement for sendmail -andra=e )1 and u

uses this as its default -"A

&Rmail 8 a ??modern:: relacement for sendmailIt is reuted to be more secure than sendmail

Since it doesn:t have a GPL license7 it is not the

default -"A of any Linux distributions that I

=no, of


81/89

)Sendmail 8 this one .ets my vote for the most

comlicated and obscure confi.uration file7

@etc@sendmailcf -ost individual Linux users

,ill be usin. machines connected to the Internetvia an ISP or on net,or=s such as university

net,or=s3 ,ith centrali


82/89

5+"5 I no, have somethin. that ,or=s7

but ,hich mysteriously comlains about

??dan.erous ,rite ermissions:: every time the

system boots u*Smail 8 seems to be a oular choice on smaller

systems It ,ould aear that at one oint in its

history7 6ed at shied ,ith smail7 but this

has been relaced ,ith sendmail

/Ymailer 8 aarently desi.ned for mail servers

,ith a lar.e number of users102 -ail User A.ents -UAs3

1Acmemail 8 +eb8based mail a.ent Allo,s you

to access your mail ,ith any bro,ser Involves

settin. u a Perl CGI scrit on the server side

2Archimedes 8 A successor ro.ram to HFmail

see belo,3!Arro, 8

$'alsa 8 the default Gnome mail ro.ram

%'lit


83/89

*4volution 8 mail reader and contact

mana.er@calendar desi.ned for use under

Gnome

/4xmh 8 .rahical front end for -h

10Mmail 8 mail readin. ro.ram included ,ith

M#4

11- 8 for ??-aho.any:: Seems similar to

HFmail see belo,3 I haven:t been able to fi.ure

out from the descrition ,hether it runs

indeendently of or in con>unction ,ithsendmail and rocmail

12-h 8

1!-umail 8

1$-utt 8 text based mail ro.ram7 ,hich is

hi.hly confi.urable

15mh 8 mail handlin. system "his systemincludes a largenumber of binary commands

that are =et in @usr@bin See the man a.e for

nmh for details 6ed at %1 and %2 come ,ith

exmh and xmh7 ,hich are .rahical front ends

for nmh "he exmh front end is a searate

ac=a.e7 ,hile xmh is o,ned by HFree*&1&Pine 8 text based mail and ne,s utility

Features no, includeO

o -I-4 suort


84/89

o ability to read and ost net,or= ne,s

o maintenance of an address boo= of mail

reciients

o sell chec=in. durin. messa.e

comosition

o mouse suort ,hen usin. xterm on an H

+indo, system

o a hi.hly confi.urable environment

Pine can be used to do,nload mail from oneor more P5P! mail servers See "i of the

+ee=

http//tpo!thewee(.)ar(el!.net3

for the fourth ,ee= of February 1/// First7

set u multile confi.uration files ine 8

localmail7 ine 8 oserver 17 ine 8

oserver 27 etc3 "hen7 to confi.ure Pine touse a P5P! server7 use the Setu Confi.

command Set somethin. li=e this in the

inbox8athO

o Zoservercom@o!@usermyid[I'5H

+hen Pine is restarted7 it should as= for your

ass,ord7 connect to the remote server7 anduse it is if it ,ere accessin. local mail "he

article is unclear on ,hether there is the

otion of leavin. coies of the do,nloaded

mail on the server


85/89

1)Sylheed 8

1*HCmail 8

1/HFmail 8 "his one seems very romisin. It:s

a GUI8based mail tool that seems to offer most

of the features of etscae:s mail module It

runs ,ithout usin. sendmail and rocmail7

,hich is a ma>or advanta.e

10! 4ditors

1cooledit 8 a retty o,erful GUI text editor

2emacs 8 o,erful text editor that includes

modules for readin. and sendin. mail and

ostin.s to ne,s.rous7 and a bro,ser module

For editin. "4H and LA"4H files7 the Auc"4H

addon ac=a.e is invaluable7 and ma=es emacs

retty hard to beat as an editor ,ith LA"4H

!>ed 8 has retty .ood emacs emulation it caneven read mail li=e emacs;3 It does simle

syntax hi.hli.htin. for "eH files7 includin.

.ivin. ositionin. of arentheses It ,ould seem

to be retty confi.urable and ta=es u much less

dis= sace than emacs7 althou.h more than >oe

and muemacs It ,or=s ,ell in console mode7

and still mana.es to use colors for menu bars

and syntax hi.hli.htin. "he ro.ram x>ed

,hich comes ,ith some versions starts u its

o,n H terminal ,hen invo=ed


86/89

$>oe 8 JVoe:s 5,n 4ditorJ7 a fairly o,erful

editor ,ith a comact binary and an ability to

emulate +ordstar7 4macs7 Pico7 and a fe, other

editors%>ove 8 JVoe:s 5,n (ersion of 4macsJ I tried

this out a coule of times and mana.ed to crash

it ,hen ma=in. some minor errors in command

syntax

&microemacs VASSPA3 8 sinoff of muemacs

Pretty o,erful and confi.urable7 ,hile notta=in. u too much dis= sace or memory

)muemacs 8 a fairly o,erful emacs clone ,hose

binary is actually smaller than that of the Voe

editor

8nedit 8 an H +indo, based text editor 5f all

text editors for Linux that I:ve seen7 it hascommands ,hich are closest to +indo,s text

editors7 for cursor movement7 hi.hli.htin.7

mar=in. text7 etc It has very .ood syntax

hi.hli.htin. for both LA"4H and "-L

/ico 8 simle text editor It often comes

ac=a.ed ,ith the Pine mail user a.ent

10vi 8 included ,ith most Linux distributions If

you:re not used to the syntax7 it can be retty

hard to understand

11vim 8 imroved version of vi


87/89

12xedit 8 simle text editor included ,ith many

Linux distributions

10$ 5ther

1dfm 8 #es=to File -ana.er Allo,s the user to

lace ro.ram icons on the des=to

2.mc 8 Gnome -idni.ht Commander Gnome

version of -idni.ht Commander Includes a

.rahical interface and allo,s the user to lace

icons on the des=to

!mc 8 -idni.ht Commander file mana.er 6unsin console mode and in an xterm

$scilab 8 a free matrix ro.rammin. lan.ua.e

-ay be a .ood substitute for GAUSS and@or

-A"LA'

11 Some ifty Slo.ans

LinuxO the choice of a GU .eneration

+indo,sO ,here do you ,ant to .o todayN LinuxO

,here do you ,ant to .o tomorro,N

"his ro.ram has erformed an ille.al oeration

and ,ill be shut do,nO lease reboot usin. Linux

??+hen you say ?I ,rote a ro.ram that crashed

+indo,s:7 eole >ust stare at you blan=ly andsay ?ey7 I .ot those ,ith the system7for free::: 8

Linus "orvalds

+indo,s 20007 from the comany that brou.ht


88/89

you 4#LI;

LinuxO because rebootin. is for addin. ne,

hard,are

our mouse has moved +indo,s " must be

restarted for the chan.e to ta=e effect 6eboot no,

E5MN

LinuxO transforms your microcomuter into a

,or=station +indo,s "O transforms your

,or=station into a microcomuter

12 6eferences

Comuter "echnolo.y #ocumentation Pro>ect

C"#P3 2000a37 ??o, Linux +or=s::7http//ct)p.trpo).com/os/lnu2/howlnu2wor(s/n)e2.html

Comuter "echnolo.y #ocumentation Pro>ect

C"#P3 2000b37 ??Linux Files and Command6eference::7http//ct)p.trpo).com/os/lnu2/comman)s/n)e2.html

Mlimas7 Piotr et al 1///37 ??Linux e,bie

Administrator Guide::7http//sunste.)(/lnu2&newbe/

Siever7 4llen7 Stehen Sainhour7 Vessica

P e=man7 and Stehen Fi..ins 200037Linux in

a Nutshell third edition7 5:6eilly

Sobell7 -ar= G 1//*37A Practical Guide to


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Linux Addison8+esley

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