6b pathology of brick masonry.ppt - ulisboa · decivil gestec 3/105 construction pathology and...

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gPATHOLOGY OF BRICK

MASONRY

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TECHNICAL TEAM

Coordination:• Prof. Fernando Branco ([email protected])• Prof. Jorge de Brito ([email protected])

Contents:• Prof.ª Inês Flores-Colen • Arq.ª Natasha Redin• Arq.º Pedro Dias• Arq.º Vítor Ferreira• Prof. João Correia• Prof. Jorge de Brito (translation)• Prof. Pedro Paulo

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION1.1. The brick masonry construction1.2. Field of application1.3. Advantages1.4. Limitations1.5. Types and definitions1.6. Chapter conclusions

2. ANOMALIES AND THEIR CAUSES2.1. Introduction2.2. Anomalies (physical/mechanical source)2.3. Anomalies (chemical source)2.4. Anomalies (biological source)2.5. Chapter conclusions

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION

BRICK MASONRY

Subchapters:

1.1 The brick masonry construction

1.2 Field of application

1.3 Advantages

1.4 Limitations

1.5 Types and definitions

1.6 Chapter conclusions

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1. INTRODUCTION

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Brick remained throughout the centuries one of the main constructionmaterials. In the XX century, stone masonry walls were replaced bybrick walls, going from a single-leaf stone or brick wall until the recentdouble-leaf walls incorporating various components (insulation, watervapour retarders, bottom gutter, air cavity ventilation, water drainageand thermal bridge correction).


Present walls are linked to more efficient, thinner and lighter structural systems thanin the past

1. INTRODUCTION

1940’s 1950’s1940’s 1960’s 1970’s 1980’s

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Assemblage of stones, bricks or other materials that, convenientlylaid and locked by superimposition using mortars, are used for theexecution of building walls.

Masonry:


“It is estimated for our country that masonry works, including their renders,correspond to around 13% to 17% of the overall construction value.” - in Regulationand Standardization of Masonry Construction - Studies Planning, from LNEC

1. INTRODUCTION

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Ceramic brick masonry is made of bricks (solid or hollow) andtheir laying and/or coating mortars.

Their perform a load-bearingrole (structural masonry) ora filling role (mere panels inbetween structural elements).

The red clay bricks are themasonry elements with greaterproduction in Portugal, with manyceramic companies spread allthe national territory.


Production in Portugal

1. INTRODUCTION

Production tonnes/year

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g1.1 The brick masonry construction

NP 834 defines the acceptance criteria of ceramicbricks in terms of their aspect, touch, mechanicalstrength, efflorescence susceptibility, soluble saltsand durability.

Bricks shape:

NP 80 defines the normalized shape of the bricksand their size tolerances.

Characteristics and tests:

Types of bricksBricks sizes

1. INTRODUCTION

Brickuncoated

Solid Horizontal holes

Perforated Vertical holes without socket

Vertical holes with socket

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1. INTRODUCTION

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The first civilizations from Western Asia, especially those from the Tiger and Euphrates valleys (Sumer, Babylon and Assyria), had very scarce timber and stone reserves for construction, but had available great amounts of alluvial clay for the production of bricks, both fired and baked under the sun.


Minaret of the Great Mosque of Samarra (in Universal

Architecture - Islam)

1. INTRODUCTION

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The application of bricks was common in the Greek and Romantimes. The latter used them in several ways, particularly to buildarches and vaults.

In the V century, the destruction of theRoman civilization by the Barbarianscaused the loss of the art of makingbricks.

In Central Europe, for centuries,Brick construction was almost inexistent.The few constructions made usedbricks stolen from Roman ruins.


Roman construction

1. INTRODUCTION

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In the Middle Ages, around the XII century, the manufacture ofbricks restarted in Holland and in some areas of Germany, wherethe stone and timber available for construction was scarce. Fromhere it expanded to the British Isles and the North of Europethrough the Flemish merchants.

In Italy, the alluvial clays of theLombardy plain provided thebricks for some of the mostdecorative buildings of theGothic and Renaissance periods.


Construction in Reggio Emilia (Italy)

1. INTRODUCTION

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Until the beginning of the XIX century, the brick manufacturingprocess was manual. In the middle of that century, with theincrease in populations and the beginning of the industrialrevolution, the brick with horizontal holes as an industrial productfor construction emerges, initiating a large scale production.

Since then, there has been a noticeable expansion of brickmasonry, due to this element’s aptitude to guarantee the comfort ofconstruction.

1.2 Field of application1. INTRODUCTION

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In the beginning of the XX century, the masonry load-bearing wallswere relegated to second place in favour of other constructionsolutions.

With the evolution of steel and reinforced constructions, the use ofbrick was not discontinued and, even though it has alreadyperformed more important structural roles, it is still widely useful,and its replacement is not foreseen in the near future.

To make external walls, masonry essentially starting playing asecondary role of filling the panels. The publication of Eurocode 6relative to masonry structures may lead to a greater future use ofstructural masonry.

1.2 Field of application1. INTRODUCTION

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Saint Anthony, Padua, Italy

Buildings/monuments: Bullfighting arena, Lisbon

1. INTRODUCTION

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g1.2 Field of applicationChimneys:

Bridges:

1. INTRODUCTION

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1.3 Advantages

1. INTRODUCTION

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Brick masonry, as long as it is designed and executed according tothe adequate codes and construction rules, are capable ofperforming an appropriate load-bearing and hygrothermal role,even under adverse in use conditions.

1.3 Advantages

Relative to other traditional walls:• Economical execution;• Easy assemblage;• Easy to open grooves;• Reasonable thicknesses and self weight;• Incombustible constituent material;• Good hygrothermal behaviour;• Is complies with the minimum demands ofacoustic insulation;

• Liable of rational reuse.

1. INTRODUCTION

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1.4 Limitations

1. INTRODUCTION

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g1.4 Limitations

• Greater execution complexity for double-leaf walls;

• Qualified workmanship required; • Difficult to integrate and make compatiblethe various construction elements(current wall area, external coating andsingularities).

The lack of standardization in the national production of accessories and elements to detail the singularities of the double-leaf walls leads to improvisation and deficient construction quality situations.

Thermal correction in a blinds boxle

1. INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION

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From a structural viewpoint: filling masonry or structural (or load-bearing) masonry.

a) Classification from a structural viewpoint:


Filling or structural masonry?

1. INTRODUCTION

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In Portugal, “masonry is predominantly used to fill in between the structural meshes of external walls and to execute partition walls” - in Regulation and Standardization of Masonry Construction - Studies Planning, from LNEC.

Filling masonry:

Double-leaf wall

1. INTRODUCTION

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The use of structural masonry has different importance in variousEuropean countries.

Hotel with 12 floors, in reinforced masonry with double-leaf walls of ceramic bricks, EUA


Structural masonry:

Duplex structure with three floors made with ceramic blocks, Switzerland

1. INTRODUCTION

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In Portugal, even though load-bearing masonry have been moredominant in the past, presently their use is little relevant. The fewexamples of structural masonry correspond generally to smallbuildings, practically without design.

Recent studies have shown that this solution can be economicaland functionally interesting for buildings of moderate size.

GNR station, in Ourique

1.5 Types and definitions1. INTRODUCTION

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Structural masonry differs from current masonry, not only in thedesign method and planning, but also in the construction methodsand detailing and, naturally, in the materials used.

To improve the shear and flexural strength and increase theductility of the walls, it is frequent to use steel reinforcement in thehorizontal joints and in vertical confinement elements.


Structural masonry (non-paralepipedic shape)!

1. INTRODUCTION

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From a composition viewpoint: single-leaf, double-leaf or mixedwalls.

Internationally, there is in variouscountries a trend for thedevelopment of façade with single-leaf solutions as analternative to the execution ofdouble-leaf walls. In Portugal,some studies have been madeof new shapes and constructivesystems that ensure the variousfunctional requirements.

b) Classification from a composition viewpoint:


Insulation in the wall’s air cavity

1. INTRODUCTION

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Mixed walls

Walls that incorporate various types ofconstituents: stone and brick masonrywalls.


Mixed technique: solid brick to make the vault, filling with rubble stone

masonry and part of the arch with regular stone

masonry - Monastery of S. Martinho de Tibães

1. INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION

Pombaline system (cage)• Masonry made of stone and solid ceramic brick, with a timber truss;• Walls with an important role in the structures’ global interlocking, decisive

for the performance against horizontal loads;• Thickness around 0.90 m at the ground level, successively thinned up to

the highest floor.

The timber truss, embedded in the masonry mass,withstands the seism.

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Classify the masonry used in external walls in Portugal from a structural and composition viewpoint

1. INTRODUCTION

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In Portugal, external masonry are double-leaf and for filling purposes, made with ceramic brick with many horizontal holes and with small mechanical strength, very frequently using insulation in the air cavity, especially in the coldest regions.

1.5 Types and definitionsDouble-leaf filling masonry

1. INTRODUCTION

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There are other factors that influence the behaviour of walls:• Type of laying mortar;• Assemblage type of the elements of the wall;• Number of wall leaves and their connections, between themselvesand with the structure;

• Type of coating of the wall;• Existence of complementary elements of thermal insulation, watertightness and vapour diffusion control;

• Location of the wall;• Position of the wall relative to the ground.

c) Other classifications:


The mortar must be able to accommodate the dimensional variations and the physical properties of the brick, after it has been laid.

1. INTRODUCTION

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EC6, devoted to structuralmasonry walls, classifiesthem according to the type ofthe constituent materials and,complementarily, according tothe type of leaves and theirconnections.

d) Classification according to EC6:


Types of masonry walls according to EC6, using

various types of bricks

1. INTRODUCTION

Single-leaf walls Double-leaf walls

Uncoated wall Double-leaf walls

Discontinuous joints walls Curtain walls

Walls with no

longitudinal joint

Walls with no

longitudinal joint

Walls with longitudinal

joint

Uncoated units

Longitudinal joint

Cladding wall

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In terms of the actions they can be subjected to and the structural role they play, EC6 classifies the walls as:• Load-bearing walls;• Bracing or shoring walls;• Walls subjected to shear;• Partition walls; • Walls subjected to lateral loads.

From a strongly structural viewpoint, EC6 and EC8 also make a distinction between unreinforced, reinforced, prestressed and confined masonry.


Reinforced masonry-cracking prevention

1. INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION

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g1.6 Chapter conclusions

. Since human beings started building shelters clay was a materialoften used. The use of bricks goes back to faraway times;

. It is estimated, for Portugal, that masonry works, includingrenders, correspond to around 13% to 17% of the overallconstruction value;

. Masonry, if designed and executed according to the technicalrules, are able to play an appropriate load-bearing andhygrothermal role, even in adverse working conditions;

. Generally, masonry can be classified from the structural (filling orstructural) or composition (double-leaf, single-leaf or mixed)viewpoint.

1. INTRODUCTION

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SOLID BRICK MASONRY

LOAD-BEARING NON LOAD-BEARING

EXTERNAL/INTERIOR EXTERNAL/INTERIOR

GROUND LEVEL HIGHER GROUND LEVEL HIGHER

FACADE GABLE SEPARATION PARTITION

DOUBLE-LEAF SINGLE-LEAF DOUBLE-LEAF SINGLE-LEAF

WITH AIR CAVITY

WITHOUT INSULATION WITH INSULATION

1.6 Chapter conclusionsConjugation of various classification types:

HOLLOW BRICK MASONRY

NON LOAD-BEARING

EXTERNAL INTERIOR

GROUND LEVEL HIGHER GROUND LEVEL HIGHER

FACADE GABLE SEPARATION PARTITION

DOUBLE-LEAF SINGLE-LEAF

WITH AIR CAVITY

WITHOUT INSULATION WITH INSULATION

1. INTRODUCTION

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. The industrialization of construction, the short deadlines ofconstruction and the growing size of buildings have definitelyrelegated to a second plan the development of load-bearingmasonry (in the inverse proportion of the development ofreinforced concrete);

. The recent publication of Eurocode 6 and its future application,will allow a new boom of the use of structural masonry;

. In Portugal, the present situation corresponds to filling double-leafwalls, made with ceramic brick with many horizontal holes andmechanically weak, very frequently using insulation in the aircavity;

. There are several research studies developed within thePortuguese universities related with the use of structural single-leaf walls.

1. INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER 2

ANOMALIES AND THEIR CAUSES

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Subchapters:

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical source)

2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)

2.4 Anomalies (biological source)


2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES

ANOMALIES

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2.1 Introduction


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The materials characteristics (design), the execution and the maintenance actions are decisive factors for the good performance of masonry during its service life, minimizing the occurrence of anomalies.

The main anomalies that occur in brick masonry are related with cracking or water action related phenomena. It is stressed that these two phenomena are not independent, and each of them may cause or worsen the other.

In this chapter, the anomalies are divided in three main groups: anomalies with a physical/mechanical, chemical and biological source.


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Anomalies classification:

Anomalies with aphysical/mechanical

source

Anomalies with achemical source

Anomalies with abiological source

Cracking

Crushing

Disaggregation

Spalling

Erosion

Anomalies due to humidity

Efflorescence/cryptoflorescence

Swelling

Stains

Loss of colour

Moulds and fungi

Disintegration of the joints

Vegetation growth

Moulds/fungi

Other biologicalagents


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Actions that may cause anomalies:

• Excess weight;• Foundations settlement;• Seismic actions;• Temperature changes;• Freeze/thaw cycles;• Cryptoflorescence;• Extreme temperatures;• Water absorption;• Pollution;• UV rays.

The actions originate the causes that lead to given consequences, the anomalies (action - cause - effect).


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Incorrect stocking of bricks on site

Design and execution errors:

The brick masonry performance is strongly influenced by the design (detailing and materials characteristics) and execution (specialized workmanship) quality.

Opening of grooves


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g2.1 Introduction

Brick is a porous material with great water absorption capacity.

Brick:

Humidity absorption causes the masonry’s expansion (3 to 4

times greater than the expansion due to temperature).


ValuesCharacteristics of the ceramic material

Apparent bulk density

Open porosity

Water absorption by

cold immersion

Water absorption by

capillarity (1 min)

Saturation coefficient

Linear thermal expansion

Expansion due to humidity

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Main agent causinganomalies⇩- Rain;- Ground humidity;- Condensation;- Leakages;- …

Disaggregation in the long run; Reduction of the thermal insulation.

Cracking

Water action

Disaggregation

2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSESWater absorption:

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g2.1 Introduction

Natural ageing:

Lack of maintenance associated to the long age of the buildingsworsens most of the anomalous situations, contributing decisively to the materials degradation state and very often to the very collapse of the structure.

Various forms of manifestation:

• Water leakage;• Materials detached from the walls;• Areas where the masonry is exposed

(degradation of the external coatings and/or finishes);

• Dispersed cracking in the walls;• Degradation of the frames of the

external windows/doors;• Corrosion of the metal elements.


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2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical source)


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g2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical

source)A) Cracking:

Cracks result from the inability of brick masonry walls to withstand the bending, shear or tensile stresses due to external or internal causes. Cracks can be classed according to whether they refer to load-bearing walls (with structural-related problems) or filling walls.


The cause of cracks is stresses acting on the masonry sections, due to external or internal actions. Cracks have the same cause, whether in load-bearing walls or non load-bearing walls.

Detail 1

Element

Mortars weaker than the masonry element

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source)A) Cracking (cont.):EXTERNAL CAUSES :(external actions)

• Deformation of the structure;• Action of the loads;• Imposed displacements;• Humidity.

INTERNAL CAUSES :(internal actions)

• Cryptoflorescence;• Freeze/thaw cycles;• Thermal expansion;• Oxidation of metal elements.

Cracking caused by internal causes

Cracking caused by external causes


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source)In frame structures,Mostly in buildings with a concrete structure, creep and the consequent deformation of the structural elements may impose high stresses to the masonry, mostly in the windows lintels, cantilevered sections and other locations where stresses concentrate.

A) Cracking (cont.):


More frequent cracking in partition wallsCONTRACTION OF

THE WALL

THERMAL CHANGES

FOUNDATIONS SETTLEMENT

FLEXURAL DEFORMATION OF THE PAVEMENTS

lower pavement more deformable

upper pavement more deformable

lower and upper pavements with identical deformations

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source)a) Cracking due to excessive deformations of the support:

The brick masonry walls have a relatively low elastic deformation capacity.

Main causes:• Deflections of the reinforced concrete

elements, increasingly flexible with slenderer cross-sections;

• Characteristics of the masonry (size of the bricks, type of the joint, characteristics of the laying mortar and size of the spans).


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source)Examples of cracking:


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source)a) Cracking due to excessive deformations of the support:Examples of cracking:

Lower pavement more deformable than the upper one

Upper pavement more deformable than the lower one

Lower and upper pavements with identical deformations


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source)


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source)b) Cracking due to differential settlements:

The most damaging anomalies occur when the settlements are differential, causing distortions that may damage both the structural elements and the filling walls.

It is frequent with this type of anomaly that diagonal cracks occur starting from

the wall openings given the stresses concentration that occurs in those areas


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source)b) Cracking due to differential settlements(cont.):

Main causes:• Ground consolidation;• Heterogeneity of the foundation soil;• Foundations on landfills;• Use of different types of foundations;• Deficient design of the foundations elements, among others.

Building founded on a non consolidated soil

Building founded on a stable landfill

Cracks due to settlements gradually evolve.


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source)c) Cracking due to loads application:

The brick masonry wall, by itself, has a limited capacity to absorb loads directly applied to them.Once the tensile strength of the bricks is reached, cracks start to occur in the wall.

Solid brick wall

Due to the greater strength of the solid brick, the crack tends to propagate through the mortar going round the brick (for low stresses).

Hollow brick wall

Aspect of thecracks


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source)


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source)c) Cracking due to loads application (cont.):

Main causes:• Vertical loads;• Loads binary;• Concentrated loads;• Eccentric loads;• Among others.

At the design level, this aspect should have been taken into account, preventing the beams from loading directly the masonry walls or excluding details such as accessories fastened to the walls (clotheslines).


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source)c) Cracking due to loads application (cont.):

Examples of cracks due to the application of loads on the masonry:

Cracks caused by vertical loads acting in the same direction

Crack in the masonry caused by the application of an eccentric load


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source)d) Cracking due to insufficient support of the masonry:

Anomaly frequent in external walls (normally double-leaf walls) due to insufficient support in each floor.

Main causes:• External correction of thermal bridges due to the concrete structure;• Execution of big panels of uncoated brick.

It is recommended to support the brick in at least 2/3 of its width, increase the thickness of the external leaf and clamp it to the interior leaf.


Section

Plan

Interior

Exterior

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source)e) Cracking due to temperatures changes:

Temperature changes, seasonal and daily, cause dimensional changes (expansions and contractions), and may lead to masonry expansion and structure movements.

Main causes:• Physical properties of the materials (differentthermal expansion coefficients);

• Extent of the temperature changes (amplitudeand speed of the thermal phenomenon);

• Type of structure (restriction degrees);• Lack of expansion joints.

Cracking in masonry due to compression caused by

thermal expansion of the slab


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source)e) Cracking due to temperatures changes (cont.):

External walls are more susceptible to this phenomenon (especially those facing South and West), because there is a greater thermal gradient. On the other hand, of the roof is not adequately protected in order to minimize the respective thermal-related movements, it is relatively frequent for the last floor walls to be more affected.

Cracks in the last floor walls due to expansion of the slab


Wall

Wall

Wall

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source)B) Crushing:

Crushing is associated to situations of excessive compressive stresses. It is a localized anomaly, normally associated to cracking.

Main causes:• Increase of concentratedloads;

• Decrease of the wall’sstrength capacity.

Crushing and cracking of the masonry caused by the

application of a concentrated load


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source)C) Bulging/deformations:All grounds have elastic and plastic deformations (settlements) under the action of loads. Bulging/warping manifests itself by lack of verticality, loss of planeness or angular distortion of the surfaces. It is normally associated with cracking.

Main causes:• Insufficient characteristics of the foundations;• Incapacity of the ground to withstand the loads.

Possible settlement situations


Uniform settlement

Rotation Non-uniform settlement

Angular distortion

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source)D) Disaggregation:

Corresponds to the loss of cohesion translated by the easy detachment of particles even for low intensity mechanical actions.This anomaly occurs more explicitly in uncoated masonry walls.

Main causes:• Cracking evolution;• Climatic actions (e.g. wind);• Damping of the materials;• Seismic actions.

Disaggregation caused by damping of the materials


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source)


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source)E) Spalling:

Anomaly resulting from the development of internal cracks in the brick (interior disaggregation). It is more frequent in uncoated solid brick masonry (they have no coating to protect them).

Main causes:• Temperature changes;• Freeze/thaw cycles;• Cryptoflorescence.

Spalling of bricks


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source)F) Erosion:

Anomaly resulting from the wear of the brick due to climatic and atmospheric agents that generate a transforming action on all the materials exposed to them.

Wear of a wall during its service life


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source)1 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes


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2 - Identify the anomalies and corresponding causes

2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES2.2 Anomalies (physical/mechanical

source)

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source)Cracking

Differential settlementsDeformation of the structure(pavements)


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source)Disaggregation

Cracking

Erosion

Spalling

Application of loads (loads binary)

Action of atmospheric agents

Cryptoflorescence


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A) Anomalies due to humidity:

The anomalies in brick masonry wallsdue to the action of humidity are normally classified as a function of the humidity’s source.

Humidity manifests itself in diverseways:• Construction humidity;• Condensation humidity (vapour);• Precipitation humidity (rain);• Rising damp (ground).

2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES

CONSTRUCTION WATER

CONDENSATION BY COOLING

INTERSTICIAL CONDENSATION

SALTS CONCENTRATION

FUNGI AND MOSSES

CONDENSATION ON THE PAVEMENT

RUNOFF WATER

GROUND WATER

INFILTRATION FROM THE SUBSOIL

ENTRY OF SOLUBLE SALTS FROM THE GROUND

CONDENSATION DUE TO LACK OF THERMAL INSULATION

LATERAL ENTRY OF DRIVING RAIN

CRACKINGAGGRESSIVE AGENTS

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a) Construction humidity:

This type of humidity results from the construction of the buildings and normally decreases gradually until it disappears, and manifests itself by stains, fungi or efflorescence, reducing the thermal insulation.

Main causes:• High water content used in the execution of the masonry;• Water that reaches the materials during their execution (rain or other random causes).


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b) Condensation humidity:

It results from the water vapour that is condensed on the exposed surfaces or inside the construction elements. It occurs when the hot and humid air from a location comes in contact with a cold area (thermal bridge). This anomaly may be permanent or temporary.


Main causes:• Deficient thermal insulation;• Low ambient temperature;• Deficient ventilation.

Condensations


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c) Precipitation humidity:

External humidity (rainwater driven by wind) that infiltrates through the masonry elements, pores and eventual cracks. It manifests itself at any level of the masonry, after intense rain periods.


Critical areas:• Brick joints;• Low section of the walls;• Various crack types;• Connection masonry/structure;• Connection masonry/windows.


Roof

Exposed area

Rain

Protected area

Roof protection

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d) Humidity due to random causes:

The humidity problems may be due to random causes, such as:• Damage of the rainwater drainage systems;• Forgotten open tap;• Nature itself (e.g. the humidity caused by climbing plants).


Clogging of the drainage system (downspouts)


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e) Ground humidity:

Rising damp is the most current type of humidity and comes from the ground, due to the capillarity of the materials. It manifests itself by stains, efflorescence, cryptoflorescence or moulds at the bottom of the construction (ground floor walls).


Main causes:• Rising damp, through the foundations

and/or walls, of the water in the ground;

• Hydrostatic pressure in basement walls, when the groundwater level is higher than the element level.


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B) Efflorescence:

Crystalline deposit of water soluble salts (sulphates, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium carbonates, chlorides) on the brick masonry surface. It manifests itself by light/white coloured stains. It is anti-aesthetical, difficult to remove and usually harmless.

It the crystallization occurs underthe surface, causing cracking,swelling or detachments, it iscalled cryptoflorescence.


Swelling of a render due to cryptoflorescence


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B) Efflorescence(cont.):


Formation mechanism:• Dissolution of the salts that exist in

the masonry or the ground;• Migration of the water, dragging the

salts to the surface;• Evaporation of the water on the

surface crystalizing the dissolved salts (crystallization).


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g2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)

Superficial layer non adherent to the substrate; generally it precedes the fall of the material. The word swelling is used in particular for rendered or tiled surfaces. Sometimes, the designation detachment is also used for the total loss of adherence.

Main cause: chemical processes unleashed by humidity.

C) Swelling:

Swelling of a renderSwelling of a tile


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This anomaly manifests itself by a decrease of the reddish brick colour in uncoated brick masonry, caused by exposure to the atmospheric agents with emphasis on the incidence of UV rays.

E) Loss of colour:


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Colour changes (variation of one or more parameters that define the colour) in a circumscribed and contrasting area with the adjoining ones.

Besides efflorescence, stains may include:• Deposits of calcium carbonate;• Deposits of silicates;• Stains of rust;• Stains of pollution;• Stains of humidity;• Stains of microorganisms.

D) Stains:

Rust stains


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This anomaly is infrequent, except in highly industrialized areas. It manifests itself by the disintegration of the mortars matrix, with eventual attack of the brick, caused by acids (e.g. sulphurous acidsattack the cementitious matrix).

F) Disintegration of the joints:

Disintegration of the joints


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g2.3 Anomalies (chemical source)Swelling Stains due to rising damp

Stains due to salts

Deposits of calcium carbonate

Stains due to infiltrations humidity


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StainsEfflorescence Efflorescence

Dirt deposition


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2.4 Anomalies (biological source)


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g2.4 Anomalies (biological source)

Presence of biological manifestations such as mosses and higher rank plants.

Main causes:• Biophysical processes - plantsand trees feed on nutrientsthat masonry contains; theirroots cause mechanical attack.

a) Vegetation growth:


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Development of biological microorganisms (algae, bacteria and lichens), that develop fertile grounds for the development of fungi.

They lead to chemical attacks,mostly in surfaces with porous,humid and poorly ventilated materials.

They cause changes of colour andaspect, moulds emergence andrelease of chemical substances.

b) Moulds/fungi:

Faulty ending of a downspout that caused the emergence of stains and moulds


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c) Other biological agents:

Birds (pigeons) exert a physical action on the masonry surfaces (in particular the stone surfaces), through pecking, nail marks and nesting (sand grains help their digestion). The excrements of living beings, by forming phosphoric acid and sulphur, attack the surfaces.


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Anomalies due to the biological agents action, in walls with timber elements.

It is related with the presence of humidity (seasonal humidity, ruptures of downspouts and roof gutters, broken rooftiles, etc.) and corresponds to the rotting of the timber included in the bearing walls due to the rot fungi (lichens, algae, roots - biological attack) or to the attack of insects (termites and woodworms), affecting their mechanical strength.

c) Other biological agents:


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. Most of the anomalies affect the visual aspect of masonry, its mechanical properties, the physical properties of materials and the habitability conditions and the durability of buildings;

. When surveying anomalies, a distinction must be made between the anomalies of bricks, laying and coating mortars (renders).

. In order to simplify the classification of the anomalies, the criterion used was grouping according to the source of its main aggressive agent;

. The anomalies were classified according to three distinct sources: physical or mechanical (loads action), chemical (water action) and biological;

2.5 Chapter conclusions2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES

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g

. The relationship between the anomalies and their sources is a complex issue, due to the diversity of sources and inter-relation of the various aggressive elements;

. In the following tables a causes-anomalies relationship between the most frequent anomalies, their probable causes and the corresponding correlation;

. The absence of maintenance and repair aggravates the existing anomalies, leading inevitably to the emergence of others.

2.5 Chapter conclusions2. ANOMALIES AND CAUSES

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EXTERNAL ACTIONS

INTERNAL ACTIONS

ANOMALY CAUSE

DISINTEGRATION OF THE JOINTS ACIDS

SWELLING STRESSES IN THE INTERFACES

EROSION EXTERNAL ACTIONS

DETACHMENT INTERNAL CRACKS

BULGING DEFORMATION

CRACKING DEFORMATIONS

SETTLEMENTS

CRIPTOFLORESCÊNCIAS

INTERNAL CRACKS

CLIMATIC AGENTS

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

Summary of some anomalies and causes:


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ANOMALY CAUSE

HUMIDITY WATER

EFFLORESCENCE SALTS

SUPERIORLATERALINFERIOR

GROUNDMORTAR

WATER

LOSS OF COLOUR UV RAYS

STAINS

UV RAYS

CARBONATES DEPOSITSSILICATES DEPOSITS

HUMIDITY STAINSMICROORGANISMS STAINS

RUST STAINSPOLLUTION STAINS

Summary of some anomalies and causes (cont.):


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Correlation causes/anomalies:NÃO MECÂNICAMECÂNICA NÃO MECÂNICAMECÂNICA

CAUSAS

ANOMALIAS

CAUSAS

ANOMALIAS

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Águavapores

Raios UV

Poluição, etc.

Dilatação térmica

Oxidação

Águaterreno

Sais solúveis

Gelo / degelo

Deformada (fundações)

Ácidos

Água chuva + vento

Acção de cargas

Deformação da estrutura

Águavapores

Raios UV

Poluição, etc.

Dilatação térmica

Oxidação

Águaterreno

Sais solúveis

Gelo / degelo

Deformada (fundações)

Ácidos

Água chuva + vento

Acção de cargas

Deformação da estrutura

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MECHANICAL NON-MECHANICALANOMALIES

CAUSES

SOU

RC

E

Deformation of the structureAction of loads

Settlement (foundations)

Waterrain + windWatervapours

Waterground

Freeze/thaw cycles

Thermal expansion

Oxidation

Soluble salts

UV rays

Pollution, etc.

Acids

6b pathology of brick masonry.ppt - ulisboa · decivil gestec 3/105 construction pathology and...

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