7153482 ortega y gasset the revolt of the masses

7/29/2019 7153482 Ortega y Gasset the Revolt of the Masses

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1930THEREVOLTOFTHEMASSESbyJoseOrtegayGassett

PREFATORYNOTEINmybookEspanaInvertebrada,publishedin1922,inanarticleinElSolentitled"Masas"(1926),andintwolecturesgiventotheAssociationofFriendsofArtinBuenosAires(1928),Ihavetreatedthesubjectdevelopedinthepresentessay.MypurposenowistocollectandcompletewhatIhavealreadysaid,soastoproduceanorganicdoctrineconcerningthemostimportantfactofourtime.CHAPTERI:THECOMINGOFTHEMASSESTHEREisonefactwhich,whetherforgoodorill,isofutmostimportanceinthepubliclifeofEuropeatthepresentmoment.Thisfactistheaccessionofthemassestocompletesocialpower.Asthemasses,bydefinition,neithershouldnorcandirecttheirownpersonalexistence,andstilllessrulesocietyingeneral,thisfactmeansthatactuallyEuropeissufferingfromthegreatestcrisisthatcanafflictpeoples,nations,andcivilisation.Suchacrisishasoccurredmorethanonceinhistory.Itscharacteristicsanditsconsequencesarewellknown.Soalsoisitsname.Itiscalledtherebellionofthemasses.Inordertounderstandthisformidablefact,itisimportantfromthestarttoavoidgivingtothewords"rebellion,""masses,"and"socialpower"ameaningexclusivelyorprimarilypolitical.Publiclifeisnotsolelypolitical,butequally,andevenprimarily,intellectual,moral,economic,religious;itcomprisesallourcollectivehabits,includingourfashionsbothofdressandofamusement.Perhapsthebestlineofapproachtothishistoricalphenomenonmaybefoundbyturningourattentiontoavisualexperience,stressingoneaspectofourepochwhichisplaintoourveryeyes.Thisfactisquitesimpletoenunciate,thoughnotsotoanalyse.Ishallcallitthefacto

fagglomeration,of"plenitude."Townsarefullofpeople,housesfulloftenants,hotelsfullofguests,trainsfulloftravellers,cafesfullofcustomers,parksfullofpromenaders,consulting-roomsoffamousdoctorsfunofpatients,theatresfullofspectators,andbeachesfullofbathers.Whatpreviouslywas,ingeneral,noproblem,nowbeginstobeaneverydayone,namely,tofindroom.Thatisall.Cantherebeanyfactsimpler,morepatentmoreconstantinactuallife?Letusnowpiercetheplainsurfaceofthisobservationandweshallbesurprisedtoseehowtherewellsforthanunexpectedspringinwhichthewhitelightofday,ofouractualday,isbrokenupintoitsrichchromaticcontent.Whatisitthatwesee,andthesightofwhichcausesussomuchsurprise?Weseethemultitude,assuch,inpossessionoftheplacesandtheinstrumentscreatedbycivilisation.Theslightestreflectionwillthenmakeussurprisedatourownsurprise.Whataboutit?Isthisnottheidealstateofthings?Thetheatrehasseats

tobeoccupied-inotherwords,sothatthehousemaybefull-andnowtheyareoverflowing;peopleanxioustousethemareleftstandingoutside.


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Thoughthefactbequitelogicalandnatural,wecannotbutrecognisethatthisdidnothappenbeforeandthatnowitdoes;consequently,therehasbeenachange,aninnovation,whichjustifies,atleastforthefirstmoment,oursurprise.Tobesurprised,towonder,istobegintounderstand.Thisisthesport,theluxury,specialtotheintellectualman.Thegesturecharacteristicofhistribeconsistsinlookingattheworldwitheyeswideopeninwonder.Everythingintheworldisstrangeandmarvelloustowell-openeyes.Thisfacultyofwonderisthedelightrefusedtoyourfootball"fan,"and,ontheotherhand,istheonewhichleadstheintellectualmanthroughlifeintheperpetualecstasyofthevisionary.Hisspecialattributeisthewonderoftheeyes.HenceitwasthattheancientsgaveMinervaherowl,thebirdwithever-dazzledeyes.Agglomeration,fullness,wasnotfrequentbefore.Whythenisitnow?Thecomponentsofthemultitudesaroundushavenotsprungfromnothing.Approximatelythesamenumberofpeopleexistedfifteenyearsago.Indeed,afterthewaritmightseemnaturalthattheirnumbershouldbeless.Nevertheless,itisherewecomeupagainstthefirstimportantpoint.Theindividualswhomadeupthesemultitudesexisted,butnotquamultitude.Scatteredaboutthewotldinsmallgroups,orsolitary,theylivedalife,toallappearances,divergent,dissociate,apart.Eachindividualorsmallgroupoccupiedaplace,itsown,incountry,village,town,orquarterofthegreatcity.Now,suddenly,theyappearasanagglomeration,andlookinginanydirectionoureyesmeetwiththemultitudes.Notonlyinanydirection,butpreciselyinthebestplaces,therelativelyrefinedcreationofhumanculture,previouslyreservedtolessergroups,inaword,tominorities.Themultitudehassuddenlybecomevisible,installingitselfinthepreferentialpositionsinso

ciety.Before,ifitexisted,itpassedunnoticed,occupyingthebackgroundofthesocialstage;nowithasadvancedtothefootlightsandistheprincipalcharacter.Therearenolongerprotagonists;thereisonlythechorus.Theconceptofthemultitudeisquantitativeandvisual.Withoutchangingitsnature,letustranslateitintotermsofsociology.Wethenmeetwiththenotionofthe"socialmass."Societyisalwaysadynamicunityoftwocomponentfactors:minoritiesandmasses.Theminoritiesareindividualsorgroupsofindividualswhicharespeciallyqualified.Themassistheassemblageofpersonsnotspeciallyqualified.Bymasses,then,isnottobeunderstood,solelyormainly,"theworkingmasses."Themassistheaverageman.Inthiswaywhatwasmerequantity-themultitude-isconvertedintoaqualitativedetermination:itbecomesthecommonsocialquality,manasundifferentiatedfromothermen,butasrepeatinginhimselfagenerictype.Whathavewegainedbythisconversionofquantityintoquality?Si

mplythis:bymeansofthelatterweunderstandthegenesisoftheformer.Itisevidenttothevergeofplatitudethatthenormalformationofamultitudeimpliesthecoincidenceofdesires,ideas,waysoflife,intheindividualswhoconstituteit.Itwillbeobjectedthatthisisjustwhathappenswitheverysocialgroup,howeverselectitmaystrivetobe.Thisistrue;butthereisanessentialdifference.Inthosegroupswhicharecharacterisedbynotbeingmultitudeandmass,theeffectivecoincidenceofitsmembersisbasedonsomedesire,idea,orideal,whichofitselfexcludesthegreatnumber.Toformaminority,ofwhateverkind,itisnecessarybeforehandthateachmemberseparatehimselffromthe


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multitudeforspecial,relativelypersonal,reasons.Theircoincidencewiththeotherswhoformtheminorityis,then,secondary,posteriortotheirhavingeachadoptedanattitudeofsingularity,andisconsequently,toalargeextent,acoincidenceinnotcoinciding.Therearecasesinwhichthissingularisingcharacterofthegroupappearsinthelightofday:thoseEnglishgroups,whichstylethemselves"nonconformists,"wherewehavethegroupingtogetherofthosewhoagreeonlyintheirdisagreementinregardtothelimitlessmultitude.Thiscomingtogetheroftheminoritypreciselyinordertoseparatethemselvesfromthemajorityisanecessaryingredientintheformationofeveryminority.Speakingofthelimitedpublicwhichlistenedtoamusicianofrefinement,Mallarmewittilysaysthatthispublicbyitspresenceinsmallnumbersstressedtheabsenceofthemultitude.Strictlyspeaking,themass,asapsychologicalfact,canbedefinedwithoutwaitingforindividualstoappearinmassformation.Inthepresenceofoneindividualwecandecidewhetherheis"mass"ornot.Themassisallthatwhichsetsnovalueonitself-goodorill-basedonspecificgrounds,butwhichfeelsitself"justlikeeverybody,"andneverthelessisnotconcernedaboutit;is,infact,quitehappytofeelitselfasonewitheverybodyelse.Imagineahumble-mindedmanwho,havingtriedtoestimatehisownworthonspecificgrounds-askinghimselfifhehasanytalentforthisorthat,ifheexcelsinanydirection-realisesthathepossessesnoqualityofexcellence.Suchamanwillfeelthatheismediocreandcommonplace,ill-gifted,butwillnotfeelhimself"mass."Whenonespeaksof"selectminorities"itisusualfortheevil-mindedtotwistthesenseofthisexpression,pretendingtobeunawarethattheselectmanisnotthepetulantpersonwhothinkshimselfsuperiortotherest,buttheman

whodemandsmoreofhimselfthantherest,eventhoughhemaynotfulfilinhispersonthosehigherexigencies.Forthereisnodoubtthatthemostradicaldivisionthatitispossibletomakeofhumanityisthatwhichsplitsitintotwoclassesofcreatures:thosewhomakegreatdemandsonthemselves,pilingupdifficultiesandduties;andthosewhodemandnothingspecialofthemselves,butforwhomtoliveistobeeverymomentwhattheyalreadyare,withoutimposingonthemselvesanyefforttowardsperfection;merebuoysthatfloatonthewaves.ThisremindsmethatorthodoxBuddhismiscomposedoftwodistinctreligions:one,morerigorousanddifficult,theothereasierandmoretrivial:theMahayana-"greatvehicle"or"greatpath"-andtheHinayana-"lesservehicle"or"lesserpath."Thedecisivematteriswhetherweattachourlifetooneortheothervehicle,toamaximumoraminimumofdemandsuponourselves.Thedivisionofsocietyintomassesandselectminoritiesis,then,notadivisionintosocialclasses,b

utintoclassesofmen,andcannotcoincidewiththehierarchicseparationof"upper"and"lower"classes.Itis,ofcourse,plainthatinthese"upper"classes,whenandaslongastheyreallyareso,thereismuchmorelikelihoodoffindingmenwhoadoptthe"greatvehicle,"whereasthe"lower"classesnormallycompriseindividualsofminusquality.But,strictlyspeaking,withinboththesesocialclasses,therearetobefoundmassandgenuineminority.Asweshalsee,acharacteristicofourtimesisthepredominance,eveningroupstraditionallyselective,ofthemassandthevulgar.Thus,intheintellectuallife,whichofitsessencerequiresandpresupposesqualification,onecannotetheprogressivetriumphofthepseudo-intellectual,unqualified,


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unqualifiable,and,bytheirverymentaltexture,disqualified.Similarly,inthesurvivinggroupsofthe"nobility",maleandfemale.Ontheotherhand,itisnotraretofindto-dayamongstworkingmen,whobeforemightbetakenasthebestexampleofwhatwearecalling"mass,"noblydisciplinedminds.Thereexist,then,insociety,operations,activities,andfunctionsofthemostdiverseorder,whichareoftheirverynaturespecial,andwhichconsequentlycannotbeproperlycarriedoutwithoutspecialgifts.Forexample:certainpleasuresofanartisticandrefinedcharacter,oragainthefunctionsofgovernmentandofpoliticaljudgmentinpublicaffairs.Previouslythesespecialactivitieswereexercisedbyqualifiedminorities,oratleastbythosewhoclaimedsuchqualification.Themassassertednorighttointerveneinthem;theyrealisedthatiftheywishedtointervenetheywouldnecessarilyhavetoacquirethosespecialqualitiesandceasebeingmeremass.Theyrecognisedtheirplaceinahealthydynamicsocialsystem.Ifwenowreverttothefactsindicatedatthestart,theywillappearclearlyastheheraldsofachangedattitudeinthemass.Theyallindicatethatthemasshasdecidedtoadvancetotheforegroundofsociallife,tooccupytheplaces,tousetheinstrumentsandtoenjoythepleasureshithertoreservedtothefew.Itisevident,forexample,thattheplaceswereneverintendedforthemultitude,fortheirdimensionsaretoolimited,andthecrowdiscontinuouslyoverflowing;thusmanifestingtooureyesandintheclearestmannerthenewphenomenon:themass,withoutceasingtobemass,issupplantingtheminorities.Noone,Ibelieve,willregretthatpeopleareto-dayenjoyingthemselvesingreatermeasureandnumbersthanbefore,sincetheyhavenowboththedesireandthemeansofsatisfyingit.Theevilliesinthefactthatthisdecisiontakenbyt

hemassestoassumetheactivitiespropertotheminoritiesisnot,andcannotbe,manifestedsolelyinthedomainofpleasure,butthatitisageneralfeatureofourtime.Thus-toanticipatewhatweshallseelater-Ibelievethatthepoliticalinnovationsofrecenttimessignifynothinglessthanthepoliticaldominationofthemasses.Theolddemocracywastemperedbyagenerousdoseofliberalismandofenthusiasmforlaw.Byservingtheseprinciplestheindividualboundhimselftomaintainaseveredisciplineoverhimself.Undertheshelterofliberalprinciplesandtheruleoflaw,minoritiescouldliveandact.Democracyandlaw-lifeincommonunderthelaw-weresynonymous.Todaywearewitnessingthetriumphsofahyperdemocracyinwhichthemassactsdirectly,outsidethelaw,imposingitsaspirationsanditsdesiresbymeansofmaterialpressure.Itisafalseinterpretationofthenewsituationtosaythatthemasshasgrowntiredofpoliticsandhandedovertheexerciseofittospecialisedpersons.Quitethe

contrary.Thatwaswhathappenedpreviously;thatwasdemocracy.Themasstookitforgrantedthatafterall,inspiteoftheirdefectsandweaknesses,theminoritiesunderstoodalittlemoreofpublicproblemsthanitdiditself.Now,ontheotherhand,themassbelievesthatithastherighttoimposeandtogiveforceoflawtonotionsborninthecafe.Idoubtwhethertherehavebeenotherperiodsofhistoryinwhichthemultitudehascometogovernmoredirectlythaninourown.ThatiswhyIspeakofhyperdemocracy.Thesamethingishappeninginotherorders,particularlyintheintellectual.Imaybemistaken,butthepresent-daywriter,whenhetakeshispeninhandtotreatasubjectwhichhehasstudied


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deeply,hastobearinmindthattheaveragereader,whohasneverconcernedhimselfwiththissubject,ifhereadsdoessowiththeview,notoflearningsomethingfromthewriter,butrather,ofpronouncingjudgmentonhimwhenheisnotinagreementwiththecommonplacesthatthesaidreadercarriesinhishead.Iftheindividualswhomakeupthemassbelievedthemselvesspeciallyqualified,itwouldbeacasemerelyofpersonalerror,notasociologicalsubversion.Thecharacteristicofthehouristhatthecommonplacemind,knowingitselftobecommonplace,hastheassurancetoproclaimtherightsofthecommonplaceandtoimposethemwhereveritwill.AstheysayintheUnitedStates:"tobedifferentistobeindecent."Themasscrushesbeneathiteverythingthatisdifferent,everythingthatisexcellent,individual,qualifiedandselect.Anybodywhoisnotlikeeverybody,whodoesnotthinklikeeverybody,runstheriskofbeingeliminated.Anditisclear,ofcourse,thatthis"everybody"isnot"everybody.""Everybody"wasnormallythecomplexunityofthemassandthedivergent,specialisedminorities.Nowadays,"everybody"isthemassalone.Herewehavetheformidablefactofourtimes,describedwithoutanyconcealmentofthebrutalityofitsfeatures.CHAPTERII:THERISEOFTHEHISTORICLEVELSUCH,then,istheformidablefactofourtimes,describedwithoutanyconcealmentofthebrutalityofitsfeatures.Itis,furthermore,entirelynewinthehistoryofourmoderncivilisation.Never,inthecourseofitsdevelopment,hasanythingsimilarhappened.Ifwewishtofinditslikeweshallhavetotakealeapoutsideourmodernhistoryandimmerseourselvesinaworld,avitalelement,entirelydifferentfromourown;weshallhavetopenetratetheancientworldtillwereachthehourofitsdecline.ThehistoryoftheRomanEmpireisalsothehistoryoftheuprisingoft

heEmpireoftheMasses,whoabsorbandannulthedirectingminoritiesandputthemselvesintheirplace.Then,also,isproducedthephenomenonofagglomeration,of"thefull."Forthatreason,asSpenglerhasverywellobserved,itwasnecessary,justasinourday,toconstructenormousbuildings.Theepochofthemassesistheepochofthecolossal.*Weareliving,then,underthebrutalempireofthemasses.justso;Ihavenowtwicecalledthisempire"brutal,"andhavethuspaidmytributetothegodofthecommonplace.Now,ticketinhand,Icancheerfullyenterintomysubject,seetheshowfrominside.OrperhapsitwasthoughtthatIwasgoingtobesatisfiedwiththatdescription,possiblyexact,butquiteexternal;themerefeatures,theaspectunderwhichthistremendousfactpresentsitselfwhenlookedatfromtheview-pointofthepast?IfIweretoleavethematterhereandstrangleoffmypresentessaywithoutmoreado,thereaderwouldbeleftthinking,andquitejustly,thatthisfabulousuprisingofthe

massesabovethesurfaceofhistoryinspiredmemerelywithafewpetulant,disdainfulwords,acertainamountofhatredandacertainamountofdisgust.Thisallthemoreinmycase,whenitiswellknownthatIupholdaradicallyaristocraticinterpretationofhistory.Radically,becauseIhaveneversaidthathumansocietyoughttobearistocratic,butagreatdealmorethanthat.WhatIhavesaid,andstillbelievewithever-increasingconviction,isthathumansocietyisalways,whetheritwillorno,aristocraticbyitsveryessence,totheextremethatitisasocietyinthemeasurethatitisaristocratic,andceases


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tobesuchwhenitceasestobearistocratic.OfcourseIamspeakingnowofsocietyandnotoftheState.Noonecanimaginethat,inthefaceofthisfabulousseethingofthemasses,itisthearistocraticattitudetobesatisfiedwithmakingasuperciliousgrimace,likeafinegentlemanofVersailles.Versailles-theVersaillesofthegrimaces-doesnotrepresentaristocracy;quitethecontrary,itisthedeathanddissolutionofamagnificentaristocracy.Forthisreason,theonlyelementofaristocracyleftinsuchbeingswasthedignifiedgracewithwhichtheirnecksreceivedtheattentionsoftheguillotine;theyaccepteditasthetumouracceptsthelancet.No;foranyonewhohasasenseoftherealmissionofaristocracies,thespectacleofthemassincitesandenflameshim,asthesightofvirginmarbledoesthe.sculptor.Socialaristocracyhasnoresemblancewhatevertothattinygroupwhichclaimsforitselfalonethenameofsociety,whichcallsitself"Society";peoplewholivebyinvitingornotinvitingoneanother.Sinceeverythingintheworldhasitsvirtueanditsmission,sowithinthevastworldthissmall"smartworld"hasitsown,butitisaverysubordinatemission,nottobecomparedwiththeherculeantaskofgenuinearistocracies.Ishouldhavenoobjectiontodiscussingthemeaningthatliesinthissmartworld,toallappearancesomeaningless,butoursubjectisnowoneofgreaterproportions.Ofcourse,thisself-same"distinguishedsociety"goeswiththetimes.Muchfoodforthoughtwasgivenmebyacertainjeunefilleenfleur,fullofyouthandmodernity,astarofthefirstmagnitudeinthefirmamentof"smart"Madrid,whenshesaidtome:"Ican'tstandadancetowhichlessthaneighthundredpeoplehavebeeninvited."BehindthisphraseIperceivedthatthestyleofthemassesistriumphantoverthewholeareaofmodernlife,andimposesitself

eveninthoseshelteredcornerswhichseemedreservedforthe"happyfew."*ThetragicthingaboutthisprocessisthatwhiletheseagglomerationswereinformationtherewasbeginningthatdepopulationofthecountrysidewhichwastoresultinanabsolutedecreaseofthenumberofinhabitantsintheEmpire.Irejectequally,then,theinterpretationofourtimeswhichdoesnotlayclearthepositivemeaninghiddenundertheactualruleofthemassesandthatwhichacceptsitblissfully,withoutashudderofhorror.Everydestinyisdramatic,tragicinitsdeepestmeaning.Whoeverhasnotfeltthedangerofourtimespalpitatingunderhishand,hasnotreallypenetratedtothevitalsofdestiny,hehasmerelyprickeditssurface.Theelementofterrorinthedestinyofourtimeisfurnishedbytheoverwhelmingandviolentmoralupheavalofthemasses;imposing,invincible,andtreacherous,asisdestinyineverycase.Whitheritleadingus?Isitanabsoluteevilorapossiblegood?Thereitis,colossal,astrideourtimes

likeagiant,acosmicnoteofinterrogation,alwaysofuncertainshape,withsomethinginitoftheguillotineorthegallows,butalsowithsomethingthatstrivestorounditselfintoatriumphalarch.Thefactthatwemustsubmittoexaminationmaybeformulatedundertwoheadings:first,themassesareto-dayexercisingfunctionsinsociallifewhichcoincidewiththosewhichhithertoseemedreservedtominorities;andsecondly,thesemasseshaveatthesametimeshownthemselvesindociletotheminorities-theydonotobeythem,followthem,orrespectthem;onthecontrary,they


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pushthemasideandsupplantthem.Letusanalysewhatcomesunderthefirstheading.ByitImeanthatthemassesenjoythepleasuresandusetheinstrumentsinventedbytheselectgroups,andhithertoexclusivelyattheserviceofthelatter.Theyfeelappetitesandneedswhichwerepreviouslylookeduponasrefine.ments,inasmuchastheywerethepatrimonyofthefew.Takeatrivialexample:in1820therecannothavebeentenbathroomsinprivatehousesinParis(seetheMemoirsoftheComtessedeBoigne).Butfurthermore,themassesto-dayareacquaintedwith,andusewithrelativeskill,manyofthetechnicalaccomplishmentspreviouslyconfinedtospecialisedindividuals.Andthisrefersnotonlytothetechniqueofmaterialobjects,but,moreimportant,tothatoflawsandsociety.IntheXVIIIthCentury,certainminoritygroupsdiscoveredthateveryhumanbeing,bythemerefactofbirth,andwithoutrequiringanyspecialqualificationwhatsoever,possessedcertainfundamentalpoliticalrights,theso-calledrightsofthemanandthecitizenandfurtherthat,strictlyspeaking,theserights,commontoall,aretheonlyonesthatexist.Everyotherrightattachedtospecialgiftswascondemnedasbeingaprivilege.Thiswasatfirstameretheory,theideaofafewmen;thenthosefewbegantoputtheideaintopractice,toimposeitandinsistuponit.Nevertheless,duringthewholeoftheXIXthCentury,themass,whilegraduallybecomingenthusiasticforthoserightsasanideal,didnotfeelthemasrights,didnotexercisethemorattempttomakethemprevail,but,infact,underdemocraticlegislation,continuedtofeelitselfjustasundertheoldregime.The"people"asitwasthencalled-the"people"hadlearnedthatitwassovereign,butdidnotbelieveit.To-daytheidealhasbeenchangedintoareality;notonlyinlegislation,whichisthemereframeworkofpubliclif

e,butintheheartofeveryindividual,whateverhisideasmaybe,andevenifhebeareactionaryinhisideas,thatistosay,evenwhenheattacksandcastigatesinstitutionsbywhichthoserightsaresanctioned.Tomymind,anyonewhodoesnotrealisethiscuriousmoralsituationofthemassescanunderstandnothingofwhatisto-daybeginningtohappenintheworld.Thesovereigntyoftheunqualifiedindividual,ofthehumanbeingassuch,generically,hasnowpassedfrombeingajuridicalideaoridealtobeapsychologicalstateinherentintheaverageman.Andnotethis,thatwhenwhatwasbeforeanidealbecomesacomponentpartofreality,itinevitablyceasestobeanideal.Theprestigeandthemagicthatareattributesoftheidealarevolatilised.Thelevellingdemandsofagenerousdemocraticinspirationhavebeenchangedfromaspirationsandidealsintoappetitesandunconsciousassumptions.Now,themeaningofthisproclamationoftherightsofmanwasnoneotherthantolifthumansoulsfromtheirinterior

servitudeandtoimplantwithinthemacertainconsciousnessofmasteryanddignity.Wasitnotthisthatitwashopedtodo,namely,thattheaveragemanshouldfeelhimselfmaster,lord,andrulerofhimselfandofhislife?Well,thatisnowaccomplished.Why,then,thesecomplaintsoftheliberals,thedemocrats,theprogressivesofthirtyyearsago?Orisitthat,likechildren,theywantsomething,butnottheconsequencesofthatsomething?Youwanttheordinarymantobemaster.Well,donotbesurprisedifheactsforhimself,ifhedemandsallformsofenjoyment,ifhefirmlyassertshiswill,ifherefusesallkindsofservice,ifheceasestobedociletoanyone,ifheconsidershisownpersonandhisownleisure,ifheiscarefulastodress:thesearesomeoftheattributespermanently


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attachedtotheconsciousnessofmastership.To-daywefindthemtakinguptheirabodeintheordinaryman,inthemass.Thesituation,then,isthis:thelifeoftheordinarymanisto-daymadeupofthesame"vitalrepertory"whichbeforecharacterisedonlythesuperiorminorities.Nowtheaveragemanrepresentsthefieldoverwhichthehistoryofeachperiodacts;heistohistorywhatsea-levelistogeography.If,therefore,to-daythemean-levelliesatapointpreviouslyonlyreachedbyaristocracies,thesignificationofthisissimplythatthelevelofhistoryhassuddenlyrisen-afterlongsubterraneouspreparations,itistrue-butnowquiteplainlytotheeyes,suddenly,atabound,inonegeneration.Humanlifetakenasawholehasmountedhigher.Thesoldierofto-day,wemightsay,hasagooddealoftheofficer;thehumanarmyisnowmadeupofofficers.Enoughtowatchtheenergy,thedetermination,theeasewithwhicheachindividualmovesthroughlifeto-day,snatchesatthepassingpleasure,imposeshispersonalwill.Everythingthatisgoodandbadinthepresentandintheimmediatefuturehasitscauseandrootinthegeneralriseofthehistoriclevel.Buthereanobservationthathadnotpreviouslyoccurredtouspresentsitself.Thisfact,thattheordinaryleveloflifeto-dayisthatoftheformerminorities,isanewfactinEurope,butinAmericathenatural,the"constitutional"fact.Torealisemypoint,letthereaderconsiderthematterofconsciousnessofequalitybeforethelaw.Thatpsychologicalstateoffeelinglordandmasterofoneselfandequaltoanybodyelse,whichinEuropeonlyoutstandinggroupssucceededinacquiring,wasinAmericasincetheXVIIIthCentury(andtherefore,practicallyspeaking,always)thenaturalstateofthings.Andafurthercoincidence,stillmorecurious,isthis:whenthispsychologicalconditionoftheordinaryman

appearedinEurope,whenthelevelofhisexistencerose,thetoneandmannersofEuropeanlifeinallorderssuddenlytookonanewappearancewhichcausedmanypeopletosay:"EuropeisbecomingAmericanised."Thosewhospokeinthiswaygavenofurtherattentiontothematter;theythoughtitwasaquestionofaslightchangeofcustom,afashion,and,deceivedbythelookofthings,attributedittosomeinfluenceorotherofAmericaonEurope.This,tomymind,issimplytotrivialiseaquestionwhichismuchmoresubtleandpregnantwithsurprises.Gallantryheremakesanattempttosubornmeintotellingourbrothersbeyondtheseathat,infact,EuropehasbecomeAmericanised,andthatthisisduetoaninfluenceofAmericaonEurope.Butno;truthcomesintoconflictwithgallantry,anditmustprevail.EuropehasnotbeenAmericanised;ithasreceivednogreatinfluencefromAmerica.Possiblyboththesethingsarebeginningtohappenjustnow;buttheydidnotoccurintherecentpartofwhichthepresentisthefl

owering.Thereisfloatingaroundabewilderingmassoffalseideaswhichblindthevisionofbothparties,AmericansandEuropeans.ThetriumphofthemassesandtheconsequentmagnificentuprisingofthevitallevelhavecomeaboutinEuropeforinternalreasons,aftertwocenturiesofeducationofthemultitudetowardsprogressandaparalleleconomicimprovementinsociety.ButitsohappensthattheresultcoincideswiththemostmarkedaspectofAmericanlife;andonaccountofthiscoincidenceofthemoralsituationoftheordinarymaninEuropeandinAmerica,ithascomeaboutthatforthefirsttimetheEuropeanunderstandsAmericanlifewhichwastohimbeforeanenigmaandamystery.Thereisnoquestion,then,ofaninfluence,whichindeedwouldbealittlestrange,wouldbe,infact,a"refluence,"butof


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somethingwhichisstilllesssuspected,namely,ofalevelling.IthasalwaysbeenobscurelyseenbyEuropeansthatthegeneralleveloflifeinAmericawashigherthanintheOldWorld.Itwastheintuition,stronglyfelt,ifunanalysed,ofthisfactwhichgaverisetotheidea,alwaysaccepted,neverchallenged,thatthefuturelieswithAmerica.Itwillbeunderstoodthatsuchanidea,widespreadanddeep-rooted,didnotfloatdownonthewind,asitissaidthatorchidsgrowrootlessintheair.ThebasisofitwastherealisationofahigherlevelofaverageexistenceinAmerica,incontrastwithalowerlevelintheselectminoritiesthereascomparedwiththoseofEurope.Buthistory,likeagriculture,drawsitsnourishmentfromthevalleysandnotfromtheheights,fromtheaveragesociallevelandnotfrommenofeminence.Wearelivinginalevellingperiod;thereisalevellingoffortunes,ofcultureamongthevarioussocialclasses,ofthesexes.Well,inthesamewaythereisalevellingofcontinents,andastheEuropeanwasformerlylowerfromavitalpointofview,hehascomeoutthegainerfromthislevelling.Consequently,fromthisstandpoint,theuprisingofthemassesimpliesafabulousincreaseofvitalpossibilities,quitethecontraryofwhatwehearsooftenaboutthedecadenceofEurope.Thisisaconfusedandclumsyexpression,inwhichitisnotclearwhatisbeingreferredto,whetheritistheEuropeanstates,orEuropeanculture,orwhatliesunderneathallthis,andisofinfinitelygreaterimportance,thevitalactivityofEurope.OfEuropeanstatesandcultureweshallhaveawordtosaylateron-thoughperhapswhatwehavealreadysaidisenough-butasregardsthevitality,itiswelltomakeclearfromthestartthatweareinthepresenceofagrosserror.PerhapsifIgiveitanotherturn,mystatementmayappearmoreconvincingorlessimprobab

le;Isay,then,thatto-daytheaverageItalian,Spaniard,orGermanislessdifferentiatedinvitaltonefromtheNorthAmericanortheArgentinethanhewasthirtyyearsago.AndthisisafactthatthepeopleofAmericaoughtnottoforget.CHAPTERIII:THEHEIGHTOFTHETIMESTHEruleofthemasses,then,presentsafavourableaspect,inasmuchasitsignifiesanall-roundriseinthehistoricallevel,andrevealsthataverageexistenceto-daymovesonahigheraltitudethanthatofyesterday.Thisbringshometousthefactthatlifecanhavedifferentaltitudes,andthatthereisadeepsenseinthephrasethatisoftensenselesslyrepeatedwhenpeoplespeakoftheheightofourtimes.Itwillbewelltopauseandconsiderhere,becausethispointoffersusameansofestablishingoneofthemostsurprisingcharacteristicsofourage.Itissaid,forexample,thatthisorthatmatterisnotworthyoftheheightofacertaintime.And,infact,nottheabstracttimeofchronology,ofthewholetemporalplain,butthevi

taltime,whateachgenerationcalls"ourtime,"hasalwaysacertainelevation;ishigherto-daythanyesterday,orkeepsonthelevel,orfallsbelowit.Theideaoffallingcontainedintheworddecadencehasitsorigininthisintuition.Likewise,eachindividualfeels,withmoreorlessclearness,therelationwhichhisownlifebearstotheheightofthetimethroughwhichheispassing.Therearethosewhofeelamidthemanifestationsofactualexistencelikeashipwreckedmanwhocannotkeephisheadabovewater.Thetempoatwhichthingsmoveat


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present,theforceandenergywithwhicheverythingisdone,causeanguishtothemanofarchaicmould,andthisanguishisthemeasureofthedifferencebetweenhispulse-beatsandthepulse-beatsofthetime.Ontheotherhand,themanwholivescompletelyandpleasurablyinagreementwithactualmodesisconsciousoftherelationbetweenthelevelofourtimeandthatofvariouspasttimes.Whatisthisrelation?Itwouldbewrongtosupposethatthemanofanyparticularperiodalwayslooksuponpasttimesasbelowthelevelofhisown,simplybecausetheyarepast.ItisenoughtorecallthattotheseemingofJorgeManrique,"Anytimegonebywasbetter."Butthisisnotthetrutheither.Noteveryagehasfeltitselfinferiortoanypastage,norhaveallbelievedthemselvessuperiortoeveryprecedingage.Everyhistoricalperioddisplaysadifferentfeelinginrespectofthisstrangephenomenonofthevitalaltitude,andIamsurprisedthatthinkersandhistorianshavenevertakennoteofsuchanevidentandimportantfact.Takenveryroughly,theimpressiondescribedbyJorgeManriquehascertainlybeenthemostgeneralone.Themajorityofhistoricalperiodsdidnotlookupontheirowntimeassuperiortoprecedingages.Onthecontrary,themostusualthinghasbeenformentodreamofbettertimesinavaguepast,ofafullerexistence;ofa"goldenage,"asthosetaughtbyGreeceandRomehaveit;theAlcheringaoftheAustralianbushmen.Thisindicatesthatsuchmenfeelthepulseoftheirownliveslackinginfullvigour,incapableofcompletelyfloodingtheirbloodchannels.Forthisreasontheylookedwithrespectonthepast,on"classic"epochs,whenexistenceseemedtothemfuller,richer,moreperfectandstrenuousthanthelifeoftheirowntime.Astheylookedbackandvisualisedthoseepochsofgreaterworth,theyhadthefeeling,notofdominatingthem,but,on

thecontrary,offallingbelowthem,justasadegreeoftemperature,ifitpossessedconsciousness,mightfeelthatitdoesnotcontainwithinitselfthehigherdegree,thattherearemorecaloriesinthisthaninitself.FromA.D.150on,thisimpressionofashrinkingofvitality,ofafallingfromposition,ofdecayandlossofpulseshowsitselfincreasinglyintheRomanEmpire.HadnotHoracealreadysung:"Ourfathers,vilerthanourgrandfathers,begotuswhoareevenviler,andweshallbringforthaprogenymoredegeneratestill"?**Aetasparentumpejoravistulitnosnequiores,moxdaturosprogeniemvitiosiorem.Odes,III.6.TwocenturieslatertherewerenotinthewholeEmpiresufficientmenofItalianbirthwithcourageequaltofillingtheplacesofthecenturions,anditwasfoundnecessarytohireforthispostfirstDalmatians,andafterwardsBarbariansfromtheDanubeandtheRhine.Inthemeantimethewomenwerebecomingbarren,andItalywasdepopulated.Letusnowturntoanotherkindofepochwhich

enjoysavitalsentiment,seeminglythemostopposedtothelast.Wehavehereaverycuriousphenomenonwhichitismostimportantshouldbedefined.Whennotmorethanthirtyyearsagopoliticiansusedtoperoratebeforethecrowds,itwastheircustomtocondemnsuchandsuchaGovernmentmeasure,someexcessorotheronitspart,bysayingthatitwasunworthyoftheadvancedtimes.Itiscurioustorecallthatwe


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findthesamephraseemployedbyTrajaninhisfamouslettertoPliny,advisinghimnottopersecutetheChristiansonthestrengthofanonymousaccusations:necnostrisaeculiest.Therehavebeen,then,variousperiodsinhistorywhichhavefeltthemselvesashavingattainedafull,definitiveheight,periodsinwhichitisthoughtthattheendofajourneyhasbeenreached,along-feltdesireobtained,ahopecompletelyfulfilled.Thisis"theplenitudeofthetime,"thefullripeningofhistoriclife.And,infact,thirtyyearsago,theEuropeanbelievedthathumanlifehadcometobewhatitoughttobe,whatforgenerationspreviousithadbeendesiringtobe,whatitwashenceforwardalwaysboundtobe.Theseepochsofplenitudealwaysregardthemselvesastheresultofmanyotherpreparatoryperiods,ofothertimeslackinginplenitude,inferiortotheirown,abovewhichthistimeoffull-flowerhasrisen.Seenfromthisheight,thosepreparatoryperiodsgivetheimpressionthatduringthemlifewasanaffairofmerelongingandillusionunrealised,ofunsatisfieddesire,ofeagerprecursors,atimeof"notyet,"ofpainfulcontrastbetweenthedefiniteaspirationandtherealitywhichdoesnotcorrespondtoit.ThustheXIXthCenturylooksupontheMiddleAges.Atlength,thedayarrivesonwhichthatold,sometimesagelong,desireseemstobefullyattained,realityacceptsitandsubmitstoit.Wehavearrivedattheheightswehadinview,thegoaltowhichwehadlookedforward,thesummitoftime.To"notyee,hassucceeded"atlast."Thiswasthefeelingwithregardtotheirowntimeheldbyourfathersandalltheircentury.Letitnotbeforgotten;ourtimeisatimewhichfollowsonaperiodofplenitude.Henceitisthat,inevitably,themanlivingontheotherbank,themanofthatplenaryepochjustpast,whoseeseverythingfromhisownview-point,willsufferfrom

theopticalillusionofregardingourageasafallfromplenitude,asadecadentperiod.Butthelifelongstudentofhistory,thepractisedfeelerofthepulseoftimes,cannotallowhimselftobedeceivedbythissystemofopticsbasedonimaginaryperiodsofplenitude.AsIhavesaid,forsucha"plenitudeoftime"toexist,itisnthatalong-feltdesire,draggingitsanxious,eagerwaythroughcenturies,isatlastonedaysatisfied,andinfacttheseplenaryperiodsaretimeswhichareself-satisfied;occasionally,asintheXIXthCentury,morethansatisfiedwiththemselves.*Butwearenowbeginningtorealisethatthesecenturies,soself-satisfied,soperfectlyrounded-off,aredeadwithin.Genuinevitalintegritydoesnotconsistinsatisfaction,inattainment,inarrival.AsCervantessaidlongsince:"Theroadisalwaysbetterthantheinn."Whenaperiodhassatisfieditsdesires,itsideal,thismeansthatitdesiresnothingmore;thatthewellsofdesirehavebeendriedup.Thatistosay,ourfamousplenit

udeisinrealityacomingtoanend.Therearecenturieswhichdieofself-satisfactionthroughnotknowinghowtorenewtheirdesires,justasthehappydronediesafterthenuptialflight.*(2)*InthemouldsforthecoinageofHadrian,wereadphrasesasthese:ItatiaFelix,Saeculumaureum,Tellusstabilita,Temporumfelicitas.BesidesthegreatworkonnumismaticsofCohen,seethecoinsreproducedinRostowzeff,SocialandEconomicHistoryoftheRomanEmpire,1926,PlateLII,andp.588,note6.*(2)ThewonderfulpagesofHegelonperiodsofself-satisfactioninhisPhilosophyofHistoryshouldberead.


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Hencewehavetheastonishingfactthattheseepochsofso-calledplenitudehavealwaysfeltinthedepthsoftheirconsciousnessaspecialformofsadness.Thedesiressolonginconception,whichtheXIXthCenturyseemsatlasttorealise,iswhatitnamedforitselfinawordas"modernculture."Theverynameisadisturbingone;thistimecallsitself"modern,"thatistosay,final,definitive,inwhosepresenceantherestismerepreterite,humblepreparationandaspirationtowardsthispresent.Nervelessarrowswhichmisstheirmark!**Theprimarymeaningofthewords"modern,""modernity,"withwhichrecenttimeshavebaptisedthemselves,bringsoutverysharplythatfeelingof"theheightoftime"whichIamatpresentanalysing."Modern"iswhatis"inthefashion,"thatistosay,thenewfashionormodificationwhichhasarisenoveragainsttheoldtraditionalfashionsusedinthepast.Theword"modern"thenexpressesaconsciousnessofanewlife,superiortotheoldone,andatthesametimeanimperativecalltobeattheheightofone'stime.Forthe"modern"man,nottobe"modern"meanstofallbelowthehistoriclevel.Dowenotheretouchupontheessentialdifferencebetweenourtimeandthatwhichhasjustpassedaway?Ourtime,infact,nolongerregardsitselfasdefinitive,onthecontrary,itdiscovers,thoughobscurely,deepwithinitselfanintuitionthattherearenosuchepochs,definitive,assured,crystallisedforever.Quitethereverse,theclaimthatacertaintypeofexistence-theso-called"modernculture"-isdefinitiveseemstousanincrediblenarrowingdownandshuttingoutofthefieldofvision.Andasaneffectofthisfeefingweenjoyadelightfulimpressionofhavingescapedfromahermeticallysealedenclosure,ofhavingregainedfreedom,ofcomingoutonceagainunderthestarsintotheworldofreality,theworldoftheprofound,the

terrible,theunforeseeable,theinexhaustible,whereeverythingispossible,thebestandtheworst.Thatfaithinmodernculturewasagloomyone.Itmeantthatto-morrowwastobeinallessentialssimilartoto-day,thatprogressconsistedmerelyinadvancing,foralltimetobe,alongaroadidenticaltotheonealreadyunderourfeet.Sucharoadisratherakindofelasticprisonwhichstretchesonwithouteversettingusfree.WhenintheearlystagesoftheEmpiresomeculturedprovincial-LucanorSeneca-arrivedinRome,andsawthemagnificentimperialbuildings,symbolsofanenduringpower,hefelthisheartcontractwithinhim.Nothingnewcouldnowhappenintheworld.Romewaseternal.Andifthereisamelancholyofruinswhichrisesabovethemlikeexhalationsfromstagnantwaters,thissensitiveprovincialfeltamelancholynolessheavy,thoughofoppositesign:themelancholyofbuildingsmeantforeternity.Overagainstthisemotionalstate,isitnotclearthatthefeelingsofourtimearemorelike

thenoisyjoyofchildrenletloosefromschool?Nowadayswenolongerknowwhatisgoingtohappento-morrowinourworld,andthiscausesusasecretjoy;becausethatveryimpossibilityofforesight,thathorizoneveropentoallcontingencies,constituteauthenticlife,thetruefullnessofourexistence.Thisdiagnosis,theotheraspectofwhich,itistrue,islacking,standsincontrasttotheplaintsofdecadencewhichwailforthinthepagesofsomanycontemporarywriters.Weareinthe


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presenceofanopticalillusionarisingfromamultiplicityofcauses.Ishallconsidercertainofthesesomeothertime;forthemomentIwishtoadvancethemostobviousone.Itarisesfromthefactthat,faithfultoanideologywhichIconsiderathingofthepast,onlythepoliticalorculturalaspectsofhistoryareconsidered,anditisnotrealisedthatthesearethemeresurfaceofhistory;thatinpreferenceto,anddeeperthan,these,therealityofhistoryliesinbiologicalpower,inpurevitality,inwhatthereisinmanofcosmicenergy,notidenticalwith,butrelatedto,theenergywhichagitatesthesea,fecundatesthebeast,causesthetreetoflowerandthestartoshine.Asanoffsettothediagnosisofpessimism,Irecommendthefollowingconsideration.Decadenceis,ofcourse,acomparativeconcept.Declineisfromahighertoalowerstate.Butthiscomparisonmaybemadefromthemostvariedpointsofviewimaginable.Tothemanufacturerofambermouthpiecesthisisadecadentworld,fornowadayshardlyanyonesmokesfromambermouthpieces.Otherview-pointsmaybemoredignifiedthanthisone,butstrictlyspeakingnoneofthemescapesbeingpartial,arbitrary,externaltothatverylifewhoseconstituentsweareattemptingtoassay.Thereisonlyoneview-pointwhichisjustifiableandnatural;totakeupone'spositioninlifeitself,tolookatitfromtheinside,andtoseeifitfeelsitselfdecadent,thatistosay,diminished,weakened,insipid.Butevenwhenwelookatitfromtheinside,howcanweknowwhetherlifefeelsitselfonthedeclineornot?Tomymindtherecanbenodoubtastothedecisivesymptom:alifewhichdoesnotgivethepreferencetoanyotherlife,ofanypreviousperiod,whichthereforeprefersitsownexistence,cannotinanyserioussensebecalleddecadent.Thisisthepointtowardswhichallmydiscussionoftheproblemofthe

heightoftimeswasleading,anditturnsoutthatitispreciselyourtimewhichinthismatterenjoysamoststrangesensation,unique,asfarasIknow,inrecordedhistory.Inthedrawing-roomgatheringsoflastcenturythereinevitablyarrivedamomentwhentheladiesandtheirtamepoetsputthisquestion,onetotheother:"Atwhatperiodofhistorywouldyouliketohavelived?"Andstraightawayeachofthem,makingabundleofhisownpersonalexistence,startedoffonanimaginarytrampalongtheroadsofhistoryinsearchofaperiodintowhichthatexistencemightmostdelightfullyfit.Andthereasonwasthatalthoughfeelingitself,becauseitfeltitself,arrivedatplenitude,theXIXthCenturywasstill,inactualfact,boundtothepast,onwhoseshouldersitthoughtitwasstanding;itsawitselfactuallyastheculminationofthatpast.Henceitstillbelievedinperiodsrelativelyclassic-theageofPericlestheRenaissance-duringwhichthevaluesthatholdto-daywereprepared.Thisshouldbeenought

ocausesuspicionoftheseperiodsofplenitude;theyhavetheirfacesturnedbackwards,theireyesareonthepastwhichtheyconsiderfulfilledinthemselves.Andnow,whatwouldbethesincerereplyofanyrepresentativemanofto-dayifsuchaquestionwereputtohim?Ithinktherecanbenodoubtaboutit;anypasttime,withoutexception,wouldgivehimthefeelingofarestrictedspaceinwhichhecouldnotbreathe.Thatistosay,themanofto-dayfeelsthathislifeismorealifethananypastone,or,toputittheotherwayabout,theentiretyofpasttimeseemssmalltoactualhumanity.Thisintuitionasregardspresent-dayexistencerendersnullbyitsstarkclarityanyconsiderationaboutdecadencethatisnotverycautiouslythoughtout.


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Tostartwith,ourpresentlifefeelsitselfasamplerthanallpreviouslives.Howcanitregarditselfasdecadent?Quitethecontrary;whathashappenedis,thatthroughsheerregardofitselfas"more"life,ithaslostallrespect,allconsiderationforthepast.Henceforthefirsttimewemeetwithaperiodwhichmakestabularasaofallclassicism,whichrecognisesinnothingthatispastanypossiblemodelorstandard,andappearingasitdoesaftersomanycenturieswithoutanybreakinevolution,yetgivestheimpressionofacommencement,adawn,aninitiation,aninfancy.WelookbackwardsandthefamousRenaissancerevealsitselfasaperiodofnarrowprovincialism,offutilegestures-whynotsaytheword?-ordinary.SometimeagoIsummedupthesituationinthefollowingway:"Thisgravedissociationofpastandpresentisthegenericfactofourtimeandthecauseofthesuspicion,moreorlessvague,whichgivesrisetotheconfusioncharacteristicofourpresent-dayexistence.Wefeelthatweactualmenhavesuddenlybeenleftaloneontheearth;thatthedeaddidnotdieinappearanceonlybuteffectively;thattheycannolongerhelpus.Anyremainsofthetraditionalspirithaveevaporated.Models,norms,standardsarenousetous.Wehavetosolveourproblemswithoutanyactivecollaborationofthepast,infullactuality,betheyproblemsofart,science,orpolitics.TheEuropeanstandsalone,withoutanylivingghostsbyhisside;likePeterSchlehmilhehaslosthisshadow.Thisiswhatalwayshappenswhenmiddaycomes."**TheDehumanisationofArt.What,then,inawordisthe"heightofourtimes"?Itisnotthefullnessoftime,andyetitfeelsitselfsuperiortoalltimespast,andbeyondallknownfullness.Itisnoteasytoformulatetheimpressionthatourepochhasofitself;itbelievesitselfmorethanalltherest,andatthesametimefeelsth

atitisabeginning.Whatexpressionshallwefindforit?Perhapsthisone:superiortoothertimes,inferiortoitself.Strong,indeed,andatthesametimeuncertainofitsdestiny;proudofitsstrengthandatthesametimefearingit.CHAPTERIV:THEINCREASEOFLIFETHEruleofthemassesandtheraisingofthelevel,theheightofthetimewhichthisindicates,areintheirturnonlysymptomsofamorecompleteandmoregeneralfact.Thisfactisalmostgrotesqueandincredibleinitsstarkandsimpletruth.Itisjustthis,thattheworldhassuddenlygrownlarger,andwithitandinit,lifeitself.Tostartwith,lifehasbecome,inactualfact,world-wideincharacter;Imeanthatthecontentofexistencefortheaveragemanofto-dayincludesthewholeplanet;thateachindividualhabituallylivesthelifeofthewholeworld.SomethingmorethanayearagothepeopleofSevillecouldfollow,hourbyhour,inthenewspapers,whatwashappeningtoafewmenneartheNorthPole;thatistosay,thaticebergspassed

driftingagainsttheburningbackgroundoftheAndalusianlandscape.Eachportionoftheearthisnolongershutupinitsowngeometricalposition,butformanyofthepurposesofhumanlifeactsuponotherportionsoftheplanet.Inaccordancewiththephysicalprinciplethatthingsarewherevertheireffectsarefelt,wecanattributeto-daytoanypointontheglobethemosteffective


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ubiquity.Thisnearnessofthefar-off,thispresenceoftheabsent,hasextendedinfabulousproportionsthehorizonofeachindividualexistence.Andtheworldhasalsoincreasedfromtheview-pointoftime.Prehistoryandarchaeologyhavediscoveredhistoricalperiodsoffantasticduration.Wholecivilisationsandempiresofwhichtillrecentlynoteventhenamewassuspected,havebeenannexedtoourknowledgelikenewcontinents.Theillustratedpaperandthefilmhavebroughtthesefar-offportionsoftheuniversebeforetheimmediatevisionofthecrowd.Butthisspatio-temporalincreaseoftheworldwouldofitselfsignifynothing.Physicalspaceandtimearetheabsolutelystupidaspectsoftheuniverse.Hence,thereismorereasonthanisgenerallyahowedinthatworshipofmerespeedwhichisatpresentbeingindulgedinbyourcontemporaries.Speed,whichismadeupofspaceandtime,isnolessstupidthanitsconstituents,butitservestonullfythem.Onestupiditycanonlybeovercomebyanother.Itwasaquestionofhonourformantotriumphovercosmicspaceandtime,*whichareentirelydevoidofmeaning,andthereisnoreasonforsurpriseatthefactthatwegetachildishpleasureoutoftheindulgenceinmerespeed,bymeansofwhichwekillspaceandstrangletime.Byannullingthem,wegivethemlife,wemakethemservevitalpurposes,wecanbeinmoreplacesthanwecouldbefore,enjoymorecomingsandgoings,consumemorecosmictimeinlessvitaltime.*Itispreciselybecauseman'svitaltimeislimited,preciselybecauseheismortal,thatheneedstotriumphoverdistanceanddelay.Foranimmortalbeing,themotor-carwouldhavenomeaning.Butafterall,thereallyimportantincreaseofourworlddoesnotlieinitsgreaterdimensions,butinitscontainingmanymorethings.Eachofthesethings-thewordistobetakeninitswidestacceptation-isso

methingwhichwecandesire,attempt,do,undo,meetwith,enjoyorrepel;allnotionswhichimplyvitalactivities.Takeanyoneofourordinaryactivities;buying,forexample.Imaginetwomen,oneofthepresentdayandoneoftheXVIIIthCentury,possessedofequalfortunesrelativelytomoney-valuesintheirxespectiveperiods,andcomparethestockofpurchasablethingsofferedtoeach.Thedifferenceisalmostfabulous.Therangeofpossibilitiesopenedoutbeforethepresent-daypurchaserhasbecomepracticallylimitless.Itisnoteasytothinkofandwishforanythingwhichisnottobefoundinthemarket,andviceversa,itisnotpossibleforamantothinkofandwishforeverythingthatisactuallyofferedforsale.Ishallbetoldthatwithafortunerelativelyequal,themanofto-daycannotbuymoregoodsthanthemanoftheXVIIIthCentury.Thisisnotthecase.Manymorethingscanbeboughtto-day,becausemanufacturehascheapenedallarticles.Butafterall,evenifitwerethecase,itwouldnotconce

rnmypoint,ratherwoulditstresswhatIamtryingtosay.Thepurchasingactivityendsinthedecisiontobuyacertainobject,butforthatveryreasonitispreviouslyanactofchoice,andthechoicebeginsbyputtingbeforeoneselfthepossibilitiesofferedbythemarket.Henceitfollowsthatlife,inits"purchasing"aspect,consistsprimarilyinlivingoverthepossibilitiesofbuyingassuch.Whenpeopletalkoflifetheygenerallyforgetsomethingwhichtomeseemsmostessential,namely,thatourexistenceisateveryinstantandprimarilytheconsciousnessofwhatispossibletous.Ifatevery


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momentwehadbeforeusnomorethanonepossibility,itwouldbemeaninglesstogiveitthatname.Ratherwoulditbeapurenecessity,Butthereitis:thisstrangestoffactsthatafundamentalconditionofourexistenceisthatitalwayshasbeforeitvariousprospects,whichbytheirvarietyacquirethecharacterofpossibilitiesamongwhichwehavetomakeourchoice.*Tosaythatweliveisthesameassayingthatwefindourselvesinanatmosphereofdefinitepossibilities.Thisatmospherewegenerallycallour"circumstances."Alllifemeansfindingoneselfin"circumstances"orintheworldaroundus.*(2)Forthisisthefundamentalmeaningoftheidea"world."Theworldisthesum-totalofourvitalpossibilities.Itisnotthensomethingapartfromandforeigntoourexistence,itisitsactualperiphery.Itrepresentswhatitiswithinourpowertobe,ourvitalpotentiality.Thismustbereducedtotheconcreteinordertoberealised,orputtingitanotherway,webecomeonlyapartofwhatitispossibleforustobe.Henceitisthattheworldseemstoussomethingenormous,andourselvesatinyobjectwithinit.Theworldorourpossibleexistenceisalwaysgreaterthanourdestinyoractualexistence.ButwhatIwantedtomakeclearjustnowwastheextenttowhichthelifeofmanhasincreasedinthedimensionofpotentiality.Itcannowcountonarangeofpossibilitiesfabulouslygreaterthaneverbefore.Intheintellectualorderitnowfindsmore"pathsofideation,"moreproblems,moredata,moresciences,morepointsofview.Whereasthenumberofoccupationsinprimitivelifecanalmostbecountedonthefingersofonehand-shepherd,hunter,warrior,seer-thelistofpossibleavocationsto-dayisimmeasurablylong.Somethingsimilar.occursinthematterofpleasures,although(andthisisaphenomenonofmoreimportancethanitseems)thecatalogueofplea

suresisnotsooverflowingasinotheraspectsoflife.Nevertheless,forthemanofthemiddleclasseswholivesintowns-andtownsarerepresentativeofmodernexistence-thepossibilitiesofenjoymenthaveincreased,inthecourseofthepresentcentury,infantasticproportion.Buttheincreaseofvitalpotentialityisnotlimitedtowhatwehavesaiduptothis.Ithasalsogrowninamoreimmediateandmysteriousdirection.Itisaconstantandwell-knownfactthatinphysicaleffortconnectedwithsport,performancesare"putup"to-daywhichexceltoanextraordinarydegreethoseknowninthepast.Itisnotenoughtowonderateachoneinparticularandtonotethatitbeatstherecord,wemustnotetheimpressionthattheirfrequencyleavesonthemind,convincingusthatthehumanorganismpossessesinourdayscapacitiessuperiortoanyithaspreviouslyhad.Forsomethingsimilarhappensinthecaseofscience.Innomorethanadecadesciencehasextendedthecosmichorizontoanincredibledegree.Thephysics

ofEinsteinmovesthroughspacessovast,thattheoldphysicsofNewtonseemsbycomparisonlodgedinanattic.*(3)Andthisextensiveincreaseisduetoanintensiveincreaseinscientificprecision.Einstein'sphysicsarosethroughattentiontominutedifferenceswhichpreviouslyweredespisedanddisregardedasseemingofnoimportance.Theatom,yesterdaythefinallimitoftheworld,turnsoutto-daytohaveswollentosuchanextentthatitbecomesaplanetarysystem.InspeakingofallthisIamnotreferringtoitsimportanceintheperfectingofculture-thatdoesnotinterestmeforthemoment-butasregardstheincreaseofsubjectivepotencywhichitimplies.IamnotstressingthefactthatthephysicsofEinsteinismoreexactthanthephysicsofNewton,butthatthemanEinsteiniscapableofgreater


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exactitudeandlibertyofspirit,*(4)thanthemanNewton;justastheboxingchampionofto-daycangiveblowsofgreater"punch"thanhaveeverbeengivenbefore.justasthecinematographandtheillustratedjournalsplacebeforetheeyesoftheaveragemantheremotestspotsontheplanet;newspapersandconversationssupplyhimwithaccountsofthesenewintellectualfeats,whichareconfirmedbytherecently-inventedtechnicalapparatuswhichheseesintheshopwindows.Allthisfillshismindwithanimpressionoffabulouspotentiality.BywhatIhavesaidIdonotmeantoimplythathumanlifeisto-daybetterthanatothertimes.Ihavenotspokenofthequalityofactualexistence,butofitsquantitativeadvance,itsincreaseofpotency.IbelieveIamthusgivinganexactdescriptionoftheconscienceofthemanofto-day,hisvitaltone,whichconsistsinhisfeelinghimselfpossessedofgreaterpotentialitythaneverbeforeandinallprevioustimeseemingdwarfedbythecontrast.Thisdescriptionwasnecessaryinordertomeetthepronouncementsondecadence,andspecificallyonthedecadenceoftheWest,whichhavefilledtheairinthelastdecade.RecalltheargumentwithwhichIsetout,andwhichappearstomeassimpleasitisobvious.Itisuselesstotalkofdecadencewithoutmakingclearwhatisundergoingdecay.Doesthispessimistictermrefertoculture?IsthereadecadenceofEuropeanculture?OristhereratheronlyadecadenceofthenationalorganisationsofEurope?Letustakethistobethecase.WouldthatentitleustospeakofWesterndecadence?Bynomeans,forsuchformsofdecadencearepartialdecreasesrelatingtosecondaryhistoricalelements-cultureandnationality.Thereisonlyoneabsolutedecadence;itconsistsinaloweringofvitality,andthatonlyexitswhenitisfeltassuch.ItisforthisreasonthatIhavedelayedoverthecons

iderationofaphenomenongenerallyoverlooked:theconsciousnessorsensationthateveryperiodhasexperiencedofitsownvitallevel.Thisledustospeakofthe"plenitude"whichsomecenturieshavefeltinregardtootherswhich,conversely,lookeduponthemselvesashavingfallenfromgreaterheights,fromsomefar-offbrilliantgoldenage.AndIendedbynotingtheveryplainfactthatourageischaracterisedbythestrangepresumptionthatitissuperiortoallpasttime;morethanthat,byitsleavingoutofconsiderationallthatispast,byrecognisingnoclassicalornormativeepochs,bylookingonitselfasanewlifesuperiortoanpreviousformsandirreducibletothem.Idoubtifouragecanbeunderstoodwithoutkeepingfirmholdonthisobservation.forthatispreciselyitsspecialproblem.Ifitfeltthatitwasdecadent,itwouldlookonotheragesassuperiortoitself,whichwouldbeequivalenttoesteemingandadmiringthemandveneratingtheprinciplesbywhichtheywereinspired.Ouragewouldthen

haveclearandfirmlyheldideals,evenifincapableofrealisingthem.Butthetruthisexactlythecontrary;weliveatatimewhenbelieveshimselffabulouslycapableofcreation,buthedoesnotknowwhattocreate.Lordofallthings,heisnotlordofhimselfHefeelslostamidhisownabundance.Withmoremeansatitsdisposal,moreknowledge,moretechniquethanever,itturnsoutthattheworldto-daygoesthesamewayastheworstofworldsthathavebeen;itsimplydrifts.*Intheworstcase,iftheworldseemedreducedtoonesingleoutlettherewouldstillbetwo:eitherthatortoleavetheworld.Butleavingtheworldformspartoftheworld,asadoorispartofaroom.


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*(2)Seetheprologuetomyfirstbook,MeditacionesdelQuijote,1916.InLasAtlantidasIusethewordhorizon.SeealsotheessayElorigendeportivodelEstado,1926,nowincludedinVol.7ofElEspectador.*(3)TheworldofNewtonwasinfinite;butthisinfinitywasnotamatterofsize,butanemptygeneralisation,anabstract,inaneUtopia.TheworldofEinsteinisfinite,butfullandconcreteinallitsparts,consequentlyaworldricherinthingsandeffectivelyofgreaterextent.*(4)Libertyofspirit,thatistosay,intellectualpower,ismeasuredbyitscapacitytodissociateideastraditionallyinseparable.Itcostsmoretodissociateideasthantoassociatethem,asKohlerhasshowninhisinvestigationsontheintelligenceofchimpanzees.Humanunderstandinghasneverhadgreaterpowerofdissociationthanatpresent.Hencethestrangecombinationofaumeofpowerandasenseofinsecuritywhichhastakenupitsabodeinthesoulofmodernman.TohimishappeningwhatwassaidoftheRegentduringtheminorityofLouisXV:hehadallthetalentsexceptthetalenttomakeuseofthem.TotheXIXthCenturymanythingsseemednolongerpossible,firm-fixedaswasitsfaithinprogress.To-day,bytheveryfactthateverythingseemspossibletous,wehaveafeelingthattheworstofallispossible:retrogression,barbarism,decadence.*Thisofitselfwouldnotbeabadsymptom;itwouldmeanthatweareonceagainformingcontactwiththatinsecuritywhichisessentialtoallformsoflife,thatanxietybothdolorousanddeliciouscontainedineverymoment,ifweknowhowtoliveittoitsinnermostcore,rightdowntoitspalpitatingvitals.Generallywerefusetofeelthatfearsomepulsationwhichmakesofamomentofsincerityatinyfleetingheart;westrainintheattempttofindsecurityandtorenderourselvesinsensibletothefundamentaldramaofourdestiny

,bysteepingitinhabits,usages,topics-ineverykindofchloroform.Itisanexcellentthing,then,thatforthefirsttimefornearlythreecenturieswearesurprisedtofindourselveswiththefeelingthatwedonotknowwhatisgoingtohappento-morrow.*Thisistheroot-originofallourdiagnosesofdecadence.Notthatwearedecadent,butthat,beingpredisposedtoadmiteverypossibility,wedonotexcludethatofdecadence.Everymanwhoadoptsaseriousattitudebeforehisownexistenceandmakeshimselffullyresponsibleforitwillfeelacertainkindofinsecuritywhichurgeshimtokeepeveronthealert.ThegesturewhichtheRomanArmyOrdersimposedonthesentineloftheLegionwasthatheshouldkeephisfingeronhislipstoavoiddrowsinessandtomaintainhisalertness.Thegesturehasitsvalue,itseemstoordainanevengreatersilenceduringthesilenceofthenight,soastobeabletocatchthesoundofthesecretgerminationofthefuture.Thesecurityofperiodsof"plenitude"-suchasthe

lastcentury-isanopticalillusionwhichleadstoneglectofthefuture,alldirectionofwhichishandedovertothemechanismoftheuniverse.BothprogressiveLiberalismandMarxistSocialismpresumethatwhatisdesiredbythemasthebestorpossiblefutureswillbenecessarilyrealised,withnecessitysimilartothatofastronomy.Withconscienceslulledbythisidea,theyhavecastawaytherudderofhistory,haveceasedtokeeptheirwatch,havelosttheiragility


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andtheirefficiency.Andso,lifehasescapedfromtheirgrasp,hasbecomecompletelyunsubmissiveandto-dayisfloatingaroundwithoutanyfixedcourse.Underhismaskofgenerousfuturism,theprogressivenolongerconcernshimselfwiththefuture;convincedthatitholdsinstoreforhimneithersurprisesnorsecrets,nothingadventurous,nothingessentiallynew;assuredthattheworldwillnowproceedonastraightcourse,neitherturningasidenordroppingback,heputsawayfromhimallanxietyaboutthefutureandtakeshisstandinthedefinitepresent.Canwebesurprisedthattheworldto-dayseemsemptyofpurposes,anticipations,ideals?Nobodyhasconcernedhimselfwithsupplyingthem.Suchhasbeenthedesertionofthedirectingminorities,whichisalwaysfoundonthereversesideoftherebellionofthemasses.Butitistimeforustoreturntotheconsiderationofthislast.Afterhavingstressedthefavourableaspectpresentedbythetriumphofthemasses,itwillbewelltodescendnowbytheotherslope,amuchmoredangerousone.CHAPTERV:ASTATISTICALFACTTHISessayisanattempttodiscoverthediagnosisofourtime,ofouractualexistence.Wehaveindicatedthefirstpartofit,whichmayberesumedthus:ourlifeasaprogrammeofpossibilitiesismagnificent,exuberant,superiortoallothersknowntohistory.Butbytheveryfactthatitsscopeisgreater,ithasoverflowedallthechannels,principles,norms,idealshandeddownbytradition.Itismorelifethanallpreviousexistence,andthereforeallthemoreproblematical.Itcanfindnodirectionfromthepast.*Ithastodiscoveritsowndestiny.*Weshallsee,nevertheless,howitispossibletoobtainfromthepast,ifnotpositiveorientation,certainnegativecounsel.Thepastwillnottelluswhatweoughttodo,butitwillwhatweoughttoavoid.Butnowwemustcompletethediagnosis.Li

fe,whichmeansprimarilywhatispossibleforustobe,islikewise,andforthatveryreason,achoice,fromamongthesepossibilities,ofwhatweactuallyaregoingtobe.Ourcircumstances-thesepossibilitiesformtheportionoflifegivenus,imposedonus.Thisconstituteswhatwecalltheworld.Lifedoesnotchooseitsownworld,itfindsitself,tostartwith,inaworlddeterminedandunchangeable:theworldofthepresent.Ourworldisthatportionofdestinywhichgoestomakeupourlife.Butthisvitaldestinyisnotakindofmechanism.Wearenotlaunchedintoexistencelikeashotfromagun,withitstrajectoryabsolutelypredetermined.Thedestinyunderwhichwefallwhenwecomeintothisworld-itisalwaysthisworld,theactualone-consistsintheexactcontrary.Insteadofimposingonusonetrajectory,itimposesseveral,andconsequentlyforcesustochoose.Surprisingcondition,this,ofourexistence!Toliveistofeelourselvesfatallyobligedtoexerciseourliberty,todecidewhatwearegoin

gtobeinthisworld.Notforasinglemomentisouractivityofdecisionallowedtorest.Evenwhenindesperationweabandonourselvestowhatevermayhappen,wehavedecidednottodecide.Itis,then,falsetosaythatinlife"circumstancesdecide."Onthecontrary,circumstancesarethedilemma,constantlyrenewed,in


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presenceofwhichwehavetomakeourdecision;whatactuallydecidesisourcharacter.Allthisisequallyvalidforcollectivelife.Initalsothereis,first,ahorizonofpossibilities,andthen,adeterminationwhichchoosesanddecidesontheeffectiveformofcollectiveexistence.Thisdeterminationhasitsorigininthecharacterofsociety,orwhatcomestothesamething,ofthetypeofmendominantinit.Inourtimeitisthemass-manwhodominates,itishewhodecides.Itwillnotdotosaythatthisiswhathappenedintheperiodofdemocracy,ofuniversalsuffrage.Underuniversalsuffrage,themassesdonotdecide,theirroleconsistsinsupportingthedecisionofoneminorityorother.Itwasthesewhopresentedtheir"programmes"-excellentword.Suchprogrammeswere,infact,programmesofcollectivelife.Inthemthemasseswereinvitedtoacceptafineofdecision.To-daysomethingverydifferentishappening.Ifweobservethepubliclifeofthecountrieswherethetriumphofthemasseshasmademostadvance-thesearetheMediterraneancountries-wearesurprisedtofindthatpoliticallytheyarelivingfromdaytoday.Thephenomenonisanextraordinarilystrangeone.Publicauthorityisinthehandsofarepresentativeofthemasses.Thesearesopowerfulthattheyhavewipedoutallopposition.TheyareinpossessionofpowerinsuchanunassailablemannerthatitwouldbedifficulttofindinhistoryexamplesofaGovernmentsoall-powerfulastheseare.Andyetpublicauthority-theGovernment-existsfromhandtomouth,itdoesnotofferitselfasafranksolutionforthefuture,itrepresentsnoclearannouncementofthefuture,itdoesnotstandoutasthebeginningofsomethingwhosedevelopmentorevolutionisconceivable.Inshort,itliveswithoutanyvitalprogramme,anyplanofexistence.Itdoesnotknowwhereitisgoing,because,strictlyspeaki

ng,ithisnofixedroad,nopredeterminedtrajectorybeforeit.Whensuchapublicauthorityattemptstojustifyitselfitmakesnoreferenceatalltothefuture.Onthecontrary,itshutsitselfupinthepresent,andsayswithperfectsincerity:"IamanabnormalformofGovernmentimposedbycircumstances."Henceitsactivitiesarereducedtododgingthedifficultiesofthehour;notsolvingthem,butescapingfromthemforthetimebeing,employinganymethodswhatsoever,evenatthecostofaccumulatingtherebystillgreaterdifficultiesforthehourwhichfollows.Suchhaspublicpoweralwaysbeenwhenexerciseddirectlybythemasses:omnipotentandephemeral.Themass-manishewhoselifelacksanypurpose,andsimplygoesdriftingalong.Consequently,thoughhispossibilitiesandhispowersbeenormous,heconstructsnothing.Anditisthistypeofmanwhodecidesinourtime.Itwillbewell,then,thatweanalysehischaracter.Thekeytothisanalysisisfoundwhen,returningtothestarting-pointofthisessay

,weaskourselves:"Whencehavecomeallthesemultitudeswhichnowadaysfilltooverflowingthestageofhistory?"Someyearsagotheeminenteconomist,WernerSombart,laidstressonaverysimplefact,whichIamsurprisedisnotpresenttoeverymindwhichmeditatesoncontemporaryevents.ThisverysimplefactissufficientofitselftoclarifyourvisionoftheEuropeofto-day,orifnotsufficient,putsusontheroadtoenlightenment.Thefactisthis:fromthetimeEuropeanhistorybeginsintheVIthCenturyuptotheyear1800-thatis,throughthecourseoftwelvecenturies-Europedoesnotsucceedinreachingatotalpopulationgreaterthan180millioninhabitants.Now,from1800to1914-littlemorethanacentury-thepopulationofEuropemountsfrom180to460


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millions!Itakeitthatthecontrastbetweenthesefiguresleavesnodoubtastotheprolificqualitiesofthelastcentury.Inthreegenerationsitproducesagiganticmassofhumanitywhich,launchedlikeatorrentoverthehistoricarea,hasinundatedit.Thisfact,Irepeat,shouldsufficetomakeusrealisethetriumphofthemassesandallthatisimpliedandannouncedbyit.Furthermore,itshouldbeaddedasthemostconcreteitemtothatrisingofthelevelofexistencewhichIhavealreadyindicated.ButatthesametimethisfactprovestoushowunfoundedisouradmirationwhenwelaystressontheincreaseofnewcountriesliketheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Weareastonishedatthisincrease,whichhasreachedto100millionsinacentury,whenthereallyastonishingfactistheteemingfertilityofEurope.HerewehaveanotherreasonforcorrectingthedeceptivenotionoftheAmericanisationofEurope.NoteventhatcharacteristicwhichmightseemspecificallyAmerican-therapidityofincreaseinpopulationispeculiarlysuch.EuropehasincreasedinthelastcenturymuchmorethanAmerica.AmericahasbeenformedfromtheoverflowofEurope.ButalthoughthisfactascertainedbyWernerSombartisnotaswellknownasitshouldbe,theconfusedideaofaconsiderablepopulationincreaseinEuropewaswidespreadenoughtorenderunnecessaryinsistenceonit.Inthefigurescited,then,itisnottheincreaseofpopulationwhichinterestsme,butthefactthatbythecontrastwiththepreviousfiguresthedizzyrapidityoftheincreaseisbroughtintoreliefThisisthepointofimportanceforusatthemoment.Forthatrapiditymeansthatheapafterheapofhumanbeingshavebeendumpedontothehistoricsceneatsuchanacceleratedrate,thatithasbeendifficulttosaturatethemwithtraditionalculture.Andinfact,theaveragetypeofEuropeanatpresentpossessesas

oul,healthierandstrongeritistruethanthoseofthelastcentury,butmuchmoresimple.Hence,attimesheleavestheimpressionofaprimitivemansuddenlyriseninthemidstofaveryoldcivilisation.Intheschools,whichweresuchasourceofpridetothelastcentury,ithasbeenimpossibletodomorethaninstructthemassesinthetechniqueofmodernlife;ithasbeenfoundimpossibletoeducatethem.Theyhavebeengiventoolsforanintenserformofexistence,butnofeelingfortheirgreathistoricduties;theyhavebeenhurriedlyinoculatedwiththeprideandpowerofmoderninstruments,butnotwiththeirspirit.Hencetheywillhavenothingtodowiththeirspirit,andthenewgenerationsaregettingreadytotakeovercommandoftheworldasiftheworldwereaparadisewithouttraceofformerfootsteps,withouttraditionalandhighlycomplexproblems.Tothelastcentury,then,fallsthegloryandtheresponsibilityofhavingletlooseupontheareaofhistorythegreatmultitudes.Andthisfactaffords

themostsuitableview-pointinordertojudgethatcenturywithequity.Theremusthavebeensomethingextraordinary,incomparable,initwhensuchharvestsofhumanfruitwereproducedinitsclimate.Anypreferencefortheprincipleswhichinspiredotherpastagesisfrivolousandridiculousifonedoesnotpreviouslyshowproofofhavingrealisedthismagnificentfactandattemptedtodigestit.Thewholeofhistorystandsoutasagiganticlaboratoryinwhichallpossibleexperimentshavebeenmadetoobtainaformulaofpubliclifemostfavourabletotheplant"man."Andbeyondallpossibleexplainingaway,wefindourselvesfacetofacewiththefactthat,bysubmittingtheseedofhumanitytothetreatmentoftwoprinciples,liberaldemocracyandtechnical


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knowledge,inasinglecenturythespeciesinEuropehasbeentriplicated.Suchanoverwhelmingfactforcesus,unlessweprefernottouseourreason,todrawtheseconclusions:first,thatliberaldemocracybasedontechnicalknowledgeisthehighesttypeofpubliclifehithertoknown;secondly,thatthattypemaynotbethebestimaginable,buttheoneweimagineassuperiortoitmustpreservetheessenceofthosetwoprinciples;andthirdly,thattoreturntoanyformsofexistenceinferiortothatoftheXIXthCenturyissuicidal.OncewerecognisethiswithalltheclearnessthattheclearnessofthefactitselfdemandswemustthenriseupagainsttheXIXthCentury.Ifitisevidentthattherewasinitsomethingextraordinaryandincomparable,itisnolesssothatitmusthavesufferedfromcertainradicalvices,certainconstitutionaldefects,whenitbroughtintobeingacasteofmen-themass-maninrevolt-whoareplacinginimminentdangerthoseveryprinciplestowhichtheyowetheirexistence.IfthathumantypecontinuestobemasterinEurope,thirtyyearswillsufficetosendourcontinentbacktobarbarism.Legislativeandindustrialtechniquewilldisappearwiththesamefacilitywithwhichsomanytradesecretshaveoftendisappeared.*Thewholeoflifewillbecontracted.Theactualabundanceofpossibilitieswillchangeintopracticalscarcity,apitifulimpotence,arealdecadence.FortherebellionofthemassesisoneandthesamethingwithwhatRathenaucalled"theverticalinvasionofthebarbarians."Itisofgreatimportance,then,tounderstandthoroughlythismass-manwithhispotentialitiesofthegreatestgoodandthegreatestevil.*HermannWely,oneofthegreatestofpresent-dayphysicists,thecompanionandcontinueroftheworkofEinstein,isinthehabitofsayinginconversationthatiftenortwelvespecifiedindividualsweretodiesuddenl

y,itisalmostcertainthatthemarvelsofphysicsto-daywouldbelostforevertohumanity.Apreparationofmanycenturieshasbeenneededinordertoaccommodatethementalorgantotheabstractcomplexityofphysicaltheory.Anyeventmightannihilatesuchprodigioushumanpossibilities,whichinadditionarethebasisoffuturetechnicaldevelopment.CHAPTERVI:THEDISSECTIONOFTHEMASS-MANBEGINSWHATishelike,thismass-manwhoto-daydominatespubliclife,politicalandnon-political,andwhyishelikeit,thatis,howhashebeenproduced?Itwillbewelltoanswerbothquestionstogether,fortheythrowlightononeanother.Themanwhoto-dayisattemptingtotaketheleadinEuropeanexistenceisverydifferentfromthemanwhodirectedtheXIXthCentury,buthewasproducedandpreparedbytheXIXthCentury.Anykeenmindoftheyears1820,1850,and1880couldbysimpleapriorireasoning,foreseethegravityofthepresenthistoricalsituation,andinfactnothingishappeningnowwhichwasnotforeseen

ahundredyearsago."Themassesareadvancing,"saidHegelinapocalypticfashion."Withoutsomenewspiritualinfluence,ourage,whichisarevolutionaryage,willproduceacatastrophe,"wasthepronouncementofComte."Iseetheflood-tideofnihilismrising,"shriekedNietzschefromacragoftheEngadine.Itisfalsetosaythathistorycannotbeforetold.Numberlesstimesthishasbeendone.Ifthefutureofferednoopeningtoprophecy,itcouldnotbe


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understoodwhenfulfilledinthepresentandonthepointoffallingbackintothepast.Theideathatthehistorianisonthereversesideaprophet,sumsupthewholephilosophyofhistory,Itistruethatitisonlypossibletoanticipatethegeneralstructureofthefuture,butthatisallthatweintruthunderstandofthepastorofthepresent.Accordingly,ifyouwantagoodviewofyourownage,lookatitfromfaroff.Fromwhatdistance?Theanswerissimple.JustfarenoughtopreventyouseeingCleopatra'snose.Whatappearancedidlifepresenttothatmultitudinousmanwhoinever-increasingabundancetheXIXthCenturykeptproducing?Tostartwith,anappearanceofuniversalmaterialease.Neverhadtheaveragemanbeenabletosolvehiseconomicproblemwithgreaterfacility.Whilsttherewasaproportionatedecreaseofgreatfortunesandlifebecameharderfortheindividualworker,themiddleclassesfoundtheireconomichorizonwidenedeveryday.Everydayaddedanewluxurytotheirstandardoflife.Everydaytheirpositionwasmoresecureandmoreindependentofanother'swill.Whatbeforewouldhavebeenconsideredoneoffortune'sgifts,inspiringhumblegratitudetowardsdestiny,wasconvertedintoaright,nottobegratefulfor,buttobeinsistedon.From1900on,theworkerlikewisebeginstoextendandassurehisexistence.Nevertheless,hehastostruggletoobtainhisend.Hedoesnot,likethemiddleclass,findthebenefitattentivelyserveduptohimbyasocietyandastatewhichareamarveloforganisation.Tothiseaseandsecurityofeconomicconditionsaretobeaddedthephysicalones,comfortandpublicorder.Liferunsonsmoothrails,andthereisnolikelihoodofanythingviolentordangerousbreakinginonit.Suchafree,untrammelledsituationwasboundtoinstilintothedepthsofsuchsoulsanideaofexistencewhichmightbeexpressedi

nthewittyandpenetratingphraseofanoldcountrylikeours:"WideisCastile."Thatistosay,inallitsprimaryanddecisiveaspects,lifepresenteditselftothenewmanasexemptfromrestrictions.Therealisationofthisfactandofitsimportancebecomesimmediatewhenwerememberthatsuchafreedomofexistencewasentirelylackingtothecommonmenofthepast.Onthecontrary,forthemlifewasaburdensomedestiny,economicallyandphysically.Frombirth,existencemeanttothemanaccumulationofimpedimentswhichtheywereobligedtosuffer,withoutpossiblesolutionotherthantoadaptthemselvestothem,tosettledowninthenarrowspacetheyleftavailable.Butstillmoreevidentisthecontrastofsituations,ifwepassfromthematerialtothecivilandmoral.Theaverageman,fromthesecondhalfoftheXIXthCenturyon,findsnosocialbarriersraisedagainsthim.Thatistosay,thatasregardstheformsofpubliclifehenolongerfindshimselffrombirthconfrontedwithobstaclesandlimitations.

Thereisnothingtoforcehimtolimithisexistence.Hereagain,"WideisCastile."Thereareno"estates"or"castes."Therearenocivilprivileges.Theordinarymanlearnsthatallmenareequalbeforethelaw.Neverinthecourseofhistoryhadmanbeenplacedinvitalsurroundingsevenremotelyfamiliartothosesetupbytheconditionsjustmentioned.Weare,infact,confrontedwitharadicalinnovationinhumandestiny,implantedbytheXIXthCentury.Anewstagehasbeenmountedforhumanexistence,newbothinthephysicalandthesocialaspects.Threeprincipleshavemadepossiblethisnewworld:liberaldemocracy,scientificexperiment,andindustrialism.Thetwolattermaybesummed-upinoneword:


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technicism.NotoneofthoseprincipleswasinventedbytheXIXthCentury;theyproceedfromthetwopreviouscenturies.ThegloryoftheXIXthCenturyliesnotintheirdiscovery,butintheirimplantation.Noonebutrecognisesthatfact.Butitisnotsufficienttorecogniseitintheabstract,itisnecessarytorealiseitsinevitableconsequences.TheXIXthCenturywasofitsessencerevolutionary.Thisaspectisnottobelookedforinthescenesofthebarricades,whicharemereincidents,butinthefactthatitplacedtheaverageman-thegreatsocialmass-inconditionsofliferadicallyopposedtothosebywhichhehadalwaysbeensurrounded,Itturnedhispublicexistenceupsidedown.Revolutionisnottheuprisingagainstpre-existingorder,butthesettingupofanewordercontradictorytothetraditionalone.HencethereisnoexaggerationinsayingthatthemanwhoistheproductoftheXIXthCenturyis,fortheeffectsofpubliclife,amanapartfromallothermen.TheXVIIIth-Centurymandiffers,ofcourse,fromtheXVIIth-Centuryman,andthisoneinturnfromhisfellowoftheXVIthCentury,buttheyareallrelated,similar,evenidenticalinessentialswhenconfrontedwiththisnewman.Forthe"common"manofallperiods"life"hadprincipallymeantlimitation,obligation,dependence;inaword,pressure.Sayoppression,ifyoulike,provideditbeunderstoodnotonlyinthejuridicalandsocialsense,butalsointhecosmic.Foritisthislatterwhichhasneverbeenlackinguptoahundredyearsago,thedateatwhichstartsthepracticallylimitlessexpansionofscientifictechnique-physicalandadministrative.Previously,evenfortherichandpowerful,theworldwasaplaceofpoverty,difficultyanddanger.**Howeverrichanindividualmightbeinrelationtohisfellows,astheworldinitstotalitywaspoor,thesphereofconveniencesandcommodities

withwhichhiswealthfurnishedhimwasverylimited.Thelifeoftheaveragemanto-dayiseasier,moreconvenientandsaferthanthatofthemostpowerfulofanotherage.Whatdifferencedoesitmaketohimnottobericherthanothersiftheworldisricherandfurnisheshimwithmagnificentroads,railway,telegraphs,hotels,personalsafetyandaspirin?Theworldwhichsurroundsthenewmanfromhisbirthdoesnotcompelhimtolimithimselfinanyfashion,itsetsupnovetoinoppositiontohim;onthecontrary,itinciteshisappetite,whichinprinciplecanincreaseindefinitely.Nowitturnsout-andthisismostimportant-thatthisworldoftheXIXthandearlyXXthCenturiesnotonlyhastheperfectionsandthecompletenesswhichitactuallypossesses,butfurthermoresuggeststothosewhodwellinittheradicalassurancethatto-morrowitwillbestillricher,ampler,moreperfect,asifitenjoyedaspontaneous,inexhaustiblepowerofincrease.Evento-day,inspiteofsomesignswhicharemakingatinybreach

inthatsturdyfaith,evento-day,therearefewmenwhodoubtthatmotorcarswillinfiveyears'timebemorecomfortableandcheaperthanto-day.Theybelieveinthisastheybelievethatthesunwillriseinthemorning.Themetaphorisanexactone.For,infact,thecommonman,findinghimselfinaworldsoexcellent,technicallyandsocially,believesthatithasbeenproducedbynature,andneverthinksofthepersonaleffortsofhighly-endowedindividualswhichthecreationofthisnewworldpresupposed.Stilllesswillheadmitthenotionthatallthesefacilitiesstillrequire


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thesupportofcertaindifficulthumanvirtues,theleastfailureofwhichwouldcausetherapiddisappearanceofthewholemagnificentedifice.Thisleadsustonotedowninourpsychologicalchartofthemass-manofto-daytwofundamentaltraits:thefreeexpansionofhisvitaldesires,andtherefore,ofhispersonality;andhisradicalingratitudetowardsanthathasmadepossibletheeaseofhisexistence.Thesetraitstogethermakeupthewell-knownpsychologyofthespoiltchild.Andinfactitwouldentailnoerrortousethispsychologyasa"sight"throughwhichtoobservethesoulofthemassesofto-day.Heirtoanampleandgenerouspast-generousbothinidealsandinactivities-thenewcommonaltyhasbeenspoiledbytheworldaroundit.Tospoilmeanstoputnolimitoncaprice,togiveonetheimpressionthateverythingispermittedtohimandthathehasnoobligations.Theyoungchildexposedtothisregimehasnoexperienceofitsownlimits.Byreasonoftheremovalofallexternalrestraint,allclashingwithotherthings,hecomesactuallytobelievethatheistheonlyonethatexists,andgetsusedtonotconsideringothers,especiallynotconsideringthemassuperiortohimself.Thisfeelingofanother'ssuperioritycouldonlybeinstilledintohimbysomeonewho,beingstrongerthanheis,shouldforcehimtogiveupsomedesire,torestricthimself,torestrainhimself.Hewouldthenhavelearnedthisfundamentaldiscipline:"HereIendandherebeginsanothermorepowerfulthanIam.Intheworld,apparently,therearetwopeople:Imyselfandanothersuperiortome."Theordinarymanofpasttimeswasdailytaughtthiselementalwisdombytheworldabouthim,becauseitwasaworldsorudelyorganised,thatcatastropheswerefrequent,andtherewasnothinginitcertain,abundant,stable.Butthenewmassesfindthemselvesinthepresenceofaprospectfullo

fpossibilities,andfurthermore,quitesecure,witheverythingreadytotheirhands,independentofanypreviouseffortsontheirpart,justaswefindthesunintheheavenswithoutourhoistingituponourshoulders.Nohumanbeingthanksanotherfortheairhebreathes,fornoonehasproducedtheairforhim;itbelongstothesum-totalofwhat"isthere,"ofwhichwesay"itisnatural,"becauseitneverfails.Andthesespoiledmassesareunintelligentenoughtobelievethatthematerialandsocialorganisation,placedattheirdispositionliketheair,isofthesameorigin.,sinceapparentlyitneverfailsthem,andisalmostasperfectasthenaturalschemeofthings.Mythesis,therefore,isthis:theveryperfectionwithwhichtheXIXthCenturygaveanorganisationtocertainordersofexistencehascausedthemassesbenefitedtherebytoconsiderit,notasanorganised,butasanaturalsystem.Thusisexplainedanddefinedtheabsurdstateofmindrevealedbythesemasses;theyareonlyconcernedwiththeirow

nwell-being,andatthesametimetheyremainalientothecauseofthatwell-being.Astheydonotsee,behindthebenefitsofcivilisation,marvelsofinventionandconstructionwhichcanonlybemaintainedbygreateffortandforesight,theyimaginethattheirroleislimitedtodemandingthesebenefitsperemptorily,asiftheywerenaturalrights.Inthedisturbancescausedbyscarcityoffood,themobgoesinsearchofbread,andthemeansitemploysisgenerallytowreckthebakeries.Thismayserveasasymboloftheattitudeadopted,onagreaterandmorecomplicatedscale,bythemassesofto-daytowardsthecivilisationbywhichtheyaresupported.


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CHAPTERVII:NOBLELIFEANDCOMMONLIFE,OREFFORTANDINERTIATOstartwith,wearewhatourworldinvitesustobe,andthebasicfeaturesofoursoulareimpresseduponitbytheformofitssurroundingsasinamould.Naturally,forourlifeisnootherthanourrelationswiththeworldaround.Thegeneralaspectwhichitpresentstouswillformthegeneralaspectofourownlife.ItisforthisreasonthatIstresssomuchtheobservationthattheworldintowhichthemassesofto-dayhavebeenbordisplaysfeaturesradicallynewtohistory.Whereasinpasttimeslifefortheaveragemanmeantfindingallaroundhimdifficulties,dangers,want,limitationsofhisdestiny,dependence,thenewworldappearsasasphereofpracticallylimitlesspossibilities,safe,andindependentofanyone.Basedonthisprimaryandlastingimpression,themindofeverycontemporarymanwillbeformed,justaspreviousmindswereformedontheoppositeimpression.Forthatbasicimpressionbecomesaninteriorvoicewhichceaselesslyutterscertainwordsinthedepthsofeachindividual,andtenaciouslysuggeststohimadefinitionoflifewhichis,atthesametime,amoralimperative.Andifthetraditionalsentimentwhispered:"Toliveistofeeloneselflimited,andthereforetohavetocountwiththatwhichlimitsus,"thenewestvoiceshouts:"Toliveistomeetwithnolimitationwhateverand,consequently,toabandononeselfcalmlytoone'sself.Practicallynothingisimpossible,nothingisdangerous,and,inprinciple,nobodyissuperiortoanybody."Thisbasicexperiencecompletelymodifiesthetraditional,persistentstructureofthemass-man.Forthelatteralwaysfelthimself,byhisnature,confrontedwithmateriallimitationsandhighersocialpowers.Such,inhiseyes,waslife.Ifhesucceededinimprovinghissituation,ifheclimbedthesocialladder,heattributedthistoapiece

offortunewhichwasfavour.abletohiminparticular.Andifnottothis,thentoanenormouseffort,ofwhichheknewwellwhatithadcosthim.Inbothcasesitwasaquestionofanexceptiontothegeneralcharacteroflifeandtheworld;anexceptionwhich,assuch,wasduetosomeveryspecialcause.Butthemodernmassfindscompletefreedomasitsnatural,establishedcondition,withoutanyspecialcauseforit.Nothingfi-omoutsideincitesittorecogniselimitstoitselfand,consequently,toreferatalltimestootherauthoritieshigherthanitself.Untillately,theChinesepeasantbelievedthatthewelfareofhisexistencedependedontheprivatevirtueswhichtheEmperorwaspleasedtopossess.Therefore,hislifewasconstantlyrelatedtothissupremeauthorityonwhichitdepended.Butthemanwearenowanalysingaccustomshimselfnottoappealfromhisowntoanyauthorityoutsidehim.Heissatisfiedwithhimselfexactlyasheis.Ingenuously,withoutanyneedofbeingvain,asthemostnaturalthingin

theworld,hewilltendtoconsiderandaffirmasgoodeverythinghefindswithinhimself:opinions,appetites,preferences,tastes.Whynot,if,aswehaveseen,nothingandnobodyforcehimtorealisethatheisasecond-classman,subjecttomanylimitations,incapableofcreatingorconservingthatveryorganisationwhichgiveshislifethefullnessandcontentednessonwhichhebasesthisassertionofhispersonality?Themass-manwouldneverhaveacceptedauthorityexternaltohimselfhadnothissurroundingsviolentlyforcedhimtodoso.Asto-day,hissurroundingsdonotsoforcehim,theeverlastingmass-man,truetohischaracter,ceasestoappealtootherauthorityandfeelshimself


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lordofhisownexistence.Onthecontrarytheselectman,theexcellentmanisurged,byinteriornecessity,toappealfromhimselftosomestandardbeyondhimself,superiortohimself,whoseservicehefreelyaccepts.Letusrecallthatatthestartwedistinguishedtheexcellentmanfromthecommonmanbysayingthattheformeristheonewhomakesgreatdemandsonhimself,andthelattertheonewhomakesnodemandsonhimself,butcontentshimselfwithwhatheis,andisdelightedwithhimself.*Contrarytowhatisusuallythought,itisthemanofexcellence,andnotthecommonmanwholivesinessentialservitude.Lifehasnosavourforhimunlesshemakesitconsistinservicetosomethingtranscendental.Hencehedoesnotlookuponthenecessityofservingasanoppression.When,bychance,suchnecessityislacking,hegrowsrestlessandinventssomenewstandard,moredifficult,moreexigent,withwhichtocoercehimself.Thisislifelivedasadiscipline-thenoblelife.Nobilityisdefinedbythedemandsitmakesonus-byobligations,notbyrights.Noblesseoblige."Toliveasonelikesisplebeian;thenoblemanaspirestoorderandlaw"(Goethe).Theprivilegesofnobilityarenotintheiroriginconcessionsorfavours;onthecontrary,theyareconquests.Andtheirmaintenancesupposes,inprinciple,thattheprivilegedindividualiscapableofreconqueringthem,atanymoment,ifitwerenecessary,andanyoneweretodisputethem.*(2)Privaterightsorprivilegesarenot,then,passivepossessionandmereenjoyment,buttheyrepresentthestandardattainedbypersonaleffort.Ontheotherhand,commonrights,suchasthose"ofthemanandthecitizen,"arepassiveproperty,pureusufructandbenefit,thegenerousgiftoffatewhicheverymanfindsbeforehim,andwhichanswerstonoeffortwhatever,unlessitbethatofbreathingandavoidinginsanity.Iwouldsay,

then,thatanimpersonalrightisheld,apersonaloneisupheld.*Thatmanisintellectuallyofthemasswho,infaceofanyproblem,issatisfiedwiththinkingthefirstthinghefindsinhishead.Onthecontrary,theexcellentmanishewhocontemnswhathefindsinhismindwithoutpreviouseffort,andonlyacceptsasworthyofhimwhatisstillfarabovehimandwhatrequiresafurthereffortinordertobereached.*(2)VideEspanaInvertebrada(1922),p.156.Itisannoyingtoseethedegenerationsufferedinordinaryspeechbyawordsoinspiringas"nobility."For,bycomingtomeanformanypeoplehereditary"nobleblood,"itischangedintosomethingsimilartocommonrights,intoastatic,passivequalitywhichisreceivedandtransmittedlikesomethinginert.Butthestrictsense,theetymonofthewordnobilityisessentiallydynamic.Noblemeansthe"wellknown,"thatis,knownbyeveryone,famous,hewhohasmadehimselfknownbyexcellingtheanonymousmass.Itimpliesanunusualeffortasthecauseofhis

fame.Noble,then,isequivalenttoeffortful,excellent.Thenobilityorfameofthesonispurebenefit.Thesonisknownbecausethefathermadehimselffamous.Heisknownbyreflection,andinfact,hereditarynobilityhasanindirectcharacter,itismirroredlight,lunarnobility,somethingderivedfromthedead.Theonlythinglefttoitofliving,authentic,dynamicistheimpulseitstirsinthedescendanttomaintainthelevelofeffortreachedbytheancestor.Always,eveninthisalteredsense,noblesseoblige.Theoriginalnoblelaysanobligationonhimself,thenobleheirreceivestheobligationwithhisinheritance.Butinany


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casethereisacertaincontradictioninthepassing-onofnobilityfromthefirstnobletohissuccessors.TheChinese,morelogical,inverttheorderoftransmission;itisnotthefatherwhoennoblestheson,butthesonwho,byacquiringnoblerank,communicatesittohisforbears,byhispersonaleffortsbringingfametohishumblestock.Hence,whengrantingdegreesofnobility,theyaregraduatedbythenumberofpreviousgenerationswhicharehonoured;therearethosewhoennobleonlytheirfathers,andthosewhostretchbacktheirfametothefifthortenthgrandparent.Theancestorslivebyreasonoftheactualman,whosenobilityiseffective,active-inaword:isnotwas.**Asintheforegoingitisonlyamatterofbringingtheword"nobility"backtoitsoriginalsensewhichexcludesinheritance,thisisnottheplacetostudythefactthata"nobilityofblood"makesitsappearancesoofteninhistory.Thisquestion,then,isleftuntouched."Nobility"doesnotappearasaformalexpressionuntiltheRomanEmpire,andthenpreciselyinoppositiontothehereditarynobles,thenindecadence.Forme,then,nobilityissynonymouswithalifeofeffort,eversetonexcellingoneself,inpassingbeyondwhatoneistowhatonesetsupasadutyandanobligation.Inthiswaythenoblelifestandsopposedtothecommonorinertlife,whichreclinesstaticallyuponitself,condemnedtoperpetualimmobility,unlessanexternalforcecompelsittocomeoutofitself.Henceweapplythetermmasstothiskindofman-notsomuchbecauseofhismultitudeasbecauseofhisinertia.Asoneadvancesinlife,onerealisesmoreandmorethatthemajorityofmen-andofwomen-areincapableofanyothereffortthanthatstrictlyimposedonthemasareactiontoexternalcompulsion.Andforthatreason,thefewindividualswehavecomeacrosswhoarecapableofaspontaneousandjoyousef

fortstandoutisolated,monumentalised,sotospeak,inourexperience.Thesearetheselectmen,thenobles,theonlyoneswhoareactiveandnotmerelyreactive,forwhomlifeisaperpetualstriving,anincessantcourseoftraining.Training=askesis.Thesearetheascetics.*Thisapparentdigressionshouldnotcausesurprise.Inordertodefinetheactualmass-man,whoisasmuch"mass"asever,butwhowishestosupplantthe"excellent,ithasbeennecessarytocontrasthimwiththetwopureformswhicharemingledinhim:thenormalmassandthegenuinenobleormanofeffort.*Vide"ElOrigendeportivodelEstado,"inElEspectador,VII,recentlypublished.Nowwecanadvancemorerapidly,becausewearenowinpossessionofwhat,tomythinking,isthekey-thepsychologicalequation-ofthehumantypedominantto-day.Allthatfollowsisaconsequence,acorollary,ofthatroot-structure,whichmaybesummedupthus:theworldasorganisedbytheXIXthCentury,whenautomaticallyproducinganewman,hasinfused

intohimformidableappetitesandpowerfulmeansofeverykindforsatisfyingthem.Theseincludetheeconomic,thephysical(hygiene,averagehealthhigherthananyprecedingage),thecivilandthetechnical(bywhichImeantheenormousquantityofpartialknowledgeandpracticalefficiency


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possessedbytheaveragemanto-dayandlackingtohiminthepast).Afterhavingsuppliedhimwithallthesepowers,theXIXthCenturyhasabandonedhimtohimself,andtheaverageman,followinghisnaturaldisposition,haswithdrawnintohimself.Hence,weareinpresenceofamassstrongerthanthatofanyprecedingperiod,butdifferingfromthetraditionaltypeinthatitremains,hermeticallyenclosedwithinitself,incapableofsubmittingtoanythingoranybody,believingitselfself-sufficient-inaword,indocile.*Ifthingsgoonastheyareatpresent,itwillbeeverydaymorenoticeableinEurope-andbyreflection,throughoutthewholeworld-thatthemassesareincapableofsubmittingtodirectionofanykind.Inthedifficulttimesthatareathandforourcontinent,itispossiblethat,underasuddenaffliction,theymayforamoment.havethegoodwilltoaccept,incertainspeciallyurgentmatters,thedirectionofthesuperiorminorities.*Ontheindocilityofthemasses,especiallyoftheSpanishmasses,IhavealreadyspokeninEspanaInvertebrada(1922),andIreferthereadertowhatistheresaid.Buteventhatgoodwillwillresultinfailure.Forthebasictextureoftheirsouliswroughtofhermetismandindocility;theyarefrombirthdeficientinthefacultyofgivingattentiontowhatisoutsidethemselves,beitfactorperson.Theywillwishtofollowsomeone,andtheywillbeunable.Theywillwanttolisten,andwilldiscovertheyaredeaf.Ontheotherhand,itisillusorytoimaginethatthemass-manofto-day,howeversuperiorhisvitallevelmaybecomparedwiththatofothertimes,willbeabletocontrol,byhimself,theprocessofcivilisation.Isayprocess,andnotprogress.Thesimpleprocessofpreservingourpresentcivilisationissupremelycomplex,anddemandsincalculablysubtlepowers.Ill-fittedtodirectitisthisaveragemanwho

haslearnedtousemuchofthemachineryofcivilisation,butwhoischaracterisedbyroot-ignoranceoftheveryprinciplesofthatcivilisation.Ireiteratetothereaderwhohaspatientlyfollowedmeuptothispoint,theimportanceofnotgivingtothefactsenunciatedaprimarilypoliticalsignificance.Onthecontrary,politicalactivities,ofallthoseinpubliclifethemostefficientandthemostvisible,arethefinalproductofothersmoreintimate,moreimpalpable.Hence,politicalindocilitywouldnotbesogravediditnotproceedfromadeeper,moredecisiveintellectualindocility.Inconsequence,untilwehaveanalysedthislatter,thethesisofthisessaywillnotstandoutinitsfinalclarity.CHAPTERVIII:THEMASSESINTERVENEINEVERYTHING,ANDWHYTHEIRINTERVENTIONISSOLELYBYVIOLENCEWEtakeit,then,thattherehashappenedsomethingsupremelyparadoxical,butwhichwasintruthmostnatural;fromtheveryopening-outoftheworldandoflifefortheaverageman,hissoulhasshutupwithinhim.We

ll,then,Imaintainthatitisinthisobliterationoftheaveragesoulthattherebellionofthemassesconsists,andinthisinitsturnliesthegiganticproblemsetbeforehumanityto-day.IknowwellthatmanyofmyreadersdonotthinkasIdo.Thisalsoismostnaturalandconfirmsthetheorem.Foralthoughmyopinion


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turnouterroneous,therewillalwaysremainthefactthatmanyofthosedissentientreadershavenevergivenfiveminutes'thoughttothiscomplexmatter.HowaretheygoingtothinkasIdo?Butbybelievingthattheyhavearighttoanopiniononthematterwithoutpreviousefforttoworkoneoutforthemselves,theyprovepatentlythattheybelongtothatabsurdtypeofhumanbeingwhichIhavecalledthe"rebelmass."ItispreciselywhatImeanbyhavingone'ssoulobliterated,hermeticallyclosed.Hereitwouldbethespecialcaseofintellectualhermetism.Theindividualfindshimselfalreadywithastockofideas.Hedecidestocontenthimselfwiththemandtoconsiderhimselfintellectuallycomplete.Ashefeelsthelackofnothingoutsidehimself,hesettlesdowndefinitelyamidhismentalfurniture.Suchisthemechanismofself-obliteration.Themass-manregardshimselfasperfect.Theselectman,inordertoregardhimselfso,needstobespeciallyvain,andthebeliefinhisperfectionisnotunitedwithhimconsubstantially,itisnotingenuous,butarisesfromhisvanity,andevenforhimselfhasafictitious,imaginary,problematiccharacter,Hencethevainmanstandsinneedofothers,heseeksinthemsupportfortheideathathewishestohaveofhimself.Sothatnoteveninthisdiseasedstate,notevenwhenblindedbyvanity,doesthe"noble"mansucceedinfeelinghimselfasintruthcomplete.Contrariwise,itneveroccurstothemediocremanofourdays,totheNewAdam,todoubtofhisownplenitude.Hisself-confidenceis,likeAdam's,paradisiacal.Theinnatehermetismofhiss

7153482 ortega y gasset the revolt of the masses

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