7 a comparative study of transitional roll strain by a
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
7
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN
IN REENTRY WOMEN STUDENTS
by
GERALDINE M. MEN6ER, B.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
EDUCATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Approved
Accepted
August, 1988
![Page 2: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
/
^^Copyright
by
Geraldine Hickey Menger
1987
![Page 3: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am very grateful to my dissertation committee
for their guidance and support of this research.
I offer sincere appreciation to ray chairman.
Dr. Thomas R. Irons, and to Drs, Gerard J. Bensberg,
Julian L. Biggers, Joe D. Cornett, and Thomas D.
McGovern.
I owe a special debt to the women who are the
subjects of this research. They trusted me with their
life experiences and I hope I have measured up to
the ir trust.
Above all, I thank my husband. Matt J. Menger.
He made my return to school a shared goal and never
failed in his support and encouragement. My doctoral
degree, and all that it represents in my life, could
not have been achieved without him.
Ill
![Page 4: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 5
Definition of Terms 6
Significance of the Problem 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11
Reasons for Returning 11
Reentry Women 15
Institutional Problems 18
Situational Problems 23
Personal Problems 34
III. THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS 52
Role Theory 52
Systems Theory 55
Stress Theory 57
Ego Development Theory 59
Summary 66
IV. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY 71
Research Problem 71
Research Population 72
iv
![Page 5: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Research Design
Da ta Collect ion
Ins trumen tat ion
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale
Washington University Sentence Completion Test
Role Strain Scale
Analysis of Data
Limitat ions
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Populat ion
Mar ital Status
Ch ildren
Roles
Employment
Family Income
Enrollment Level
Reasons for Reentry
Major Studies
Problems on Reentry
Ego Development Stage
Student Profile
Research Hypotheses
72
73
74
74
75
76
77
78
78
79
79
80
82
82
83
84
85
86
86
88
89
89
91
![Page 6: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Hypothesis No. 1
Hypothesis No. 2
Hypothesis No. 3
Hypothesis No. 4
Other Variables
Di scus s ion
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
91
95
95
96
97
102
114
124
VI
![Page 7: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
ABSTRACT
The problem under investigation was the analysis
of role strain experienced by married reentry women
students as they functioned in their multiple roles
of student-wife-mother-worker.
Participating in the research were 480 reentry
women enrolled in a major university and a community
college situated in West Texas. The study included a
profile of the average reentry student and analyses of
student reentry motives and problems encountered.
Significant relationships were observed between
role strain and several variables including multiple
roles, self-esteem, employment, and spouse support.
There was no significant difference in the degree of
role strain experienced by university women or
community college women, nor between graduate and
undergraduate students. Data indicate reentry
women are concerned with time management and fatigue,
and the effect of college demands on marital and family
rela t ionships.
V I 1
![Page 8: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
LIST OF TABLES
1. Age of Subjects
2. Husband's Occupation
3. Husband's Education
4. Number of Reentry Students with Children Living at Home
5. Number and Type of Roles Held by Reentry S tudents
6. Employment
7. Hours Worked per Week
8. Family Income
9. Levels of Enrollment
10. Enrolled Credit Hours
11. Reasons for Returning to College
12. Major Areas of Study
13. Problems Encountered on Reentry
14. Ego Development Stages
15. Profile of the Average Reentry Woman Student in this Study
16. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Number of Roles
17. Analysis of Variance, Role Strain by Number of Roles and Employment
18. Chi-Square Analysis, Perceived Level of Spouse Support
19. Analysis of Variance, Role Strain and Level of Spouse Support
79
81
81
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
92
93
V I 1 1
![Page 9: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
20. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Self-Esteem 95
21. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Ego Development
22. T-test, Role Strain by Groups
23. Analysis of Variance, Role Strain and Anxiety
24. T-test, Role Conflict by Groups
25. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Number of Roles
26. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Anxiety
27. Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Perceived Level of Spouse Support
96
96
97
99
99
100
100
IX
![Page 10: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The twentieth century may one day be characterized
by historians as a "century of change." The period
1900-1987 spanned the industrial revolution, the labor
movement, women's liberation, two world wars, the atomic
and hydrogen bombs, and lunar space flights. The
hallmark of American society during this century was
rapid technological change coupled with massive
economic, political, and social upheaval.
One of the more significant changes was in the
status of women. There were changes in beliefs about
women's traditional roles, about relationships and
marriage, about career fulfillment and self-expression
through work. With these changed attitudes came changes
in role participation, with more women participating
in more diverse roles. With the possible exception of
birth control technology, few other social phenomena
have equalled the impact of the sexual revolution.
Smith (1979:ix) offered this description:
We are undergoing a revolution—at times obvious, at times only dimly perceived—in the traditional relationship of women to work, money, marriage and family. One indicator of this revolutionary change is
![Page 11: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
that in less than a generation the size of the female labor force has more than doubled and now includes the majority of working-age women... But while the ranks of wage-earning women are highly visible, this phenomenon is not easily grasped as a whole--not in its origins, nor in the predictability of its course, nor in its consequences. This is a "subtle" revolution.
This social revolution, sometimes referred to as
the "women's movement," encompassed (1) changes in the
traditional family structure, (2) increased awareness of
the physical, mental, and emotional needs of women, and
(3) increased opportunity for their upward mobility in
the labor market. It also included the subject of this
research, namely the reentry into higher education
of women age 25 and older.
While Smith's (1979) comments were clearly in
reference to women entering the labor force, one could
substitute "women returning to school" and draw the
same conclusion of a lack of full understanding of the
origins, predictability, and consequences of this
phenomena. The growing numbers of reentry women were
widely interpreted and included the view that "we have
entered a period in which male and female roles are
being defined in a revolutionary way" (Katz, 1976,
p. 89). Katz held that "education is both a vehicle
for and an expression of the changes occurring in
society at large" (ibid.).
![Page 12: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Women have often found themselves in fixed life
roles not by their own choice, but because they were
expected to do what all women were supposed to do i.e.,
to marry and have children. In the 1960s, for example,
women were marrying younger (median age 20.3 years) and
forsaking college for marriage and family (Astin, 1976).
In the two decades since, America experienced sweeping
changes in women's roles. As social reform and the
feminist movement's ideology impacted, the circumstances
of life shifted for many women. In 1985, 55% of married
women were employed, compared with only 23% in 1950
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1986). Analysts have
predicted a further rise to approximately 70% before the
end of the decade (U.S. Dept. of Labor, Women's Bureau,
1980).
America is still overwhelmingly a nation of
married people but the typical pattern of working
father, housewife mother, and two or more school-age
children is no longer the norm. Advances in science and
technology have resulted in smaller families, longer
lifespan, and increased leisure time. As children of
the postwar baby boom entered their late twenties, there
was a corresponding decline in the birthrate which
brought a shift in the demographic profile of the United
States. No longer dominated by youth, the country was
![Page 13: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
represented primarily by older adults (U.S. Bureau of
the Census, 1986). This "graying of America" affected
colleges and universities as a virtual army of older
students moved into undergraduate and graduate
educa t ion.
The phenomenon of "nontraditiona1" (over age 25)
women in higher education will confront educators for
some time to come. In 1984, a total of 2,492,000
women, age 25 and above, were enrolled in college
(National Center for Education Statistics, 1984). This
represented an increase of 60% over enrollment figures
for 1972. Conservative estimates projected 3 million
women, age 25 and above, would be enrolled in higher
education in 1987, an increase of 22% over the 1984
enrollment (National Center for Education Statistics,
1984).
Graduate school enrollments have also increased
dramatically. In 1984, women accounted for 15% of
dentistry degrees, 33% of law degrees, and 25% of
medicine degrees (National Center for Education
Statistics, 1984). The increased enrollment of women
into new fields of graduate study contributed to a
decline in programs of nursing and teacher training,
once considered the major steppingstone for women
seeking professional careers. In the last decade, women
![Page 14: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
began to move into middle-management positions. Social
and political pressure for the promotion of female
executives continued this trend.
Women who forged dual-role identities by combining
serious career commitment with marriage and family
served as role models for others. Their success
encouraged other women to enter the competitive business
world. Naisbitt's Megatrends (1982) described these
changes as the "option explosion." New life choices
drew many women into professional degree programs. In
America's colleges and universities, millions of women
sought undergraduate and graduate degrees. They
simultaneously became a social force and an economic
reality. For many institutions, they were a lucrative
market for new student enrollments (Fisher-Thompson &
Kuhn, 1981).
^ta tement o f the Problem
A review of the literature revealed that the
reentry woman student encountered a variety of problems
in college. Reentry women were a heterogeneous group
with different practical and psychological needs
(Adelstein, Sedlacek & Martinez, 1983). Their problems
were related to marital status, age of children,
employment situations, and socio-economic level.
![Page 15: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
These problems were globally classified: Institutional
(admission policies, financial aid, class schedules);
Situational (child care, family support, commuting);
Personal (role strain, self-esteem, guilt, anxiety).
This research drew on certain principles of role
theory, systems theory, and stress theory. Although the
decision to return to college may have been an
autonomous one, the woman was central to the family
system. Whatever impacted her, impacted her family.
Reentry literature suggested that the returning woman
student who did not receive instrumental and/or
emotional support from her family experienced role
strain and stress. Furthermore, socialization and
traditional attitudes toward women's roles influenced
the degree of role conflict experienced by reentry
women. To fully understand the psychosocial framework
in which the reentry woman functioned and developed,
an exploration of certain personality constructs,
specifically self-esteem and ego development, was
neces sary.
De fini t ion of Terms
Anxie ty: A dysphoric feeling state experienced in
gradations from a twinge to acute terror (Fischer,
1970). Anxiety was assumed to have subjective or
![Page 16: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
psychological components in addition to physiological,
biochemical, and behavioral dimensions in response to an
assumed threat. Anxiety was operationally defined in
this study as the score on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety
Scale .
Dual Careers : A family structure in which both
husband and wife pursue active career and family
lifestyles. The term "career" designated those
jobs which required a high degree of commitment and had
a developmental character (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1969).
Ego Development: A developmental sequence
which involved a synthesis of functions including moral
development, socialization, character structure, and
cognitive development (Loevinger, 1976). In this
research, ego development was operationally defined
as a score on the Washington University Sentence
Completion Test.
Guilt: Regretful feelings of lessened personal
worth due to the realization that one has transgressed
boundaries or roles or neglected family duties perceived
as expected by society (Emerson, 1977).
Reentry S tudent: A woman over age 25 who has
returned to school after an absence of one or more
years. She may or may not have attended college
previously. As a group, reentry women have varied
![Page 17: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
8
widely in ethnicity, marital status, social class, and
work experience (Fisher-Thompson & Kuhn, 1981). For
the purpose of this study, the term referred to married
women, 25 years of age and older, who were enrolled in
Texas Tech University or South Plains Community College
during the spring semester of 1987.
Role: The functions one performed when occupying
a particular position within a social context (Deaux &
Wrightsman, 1984). Roles are integrated sets of social
norms and one role is distinguishable from another
(Biddle & Thomas, 1966). The primary role in this
study was that of student. Additional roles included
wife, mother, and worker.
Role Conf 1 ic t; A type of stress occurring when
conflicting and competing demands or expectancies were
perceived from two or more roles enacted by an
individual (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek & Rosenthal,
1964). Role conflict would cause the individual to
violate another's expectations either by (1) choosing
to comply fully with one set of expectations while
ignoring others, (2) by seeking a compromise and
conforming to only a part of each set of expectations,
or (3) avoiding choice by escaping from the situation
(Biddle & Thomas, 1966). Another form of role conflict
was based on external time demands rather than inherent
![Page 18: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
contraditions in expectations (Frieze, Parsons, Johnson,
Ruble & Zellman, 1978). For purposes of this study,
role conflict encompassed both forms.
Role Strain: Stress generated within a person
when one could not comply with the expectations of a
role or set of roles (Burr, Hill, Nye & Reiss, 1979).
Alternatively defined as "the felt difficulty in
fulfilling role obligations" (Goode, 1960, p. 483).
Degree of role strain was defined operationally as a
score on the role strain questionnaire.
Self-Es teem: The evaluative, judgmental,
affective component of a person's self-concept
(Rosenberg, 1965). For this study self-esteem was the
returning adult student's judgment about how worthwhile
and valuable she perceived herself to be. This was
operationally defined by the score on the Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale.
Signi ficance of the Problem
The investigator's interest in this research
stemmed from her studies in psychology and her personal
experiences as an adult student. To succeed
academically, the reentry woman student must balance her
social and intellectual needs with domestic and career
responsibilities. Attempting to fulfill multiple role
![Page 19: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
10
obligations simultaneously often leads to experiencing
role conf1ict.
Some investigations have focused on the problems
of reentry women students (Berkove, 1978; Carne, 1984;
Emerson, 1977; Sansing, 1983; Van Meter, 1976).
However, empirical data was lacking on the subject of
family relationships and intrapersonal conflicts
experienced by these women. The focus of this study was
the degree of role strain experienced by university and
community college women as they fulfilled their daily
responsibilities as undergraduate or graduate student,
spouse, parent, homemaker, worker. Such research had
practical application particularly in the future
development of academic programs and support services
that more adequately meet the needs of older women
s tudent s.
![Page 20: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this study was to explore the
transition of women from the role of homemaker to that
of college student, with particular attention to the
experience of role strain. A review of reentry
literature provided research data, both empirical and
descriptive, on the interrelationship of roles, cultural
expectations, personality characteristics, and socio-
deraographic characteristics which comprised the life
context of the reentry woman student.
Reasons for Returning
Multiple factors accounted for the increasing
number of reentry women in higher education. Some
universities, and particularly community colleges,
actively recruited adult learners to offset declining
enrollments among younger students (Jacobi, 1984).
Federal legislation, including Title IX and the Age
Discrimination Act of 1975, brought adult women into
college programs. The feminist movement had also been
instrumental in encouraging women to seek personal
growth and career fulfillment.
11
![Page 21: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
12
In an earlier survey. Doty (1966) noted that
reentry women did not hold conventional attitudes
about appropriate female roles. Primary reasons
for returning to school were an unfilled desire for
knowledge, dissatisfaction with social or community
activities, and financial preparation for retirement.
In the 1970s, the most frequently cited reasons for
returning to higher education were personal growth and
intellectual fulfillment (Brandenburg, 1974; Geisler &
Thrush, 1975).
In this decade economic factors appeared to be
the impetus. Many women were the sole wage earners for
their families as a result of divorce or widowhood
(Van Dusen & Sheldon, 1976). Women were increasingly
more interested in training for new careers or upgrading
current employment (Adelstein et al., 1983).
Yet another factor was the greater life expectancy
of women, from an average of 48 years in the early 20th
century to 77 years today (U.S. Bureau of Census,
1986). The "empty nest syndrome" was a dramatic change
in some women's lives, comparable to occupational
retirement for men (Douvan, 1981). In both, a major
role contributing to the individual's identity was lost.
There were, however, critical differences. The average
woman retired from mothering with two-fifths of her life
![Page 22: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
13
yet to live (Livson, 1981). Furthermore, she could
expect to survive her husband and have a longer period
of widowhood (ibid.).
Women often found the years after their children
had grown as empty and unfulfi11ing. At midlife they
sought new challenges. Stephenson (1976) defined middle
age as a time for high achievement when people fulfilled
themselves doing things they cared about. Sheehy (1977)
described the period between the ages of 28 and 32 as
the time of life when men and women most commonly
reappraised decisions made in their early 20s. This
reappraisal could result either in a deepened
commitment to present goals or a shift to new, more
self-directed life goals.
Letchworth (1970) was one of the first researchers
to note the large influx of women to higher education.
He suggested psychological reasons were the motivation,
specifically an identity crisis. Women who had
previously been middle class, full-time homemakers were,
in midlife, wondering who they were and what they were
going to do with the rest of their lives. Identity was
a major concern for them. Other authors also documented
identity concerns (Astin, 1976; Brandenburg, 1974;
Weathersby, 1980a).
![Page 23: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
14
Women's renewed interest in education was also
perceived as an effort to establish a new career or
life work that was appropriate to their current life
situation, something more challenging and rewarding,
both financially and intellectually (Benjamin, 1979).
O'Connor and Aasheim (1985) suggested a variety of
social and personal factors which brought women back to
college. They were:
- increased prosperity of the general population
- expanding leisure time
- civil rights issues
- women's need for education for teaching and technical jobs
- higher status of women leading to social acceptability of women enhancing their knowledge
- acceptance of modern psychological theories of self-actualization through education
- changing life patterns, particularly the higher divorce rate, and current trends of reentry into the job market
- increased emphasis on the need for continuing educa t ion
- desire for professional growth
- feelings of discontent and the need for change
- changing aspirations of women themselves
The trend of shifting personal goals was generally
attributed to the women's movement (Stephenson, 1976).
![Page 24: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
15
Women in the 80s continued to put emphasis on their
future, both personal and professional. Identity
remained a prominent issue (Adelstein et al., 1983;
Kahnweiler & Johnson, 1980). Adult women were viewed
as the largest and fastest growing advocacy group in the
academic community, primarily because education held the
promise of equal opportunity (Von der Embse & Childs,
1979). Fisher-Thompson and Kuhn (1981, p. 1) noted,
"the correlation between a good education and a good job
has not gone unnoticed by women in the work force."
Reen try Women
There were numerous studies on the type of woman
who chose to return to higher education at midlife
(Astin, 1976; Brandenburg, 1974; Brooks, 1976;
Christian & Wilson, 1985; Geisler & Thrush, 1975;
Johnson, Wallace & Sedlacek, 1979; Roach, 1976;
Wheaton & Robinson, 1983). The reentry woman was more
autonomous, achievement-oriented, introspective and
assertive than the woman who chose the traditional
role of homemaker (Glatfelter, 1982). Christian and
Wilson (1985, p. 498) profiled the reentry woman:
She is generally in her 30s, married, and the mother of two children. She is returning to college after being out of the educational system for an extended period of time. She is from a middle class home. Her reasons for returning to college include a search
![Page 25: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
16
for identity, boredom, se1f-fulfi1Iment, qualification for a first (or better) job, and motivation to obtain a degree.
A typology of the differential characteristics
of the traditional-age (18-21) college student (A) and
the mature (over age 25) adult student (M) was offered
by Kasworm (1980, p. 42):
A: Quasi-dependent being M: Independent being
A: Limited eraotional/finaneial support for significant others
M: Major emotional/finaneial support for significant others
A: Major time focus on academic and related extracurricular activities
M: Competing time focus on job, family, community, personal responsibilities, in relation to academic activities
A: High identification with student role M: Composite identification with multiple roles
A: Seeking self-identity M: Renewing se1f-identity
A: Introspective orientation M: Varied self/others orientation
A: Impulse (short term) decision making M: Capacity for delayed gratification (long term)
decision making
A: Passive learner role with unknown readiness to learn
M: Active learner role with active readiness to learn
A: Limited history of self-directed learning M: Diversified opportunities for prior
development of self-directed learning
![Page 26: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
17
A: Minimal analytica1/critical problem-solving skills
M: Developed analytical/critical problem-solving skills
A: Limited life experiences M: Varied and rich life opportunities and
expe rience s
Kasworm's typology, however, suggested coping
skills and a well-differentiated personality which
could not be generalized to all reentry women. While
society had given women permission to seek personal
fulfillment, few faced such choices and new roles
without experiencing psychological conflict.
In the college world, reentry students often
presented a paradoxical appearance (Brooks, 1976). They
had an impressive set of abilities, talents, skills, and
a history of past achievements. They possessed mature
cognitive ability and a sense of responsibility. On
reentering college, however, many experienced an acute
loss of self-confidence. The characteristics of the
housewife role created for the reentry woman a sense of
insecurity about performing in an academic setting. She
approached college with inadequate coping strategies and
a sense of helplessness (Brooks, 1976).
Nevertheless, an impressive number of reentry women
students did perform competently (Astin, 1976; Kasworm,
1980; Tittle & Denker, 1977). Grade point averages
![Page 27: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
18
equalled or exceeded those of younger students (Jacobi,
1984). Such achievements, however, were not without a
price. A variety of social and psychological forces
impacted on this student group which resulted in role
conflict and stress. Reentry women were considered high
risk for anxiety and role strain (Berkove, 1978;
Emerson, 1977; Hooper, 1979a, 1979b; Jorgensen-Funk,
1985; Sansing, 1983).
The decision to return to higher education was not
an easy one, nor was it clear, once she had made the
decision, what kind of world she would encounter on
campus. The woman who returned to college after a
prolonged hiatus was confronted with some major
problems. These were characterized as institutional,
situational, and personal (Tittle & Denker, 1977).
A review of literature suggested a possible interaction
between certain psychological, situational, and
institutional factors which impacted the social world
of the married woman student.
Ins t i tut ional Problems
The institutional response to reentry women was
ambivalent and a number of college policies have been
cited as detriments to enrollment.
![Page 28: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
19
Recruitment practices usually were directed toward
secondary school students and not adult women (Fisher-
Thompson, 1980; Hall, 1980). Women who had been out of
the academic environment for some time were often
unfamiliar with required procedures for reentry (Astin,
1976), or out of touch with the opportunities available
to them (Brooks, 1976; Fisher-Thompson, 1980).
The decision to reenter school was a difficult one
which often required support and information not
available to homemakers (Brooks, 1976; Johnson et al.,
1979). Lack of familiarity with academic procedures and
inflexibility on the part of the institution were
further deterrents to reentry. Admissions interviews
sometimes subtly discriminated against adult women
(Daniels, 1979). Non-supportive, even hostile,
attitudes by faculty or staff often discouraged
potential students (Brandenburg, 1974).
Reentry women were also confronted at times with
discriminatory admissions policies (Gilbert, Manning &
Ponder, 1982; Lance, Lourie & Mayo, 1979). Standardized
admissions tests discriminated against returning
students who had rusty academic skills (Brandenburg,
1974). Twenty year-old high school transcripts were
poor indicators of current ability, yet most colleges
required them. For those adults who had some college
![Page 29: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
20
previously, institutional transfer policies often
deprived them of earned credits, thus discouraging them
from reentering the educational system (Fisher-Thompson,
1980) .
Astin (1976) saw a need for universities and
colleges to adopt more flexible attitudes to accommodate
individual differences. She recommended a relaxation of
nonessential academic regulations and requirements that
did not apply to older women returning to higher
education. Brandenburg (1974, p. 15) believed that
women's fears about returning to school were "reinforced
by the frustrations, inappropriateness, and absurdity of
existing admissions policies." Procedures varied from
one institution to another, but all had commonalities of
bureaucracy, red tape, confusion, long lines and
inexplicable delays.
Federal guidelines, notably Title IX of the Higher
Education Amendment Act of 1972 (see the Federal
Register, June 4, 1975), barred sex discrimination in
admissions, financial aid, curriculum, and awards.
Nevertheless, college financial aid policies often did
discriminate against reentry women (Brandenburg, 1974;
Dunkle, 1980; Ekstrom, 1972; Geisler & Thrush, 1975;
Gilbert et al., 1982; Johnson et al., 1979). This
discrimination usually took one of two forms:
![Page 30: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
21
(1) financial aid was not made available to part-time
students or (2) income of the student's husband was
taken into account even if he was not contributing to
her college expenses. Women also found that
stipulations for scholarships and fellowships excluded
parttime students (Brandenburg, 1974; Tittle & Denker,
1977) .
Family or individual incomes frequently were not
sufficient to cover school-related expenses (Benjamin,
1979; Ekstrom, 1972). Smallwood (1980) found that a
need for financial and legal aid was of importance to
adult women students according to their income range,
marital status, and credit load. The need was greatest
for women in lower income brackets, particularly
separated or divorced students. Low-income women had
problems that extended beyond tuition. They required
assistance for books, transportation, and child care.
Frequently these women received less than adequate aid
because they were unfamiliar with the procedures for
obtaining it (Tittle & Denker, 1977).
Reentry women also encountered discrimination
from staff and faculty while they were initially
establishing themselves on campus (Brandenburg, 1974;
Geisler & Thrush, 1975; Gilbert et al., 1982).
Traditional students and faculty viewed them as
![Page 31: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
22
"highly exceptional intruders on the domain of youth"
(O'Connor & Aasheim, 1985, p. 1). Daniels (1979)
observed a tendency by faculty and younger students to
regard reentry women as frustrated housewives or
dilettantes. Reactions to age, exemplified in policies
expressing the belief that older women belonged at
lesser institutions and not in graduate school, were
further barriers to admission (Tittle & Denker, 1977).
Adult students did not fit easily or comfortably
into the youth-oriented college world. Support services
and orientation programs were geared to younger students
in different life situations (Benjamin, 1979). Some
reentry women increased their burdens by feeling they
should not need to ask counselors or teachers for help.
Yet others interpreted all discourtesies to be a direct
result of their age, which may have been based on
reality or may have been a projection (Brandenburg,
1974) .
Other institutional barriers included commuting and
parking problems, lack of child-care facilities, and
inaccessibility of courses (Fisher-Thompson, 1980;
Wheaton & Robinson, 1983). The delicate balancing of
home, work, and school responsibilities hindered the
academic efforts and progress of many women. Reentry
women had difficulties with time management and
![Page 32: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
23
scheduling courses (Astin, 1976; Brooks, 1976; Geisler &
Thrush, 1975; Lance et al. 1979). Some educators
suggested that colleges restructure class settings and
scheduling of classes to facilitate the merging of
academic commitments with family and work requirements
(Bernard, 1981a).
Reentry women needed assistance with study skills,
exam taking, and report writing (Geisler & Thrush,
1975; Lance et al, 1979). They needed vocational
and degree guidance (Brandenburg, 1974; Geisler &
Thrush, 1975; Johnson et al, 1979).
Overall the literature suggested that the
transition from wife-mother to wife-mother-student was
not an easy one. Success in the academic world largely
depended on how much a reentry woman was able to change
her life, rather than how much the institutions of
higher education had changed their expectations and
forma t.
Situational Problems
The adult woman student needed to coordinate family
and job responsibilities before she could feel free to
focus on academics. Only when non-college demands
were under control could she begin to worry about what
![Page 33: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
24
CO urses to take, how to study, and whether she had the
ability to succeed in college (Smallwood, 1980).
Time Management. The most frequently mentioned
problem of reentry women was time. Attending college
involved a major investment of time in classes, study,
and travel. A single three credit course could' mean as
much as twelve hours work per week; a course load of
fifteen hours was equivalent to a full-time job
(Smallwood, 1980). Effective use of time and a sharing
of responsibilities was essential.
The traditional division of labor places overall
responsibility for household and family affairs on the
woman. Huston-Hoburg and Strange (1986) conducted a
comparison of reentry problems experienced by both male
and female adult students. Their survey indicated that
tasks were maintained along traditional lines for men as
well as for women. They suggested that successful
resolution of the time management problem might come
down to the proverbial question of "Who takes out the
garbage?" (Huston-Hoburg & Strange, 1986, p. 393).
If the female student was to succeed in college,
she needed to delegate some household responsibilities
to husband, children, other family members, hired help,
or day-care centers. Setting priorities was essential.
Generally reentry women attempted to cope by curtailing
![Page 34: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
25
their social life, cancelling church and organizational
activities, and visiting less with friends. The
resultant feeling of social isolation was exacerbated
by a lack of casual time on campus. Reentry women found
it difficult to forge new friendships because of time
pressures. Social contact with peers was a primary need
of reentry women (Tittle & Denker, 1977).
Despite the growing numbers of women in the work
force, controversy persists over the longterm effect of
maternal employment on young children (Lundgren, 1983).
Reentry women found that spending less time with
their families had a harmful effect on relationships
(Astin, 1976; Roach, 1976). To offset diminished
rapport, some women combined "mothering" with other
roles. They visited with children while doing
housework, shared chores, and took the children with
them when shopping. Reentry women became skillful at
balancing domestic tasks and academic demands.
Intervals of piecemeal study were fitted into busy
schedules. Despite such efforts, many students were
obliged to lengthen their day and sacrifice needed
sleep (Tittle & Denker, 1977).
Child Care. The lack of college day-care
facilities was a barrier to reentry for many women
(Astin, 1976; Brandenburg, 1974; Tittle & Denker, 1977).
![Page 35: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
26
Some students banded together and formed day-care
centers of their own (Brandenburg, 1974).
There were also emotional issues related to the
child-care problem. Mothers suffered when they left
their children with others, feeling they were missing
out on important new experiences (Lundgren, 1983). Many
expressed feelings of guilt about not spending
sufficient time with their children (Emerson, 1977).
Family Support. The reentry woman's return to
school signaled a role shift which impacted the family
unit. The married reentry student functioned within a
family system and was not free to act independently.
Researchers held that if the reentry woman was to be
effective in handling her multiple roles, support and
cooperation from husband and children were critical
variables in determining ultimate success or failure in
school (Roach, 1976).
The pursuit of autonomy and a more independent self
implied some dislocation in the woman's relationships
with her family. She was less available to serve their
needs. More importantly, she became psychologically
less available as she invested herself in her own
personal development. Douvan (1981) defined this as
the woman's emotional cathexis being redistributed with
a greater share centering on self.
![Page 36: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
27
This shift of attention and emotional investment
reverberated throughout the family. Socialization has
placed women in highly-specialized roles where they have
been valued for their nurturance, dependence, and home
orientation (Alders, 1985). They are cherished in these
roles. Thus, husband and children often chafed at the
disruption of reassuring family patterns. Reactions
varied from erratic support to open hostility
(Brandenburg, 1974). Most families needed time to
adjust to the shift, to find other ways to meet some of
the needs formerly satisfied by the wife-mother (Douvan,
1981).
In this complex process of shifting personal
relationships, Galliano and Gildea offered the concept
of an "assumptive world" (1982, p. 5 ) . They described a
process by which each individual developed unique
perceptions based upon individual experiences. These
assumptions were formed about one's role in relation to
the expectations of others. The assumptive model guided
the reentry woman in structuring her behavior which, in
turn, guided and reinforced the expectations and
behavior of significant others. At this point everyone
within the woman's life space was functioning on a set
of mutual assumptions.
![Page 37: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
28
When the woman returned to college, profound
alterations were made within the functional structure of
the family's world. At this point, problems arose.
Each family member responded to the shift as it impacted
his/her individual assumptions. The returning student
initially attempted to maintain the assumptive status
quo, but soon discovered this to be impossible. There
was little time for recreation. Household chores
conflicted with studies. The husband, claiming career
obligations of his own, resented taking on his wife's
household responsibilities. The functional structure
collapsed and the family was in a state of conflict.
From such disharmony had to come the rearrangement
of each member's assumptive world. Otherwise the wife-
mother felt censured by all in her immediate life
space. If she and the family could not rearrange this
assumptive world to fit the new reality, researchers
felt she would not be able to continue in college
(Galliano & Gildea, 1982).
Roach (1976) offered Newcomb's Balance Theory as a
means of predicting strain in the reentry woman's
interpersonal relationships. In balance theory, person
(A) communicates with person (B) about something (X).
The relationship between A and B is "balanced" when
their attitudes toward that something (X) are similar.
![Page 38: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
29
Change in one part of the system puts the relationship
into imbalance, causing tension.
Applying this concept to the reentry woman student,
the family initially was in a state of balance with
high levels of support, encouragement, sharing, and
satisfaction for all. The woman's self-image was
defined and enhanced by her traditional role as wife and
mother. A return to the classroom was viewed as a
rejection of this traditional role. As the woman
assimilated new perceptions, her lack of confidence and
low self-expectation began to change. She perceived
herself as an individual in her own right, "unrelated to
and independent of her relationship with the family"
(Roach, 1976, p. 87). At this point, family
relationships were in a state of imbalance.
Efforts to explain her growing autonomy and
improved feelings of self-worth aggravated the strain.
Tensions mounted as the family perceived the woman's
increasing independence as a "lessening of her caring
for them" (p. 87). As family members struggled to
integrate these changing concepts and to redefine roles,
the woman was bewildered by their negative behavior and
lack of support. As she rejected her former role, the
family valued her ever more highly in that role.
![Page 39: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
30
A critical player in the family system was the
spouse. It has been suggested that behind every
successful woman there was a man who offered advice,
encouragement, and cooperation (Rapoport & Rapoport,
1969). Generally there was agreement with Bernard's
finding (1981a, p. 269) that "the basic factor in the
success of the married career women was the support and
cooperation of her husband."
In a study of both male and female adult students,
Huston-Hoburg and Strange (1986) found that wives were
more supportive of their husband's return to formal
education than husbands were of their wife's return.
The women students perceived their spouses to be more
traditional in their views particularly with respect to
child care and household responsibilities.
Significant sex differences were also evident
concerning the emotional support reported by adult
students (Huston-Hoburg & Strange, 1986). For returning
women there was less support from their spouse than that
reported by adult men. The researchers concluded that
in terms of spouse support, the return to formal
education seemed to be more difficult for adult women
than it was for adult men. They theorized that for
m arried women, the return to school represented a more
![Page 40: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
31
direct challenge to traditional role distinctions, with
greater adjustment of family life patterns required.
A return to school could lead to serious problems
in relationships, even to the point of separation or
divorce (Brandenburg, 1974). Reentry women experienced
conflict in striving for excellence in school while
aware of their spouse's annoyance over disrupted family
routine (McGraw, 1982). Support and encouragement often
diminished as academic requirements became increasingly
demanding. Husbands' reactions ranged from cheerful
support to open hostility.
Ballmer and Cozby (1981) studied the marital
adjustment and family environment of reentry women.
They found that while a husband might admire his wife
more as an individual, he often complained that she no
longer spent enough time with him. Furthermore, he
perceived her to be less dependent upon him. Although
proud of the wife's accomplishments, some husbands felt
uncomfortable with this new autonomy.
In research by Berkove (1979), husband support was
described as attitudinal, emotional, financial, and
behavioral (p. 451). A husband's attitude toward the
traditional roles of women served as the framework for
his approval/disapproval of the wife's return to school.
Emotional support tended to be negative in the early
![Page 41: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
32
semesters but gradually shifted to positive depending on
the wife's ability to allay her husband's fears. Some
husbands withheld financial support, refusing to pay
their wife's college expenses. Wives in the Berkove
study reported husbands offered verbal and emotional
encouragement but refrained from taking on household
tasks. Except for paying the bills, few husbands took
exclusive responsibility for any chore.
Essentially the women in the Berkove research saw
themselves as married to traditional husbands who gave
emotional and financial support under the assumption—
implicit or explicit—that school would not disrupt
family lifestyle. Women reported little change in the
traditional division of labor and therefore, felt
increased stress from the added responsibility of
school. A significant finding in the Berkove study was
that a high degree of husband support correlated with
fewer expressions of stress by the women students.
Outcome Anxiety," as measured by Hooper (1979b), M,
was the extent to which husbands were anxious about the
impact of the wife s student role on the marital
relationship. A correlation existed between the
husband's anxiety score and the number of semesters the
w ife had been in school. The more semesters the wife
![Page 42: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
33
accrued, the higher the husband's anxiety. Hooper
(1979b, p. 461) noted responses such as "I'm kind of
jealous of the time I have at home and her school has
taken that away" and "If she gets a job after college,
who moves where?" One husband felt "disappointed she
had to go outside the family for fulfillment" (p. 461).
Timing was another sensitive issue. Some men resented
the wife's determination to pursue her own professional
training at a time when their careers demanded total
concentration and energy.
Both Brandenburg (1974) and Roach (1976) cautioned
that reentry women may have sensed familial resistance
where none existed. Women may have projected their own
guilt feelings onto others. Defense mechanisms
protected the woman if she was having difficulty in
college, allowing her to blame her failures on family
res is tance.
When a pivotal family member such as the wife-
mother decided to devote considerable time to something
outside the home, one could anticipate family resistance
(Karelius-Schumacher, 1977). Mogul (1979, p. 1140)
stated:
Family reactions to a woman's decreased availability are bound to be ambivalent and conflicted even in the most supportive families. Family members can be openly
![Page 43: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
34
hostile if the change is too abrupt, or angry if the woman's new role threatens the family homeostasis.
Firestein (1984) noted certain conditions which
influenced family supportiveness. They were:
1. The family would be more supportive
if the marriage were already nontraditional in role assignments.
2. The more the husband agreed with the wife's decision to return to college, the more likely he would be to share in household tasks.
Despite the difficulties confronting the reentry
woman student, there were anticipated yields which
justified the risks. The power and significance of the
college experience could not be underestimated. For
many women the return to school may have been the first
independent act taken since their decision to marry.
Women who received husband support were more likely to
remain in school and to experience fewer difficulties.
For those women who did not receive spouse support, a
lowering of marital satisfaction could be expected with
separation or divorce a possibility (Berkove, 1978).
Personal Problems
Evidence suggested that reentry women students
performed competently in college (Kasworm, 1980;
Tittle & Denker, 1977). These achievements, however,
were not without a price. Any move toward greater
![Page 44: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
35
personal autonomy could be expected to be charged with
anxiety and ambivalence (Suchinsky, 1982). Personal
concerns were:
1. Psychological needs: self-es teem.
self-confidence.
2. Role strain: role conflict, role overload.
3. Guilt and anxiety.
Self-Confidence. Self-concept was the woman's
appraisal of her appearance, background, abilities,
resources, attitudes and feelings acquired through
accumulated social contact and activities (Roehl, 1980)
The extent of success in these experiences determined
how the individual felt about herself and how positive
that sense of self was. Women with a weak self-concept
tended to lack confidence, had low expectations, little
self-esteem, and generalized feelings of inadequacy
(ibid,).
Letchworth (1970) believed shame was a factor in
the anxiety suffered by returning women students. He
viewed shame primarily as an identity concern and
defined it as "a feeling of not being able to live up
to one's own standards" (p. 105).
The returning woman student feared she was
basically inept and doomed to fail. She was hesitant
about interacting in the classroom and betraying her
![Page 45: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
36
perceived stupidity in front of the class. Frequently
she made the mistake of equating age with superiority,
expecting herself to be better informed than her
youthful colleagues. Such irrational thinking often led
to unrealistic goals such as maintaining an "A" average.
Examinations took on an "all-or-nothing" character
(Letchworth, 1970, p. 106).
Douvan (1981) concurred, noting that older women
students often felt anxious about their ability
to measure up to the performance of younger, more
practiced, students. They had a fear of failing and
worried about poor memory and rusty study skills.
Typically reentry women dreaded sitting in a classroom
surrounded by younger students. They questioned their
ability to comprehend assignments, to understand lecture
materials, to take notes. They questioned their
capacity to succeed (Douvan, 1981).
Psychological barriers to the reentry woman's
success in college included a lack of self-confidence,
inability to communicate assertively, poor decision
making skills, low self-esteem, and dependency (Astin,
1976; Brandenburg, 1974; Brooks, 1976; Johnson et al.,
1979; Lance et al., 1979; Suchinsky, 1982). Sex role
beliefs influenced behavior, particularly for women who
![Page 46: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
37
had been socialized to be non-assertive and non
competitive (Astin, 1976; Brandenburg, 1974; Daniels,
1979). Further, they often felt undeserving of a
college education because of the time, money, and
inconvenience this would cost the family (Jacobi, 1984).
Soc ial Isolat ion. Older students were anxious to
be accepted. The adult student wanted to be liked,
respected, and listened to, and was not at all certain
that she would be (Douvan, 1981). Many experienced
feelings of marginalism. The adult woman student
generally attended class, did her library work, then
returned home. Lacking integration with the student
body, she felt herself an "outsider." Social isolation
exacerbated the fear that youthful students saw her as
"a grandmother, not a contemporary" (Letchworth, 1970,
p. 1 0 6 ) . Reentry women wanted a women's center or
support groups more than assistance in applying for jobs
or academic advising (Badenhoop & Johansen, 1980). This
suggested a need for emotional support in making the
transition to higher education.
Self-Es teem. Certain psychological traits
characterized the average middle class housewife: lack
of confidence, pervasive depression, difficulty in
establishing a personal identity (Johnson et al., 1979).
Because of the overwhelming nature of such feelings, the
![Page 47: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
38
returning woman student had distinct psychological
needs which further distinguished her from younger
clas smates.
A woman's self-esteem was a critical factor in her
perception of herself as a student. Adelstein et al.,
(1983) found that women who scored high on self-concept
viewed themselves as decisive, independent and
disciplined. They had a realistic expectation of what
they could bring to the college experience and what they
hoped to gain from it. Women scoring low on self-
concept scales tended to be depressed, lonely, anxious,
and were unclear about their academic goals.
Maracek and Ballou (1981) found that women in the
housewife role often had a lower self-esteem than their
employed counterparts. They noted responses such as:
"I'm just a housewife" and "I don't do anything
interesting" (p. 44). The authors suggested that
society's negative attitude about the role of homemaker
may influence a woman's self-appraisal and foster
feelings of low self-esteem and depression.
The function of self-concept was reflected in goal
setting, planning, and accommodation of contending
forces (Roehl, 1980). Self-esteem appeared to be a
buffer or mediating factor in coping with stressful
life events. Carne (1984, p. 71) suggested that
![Page 48: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
39
self-esteem reflected "the bottom line faith humans had
in themselves." If one felt good about oneself, being
able to cope was a safe assumption.
Enrolling in college involved major life changes
and engendered a certain amount of anxiety and tension
(Roach, 1976; Tittle & Denker, 1977). For the reentry
woman with limited contacts and poor self-concept, the
experience could be overwhelming. Some reentry women,
for most of their adult lives, had subverted their own
needs to the needs of others. They had gone from
being dependent on their parents to being dependent
on their husband. Such dependency often led to
resentment of one's self and family, a fear of taking
risks, and depression (Brandenburg, 1974).
While problems of dependency and a lack of
self-confidence could undermine the entire educational
process, college could also provide the reentry woman
with an interest that was independent of the family
(Levine, 1976). She could gain an improved self-esteem
as academic accomplishments led to a new and growing
perception that she was indeed a worthwhile individual
(Brooks, 1976).
Role Strain. Goode (1960) defined role strain
as difficulty in meeting given role demands, with one's
total role obligations becoming overwhelming.
![Page 49: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
40
Van Meter (1976, p. 28) broadened that definition to
include "the existence of cognitive discomfort due to
incompatible expectations or to multiple role demands
which exceed one's available resources..." Women with
high role strain experienced guilt about pursuing their
education. Such feelings stemmed from role discrepancy
i.e., in not placing the family as their highest
priority (p. 80) .
Role Conf1ic t . Adult life is marked by role
changes: student, worker, spouse, parent, grandparent.
The roles we choose have certain consequences: (1) they
define the behavior expected of us by others; (2) they
are an important source of feelings about ourselves;
(3) they expose us to experiences which can affect
attitudes, feelings, and behavior (Biddle & Thomas,
1966). Although self-selected initially, roles play a
major part in shaping our subsequent experiences and
personality (Frieze et al., 1978).
The multiple positions occupied by adults each have
a set of prescriptions defining the expected behavior
(Biddle & Thomas, 1966). These role demands are exerted
by society and its norms along with associates. The
latter comprise a role set and include spouse, children,
employer, teacher, siblings, parents, friends, and
ne ighbors.
![Page 50: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
41
Some researchers (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek &
Rosenthal, 1964) defined role conflict as any situation
in which incompatible expectations were placed on a
person. Others suggested that role conflict occurred
when an individual simultaneously tried to meet the
demands of disparate roles (Gilbert, Holahan & Manning,
1981).
Role conflict has been an important factor in
the lives of reentry women and a major source of stress.
Hall (1972) believed role conflict came from the woman's
multiple roles (interrole conflict) rather than from
conflicting expectations within a particular role
(intrarole conflict). The essence of role conflict
appeared to be a felt strain or conflict in meeting the
demands of numerous, perhaps disparate, roles (Goode,
1960). When competing roles were added to a woman's
role repertoire, the potential for role conflict
mounted (Frieze et al., 1978).
Multiple roles are by definition a prerequisite
of role conflict and a source of role strain (Burr,
1972; Goode, 1960; Hall, 1972). The total amount of
role activity that is prescribed in a person's life
i.e., the amount of activity across all life roles,
is probably the crucial variable influencing role strain
(Burr, 1972).
![Page 51: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
42
The reentry woman student must fulfill multiple
roles, each with varying time commitments and
obligations. There is a kinship role which requires
dedication to one's spouse and children. Sexual and
therapeutic roles are integrated into the overall role
of wife. The homemaker and maternal roles require a
life commitment to the nurturance and socialization of
her children. Passing on societal and generational
values is an integral part of the mother's self-identity
and an essential stage in her own life cycle development
(Erikson, 1982). If a woman student also happens to be
employed, she must integrate employer's demands with
family needs and college responsibilities.
The more roles one assumes, the more difficulties
that arise in regard to how one's time will be managed
(Frieze et al., 1978). Role conflict creates difficulty
because it causes one person to violate the expectations
of another. The person in conflict will either choose
one set of expectations and reject another, or attempt
to effect a compromise by partial conformance to both
sets of expectations. Another compromise is that the
individual will avoid making a choice by seeking some
means of escape from the situation (Biddle & Thomas,
1966).
![Page 52: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
43
Goode's scarcity hypothesis (1960) suggested that
human energy is a fixed and limited quantity. Because
each social role draws on this one energy pool, multiple
roles create a likelihood of stress, overload, and
conflict, with negative consequences for one's well-
being (Baruch, Biever & Barnett, 1987). Role conflict
is considered to be a stressor which can lead to guilt,
anxiety, and varied psychological and/or physiological
symptoms (Hoffman & Nye, 1974).
Role Overload. This form of role conflict was
based on external time demands, rather than inherent
contradictions in expectations. Hall (1972) saw it not
as an issue of intrinsic incompatibility of roles, but
more a question of role overload and competition for
one's time. When a number of roles demanded extensive
commitments of time, the reentry woman would experience
the stress of role overload.
Rapoport and Rapoport (1969) held that role
overload was exacerbated by four factors: (1) having
children and family life, (2) aspiring to a high
standard of domestic living, (3) inability to
satisfactorily reapportion tasks, and (4) the sheer
physical volume of tasks compounded by psychological
conf1ic t.
![Page 53: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
44
Reentry literature highlighted the internal
conflict experienced by women as they attempted to
combine the multiple roles of student-wife-mother-worker
(Astin, 1976; Brandenburg, 1974; Frieze et al., 1978;
Gilbert et al., 1982). Since the roles of marriage,
family, and work each had extensive time demands, it was
not unexpected that role overload was a major problem
for reentry women. The more roles assumed, the greater
the logistical problems of time management and
allocation of resources. The problems could be resolved
by withdrawing from some roles or by renegotiating
expectations with one's partners. If the family took a
greater share of household tasks and assumed more
responsibility within the family system, the risk of
role overload was reduced (Bernard, 1974; Goode, 1960;
Hoffman & Nye, 1974) .
Dependable support systems, be they family members,
neighbors, housekeepers or babysitters, were essential
for the reentry woman. However, support systems are
human systems each with their own complexities. For
example, finding a good housekeeper can be difficult.
One must judge the person's qualifications, particularly
if child care is involved, and there are problems such
as salary, transportation, hours, meals. In effect, the
woman who ceded care of her children to a housekeeper or
![Page 54: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
45
babysitter took on yet another role, that of employer.
Each role, with its fragmentation of time and energy,
meant greater role strain (Douvan, 1974).
Soc ializat ion. The postponement of career
development until after the responsibilities of home and
children are lessened, or a pattern of interrupted
educational and career involvement, has been prevalent
for middle-class American women for over two decades
(Chickering & Havighurst, 1981). Bernard (1981b)
suggested that a woman's life was regulated by the
family life cycle, specifically the premenarcheal years,
the childbearing years, and the post-menopausal years.
From this pattern evolved the notion that there were two
types of women: those who married and those with
careers.
Expanding on these concepts, Bernard declared that
women had been socialized to remain in the conformist
stage of character development and cognitive style, to
be "defensive and immature, passive and dependent, and
to have a limited behavioral repertoire" (1981a,
p. 2 6 1 ) . She saw sex-role socialization as being
counter-developmental in that it had not fostered a
woman's autonomy or independence. Rather, society
emphasized achievement of identity in terms of a woman's
![Page 55: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
46
dependency--first on her family and, after marriage,
dependency on her husband.
Traditional attitudes began to crumble in the 1960s
with the women's liberation movement and the evolution
of new social values. In the early 1970s, the reason
most cited by women for returning to school was personal
growth (McCrea, 1979). In the 1980s, economic factors
impelled women to return to higher education.
The reentry woman's attempt to combine career and
family implied a psychological struggle as well as
social and economic change. Letchworth (1970) believed
identity resolution and a psychological need for
wholeness were motivating factors. He felt an identity
crisis led the reentry woman to question life's meaning,
her own abilities and limitations, as well as the
environmental structure of her world. The other side of
this psychosocial coin was an integrity crisis with the
woman seeking understanding of her world from a creative
perspective. She sought to shape a lifestyle around a
significant career that gave meaning to her life
(Letchworth, 1970).
The search for identity was not limited to the
mature woman who had completed the mothering cycle
of her life. Subsumed in the economic, social, and
psychological motives behind the reentry decision was a
![Page 56: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
47
search for autonomy and self-definition. Many women
felt a need for "some self-definition that was portable,
that they could carry within themselves irrespective of
external changes in their life situations" (Douvan,
1981, p. 199).
If a woman wanted both career and family, some
"rearrangement of the inner furniture of the mind" was
necessary (Roland & Harris, 1979, p. 49). The
psychological elements of multiple roles had to be
worked out along with an inner harmony of the emotions.
Initially, the reentry woman saw herself as a homemaker
going to school. After a few semesters, she began to
see herself as a student with home responsibilities
(Ballmer & Cozby, 1981). This change in role perception
often stimulated personal conflict, particularly if the
woman's family held traditional views contrary to her
own expectations. A woman's self-concept and sense of
purpose, together with the relationship she shared with
her husband, greatly influenced subsequent role conflict
(Van Meter, 1976) .
Society has traditionally considered the woman's
role to be that of wife-mother; the man's, that of
provider (Gilbert et al., 1982). Although some women
have achieved status in nontraditional occupations,
spouse and parental roles have yet to be redefined by
![Page 57: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
48
society. Adherence to traditional role concepts
usually prevailed even if the working woman was making a
substantial contribution to family income (Poloma &
Garland, 1971).
The addition of the student role to those of wife
and mother represented a transition for the reentry
woman and her family. Such a transition required a
redefinition of family roles and power structure.
Family response often took the form of pressure on the
woman to maintain an unvarying high level performance in
her traditional role while simultaneously trying to
maintain the student role (Burr, 1972). Failure to do
so often resulted in feelings of guilt and uncertainty.
Women attempting to function simultaneously in family
and work roles were caught in a pair of mutually-
exclusive priorities which threatened life satisfaction
and affected mental and physical health (Sekaran, 1983).
Anxiety and Guilt. Social tradition has encouraged
women to assign their highest priority to family
relationships. Westervelt (1973) suggested that women
were socialized to live in a world that no longer
existed, to give primacy to roles that had become
psychologically constricting, and to acquire behavior
that was not equal to the responsibilities they were
1 ikely to have.
![Page 58: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
49
Contemporary social changes freed women to pursue
alternative lifestyles such as entering the labor
force or returning to higher education. However, with
the loosening of traditional restraints, a woman was
forced to confront her choices. Thus the university
world could be both liberating and frightening to the
reentry student. The resultant psychological conflict
was not wholly unexpected (Westervelt, 1973).
Anxiety is manifested, in various ways. An
individual may be acutely aware of disturbing feelings
or anxiety may operate at the unconscious level.
Anxiety in the affective state can vary from a mild form
of uneasiness to generalized feelings of panic. Motor
experiences include nervous tics, physical restlessness,
muscular tension. Somatic symptoms include dizziness,
headache, sweating, rapid heartbeat. Cognitive
experiences include confusion, rapid processing of
sensory information, and disjointed thinking
(APA: DSM-III). No matter the form, anxiety is a
noxious experience which demands attention and relief.
Nacey (1981) suggested that women were more likely
to experience anxiety due to a socialized sense of
inadequacy and insecurity. A woman student coming from
the homemaker role could be unsettled by ordinary
problems such as library work, writing papers, taking
![Page 59: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
50
examinations. Anxiety often chipped away at the
resolve which originally took her out of the domestic
sett ing.
Anxiety was also expressed in feelings of guilt.
Emerson (1977) suggested that women returning to higher
education from the roles of wife and mother would
experience guilt. She defined guilt as "feelings of bad
conscience for (1) neglect of perceived duties, (2)
transgression of roles perceived as expected by society,
and (3) selfishness in meeting one's own needs and
desires" (1977, p. 1).
Guilt from selfishness was one form experienced by
reentry women students (Emerson, 1977; Van Meter, 1976).
Women often felt guilty about pursuing their education
and career goals. Role discrepancy i.e., not placing
one's family as highest priority, was the source of such
guilt (Van Meter, 1976). Letchworth (1970) believed
such feelings stemmed from a Victorian notion of
womanhood, that the woman's primary sphere was the home
and family interests must always take precedence.
The second form of guilt was from competetition and
was essentially an identity concern (Letchworth, 1970).
A reentry student may have felt in competition with her
husband as she moved from her housewife role to a new,
more all-encompassing identity. If threatened by his
![Page 60: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
51
wife's assertiveness, the husband sometimes responded by
maintaining her guilt feelings at a high level. He
would discourage her from attending school or use direct
and indirect means of fueling this guilt (Brandenburg,
1974). If a husband was supportive of his wife's return
to college, she could avoid this internal conflict.
Douvan (1981) took a different perspective. She
believed that women customarily experienced more guilt
than men whatever their life status. Reentry women
experienced guilt because they failed to make the social
process work for them. They had not learned how to
make legitimate demands on others as they sought a new
autonomy.
Taking an even more positive stance, Emerson (1977,
p. 137) drew two conclusions from her research of
reentry students:
1. All women who returned to higher education from the role of wife and mother would experience some degree of guilt.
2. The greatest amount of guilt stemmed from a perceived neglect of one's children.
Emerson (1977, p. 133) identified the sources of
this guilt as:
1. A breach of the implied marriage contract concerning traditional roles.
2. Guilt and/or shame as a reaction to criticism from others about what she was, or was not, doing.
![Page 61: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS
The theoretical principles underlying this research
were drawn from role theory, systems theory, stress
theory, and ego development theory.
Role Theory
In their description of role theory, Deaux and
Wrightsman (1984) explained behavior by reference to
roles, role expectations, role skills, and role senders
as they interact socially. A role was defined as "the
functions a person performs when occupying a position
within a particular social context" (p. 12).
Goode's (1960) theory of role strain evolved from a
sociological perspective. He defined role strain as
"the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations"
(p. 483). The individual's problem was how to allocate
energy and skills in order to hold role strain to a
tolerable level. The more roles one added, the less
likely one would be able to satisfactorily fulfill all
role obligations. This "scarcity hypothesis" was hased
on the assumption that individuals had a limited amount
of energy and that role receivers could be demanding.
52
![Page 62: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
53
Barnett and Baruch (1985) held that roles differed
with respect to overload, conflict, or anxiety.
Commitment to a career generated conflict for women due
to socialization and culturally-defined sex roles. They
suggested that being a mother was the most important
source of stress in a woman's life.
Hall (1972) believed women faced role conflict
daily and also experienced the simultaneous demands of
competing role senders i.e., spouse, children, employer.
In contrast, role demands on men were usually salient at
different times so they did not produce conflict by
operating simultaneously (Hall, 1972). Women were
in continual interaction with role senders and thus were
more vulnerable to role strain.
Role strain was particularly applicable to the
problems of reentry women students. The woman who held
two or more roles (wife-mother-student-worker) appeared
at risk (Hall, 1972). Home and family were demanding
and pervasive. If the woman felt unequal to the demands
of her multiple roles or perceived herself to be
unjustly pressured, there was the possibility of role
strain.
Researchers found that role conflict differed
significantly along traditional male-female sex role
patterns (Gilbert et al., 1982). Female students
![Page 63: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
54
expressed a greater degree of family difficulty over
reentry and experienced more guilt over spending family
money on their education (Lance et al., 1979).
The more a woman could choose for herself the roles
that suited her individual needs, the greater her
physical and psychological well-being (Baruch, Barnett &
Rivers, 1983). One's life role is a powerful force in
the development of the adult personality. We are
"libidinally invested" in such roles as wife, mother,
worker, student (Perlman, 1968, p. 47). The greater the
feeling about these roles, the more fully the woman's
personality is involved.
Dual Careers. The theoretical constructs of dual
careers usually pertain to the working wife who combines
a salaried job with her roles of wife and mother. In
considering reentry women students, income was not a
factor. However, there were sufficient similarities
between the problems of reentry students and dual career
families to justify a brief review of the literature.
Dual career marriages have become increasingly
common. However, there is some question whether both
spouses can prosper as career persons and as marriage
partners. Role strain has been an issue in dual career
families (Holahan & Gilbert, 1979). Working women often
perceived the satisfactory fulfillment of family
![Page 64: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
55
obligations and professional career advancement as
conflicting goals (Sekaran, 1983).
Role strain in dual career families has contributed
to certain forms of stress (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1969):
1. Role overload arising from the problem of having to perform multiple roles s imultaneously.
2. Identity conflict stemming from the socio-cultura1 definition of masculine versus feminine work.
3. Role cycling which requires successful meshing of transition points in either spouse's career e.g., job advancement, relocation, having a child.
As dual career couples endeavored to shape their
own compatible lifestyles, some disturbing implications
emerged. The masculine virtue of being a good provider
was questioned. A wife's income diluted some of the
husband's power and made her more independent. Some
couples experienced a lack of equity, with neither
spouse having his or her needs adequately met (Young &
Shoun, 1983).
Sy s tems Theory
Baruth and Huber (1984) conceptualized the marital
relationship as a system that develops from interaction
of the male and female elements. Behavior of the
partners cannot be isolated but must be viewed as
evolving in a larger context.
![Page 65: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
56
A family is a system with unique and specific
properties. It is more than a group of individuals
occupying common physical and psychological space.
There are defined roles and rules for communication so
that members can function in their shared environment.
The principle of wholeness pertains to the family's
organizational structure. In systems terms, this means
an individual's behavior cannot be fully understood
without comprehending his/her relationship to the
functioning of the overall system.
In their research on nontraditiona1 students,
Galliano and Gildea (1982) defined a process by which
each family member develops unique perceptions of life
based upon individual experiences. Assumptions are thus
formed about one's role in relation to the expectations
of others. When the wife-mother enrolled in college,
everyone within her life space was functioning on a set
of mutual assumptions. Problems arose when she tried,
but failed, to maintain the assumptive status quo.
The tension and resentment which followed forced family
members to rearrange their assumptions to fit the new
reality.
Another principle, homeostasis, described the
family system's need to maintain itself in a state of
equilibrium by keeping behavior within certain limits
![Page 66: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
57
(Baruth & Huber, 1984). Any member's deviation from
these norms would be met by feedback from others. For
example, the woman student may have perceived as
negative support her family's unwillingness to take on
added chores. Family members, however, saw their
behavior as feedback that her college work was viewed as
deviant behavior. Their negative support was an attempt
to restore homeostasis in the family system by forcing
the woman to resume her traditional role.
The principles of wholeness and homeostasis reveal
the interacting patterns of family behavior. Such
patterns evolve over the life cycle of the family. Thus
it was clear that developmental changes experienced by
the reentry woman would surely impact on the family
system of which she was a part.
Stress Theory
Stress was defined by reference to both the person
and the environment. Managing the stress experience was
conceptualized by Goldberger and Breznitz (1982, p. 22)
as two interacting processes: appraisal and coping.
Appraisal was an evaluation process that gave meaning to
a situation. It could be separated into an appraisal of
what was at stake e.g., "Am I okay or in trouble?" or
an appraisal of coping, "What can be done about the
![Page 67: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
58
situation?" The evaluation of coping options was
influenced by previous experience, belief in oneself,
the availability of social support, financial resources,
physical stamina and problem-solving skills.
Goldberger and Breznitz (1982) noted that stress
had been defined as a stimulus, a response, and an
intervening state. The word "stress" was often
connected with emotional states, appearing frequently
in discussions of anxiety. A vivid concept was put
forth by May (in Goldberger & Breznitz, 1982, p. 39):
Anxiety is how the individual relates to stress, accepts it, interprets it. Stress is a halfway station on the way to anxiety. Anxiety is how we handle stress.
Life strains experienced elsewhere may be expressed
or acted upon in the family. Husbands under stress at
work may bring their anger home and vent it on the
family; a child hurt by playmates runs home seeking
consolation. Home is not only the preferred place in
time of distress, but often is the only place where one
can find unconditional acceptance and support. Yet,
even as it soothes and supports, the family system also
inflicts pain and punishment.
The reentry woman's family held a central role in
the stress process. Bernard (1981b) felt that men
derive more protection from marriage because more of the
![Page 68: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
59
social support flows from women to men, than vice versa.
She believed that men lack training in supportive
functioning. In their family roles, women often give
more than they receive, resulting in a "support gap."
For the reentry student, a perceived lack of family
support could be a major cause of stress and anxiety.
Goldberger and Breznitz (1982, p. 778) suggested
that one's social resources can influence stress by:
1. Decreasing the likelihood of the occurrence of stressful events.
2. Interacting with significant others to modify or alter the perception of an event as stressful.
3. Influencing coping strategies.
4. Modifying loss of self-esteem and increasing feelings of mastery.
Ego Development Theory
During adulthood, men and women face crises, make
changes in their commitments and values, and often
believe that they have changed or "matured" in the
process. Yet we understand little of this process and
it is often difficult to define or measure the
increasing sense of personal integration that appears to
take place.
One approach to this problem has been the theory of
ego development proposed by Loevinger (1976), in which
![Page 69: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
60
she described a series of sequential stages reflecting
the frame of reference that a person has toward the self
and the world. This orientation encompassed impulse
control, character development, interpersonal
relationships, and cognitive preoccupations such as
one's self-concept.
Various theorists (Erikson, 1950; Kohlberg, 1964;
Loevinger, 1976; Piaget, 1932) used the concept of
developmental stages to explain and predict the nature
of development within individuals. They viewed this
process as orderly and sequential, moving in the
direction of greater differentiation and higher order
Integra t ion.
In Loevinger's theory (1976), one's perception of
the self, the social world, and relationships to the
feelings and thoughts of others are differentiated and
integrated in a series of nine stages. Each stage is
qualitatively distinct from the others in character
development, interpersonal relationships, traits,
cognitive preoccupations and moral judgment (Loevinger,
1976, p. 15-26).
The Presocial stage (I-l) is rarely found among
adults. This stage is divided into a presocial or
autistic phase and a symbiotic phase. Loevinger
included this period in her schema only for theoretical
![Page 70: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
61
completeness. In the Impulsive stage (1-2), the
individual manifests a growing but primitive sense of
self. The child's impulses are curbed at first by
constraint, later also by rewards and punishments. The
child's need for people is strong, but demanding and
dependent. He tends to class others as good or bad, not
as a truly moral judgment. The child is preoccupied
with bodily impulses.
This is followed by the Self-Protective (Delta)
stage in which controlling others and opportunistic
hedonism are most important. The child learns there are
rules but uses them for his own satisfaction. The Self-
Protective person externalizes blame to other people or
circumstances. Self-criticism is not characteristic.
Those at the Conformist stage (1-3) are more
conventional with a stereotypic world view. One obeys
the rules out of a fear of disapproval. The person at
this stage tends to perceive himself and others along
socially-approved norms and in stereotypic sex roles.
The Conformist values niceness and cooperation with
others, but sees behavior in terms of externals rather
than feelings. Belonging makes him feel secure.
Loevinger viewed the next stage as the modal level
for adults in our society. The Self-Aware (1-3/4) stage
is transitional with many characteristics from the
![Page 71: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
62
Conformist stage. There is an increase in self-
awareness and an appreciation of multiple possibilities
and alternatives. The growing awareness of inner life
is often expressed in terms of vague "feelings".
At the Conscientious stage (1-4), individuals are
more differentiated, self-critical and responsible.
The major elements of an adult conscience are present.
Rules are no longer absolutes, the same for everyone all
the time; rather, exceptions and contingencies are
recognized. A person at this stage is more likely to
feel guilty if what he does hurts another person, even
though it conforms to the rules. He feels responsible
for other people and has a concept of privileges, rights
and justice. Achievement is at its highest peak.
The Individualistic stage (1-4/5) is characterized
by greater tolerance and increased awareness of inner
conflict. However, the conflict, for example, over
marriage versus career for a woman, is likely to be seen
as only partly internal. If only society or one's
husband were more helpful and accommodating, there need
be no conflict (Loevinger, 1976, p, 22).
That conflict is part of the human condition is not
recognized until the Autonomous stage (1-5) where the
individual has the courage to acknowledge and deal with
conflict, rather than ignoring it or projecting it onto
![Page 72: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
63
the environment. At this stage the individual is able
to integrate ideas and there is a higher tolerance for
ambiguity. The Autonomous person takes a broad view of
life as a whole,
At the highest stage. Integrated (1-6), one gains
the greatest sense of identity and reconciliation of
inner conflicts, Loevinger (1970) believed few
individuals achieved this stage which she equated with
Maslow's concept of the self-actualized person (1970,
p. 26). Loevinger cautioned against the "end of the
rainbow effect" noting that the highest level is not the
solution to problems, but rather an openness to more
problems (1970, p. 25).
A stage may be viewed as a "mode of living" with a
characteristic way of perceiving, interpreting, and
reacting to people, objects, and events in the
environment. When the woman student reenters higher
education, a new structure (the college) impacts her
behavior. The student's moral values and cognitive
perceptions are affected as well as her character and
personality. Consequently, she may undergo a change in
ego development, regressing to an earlier stage due to
stress or crisis, or entering a transitional stage which
reflects developmental growth.
![Page 73: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
64
Loevinger considered ego to be "the master trait,"
a framework around which one's personality is formed
(1976, p. 41). Ego is "not the same as the whole
personality but closer to what the person thinks of as
his/her self" (p. 67). Loevinger traced her use of
the term "ego development" to Adler's concept of "style
of life" which he equated with self, ego, unity of
personality, and one's attitude toward life (Loevinger &
Wessler, 1970, p. 7).
Complementing Loevinger's work was research done by
Weathersby (1980a) in life cycle development. She
viewed adulthood as sequential life periods, each with
required learning tasks. Of the ten adult life cycle
stages defined by Weathersby, three were pertinent
to reentry women students:
Age 30: a transition stage marked by major psychic tasks such as a reexamination of life commitments, making desired changes to incorporate deeper strivings put aside in the 20s.
Age 40: a midlife transition stage with major tasks such as creating a better fit between one's life structure and self.
Age 50: a transition stage focusing on a need for redirection. For some reentry students, the focus is on the need to change so that long-deferred goals can still be accomplished.
Transitions through these life stages may occur by
moving through time periods in the lifespan or by
![Page 74: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
65
changing roles i.e., adopting new ones, relinquishing
old ones. Every transition is an occasion for learning.
In her extensive research of adult women students,
Weathersby (1980b) noted distinctions among the various
groups. In the age 30 group, women were intent on
finishing interrupted education and setting new life
goals, in coping with boredom, seeking se1f-identity and
personal growth. At the midlife transition in the early
40s, motives for returning to college were more related
to work, self, and changed family circumstances. At the
50s transition stage, students sought to regain
direction after personal upheaval or family crisis.
The reentry woman's reasons for enrolling in higher
education varied according to the individual's ego
development and her place in the life cycle, as well as
the developmental tasks associated with each life
period. Weathersby (1980b) warned of the potentially-
dangerous combination of new life tasks and education
stimulating ego development, as well as feelings of
disequilibrium and stress. She predicted some students
would be "at risk" (1980b, p. 73) because of these life
transitions. They could experience heightened anxiety
in the course of their studies. However, if successful,
they could emerge from the college experience with new
personality strengths forged in the educational process.
![Page 75: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
66
From Weathersby's research (1980a, 1980b), certain
generalizations about the reentry student group could be
drawn:
1. The reentry woman was in a period of introspection from which future life structure and goals would evolve.
2. She was experiencing developmental tasks which challenged psychic, emotional, and physical strength.
3, Relationships with her family were changing or being replaced by new interpersonal relationships,
4, She was at risk for heightened levels of anxiety, stress, and conflict.
The challenge to educators was to create settings
that supported individual development. According to
Weathersby, "the growth process is important for society
as well, to counteract the alienation and ambivalence
that accompany rapid social change. In other words,
transformation is a task of the culture as well as of
individuals" (1980a, p, 28).
Summary
Entry into a new role, whether forced or freely
chosen, can be crucial. The anxiety and guilt
experienced by the reentry woman depended on: (1) role
conflict stemming from traditional attitudes and
(2) the dependability of her social network. Although
society has become more tolerant of a woman's right
![Page 76: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
67
to self-actualize, the reentry woman often experienced
intensive feelings of guilt and shame when she moved
beyond her traditional roles (Brandenburg, 1974).
Since the 1950s, there has been a steady increase
in the participation of women in higher education and in
the work force (Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,
1973). Concomitant with this trend in education and
occupations has been the emergence of new career
aspirations in which both a demanding profession and
marriage-family life are assumed.
With the decline of traditional-age (18-22 years)
students, universities have opened their doors to
adult women students. They are potentially the largest
and fastest growing advocacy group in education.
Various reasons motivate a woman's return to college.
Increased career interest and economics are major
factors. Fewer children, a longer lifespan, and the
fact that the average woman will survive her husband,
force a reevaluation of one's future.
Research also suggested that women were seeking new
growth, opting for continuing development as opposed to
middle-age stagnation (Brandenburg, 1974). Erikson
(1982) theorized that an individual can experience
development at any point in the life cycle. A woman's
decision to resume her education represented a shift
![Page 77: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
68
from the traditional role of homemaker to a new, all-
encompassing identity better suited to her current self-
perception and values. Whatever their reasons--job
skills, personal fulfillment, new career--reentry women
have brought to the academic environment a challenging
set of attitudes, values, and expectations.
The pursuit of autonomy and a more independent
self implied some dislocation in family relationships.
In taking on the added role of college student, the
woman was less available to serve the needs of her
family. More importantly, she was psychologically less
available to them. This shift of attention often
resulted in tension, conflict, and power struggles.
Researchers agreed that family support was a critical
variable for the reentry woman's successful performance
in college (Berkove 1978; Bernard, 1981a; Hooper, 1979a;
Van Meter, 1976) .
Developmental theorists suggested that any move
toward greater personal autonomy would be charged with
anxiety (Letchworth, 1970). Reentry women generally
performed competently (Kasworm, 1980), but there were
personal concerns which influenced performance--lack of
self-confidence, low self-esteem, role conflict, role
overload. Problems of dependency threatened to
undermine the educational process (Brandenburg, 1974).
![Page 78: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
69
Although contemporary society has a greater
tolerance of the principle of self-actualization, the
reentry woman frequently suffered anxiety and guilt when
she tried to achieve it (Brandenburg, 1974; Emerson,
1977). The woman generally was seeking to complement
her traditional role with a new sense of identity and
integrity, qualities which would make her even more
effective as a role model to her children and a life
partner to her husband.
As the youth cohort declined and adult student
enrollments grew, American colleges and universities
were faced with a challenge to provide meaningful
educational intervention in human development.
Weathersby (1980b) believed the responsibility of
educators was to create settings that supported
individual development.
Specific objectives in this research were:
1. To investigate the experience of role strain, role conflict, and role overload.
2. To ascertain the effect that personality attributes such as self-esteem and ego development might have on role strain.
3. To assess guilt and anxiety and their interaction with role strain.
4. To assess the effects of socialization as they might influence ego development.
![Page 79: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
70
A principal objective in this research was a
greater understanding of the psychological and psycho
social impact of a woman's return to higher education.
Researchers must explore the new standards that evolve
with changing values, attitudes, social roles. Reentry
women are confronted with difficult life choices. It
is important to have more information concerning the
blending of career and motherhood and the inherent
risks of stress and marital dysfunction. It was also
hoped this research data might contribute to a broader
basis for decision-making in relation to university
policies, counseling, curriculum, and services, as they
pertain to the reentry woman student.
![Page 80: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
CHAPTER IV
PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY
This chapter begins with a restatement of the
problem and a description of the setting, sample,
instruments, data collection, and research design.
Following that data is a discussion of the statistical
analysis and the limitations of the investigation.
Research Problem
The purpose of this study was to investigate role
strain as experienced by the reentry woman student and
to determine the relationship between role strain and
certain psychosocial variables, namely self-esteem and
ego development stage.
The research hypotheses examined were:
Hoi: Role strain would correlate with the number and complexity of the student's life roles (wife, mother, student, worker).
Ho2: Role strain would correlate with the student's level of self-esteem as established by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Ho3: Role strain would correlate with the student's ego development stage as established by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test,
Ho4: Role strain would vary in degree between university students and community college s tudent s,
71
![Page 81: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
72
In addition to testing these research hypotheses,
an evaluation was made of factors which contribute to
role strain: role conflict, role overload, guilt.
a nxiety, and subject's perception of spouse support.
Research Populat ion
Subjects participating in this study were drawn
from current enrollments at Texas Tech University and
South Plains Community College, Lubbock, Texas. The
qualifications for participation were that students be
married, age 25 years or older, and enrolled either
full-time or part-time during the 1987 spring semester.
The sample was drawn from women enrolled in graduate
and undergraduate degree programs. Listings of
students meeting these qualifications were provided by
college registrars. The sample consisted of 1100 names.
A survey packet and cover letter was mailed to each
student on the list. Completed questionnaires were
returned by 480 individuals which represented a 44%
response rate.
Re search Design
This survey was designed to provide a description
of the role strain experienced by adult women students.
The dependent variable, role strain, was derived from an
analysis of responses to questions of how the women
![Page 82: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
73
viewed their student responsibilities in relation to
other demands on their time. The independent variables
were self-esteem, anxiety, and ego development stage.
Analysis of socio-demographic data produced information
on certain independent attribute variables such as age,
marital status, number and ages of children, residency,
employment, enrollment status, academic level, reasons
for enrollment, major problems, and the educational
background, income and occupation of student's spouse.
Since the independent variables could not be
manipulated, an £x post fac to research design was used.
Weaknesses inherent in e^x post f ac to designs which
affect internal validity are the inability (1) to
control the confounding effects of self-selection;
(2) to randomly assign and manipulate the independent
variables; (3) to assume causal relationships
(Kerlinger, 1979, p. 116). An advantage in using ex
post fac to research is its high degree of external
validity e.g., the ability to generalize results from
the experimental situation to the general population.
Data Collect ion
On February 1, 1987, a survey packet (see Appendix)
was mailed to each name on the lists supplied by Texas
Tech and South Plains registrars.
![Page 83: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
74
The cover letter introduced the study, invited the
recipient to participate, and outlined instructions.
Subjects were informed that participation was voluntary
and that confidentiality would be maintained. A self-
addressed stamped envelope was enclosed for return of
the questionnaire.
Inst rumenta t ion
The survey had five sections and required twenty
minutes to complete. There were 13 questions requesting
demographic information. Next were 10 questions for
the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965),
followed by 26 questions on the Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale (Taylor, 1953). The role strain scale
had three sections: 20 questions related to role
conflict and role overload; 10 questions related to
guilt; 15 questions related to spouse support. The
final section was the 18-stem Washington University
Sentence Completion Test designed to measure ego
development stage (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970).
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965),
a frequently employed research instrument, was used to
measure self-esteem. The instrument is a 10-item
Guttman scale that is unidimensional. Respondents were
![Page 84: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
75
ranked on a continuum from low to high. The scale's
questions measure one variable and deal openly and
directly with the subject of self-esteem which gives it
face validity. Test-retest reliability of the scale
ranges from .85 to .92 (Rosenberg, 1965).
Taylor Mani fe s t Anxie ty Scale
The Manifest Anxiety Scale was originally designed
for use in a study of experimental conditioning. Items
were drawn from the MMPI and judged for selection by
teams of clinical psychologists. Inter-rater
reliability was .80 or better. A later revision by
Taylor (1953) simplified the vocabulary and sentence
structure. The result is a revised Manifest Anxiety
Scale consisting of 26 items. The revised scale had a
Pearson-r correlation of .85 with the former version.
The MAS has had broad research applications. A
study by Lowe (1964) investigated the equivalence of
guilt and anxiety as psychological constructs. He found
a correlation of .75 between the Taylor MAS and the
guilt scale on the MMPI. Lowe concluded that the self-
report measures of anxiety and guilt comprise the same
psychological entity. In applying these findings to the
proposed study, it was anticipated that women
experiencing guilt feelings over their inability to
![Page 85: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
76
adequately fulfill multiple roles may experience high
levels of anxiety.
Washington Univers i ty Sentence Comple t ion Tes t
Loevinger used a sentence completion test to
assess level of ego development (Loevinger & Wessler,
1970). The test was based on the assumption that each
person has a characteristic I-level of ego functioning.
The I-level is determined by the distribution of ratings
of the individual's response to the incomplete sentence
stems (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970).
There are nine stages of ego development:
I-l 1-2 Delta 1-3 1-3/4 1-4 1-4/5 1-5 1-6
Pre-Soc ial/Symbiot ic Impuls ive Self-Protect ive Conformis t Self-Aware Consclent ious Individual is t ic Autonomous Integrated
The protocols were scored by the automatic protocol
rating described by Loevinger and Wessler (1970) in
their scoring manual. This automatic system provides
rules to be applied to the cumulative frequency
distribution of individual sentence stems and yields
only one possible rating for a given individual.
Loevinger's scoring manual was based on results
of her testing of over 1,200 subjects and included
![Page 86: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
77
a self-training component for scorers. Interrater
reliability coefficients on the scale were in the .90
range. Even self-trained raters obtained reliabilities
of .85 to .94.
Role Strain Scale
The role strain scale (see Appendix) had 45
statements to which the subject indicated agreement or
disagreement on a 4-point Likert scale. The scale was
divided into 20 items dealing with role conflict and
role overload; 10 items relating to guilt; and 15 items
for perceived degree of spouse support.
The items were selected to assess role strain from
different perspectives. For example, role conflict
questions pertained to time and household management,
relations with spouse and children, child care,
expectations for self, expectations of others. The
guilt scale related to feelings of perceived neglect of
husband and children. The spouse support scale dealt
with the woman's perception of the instrumental and
emotional support she was receiving from her husband.
The scale was intended to diagnose an existing state,
i.e., to assess whether a student is currently
experiencing role strain. It could not predict whether
a student might experience role strain in the future.
![Page 87: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
78
Analys is of Data
The data obtained from the questionnaire were
edited, coded and entered into the Texas Tech University
computer system. The Statist ical Package for the Social
Sc iences (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner & Bent, 1975)
was used for all computer analyses.
Analyses consisted of descriptive statistics
consisting of frequency distributions and population
means, as well as tests of significance including
t-tests, ANOVA, and analyses of non-parametric data.
Limi tat ions
In applying the results of this study to other
populations or groups, certain factors should be
cons idered:
1. Causation cannot be inferred because of this study's e_x post f ac to design.
2. Generalization of the findings is limited by the one-time only sampling and by the limited response (44%) from eligible
subj ec t s.
3. Due to the elusive nature of concepts such as self-esteem, anxiety, spouse support, guilt, etc., they are difficult to measure and interpret.
4. Many items contained in the instruments requested information of a personal nature Subjects' responses may reflect bias and a desire to present themselves and their families more favorably.
![Page 88: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
CHAPTER V
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter will summarize collected data as
described in the previous methodology.
Populat ion
Two groups of subjects comprised the total
population (N=480) for this research. They were reentry
women students enrolled at Texas Tech University (n=301)
and South Plains Community College (n=179), located in
Lubbock, Texas.
At the time of the survey, subjects varied from
25 to 62 years of age, with a population mean of 34.6
years (34.1 years TTU; 35.8 years SPCC). Over 56% of
these Women were in the 25-34 years group (Table 1).
Table 1
Age of Subjects
Numbe r TTU SPCC Percentage
Age Range (n=301) (n=179) (N=480)
25-29 years 89 46 28"7T% 30-34 85 47 27.5 35-39 70 43 23.5 40-44 33 21 11.2 45-49 15 11 5.4 50-54 7 7 3.0 55-59 2 3 1.0 60-64 0 1 0.3
79
![Page 89: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
80
The number of years these subjects had been
residing in the West Texas area ranged from 1 to 60
years. The population mean was 19.9 years. A majority
(55%) of Texas Tech students averaged less than 20 years
residency. This compared with 65% of the South Plains
students who were residents of West Texas for more than
20 years .
Marital Status
All of the students (N=480) participating in this
study were married. Their husbands were employed in a
variety of occupational fields (Table 2 ) . The top
four occupations for husbands of Texas Tech students
were (1) office-sales; (2) management-supervisory;
(3) education; (4) oil-agriculture. The spouses of
the South Plains students were primarily engaged in
(1) oil-agriculture; (2) independent business, which
was generally service-related; (3) industrial;
(4) management-supervisory.
There was also a wide range in the educational
level of the subjects' husbands (Table 3 ) . Some 53%
of the spouses of South Plains subjects had a level
of high school or below, compared with 59% of the
spouses of Texas Tech subjects who held bachelor's
or graduate degrees.
![Page 90: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
Table 2
81
Occupa t ion
Husband's Occupation
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179)
Oil-Agriculture Management-Supervisory Office-Sales Educa t ion Independent Business Indus trial Pol ice-Fire-Military Mechanical Health Care Cons t rue t ion Student Unemployed Electr ical Insurance-Banking Other
31 38 42 38 22 11 18 13 20 9 17 7 5 3
27
27 18 11 7
22 22 15 13 4 14 3 11 3 2 7
Percentage (N=480)
12.1 11.7 11 .0 9.4 9 6 6 5 5
2 9 9 4 0
4.8 4.2 3 1
7 7
1.0 7.0
Table 3
Husband's Education
Educat ional Leve 1
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179) Percentage
(N=480)
6th grade 7-lOth grade High School Some College B.A. Degree M.A. Degree Ph.D.Degree
0 4
48 72 105 43 29
1 18 76 43 31 8 2
0 4 25 24 28 10 6
2% 6 8 0 3 6 5
![Page 91: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
82
ChiIdren
Almost 78% of the subjects had children ranging
in age from 1 to 6 years (£ < .01). The mean number
of children was 1.5 and a majority of women in
both groups (TTU 76%; SPCC 82%) had more than one child
(Table 4 ) . The ages of the children ranged from
infant to 23 years. Mean age was 9 years, with sample
means of 8.5 years for children of Texas Tech women
and 9.8 years for children of South Plains students.
Table 4
Number of Reentry Students with Children Living at Home
Number of Children
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179)
No children 1 child 2 chiIdren 3 chiIdren 4 chiIdren 5 children 6 chiIdren
73 89 92 39 7 1 0
33 34 64 38 7 1 2
Percentage (N =
22. 25. 32, 16, 2. 0, 0.
= 480)
.1%
.6 ,5 .1 .9 .4 .4
Chi-square (6, N = 480) = 16.8 £ < .01
Roles
Each student functioned in a minimum of two roles
i.e., student-wife, with the greatest number (45%)
with four roles: student-wife-mother-worker (Table 5)
![Page 92: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
83
Roles
Table 5
Number and Type of Roles Held by Reentry Students
Numbe r TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179)
Student-Wife 19 Student-Wife-Mother 100 Student-Wife-Worker 55 Student-Wife-Mother-
Worker 127
6 58 27
88
Percentage (N=480)
5.3% 32.9 17.2
44.6
Employment
There was a significant distribution of subjects
in the categories of employment (Table 6). In the Texas
Tech group, 60% were employed full- or part-time as
compared with 65% in the South Plains group.
Table 6
Employment
Type of Employment
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179) Percentage
(N=480)
Full-time Part-1 ime Unemployed
74 108 119
82 34 63
32.5% 29.6 37.9
Chi-square (3, N = 480) = 28.1 £ < .001
There was also a significant (£ <.001) distribution
in the number of hours worked per week. Reports ranged
from 3 to 50 hours, with a mean of 18 hours (Table 7).
![Page 93: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
84
Within the groups, 40% of TTU and 70% of SPCC worked
more than 31 hours per week.
Table 7
Hours Worked per Week
H<
1-11-21-31-41-
3ur s
-10 -20 -30 -40 -50
hours
N TTU
(n=181)
19 70 19 61 12
umber SPCC
(n=116)
6 18 11 76 5
Percentage (N =
8 29 10 46 5
297)
.4%
.7
.1
.1
.7
Chi-square (30, N = 297) = 66.7 £ < .001
Family Income
Family income ranged from $5,000 to over $51,000
per year. Mean income for the population was $35,000
(Table 8). South Plains students (56%) reported incomes
less than $30,000 annually; Texas Tech students (51%)
reported incomes in excess of $31,000 annually.
Table 8
Family Income
Annual Income
Numbe r TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179) Percentage
(N=480)
$ 5-10,000 per year 11-20,000 21-30,000 31-40,000 41-50^000 51,000 plus
16 57 75 56 44 53
19 32 49 37 30 12
7.3% 18.5 25.9 19.4 15.4 13.5
![Page 94: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
85
Enro1Iment Level
There was a significant distribution (£ < .001)
in student enrollments, ranging from undergraduate to
doctoral degrees. The mean was in the freshman-
sophomore level (Table 9).
Table 9
Levels of Enrollment
Level
Numbe r TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179)
Percentage (N=480)
Doctoral Degree 91 Master's Degree 43 Undergraduate Degree 167
0 0
179
19.o: 8.9
72. 1
Chi-square (5, N = 480) = 250.08 £ < .001
Student credit hours were significant (£ < .001)
with the population mean being 10.3 hours. Texas
Tech students averaged 10.8 hours per semester, and
South Plains students, 9.4 hours (Table 10).
Table 10
Enrolled Credit Hours
Hours
3-6 7-12
13-18
hours
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179)
69 133 99
68 73 38
Percentage (N=480)
28.5% 43.0 28.5
Chi-square (21, N = 480) = 71.2 £ < .001
![Page 95: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
86
Reasons for Reentry
Adult women students offered various reasons for
reentry. The primary reasons are ranked for these
groups in Table 11 .
Table 11
Reasons for Returning to College
Reasons Number Reporting TTU SPCC
Pe rcent age (N=480)
69% 46 29 28 13 13
Personal Fulfillment Career Goals Upgrade Skills Degree Completion Boredom Certificat ion
191 132 56 93 47 23
140 90 85 40 15 38
Maj or S tudies
With the extensive curriculum offered by both
institutions, it was not unexpected that a variety of
degree programs would be represented in this population
(Table 12). The leading majors reported by Texas
Tech students were (1) education; (2) home economics;
(3) business; (4) nursing/allied health. South Plains
students reflected similar interests in their declared
majors, but with a different ranking: (1) nursing/
allied health; (2) business; (3) electronic technology;
(4) educat ion.
![Page 96: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
Table 12
Major Areas of Study
87
Major
Number TTU SPCC
(n=301) (n=179) Percentage
(N=480)
Agriculture Archi tec ture Art Arts & Science Biology Bus ine s s
2 4 11 7 4 34
0 0 2 0 0
23
0.4 % 0.8 2.7 1.4 0.8 11.9
Chemistry 1 Child Development 0 Cosmetology 0 Education 89 Electronic Tech. 1 Engineering Tech. 3
Fashion Merchandising 0 Geology 2 His tory 3 Home Economics 34 Interdisciplinary
Stud ies 6
Languages 14 Law 13 Mathematics 3 Music 2 Nursing/Allied Health 31
Petroleum Tech. Physical Education Phys ics Political Science Postal Service Mgmt. Psychology
Real Estate Sc ience Secre tarial Soc iology Technical Arts Zoology Undeclared
0 4 0 2 0 17
0 0 0 4 0 0 9
0 4 1
12 19 1
1 0 0 0
0
3 0 0 0 55
1 1 1 0 1 1
4 1 4 1 2 1
40
0 0 0 21 4 0
0 1 0 0 0 3
2 8 2 2 3 8
0.2 0.4 0.6 7.3
1.2
3.5 2.7 0.6 0.4 17.9
2 0 2 4 2 9
0.8 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.2 10.4
![Page 97: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
88
Problems on Reentry
On returning to higher education, the subjects
experienced a variety of institutional, situational,
and personal problems (Table 13). Highest ranked were
fatigue, time management, family, and financial.
Table 13
Problems Encountered on Reentry
Problem
Fa t igue Time Management Family
Financ ial Exam Anxiety Wr i t ing Papers
Studying Class Schedules Commut ing
College Bureaucracy Mo t ivat ion Spouse Support
Faculty Other
(1)
TTU Number
(n=301)
235 221 149
148 126 102
71 97 79
101 70 58
57 11
SPCC (n=179)
109 123 86
75 91 54
75 32 38
13 32 35
12 3
Percentage (N=480)
71.7 71.7 49.0
46.5 45.2 32.5
30.4 26.9 24.4
23.7 21.2 19.4
14.4 2.9
(1) Some respondents may have reported under "Family"
![Page 98: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
89
Ego Development Stage
Students' protocols were rated according to the
Loevinger and Wessler (1970) system for determining
stage or level of ego development. The greatest number
of students (47%) were rated at the 1-3/4 level which
is a transition stage from Conformist to Conscientious.
The next largest grouping (40%) was at the 1-4,
Conscientious, level (Table 14).
Table 14
Ego Development Stages
Stage
1-2 Impulsive Delta Self-Protective 1-3 Conformist 1-3/4 Self-Aware 1-4 Conscientious 1-4/5 Individualistic 1-5 Autonomous 1-6 Integrated
TTU (n=301)
2 7
21 137 128
6 0 0
SPCC (n=179)
2 7 17 88 62 3 0 0
Percentage (N=480)
0.8% 3.0 7.9
46.9 39.6 1.8 0.0 0.0
Student Profile
From the foregoing demographic information, a
profile emerged of the average reentry woman student
participating in this study (Table 15). It included
both demographic and psychosocial variables such as
self-esteem, ego development, and anxiety.
![Page 99: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
90 Table 15
Profile of the Average Reentry Woman Student in this Study
Age :
Status:
Children:
Spouse :
Spouse's Education:
RoIes :
Employment:
35 years
Ma rried
1.5 children, average age 9 years
Oil and Agriculture industries
Some college
Four: Student, Wife, Mother, Worker
Parttime, average 18 hours weekly
Family Income: $35,000 per year
Re s ident:
Level:
Hours:
Reasons for Reent ry:
Problems on Reentry:
20 years in west Texas
2nd Freshman - 1st Sophomore level
10 . 3 credit hours
(1) Personal Fulfillment (2) Career
(1) Fatigue (2) Time Management (3) Family
Self-Esteem: High level
Stage of Ego Development:
Anxie ty:
Guilt:
Role Strain:
1-3/4 Transition from Conformist to Conscientious
Low degree
Low to Moderate degree
Low to Moderate degree
Role Conflict: Low to Moderate degree
Spouse Support: Low level of support
![Page 100: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
91
Research Hypotheses
The purpose of this study was to investigate role
strain as experienced by the reentry woman student and
to determine the relationship between role strain and
certain psychosocial variables, namely self-esteem and
ego development stage.
Hypothes is No . l_
Role strain would correlate with the number and complexity of the student's roles (student, wife, mother, worker).
The hypothesis was supported. Data indicated a
significant relationship between role strain and the
student's number of roles (Table 16). A majority of
subjects functioned in four roles and reported low to
moderate role strain. Women whose third role was that
of mother reported higher role strain than those whose
third role was that of worker.
Table 16
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Number of Roles
Role Strain
None Low Moderate High
Student-Wife
(n=25) 12.0 52.0 32.0 4.0
Number Student-Wife-Mother (n=158)
5.1 46.2 43.0 5.7
of Roles Student-Wife-Worker (n=82) 12.2 62.2 23.2 2.4
Student-Wi fe-Mother-Worke r (n=215)
2.3 47.2 47.2 3.3
Chi-square (12, N»480) = 27.9 £ < .01
![Page 101: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
92
To study the effect of number of roles and
employment on role strain, a one-way analysis of
variance statistical procedure was used (Table 17).
Number of roles was significant, but there was no
relationship between role strain and employment.
Table 17
Analysis of Variance, Role Strain by Number of Roles
and Employment
Source of Var iance
Number of Roles Employment
Sum of Squares
9.25 0.69
DF
4 2
Mean Square
2.31 0.35
F
5.50 0.82
*
* £ < .001
Spouse support was defined as the instrumental and
emotional support a husband provided his wife as she
functioned in her multiple roles. A majority of women
rated perceived level of spouse support as low or poor
(Table 18). Table 18
Chi-Square Analysis, Perceived Level of Spouse Support
Level of Support
TTU (n=301) (
SPCC n=179)
3.9 25.7 34.1 36.3
Good Moderate Low Poor
5.3 19.9 40.9 33.9
Chi-square (4, N = 480) = 4.34 N.S.
![Page 102: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
93
The four categories of spouse support were defined
as good, moderate, low, poor. An ANOVA indicated a
significant relationship between the student's perceived
level of spouse support and the degree of role strain
she experienced (Table 19).
Table 19
Analysis of Variance, Role Strain and Level of Spouse Support
Source of Sum of DF Mean F Var iance Square s Square
Level of Spouse Support 129.49 42 3.08 17.19 *
* £ < .001
The spouse support measure contained 15 items
assessing the subject's perception of her husband's
instrumental and emotional support. The scale tapped
issues such as helping with household chores, praise of
wife's efforts, financial support of her college
expenses, psychological support, understanding of her
problems, etc.
A factor analysis of the fifteen spouse support
items produced two factors. Factor I, which had a
final eigenvalue of 7.98 and accounted for 53% of the
explained variance, was composed of items which
reflected the spouse's lack of interest and/or support
![Page 103: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
94
of his wife's career. Two items assessing interest in
his wife's school work and understanding of her problems
in college loaded most heavily on the first factor.
Specific questions loading high on this factor were
as fo1 lows:
My husband is not interested in my school work.
My husband does not understand my difficulties and problems in school.
My husband rarely praises my accomplishments as a s tudent.
My husband does not support my efforts as a s tudent.
My husband believes his career should take precedence over mine.
My husband's support is consistent as long as my college responsibilities do not interfere with household routine.
My husband does not understand me.
Factor II, which had an eigenvalue of 1.32 and
accounted for 9% of the explained variance, consisted
of items related to marital instability. The student's
concern over the stability of her marriage and what
might happen to the marital relationship after college
loaded most heavily. Specific questions were:
The stability of our marriage has been threatened by my return to college.
I am concerned about what might happen to my relationship with my husband after I complete my education.
![Page 104: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
95
I have more conflicts with my husband since I enrolled in college.
Our sexual relationship has deteriorated since my involvement with college.
Hypothes is No . 2̂
Role strain would correlate with the student's level of self-esteem measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
This hypothesis was supported. Data indicated
a significant relationship between role strain and
self-esteem. Approximately 91% of the subjects
reported high self-esteem and low or moderate levels of
role strain (Table 20).
Table 20
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Self-Esteem
Role Strain
Self-Esteem Low High
(n=39) (n=441)
None Low Moderate High
0.0 25.6 61.5 12.8
5.9 51.9 39.0 3.2
Chi-square (3, N = 480) = 20.15 £ < .001
Hypo the sis No . 3̂
Role strain would correlate with the student's ego development stage as established by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test.
![Page 105: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
96
This hypothesis was supported (Table 21). A
majority of subjects were in the 1-3/4 and 1-4 stages
and reported low to moderate role strain.
Table 21
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Strain and Ego Development
Role 1-2 Delta 1-3 1-3/4 1-4 1-4/5 Strain (n=4) (n=14) (n=38) (n=225) (n=190) (n=9)
None 0.0 Low 100.0 Mode rate
0.0 High 0.0
1 4 . 3 5 7 . 1
1 4 . 3 1 4 . 3
1 0 . 5 4 4 . 7
4 2 . 1 2 . 6
4 . 9 5 0 . 7
3 8 . 2 6 . 2
4 . 7 5 0 . 5
4 3 . 7 1.1
11.1 55.6
22.2 11.1
Chi-square (18, N = 480) = 29.08 £ < .05
Hypo the sis No. 4
Degree of role strain would vary between university and community college students.
The hypothesis was not supported. Data did not
indicate any significant difference in the degree of
role strain experienced by university or community
college students (Table 22).
Table 22
T-test, Role Strain by Groups
Group
TTU
SPCC
n Mean S.D. DF t value
301
179
2.47
2.36
0.63
0.69 348 1.77 N.S
![Page 106: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
97
Other Variables
Anxiety. Analysis of scores on the anxiety scale
indicated that a majority of subjects were experiencing
low to moderate anxiety. An ANOVA procedure indicated
that role strain had a significant effect on anxiety
(Table 23). Subjects reporting a moderate or high
degree of role strain also reported high levels of
anxie ty,
Table 23
Analysis of Variance, Role Strain and Anxiety
Source of Sum of DF Mean F Var iance Square s Square
Anxiety 30.86 3 10.28 27.87 *
* £ < .001
Guilt. The guilt scale assessed the student's
perception of her failure to satisfactorily fulfill role
expectations and perform to her own high standards.
Subjects in both groups (49% TTU, 47% SPCC) reported
moderate levels of guilt.
An analysis of the 10 questions on this scale
produced two factors. The first was guilt from neglect
of home and family; the second, feelings of guilt in not
fulfilling role expectations.
![Page 107: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
98
Factor I had a final eigenvalue of 3.86 and
accounted for 39% of the explained variance. Five
items loaded heaviest on this factor, all dealing with
a perceived neglect of home and family. The factor's
quest ions were:
I do not give my children enough time and attention.
I do not give my husband enough time and a t tent ion.
I feel guilty when I must tell my child that I cannot do what he/she wants because I have to study,
I ought to devote more effort to the care of my home,
I feel guilty asking my family to take on extra responsibilities since I'm in school.
The second factor had an eigenvalue of 1,04 and
accounted for 10% of the explained variance. Questions
which loaded heavy on this factor were:
I no longer entertain as much as before,
I feel guilty if I fail a test.
Family routine has been disrupted by my attending college.
Role Conflict. This variable was defined as
(1) contradictions in role expectations by associates
and (2) the pressure of conflicting demands on one's
time resulting in role overload. A t-test indicated
university students experienced greater role conflict
![Page 108: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
99
than community college students (Table 24). Because so
many factors relate to role conflict, no particular
inferences could be drawn from this finding.
Table 24
T-test, Role Conflict by Grou ps
n Mean S.D. DF t-value
TTU 301 2.81
SPCC 179 2.63
0.69
0.80 332 2.50 .05
Data did indicate a relationship between role
conflict and number of roles (Table 25). Women holding
four roles (student-wife-mother-worker), reported
moderate to high role conflict. Women whose third role
was that of mother reported higher role conflict than
women whose third role was that of worker.
Table 25
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Number of Roles
Role Conflict
Student Wife
Number of Roles Student Wife Mo ther
Student Wife Worker
Student Wife Mo the r Worker
None Low Moderate High
8.0 36.0 48,0 8,0
4,4 28,5 51,3 15,8
6,1 52,4 35,4 6,1
2,3 24.3 56.5 16.8
Chi-square (12, N = 480) = 32.45 £ < .001
![Page 109: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
100
A relationship also existed between role conflict
and anxiety. Women reporting high anxiety experienced
moderate to high degrees of role conflict (Table 26).
Table 26
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Anxiety
Role Conflict
Anxie ty None Low Moderate (n=135) (n=215) (n=101)
Hi (n =
0 0
46 53
gh 26)
.0
.0
.2
.8
None Low Modera te High
8.9 47.4 38.5 5.2
Chi-square (9, N = 480) =
2.4 30.7 55.3 11.6
86.9
1.0 17.8 59.4 21 .8
£ < .001
The relationship between a student's role conflict
and her perception of spouse support was significant
(Table 27). The largest group was that reporting low
spouse support and moderate role conflict.
Table 27
Chi-Square Analysis, Role Conflict and Perceived Level
of Spouse Support
Good Role Conflict (n=23)
Spouse Support Moderate Low Poor (n=106) (n=184) (n=166)
None Low Moderate High
4.4 0.0
47.8 47.8
0.0 11.3 54.7 34.0
0.5 28.8 62.0 8.7
10.3 50.6 36.1 3.0
Chi-square (9, N = 430) = 145.1 £ < .001
![Page 110: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
101
The role conflict scale was comprised of 20 items
assessing time demands, conflicting expectations, and
other ways in which a student might experience stress
due to her multiple roles.
A factor analysis of this scale produced four
factors. Factor I, which had a final eigenvalue of
7.6 and accounted for 38% of the explained variance,
was composed of five questions intended to assess
stress. Those items which' loaded most heavily on this
factor related to feelings of being under pressure and
being overburdened by the responsibilities of home-
family-work-school. The questions on this factor were:
I feel under pressure
At times I feel overburdened with home, family, work, school responsibilities.
I do not get sufficient rest and recreation.
I feel tired most of the time.
Time problems are my most frequent source of concern.
Factor II reflected the student's conflict between
her student and maternal roles. This factor, which had
a final eigenvalue of 1.4, accounted for 9% of the
the explained variance. Only two questions loaded high
on this fac tor:
I could be a better mother if my college
work were less demanding.
![Page 111: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
102
I am not able to spend enough time with my children and meet demands of my college work.
The third factor reflected conflict stemming from
the husband's lack of support and concern over the
marriage being in jeopardy. Factor III had a final
eigenvalue of 1.37 and accounted for 7% of the explained
variance. Specific questions were:
My husband's lack of support makes my college work difficult.
My marriage is jeopardized by attending college.
The last factor extracted from this analysis
related to conflict over the student's se1f-fulfi1Iment.
Factor IV had a final eigenvalue of 1.06 and accounted
for 5% of the explained value. The questions which
loaded heaviest on this factor were:
I feel conflict between my own se1f-fulfi1Iment and family duties.
I wish I had completed college before marriage and family.
Discuss ion
From this research emerged a profile of the
average reentry woman student in this population. She
was in her mid-30s, married, with more than one child
under age 10. She had been a resident of West Texas for
som e 20 years. Her husband's career was in the oil or
![Page 112: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
103
agriculture industries and his level of education was
some college.
The student's academic and career interests were
in the fields of nursing/allied health, business, or
education. Personal fulfillment was the primary reason
for returning to higher education; career interests
ranked second.
The reentry woman functioned in four roles, each
with significant responsibilities. Her two primary
roles were wife and mother; her children were still of
the age where they required nurturing and supervision.
As a college student, she carried 10 credit hours,
representing a time commitment of approximately 30 hours
per week. A majority of women in this study were also
employed. The average was 18 hours of work per week.
It was not unexpected that fatigue and time
management were primary problems. Family issues and
financial concerns were also major problems with these
students. Three factors may be interacting: the high
number of women employed; financial problems cited
as a major concern; and the fact that 35% of the
women reported their husbands did not finance their
education. No inferences could be drawn from the data.
Additional research is needed on these questions.
![Page 113: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
104
A number of students reported problems studying;
it was unclear whether that meant rusty skills, finding
a quiet place, a lack of time, or all three. Scheduling
of classes and problems with college bureaucracy were
of minor concern. Contradicting reentry literature,
faculty attitudes were not an issue.
In Loevinger's theory (1976), one's perception
of self, the social world, and relationships to the
feelings and thoughts of others are differentiated and
integrated in a series of stages. The ego stages of the
480 women in this population ranged from 1-2, Impulsive,
to 1-4/5, Individualistic. A majority (87%) were in
the 1-3/4 and 1-4 stages.
Loevinger (1976) saw the 1-3/4 transition stage
as the modal level for adults in our society. At this
stage an introspective self-consciousness emerges with
awareness of psychological causation and self-criticism.
The 1-3/4 subject tends to think about appropriate
behavior and attitudes that are right for the time,
place and situation. There is a greater awareness of
one's own feelings and those of others. Behavior is
differentiated and more complex, with an appreciation of
multiple possibilities in life situations.
At the 1-4 level, the individual is more self-
reflective and self-aware. Rules are evaluated and
![Page 114: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
105
and chosen for one's self and contextually defined.
Responsibility is felt for others and people are seen as
individuals. Guilt is more severe for hurting others
than for breaking rules. At this stage, the individual
is concerned with goals, ideals, differentiated self-
criticism, and a sense of responsibility.
Despite the individual differences between women
at all stages, returning to school was part of a process
of change for all of them. It is possible that none of
these women would have considered education had it not
been for the internal changes, largely self-esteem and
the need for independence, that resulted either from
external changes or developmental processes in their
1ives .
Self-esteem was a critical factor. Carne (1984)
viewed it as a buffer in coping with life's stressful
events. If one felt good about oneself, then being able
to cope with whatever came was a safe assumption. This
premise was reflected in the relationship between high
self-esteem and the low to moderate degree of role
reported by these subjects.
High self-esteem may also reflect the positive
gains of higher education. Education is a process of
transformation and each stage is an opportunity for
learning and personal growth (Weathersby, 1980b).
![Page 115: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
106
These subjects felt good about themselves and believed
in the rightness of what they were doing.
The results of the self-esteem scale were
supported by the responses on the ego development
protocols, A random sampling of protocols indicated
the following responses to pertinent sentence stems.
"I am..."
a sensitive but stubborn person that believes you get what you put into life,
proud of myself for going to school even though I have a family to attend to.
a terrific woman who has a loving husband, five great kids, a career, and have maintained my sanity,
excited about my family/career life that lies ahead.
busier than ever but also probably happier than I've ever been,
an achiever. happy to be who I am. a highly motivated woman who seeks a place
in society.
"The thing I like about myself..."
my determination to get through school. my self-confidence, determination, intelligence. my courage to try. that I set goals for myself and generally
attain them, what I'm doing with myself. I have done better in school than I thought
I would, the fact that I like myself and am proud
of myself, my family, career, and education, that I try to do my very best in everything, that I don't need other's approval to make
me feel worthwhile. I have the intelligence to do what I want
with my future.
![Page 116: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
107
Goode (1960) defined role strain as "the felt
difficulty in fulfilling role obligations" (p. 4 8 3 ) .
Van Meter (1976) broadened that definition to include
"cognitive discomfort due to incompatible expectations
or to multiple role demands which exceed one's
resources" (p. 2 8 ) . The more roles one accumulates,
the greater the probability of exhausting one's supply
of time and energy, with the consequence of role strain
and psychological distress (Goode, 1960).
A significant relationship did exist between role
strain and the number and type of roles held by a
reentry student. Approximately 45% of the women were
functioning in four roles: wife-mother-student-worker.
They reported low to moderate levels of anxiety. Those
subjects with three roles, i.e., student-wife-mother or
student-wife-worker, experienced less role strain if the
third role was that of worker. Women who combined
mothering with student-wife roles experienced greater
role strain.
In this study, the umbrella concept of role strain
was comprised of role conflict, guilt, and spouse
support. Role conflict emerged as the more powerful of
the three. Multiple roles are by definition a
prerequisite of role conflict (Burr, 1972; Goode, 1960;
Hall, 1972). They create a situation in which too many
![Page 117: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
108
role responsibilities cause overload and the risk of
burnout (Frieze et al., 1978).
Of the women functioning in four roles (student-
wife-mother-worker), 73% reported moderate and high
role conflict. Subjects experienced less role conflict
if the third role were that of worker, rather than
that of mother.
Factoring the role conflict scale lent insight
to the possible causes of role conflict. Students
complained of being under pressure, feeling tired,
and not getting sufficient rest or relaxation. Women
worried that they were not giving their children
sufficient time and attention. The ego development
protocols mirrored these role conflict problems:
"My main problem is..."
burnout. a cluttered house. not enough time for me. knowing how much I can reasonably accomplish
without too much stress, pacing myself so demands don't get too heavy, trying to take on too many things at once
and trying to be everything to everyone, coping with a strong desire to do all, be all,
for my family and succeed in college, the many roles and responsibilities, that I'm afraid I won't get through college
and let people down, managing my time to get everything done
and done we 11. time, time for me, my husband, kids, career,
and plain time to relax.
![Page 118: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
109
Reentry typically accentuates rather than changes
the strengths and weaknesses in relationships. The role
conflict scale loaded high on a factor identified as
"marital." Students expressed concern over their
spouse's lack of support and wondered if their marriage
was in jeopardy. They acknowledged increased conflict
and deterioration of their sexual relationship. They
felt keenly their husband's lack of empathy for their
college-related problems. Husbands tended to withhold
praise of the wife's efforts to attain her degree;
generally the spouse felt his career to be more
important than hers. Women in both groups worried about
the future of their marriages after college.
Students' perception of spouse support was
assessed as poor, low, moderate, or high. Some 73% of
the subjects reported their perception of spouse support
as poor or low. A significant relationship existed
between spouse support and the student's experience of
role strain, role conflict, and anxiety.
Two out of every five women in this study
believed their husband's support was consistent as long
as their college responsibilities did not disrupt family
routine. One in every three women reported her husband
did not understand her problems in school. The student
did not feel her husband "was there" when she needed
![Page 119: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/119.jpg)
no
him. Students reported their husbands withheld praise
and generally appeared indifferent and/or remote to
their college work.
Rightly or wrongly, fair or not, these are the
perceptions of this sampling of reentry women. Such
findings are not totally unexpected, Brandenburg (1974)
believed that a return to school could lead to serious
marital problems, even the possibility of separation or
divorce. Hooper (1979b) wrote about a husband's
"outcome anxiety," his worry over what would happen
after the wife completed college, Ballmer and Cozby
(1981) found that husbands of reentry women often felt
uncomfortable with their wife's growing autonomy and
independence,
Firestein (1984) noted that a husband tended to
be more supportive if the marriage was already
nontraditional in role assignments and division of
labor. Berkove (1979) found that a husband's attitude
toward women's traditional roles served as the framework
for his approval or disapproval of the wife's return
t o school.
A sampling of responses on the ego development
protocols gave the student's perception of her husband's
social attitudes. While no inferences can be drawn, the
![Page 120: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
Ill
perceptions may clarify why some students are reporting
low and poor levels of spouse support:
"Most men think that women... II
were put on this earth to have babies and take care of their men.
are not capable of having a career, raising children, and improving themselves,
do not need advanced degrees, should do the housekeeping and child raising
regardless of whether they have a career, should not pursue their own career interests are intellectually and physically inferior, are unable to achieve a status equivalent
to the irs . are the primary caregivers and housekeepers, are subservient, are incompetent, are robot s .
"Men are lucky because II
they have women! they are encouraged to achieve. they still rule the world. they don't always have to try as hard as
women do to be accepted, our society is geared to men. they can concentrate on what they want more
than what they have to do. the majority of them still hold the highest
positions and are held in more esteem and with more respect than women,
they are not expected to fulfill all the roles women are.
An item of demographic interest, the husband's
level of education, seems pertinent at this point in
the discussion. At some future date, a gap may exist
between the educational level of the women and their
spouses, with the women more highly educated. For
example, in the South Plains group, 53% of the spouses
![Page 121: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
112
had a high school or below level of education. In the
population as a whole, only 45% of the husbands had
college degrees. About 17% of them were at the graduate
level. This compares with the women of whom 30% may
eventually hold master's or doctorate degrees.
Such data links with research findings of Ballmer
and Cozby (1981); Berkove (1979); Hooper (1979b); and
Huston-Hoburg and Strange (1986). A basic factor in the
success of married women in careers is the cooperation
and support of their husbands. If a man holds
traditional views of women's roles, and if her academic
or professional qualifications disturb his self-esteem,
then the instrumental and psychological support he can
give her may be considerably less than needed (Bernard,
1981b) .
Despite a favorable social climate and personal
motivation which provide the necessary preconditions
for a woman to return to school, the experiences of
reentry are not without psychological pressures. This
study has demonstrated with this sample that role
strain, role conflict, guilt and anxiety are factors
which impact the reentry woman's experiences in college.
A potential for role overload exists as she tries to
minimize inconvenience to the family and still perform
at a high standard in each role. Some compromise
![Page 122: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/122.jpg)
113
in the balance of college responsibilities and family
obligations is necessary. Otherwise the reentry woman
may be confronted with a rejection of either role.
Educational administrators anticipate that
enrollments of reentry women will increase in the
coming decade. Given this fact, researchers must
continue to probe the psychosocial problems confronting
reentry students and their families. These and other
questions are subjects for future research. The
challenge to educators will be to create settings that
support individual development.
![Page 123: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/123.jpg)
REFERENCES
Adelstein, D., Sedlacek, W. E. & Martinez, A. (1983). Dimensions underlying the characteristics and needs of returning women students. Journal o^ NAWDAC, 4j6(4), 32-37.
Alders, J. 0. (1985). The reentry community college female student: Identity status, life events, and family/social support. Dissertation Abs trac t s Internat ional, (University Microfilms No. 86-09, 449).
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnos t ic and Statist ical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edit ion. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Astin, H. S. (1976). Some ac t ion of ti ££ own. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath & Company.
Badenhoop, M. S. & Johansen, M. K. (1980). Do reentry women have special needs? Psychology of Women Quarterly, Summer, 591-595.
Ballmer, H. & Cozby, P. C. (1981). Family environments of women who return to college. Sex Roles, 1_ (10), 1019-1026.
Barnett, R. C. & Baruch, G. K. (1985). Women's involvement in multiple roles and psychological distress. Journal of Personality and Soc ial Psychology, 49(1), 135-145.
Baruch, G., Barnett, R. & Rivers, C. (1983). Lifeprints. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Baruch, G., Biever, L. & Barnett, R. (1987). Women and gender in research on work and family stress. American Psychologist, 42(2), 130-136.
Baruth, L. G. & Huber, C. H. (1984). An introduction _t£ marital theory and therapy. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole Publishing Co.
114
![Page 124: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/124.jpg)
115
Benjamin, E. (1979). Barriers to academic reentry women and how to overcome them. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 185 935).
Berkove, G. R. (1978). Husband support for women returning to higher education: predictors and o u t c ome s. Dissertat ion Abs t rac t s Internat ional, (University Microfilms No. 78-13, 615).
Berkove, G. R. (1979). Perceptions of husband support by returning women students. Family Coord inator, rSy (4), 451-457.
Bernard, J. (1974). The future of motherhood. New York: Dial Press.
Bernard, J. (1981a). Women's educational needs. In Arthur W. Chickering & Associates (Ed.), The Modern American College, (pp. 256-278). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Bernard, J. (1981b). The female world. New York: Free Press.
Biddle, B. J. & Thomas, E. J. (1966). Role theory: Concepts and research. New York: Wiley.
Brandenburg, J. B. (1974). The needs of women returning to school. Personnel &̂ Guidance Journal , 53(1), 11-18.
Brooks, L. (1976). Superraoms shift gears: Re-entry women. The Counseling Psychologist, 6^(2), 33-37.
Burr, W. R. (1972). Role transitions: A reformulation of theory. Journal o_f Marriage and the Family, 24, 407-416.
Burr, W. R., Hill, R., Nye, F. I. & Reiss, I. L. (19 7 9) . Contemporary theories about the family. New York: Free Press.
Carne, M. E. (1984). Role strain in the returning adult student role. Dissertation Abstracts International, (University Microfilms No. 84-14,224).
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (1973). Priorities for action. New York: McGraw-Hill Co
![Page 125: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/125.jpg)
116
Chickering, A. & Havighurst, R. (1981). The life cycle. In A. W. Chickering (Ed.). The Modern American College, (pp. 16-50). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Christian, C. & Wilson, J. (1985). Reentry women and feminist therapy: A career counseling model. Journal of College Student Personnel, 49 6-500.
Clayton, D. & Smith, M. (1987). Motivational typology of reentry women. Adult Education Quarterly, 37(2), 90-104.
Daniels, A. (1979). Welcome and neglect: The ambiguous recept ion of reentry women ££ £ private, elite university. (ERIC Document Reproduction Wo~ ED 185 936).
Deaux, K. & Wrightsman, L. S. (1984). Social psychology in the 80s. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole Publishing Co,
Doty, B, A, (1966), Why do mature women return to college? Journal of NAWDAC, 29, 171-174.
Douvan, E. (1974). Two careers and one family. People in women's studies, 1(3), 44-54.
Douvan, E. (1981). Capacity for intimacy. In Arthur W. Chickering & Associates (Ed.), The Modern American College, (pp. 198-200). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Dunkle, M. C. (1980). Financ ial aid: Helping women pay college costs : What ins t i tut ions £an do to provide financ ial resource s to women reentering the educat ional sys tem. Washington, D.C.: Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, Dept. of Education.
Ekstrom, R. B. (1972). Barriers to women's part ic ipat ion in pos t-secondary educa t ion: A review of literature. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 072 368).
Emerson, S. A. (1977). Guilt feelings in returning women students. Dissertat ion Abs tracts Internat ional , (University Microfilms No.77-17, 989)
![Page 126: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/126.jpg)
117
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: W. W, Norton & Company,
Firestein, N, L, (1984), The relationship of family supportiveness to perceived ease of college reentry for mature women. Dissertation Abstracts Internat ional, (University Microfilms No, 84-22, 905),
Fischer, W, F, (1970), Theories o^ anxiety. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers,
Fisher-Thompson, J, (1980), Barriers to reentry women: College trans fer polic ies, res idency, and graduat ion requirement s, Washington, D,C.: Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, Dept. of Educat ion.
Fisher-Thompson, J. & Kuhn, J. A. (1981). Reentry women: relevant statistics. Washington, D.C.: Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, Dept. of Educat ion.
Frieze, I., Parsons, J., Johnson, P., Ruble, D. & Zellman, G, (1978), Women and sex roles, New York: W. W, Norton & Company,
Galliano, G, & Gildea, K. (1982). Nontraditional students: new faces and new i s sues. T I R I C Document Reproduction Service No. ED 216 615)
Geisler, M. P. & Thrush, R. S. (1975). Counseling experiences and needs of older women students. Journal o^ NAWDAC, 35, 3-8.
Gilbert, L. A., Holahan, C. K. & Manning, L. (1981). Coping with conflict between professional and maternal roles. Family Relat ions, 2£(3), 419-426.
Gilbert, L. A., Manning, L. & Ponder, M. (1982). Conflicts with the student role: a comparison of female and male reentry students. Journal of NAWDAC, 46(1), 26-32.
![Page 127: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/127.jpg)
118
Glatfelter, M. (1982). Identity development, intellectual development, and their relationship in reentry women students. Dissertation Abstracts International, (University Microfilms No. 83-08, 051).
Goldberger, L. & Breznitz, S. (1982). Handbook of s tress. New York: Free Press.
Goode, W. J. (1960), Theory of role strain, American Sociological Review, 25, 483-49 6,
Hall, D, T, (1972), A model of coping with role conflict: The role behavior of college women. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17, 471-48 6,
Hall, R, (1980), Reentry women: Part t ime enrollment, full t ime commitment, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No, ED 196 335).
Hoffman, L. W. & Nye, F.I. (1974). Working mothers: An evaluat ive review of the consequences for wi fe, husband, and child. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Holahan, C. K. & Gilbert, L. A. (1979). Conflict between major life roles: Women and men in dual-career couples. Human Relat ions, 21, 451-467.
Hooper, J. (1979a). Returning women students and their families. Journal of College S tudent Personnel, 20(2), 145-152.
Hooper, J. (1979b). My wife, the student. The Family Coordinator, 28(4), 459-464.
Huston-Hoburg, L. & Strange, C. (1986). Spouse support among male and female returning adult students. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27(5), 388-394.
Jacobi, M. (1984). A contextual analysis of stress and health among reentry women to college. Dissertat ion Abs tracts Internat ional, (University Microfilms No. 84-27, 812).
![Page 128: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/128.jpg)
119
Johnson, D. H., Wallace, K, W, & Sedlacek, W, E. (1979). A comparison of the needs of returning and traditional students by sex. Journal of NAWDAC, 42(3), 14- 18.
Jorgensen-Funk, S. (1985). Separation-individuation in dual-career women and its relation to the level of role conflict experienced. Dissertat ion Ab s trac t s Interna t ional, (University Microfilms No. 85-17, 934).
Kahn, R., Wolfe, D., Quinn, R., Snoek, J. & Rosenthal, R. (1964). Organizat ional stress: Studies in role conflict and amb igui ty. New York: Wiley.
Kahnweiler, J. B. & Johnson, P. L. (1980). A midlife developmental profile of the returning woman student. Journal of College Student Personnel, 21(5), 414- 418.
Karelius-Schumacher, K, L. (1977). Designing a counseling program for the mature woman student. Journal o^ NAWDAC, 41(1) , 28-31.
Kasworm, C. E. (1980). The older student as an undergraduate. Adult Educat ion, 21^^^» 30-47.
Katz, J. (1976). Home life of women in continuing education. In H. Astin (Ed.), Some act ion of her own. Toronto: D. C. Heath & Co.
Kerlinger, F, N. (1979). Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kohlberg, L. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In M. Hoffman and L. Hoffman (Eds.) Review of child development research. Vol. 1. New York: Russell Sage.
Lance, L., Lourie, J. & Mayo, C. (1979). Difficulties of reentry students by sex and length of school interruption. Journal o^ NAWDAC, 4^, 39-42.
Letchworth, G. E, (1970), Women who return to college: an identity-integrity approach. Journal of College Student Personnel, 11, 103-106,
![Page 129: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/129.jpg)
120
Levine, A, (1976), Between the stages of life: Adult women on a college scene, Educat ional Horizons, 54(4), 154-162.
Livson, F. B. (1981) Coming out of the closet: Marriage and other crises of middle age. In Troll, L, E, (Ed,) Looking Ahead, 81-92, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc,
Loevinger, J, (1976). Ego development: conceptions and theories. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Loevinger, J. & Wessler, R. (1970). Measuring ego development, (Vol. I). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Lowe, C. M, (1964). The equivalence of guilt and anxiety as psychological constructs. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 28(6) , 553-554.
Lundgren, S. (1983). The perceived influence of marriage, husbands, and children on educational and career decisions of community college reentry women, Dissertat ion Abs trac ts Internat ional, (University Microfilms No. 84-08, 645).
Marecek, J. & Ballou, D. (1981). Family roles and women's mental health. Pro fe s s ional Psychology, J^(I), 39-46.
McCrea, J. M. (1979). The new student body: women returning to college. Journal of NAWDAC, 43, 13-19.
McGraw, L. K. (1982). A selective review of programs and counseling interventions for the reentry woman. Personnel &̂ Guidance Journal, 60(7) , 469-472,
Mogul, K, M, (1979). Women in midlife: Decisions, rewards and conflicts related to work and careers. American Journal oJ_ Psychiatry, J ^ ( 9 ) , 1139-143.
Nacey, M. P. (1981). A comparison of traditional and nontraditional students' state and trait levels of Anxiety. Dissertat ion Abs trac t s Internat ional No. 81 19 804.
![Page 130: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/130.jpg)
121
Naisbett, J. (1982). Megatrends. New York: Warner Books, Inc.
National Center for Education Statistics, 1984. Projections of education statistics to 1992, Vol, I, M, Frankel and D, Ceroid, (Eds,)
Nie, N,, Hull, C , Jenkins, J,, Steinbrenner, K, & Bent, D, (1975). The statistical package for the soc ial sc iences , New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Nevill, D, & Damico, S, (1974), Development of a role conflict questionnaire for women. Journal o^f_ Consult ing and CIinical Psychology, 42(5), 743.
O'Connor, K. & Aasheim, L. J. (1985). Working with non- tradi t ional s tudent s; Women in transition. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 253-184).
Perlman, H. (1968). Persona, soc ial role and personali ty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan, Paul.
Poloma, M. M. & Garland, T. N. (1971). The married professional woman: A study in the tolerance of domestication. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 22(3), 531-540,
Rapoport, R, & Rapoport, R, N, (1969). The dual career family: A variant pattern and social change. Human Relations, 12(1), 3-29.
Roach, R. M. (1976). Honey, won't you please stay home? Personnel &̂ Guidance Journal , 55, (2), 86-89.
Roehl, J. E. (1980). Self-concept and the reentry woman student. Lifelong Learning: The adult years, June, 12-22,
Roland, A, & Harris, B. (1979). Career and motherhood. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Press.
![Page 131: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/131.jpg)
122
Sansing, L. H. (1983). Marital and mothering roles among reentry women in higher education. Dissertation Abstracts International, (University Microfilms No. 83-11, 211).
Sekaran, U, (1983), How husbands and wives in dual-career families perceive their family and work worlds. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 22(3), 288-302,
Sheehy, G, (1977), Passages. New York: Bantam.
Smallwood, K, B, (1980) What do adult women college students really need? Journal of College Student Personnel, 21(1), 65-74,
Smith, R, E, (1979), The subtle revolution: Women at work. Washington, D,C,: The Urban Institution
Stephenson, M, J. (1976). Changing family pat terns of marr ied women over thirty who have re turned ^o college. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 186 612)
Suchinsky, R. T. (1982). The older female college student: an educational challenge. NASPA Journal, 19(4), 29-42.
Taylor, J. A. (1953). A personality scale of manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal and Soc ial Psychology, 48(2) , 285-290.
Tittle, C. K. & Denker, E. R. (1977). Reentry women: a selective review of the educational process, career choice and interest measurement. Review of Educational Research, 47(4) , 5 31-5 84.
U. S. Bureau of the Census (1986). Statist ical Abstract of the United States, 106th Edition. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U. S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau (1980). The employment of women: General diagnos is of development s and issues. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office
Van Dusen, R. & Sheldon, E. (1976). The changing status of American women. Ame rican Psychologis t, 31(2), 106-116.
![Page 132: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/132.jpg)
123
Van Meter, M. J. (1976). Role strain among married college women. Dissertat ion Abs tracts Internat ional. (University Microfilms No. 76-18, 683).
Von der Embse, T. J. & Childs, J. (1979). Adults in transition: A profile of the older college student. Journal of College Student Personnel, ^0(6), 475-479.
Weathersby, R. P. (1980a). Adult development; implicat ions for higher educat ion. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 191 382).
Weathersby, R. P. (1980b). Education for adult development: the components of qualitative change. In E. Greenberg (Ed.). New Direc t ions for Higher Educat ion, (pp.9- 22). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers•
Westervelt, E. M. (1973). A tide in the affairs of women: the psychological impact of feminism on educated women. The CounseIing Psychologis t, 4(1), 3-24.
Wheaton, J. B. & Robinson, D. (1983). Responding to the needs of reentry women: A comprehensive campus model. NASPA Journal, 21(2) , 44-51.
Young, D. & Shoun, S. (1983). Equity in dual career marriages. Journal of NAWDAC, 9-12.
![Page 133: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/133.jpg)
APPENDIX
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
124
![Page 134: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/134.jpg)
125
APPENDIX
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear Fellow Student:
I am a graduate student in the Department of Educational Psychology at Texas Tech University.
Your participation in the research for my doctoral dissertation would be appreciated. The topic is role strain in women who function in multiple roles of wife, mother, student, worker, etc.
This research advocates neither a feminist nor a traditional view of women's issues. Rather we seek to determine whether or not role strain is a viable concern for local university and college women. By sharing your experiences on how role strain may (or may not) apply in your life, you will enable us to draw more reliable inferences from this research.
The enclosed survey take s about twenty minute s to comple te. Please fill yours in today and return it to me in the stamped envelope. Nothing else is needed.
Confidentiality is guaranteed. All data will be recorded by code number. At no time will your name be associated with your response. Your privacy is important to me and I will respect it.
If you have any questions, I can be reached at 797-2539. Thank you for your participation. Good luck in your studies.
Sincerely yours.
Geraldine Menger
![Page 135: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/135.jpg)
126
BIOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
University or College Department
Hours Enrolled Age
Freshman Junior Master's Student Sophomore Senior Doctoral Student
Married Separated Divorced Widowed
Ages of children living at home
Number of years residing in West Texas
Your Current Fulltime Parttime Employment Unemployed Hours Weekly_
Husband ' s occupatio n
Husband's educa t ion
Family Income $ 5-10,000 $30-40,000 $10-20,000 $40-50,000 $20-30,000 $50,000 +
REASONS FOR RETURNING TO SCHOOL: Start a career Personal fulfillment Upgrade skills Escape boredom/routine Job certification Complete degree Employer's request Other
![Page 136: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/136.jpg)
127
MAJOR PROBLEMS/DIFFICULTIES YOU HAVE ENCOUNTERED: Time management Family adjustments Class scheduling Husband support Learning to study Financ ial Exam anxiety Staying motivated Writing papers Commut ing College bureaucracy Fat igue Faculty attitudes Other
DIRECTIONS: Please indicate how much you AGREE/DISAGREE with these statements. Circle the answer which best describes your feelings.
1 - Strongly Agree 2 - Agree
3 - Disagree 4 - Strongly Disagree
1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
2. At times I think I am no good at all.
SA
1
I
A
2
SD
4
3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
5. I feel that I do not have much to be proud of.
6. I certainly feel useless at t imes.
7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
![Page 137: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/137.jpg)
128
9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
10, I take a positive attitude toward myself.
SA A
1 2
1 2
D
3
SD
4
DIRECTIONS: The following statements represent experiences,.,ways of doing things, or beliefs, or preferences,..that are true of some people but are not true of others. Read each statement and decide whether or not it is true with respect to yourself.
If it is true or mos tly true, circle "True". If it is false or mos tly false, circle the word "False".
11, I am often sick to ray storaach,
12, I am about as nervous as other people,
13, I work under a great deal of strain,
14, I blush as often as others,
15, I worry quite a bit over possible t rouble s,
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
When embarrassed, I often break out in a sweat which is very annoying.
I do not often notice ray heart pounding and I ara seldom short of breath.
At times I lose sleep over worry
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
My sleep is restless and disturbed. True
I often dream about things I don't like to tell other people. True
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
![Page 138: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/138.jpg)
129
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
My feelings are hurt easier than most people. True
I often find myself worrying about something. True
I wish I could be as happy as others. True
I feel anxious about something or someone almost all the time. True
At times I am so restless that I cannot sit in a chair for very long. True
I have often felt that I faced so many difficulties I could not overcome them. True
At times I have been worried beyond reason about something that really did not matter. True
I do not have as many fears as my friends. True
I am more self-conscious than most people. True
I ara the kind of person who takes things hard. True
I ara a very nervous person. True
Life is often a strain for me. True
I am not at all confident of myself.True
At times I feel that I am going to crack up. True
I don't like to face a difficulty or make an important decision. True
False
False
False
False
False
False
36, I ara very confident of myself. True
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
False
![Page 139: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/139.jpg)
130
DIRECTIONS: Please indicate how much you AGREE/DISAGREE with the following statements. Do not spend too much time on any question. There are no right or wrong answers. Just circle the answer which best describes how you feel.
1 - Disagree Strongly 2 - Disagree
3 - Agree 4 - Agree Strongly
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
I wish I had completed college before marriage and family,
I feel conflict between my own self- fulfillment and family duties.
DS
1
1
Integrating responsibilities as a wife-mother-student is difficult, 1
My husband's lack of support makes ray college work difficult. 1
If I did not attend college, I would be better able to finish household tasks. 1
D
2
A
3
AS
4
42.
43.
44.
45.
46,
47,
I do not feel that I can do everything my husband/family expects of rae, 1
At tiraes I feel pulled between the deraands of ray husband/faraily and the deraands of ray college work, 1
My college work takes too rauch tirae away frora my family, 1
My marriage is jeopardized by my attending college. 1
At times I feel overburdened with home, faraily, work and school responsibilities, 1
If my husband would help me more with the children and housework, my college work would be less of a burden. 1
![Page 140: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/140.jpg)
131
DS AS
48.
49.
50.
51,
52,
I could be a better mother if my college work were not so demanding,
I ara not able to spend enough time with my children and also meet the demands of my college work.
My family resents the time I spend on my studies.
While at school I often worry about how well I ara caring for ray family.
At times I feel overwhelmed with responsibilities.
53. I feel under pressure.
54. Tirae probleras are ray most frequent source of concern.
55. I do not get sufficient rest or recreat ion.
56. I feel tired raost of the time.
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
57. I feel guilty pursuing my education.
58. I no longer entertain as much as be fore.
59. I feel guilty if I fail a test.
60. Faraily routine has been disrupted by my attending college.
61. I ought to devote more effort to the care of ray horae.
62. I feel guilty when I must tell my ch that I cannot do what he/she wants because I have to study.
63. If my family objects to my personal plans, I change them.
Id
3
3
4
4
![Page 141: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/141.jpg)
64. I do not give my husband enough time and attention.
65. I do not give my children enough time and attention.
DS
1
D
66. I feel guilty asking my family to take on extra responsibilities since I'm in school. 1 2
132
AS
67, My husband does not support my efforts as a student. 1
68, My husband's support is consistent as long as ray college responsibilities do not interfere with household rout ine, 1
69, My husband does not finance my educat ion.
70,
71 ,
72,
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
My husband does not understand me. 1 2
I have more conflicts with my husband since I enrolled in college. 1 2
The stability of our marriage has been threatened by my return to college. 1 2
Our sexual relationship has deteriorated since my involvement with college. 1 2
I ara concerned about what might happen to my relationship with my husband after I complete my education. 1
My husband is not helpful in sharing household chores. 1
My husband criticizes ray housekeeping. 1
I do not feel ray husband "is there" when I need him. 1
4
4
![Page 142: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/142.jpg)
133
DS AS
78.
79.
80.
My husband is not interested in my school work.
My husband does not understand ray difficulties/problems in school.
My husband rarely praises my accomplishments as a student. 1
81. My husband believes his career should take precedence over mine. 1
DIRECTIONS: Listed below are a few incomplete sentence stems. Please finish each in your own words. Write the answer which best describes your feelings. Don't spend too rauch time on any one sentence. There are no right or wrong answers.
Raising a family
Most men think that women
Being with other people
The thing I like about myself is
What gets me into trouble
Woraen are lucky because
A wife should
![Page 143: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/143.jpg)
134
When I ara nervous, I
Men are lucky because
I ara
A woraan feels good when
My raain problem is
The worst thing about being a woman is
When I am with a raan
If I can't get what I want
Usually she felt that sex
For a woraan a career is
A woraan should always
![Page 144: 7 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSITIONAL ROLL STRAIN by A](https://reader031.vdocument.in/reader031/viewer/2022013000/61c91fbf3f44011b5237284b/html5/thumbnails/144.jpg)