8. motivation

8/7/2019 8. Motivation

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MOTIVATION



Motivation definedMotivation defined

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries



Motivation defined « cont¶d.

It is a process that starts with with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activatesbehavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

Need: Created when there is a physiological or psychologicalimbalance.Drive: It is action oriented and provides an energizing thrust.Incentives: Alleviate needs and reduces drive

An inner state that activates and moves an individualAn inner state that activates and moves an individualtowards an intrinsic goaltowards an intrinsic goal



El ements of Work Motivation

Direction of Behavior

When faced with obstacleshow hard does a person keep

trying to perform achosen behavior successfully?

How hard does a personwork to perform achosen behavior?

Which behaviors does aperson choose to perform

In an organization?

Level of Effort

Level of Persistence



MotivationI ntrinsic

± actually performingthe behavior ± Behavior performed

for its own sake

Ex trinsic

± Based on acquisitionof material or socialrewards



Motive

P rimary MotiveU nlearned & P hysiologically basedHunger, Sex, P ain avoidance

General MotiveU nlearned but not P hysiologically basedCuriosity, Manipulation & Activity Drive

Secondary Motive Learned



Need for achievement

Secondary Motive

D oing better than competitorsAttaining or surpassing a difficu l t goa l

S olving a comp lex prob lem

Carrying out a cha ll enging assignment successfu ll yD eve loping a better way to do something

Need for power

Influencing people to change their attitudes or behavior Controlling people and activitiesBeing in a position of authority over othersGaining control over information & resourcesDefeating an opponent



Secondary MotiveNeed for Security

S ecured jobProtection against loss of income or disasterProtection from physica l harm

Protection from hazards

Need for Status

R ight car, right c lothesR ight company, right jobR ight degree, right universityLiving in the right neighborhoodEx ecutive privi leges



C lassification of Motivation Theories

± Content theories.Focus on profiling the needs or drives that peopleseek to fulfill.

± P rocess theories.

Focus on people¶s thought or cognitive processes.

± Reinforcement theories.

Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating its

consequences .



Content Theories of Motivation

Content theories± Motivation results from the individual¶s attempts tosatisfy needs

± Focuses on goals, incentives that people seek toachieve to remain satisfied and perform better

Major content theories± Maslov¶s Need-Hierarchy theory± McGregor¶s Theory X and Y

± Herzberg Two-factor theory± ERG theory± McClelland Needs theory

Each theory offers a slightly different view.



Maslov¶s Need Hierarchy Theory

Physiological needs

Safety needs

Social needs

Esteem needs

Self-

actualizationneeds

Lower-order needs

Higher-order needs



Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor )



Herzberg Two Factor theory Job Satisfiers ( Motivators) are related to job

content (E.g. New equipment); Job Dissatisfiers(Hygiene Factors) are related to job context(surrounding aspects , say bad boss, no training)

Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but do notlead to motivation

Taken together, Motivators and hygiene factorsare Two-factor theory of motivation

Factors such as company policy & administration,supervision, salary when adequate, placateworkers; else dissatisfy workers



ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core Needs

Existence: survival(physiological , materialwell-being)

Relatedness: social,interpersonalrelationships.

Growth: intrinsic desirefor personal development.

Concepts:

A lower level need doesnot have to be fulfilled for

a higher level need to bemotivating

More than one need canbe operative at the sametime.

If a higher-level needcannot be fulfilled, thedesire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.



David McClelland¶s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff



David McClelland¶s Theory of Needs « contd.

Acquired needs theory.± Need for achievement (nAch).

The desire to do something better or more efficient ly, toso lve prob lems, or to master comp lex tasks.

± Need for affiliation (nAff).The desire to estab l ish and maintain friend ly and warmre lations with others.

± Need for power (n P ower).The desire to contro l others, to inf luence their behavior,or to be responsib le for others.



Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing theVarious Needs Theories

HygieneFactors

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological

Motivators

Relatedness

Existence

Growth

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland



P rocess Theories of Motivation

Concerned with cognitive antecedents that go intomotivation or effort and how they relate to oneanother

Based on the notion that individuals make

conscious decisions about their job behavior Focus on the thought processes through whichpeople choose among alternative courses of action

Two process theories:± Equity theory± Expectancy theory



Stacy Adams¶ Equity Theory Argues that a major input into job

performance and satisfaction is degree of equity (or inequity) that people perceive intheir work situation



Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons that an employee can use:

Self-inside: An employee¶s experiences in a differentposition inside his/ her current organization

Self-outside: An employee¶s experiences in a situationor position outside his/ her current organization

Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee¶s organization

Other-outside:Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee¶s organization



Equity Theory « contd.Outcome Comparisons result in:

Positive Inequity Person's outcomes > Other's outcomesPerson's inputs Other's inputs

Negative Inequity Person's outcomes < Other's outcomesPerson's inputs Other's inputs

Equity Person's outcomes < Other's outcomesPerson's inputs Other's inputs



Equity Theory « contd.P ositive inequity (Results in guilt)

Individual feels he/she has received relatively more thanothers in proportion to work inputs.

Negative inequity (Results in anger)

Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than othersin proportion to work inputs.

Equity (Results in fairness)

Individual feels he/she has received as much as others inproportion to work inputs.



Equity restoration behaviors.± Change work inputs.± Change the outcomes received.± Leave the situation.± Change the comparison person.± P sychologically distort the comparisons.± Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of

the comparison person.

Equity Theory « contd.



Equity Theory « contd.

Coping methods for dealing with equitycomparisons.

± Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in theworkplace.

± Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.± Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.

± Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the rewardis based.

± Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in thesituation



Equity Theory: Example

INEQUITABLE RELATIONSHIPINEQUITABLE RELATIONSHIPAndy is

overpaid compared to Bill

Bill isunderpaid

compared to Andy

Bill¶s outcomes($25,000/year)Bill¶s inputs

(40 hours/week)

Andy¶s outcomes($30,000/year)Andy¶s inputs(40 hour/week)

Andy feels guilty Bill feels angry

EQUITABLE RELATIONSHIPEQUITABLE RELATIONSHIP

Andy¶s outcomes($30,000/year)Andy¶s inputs(40 hour/week)

Andy is equitably paid compared to Bill

Bill¶s outcomes($30,000/year)Bill¶s inputs

(40 hours/week)

Bill is equitably paid compared to Andy

Bill feelssatisfied

Andy feelssatisfied



Vroom¶s Expectancy Theory Model is built along the concepts of:

± Valence: Strength of an individual¶s preference for a particular outcome

± Instrumentality: Degree to which a first-level outcome will leadto a desired second-level outcome

± Expectancy is the perceived probability (0 to 1) assigned to agiven level of effort leading to a given level of performance /first level of outcome

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain waydepends on the strength of the expectation that the actwill be followed by a given outcome and on theattractiveness of that outcome to the individual



Expectancy Theory «contd. It depicts a process of cognitive variablesthat reflect individual differences in work motivation

Everyone has a unique combination of valences, instrumentalities, expectancies



Overview of Expectancy Theory

EffortEffort

ExpectancyExpectancy InstrumentalityInstrumentality Valence of reward

Valence of reward

PerformancePerformance RewardReward

MOTIVATION MOTIVATION

Role perceptionsand opportunitiesRole perceptionsand opportunities

Abilitiesand traitsAbilities

and traits

JOBPERFORMAN CE

X X



How are motivation, job satisfaction,and job performance related?



Motivators Intrinsic

± A person¶s internal desire to do something, dueto such things as interest, challenge, andpersonal satisfaction.

Extrinsic

± Motivation that comes from outside the person,such as pay, bonuses, and other tangiblerewards.



Motivation for Specific Organizational Goals

Employee Recognition (to show peoplematter)

Improved P roductivity (Variable payprograms / Rewards)

Other types of performance (Leadershipeffectiveness, new goals, knowledge,competency, Commission beyond sales)

Motivating Specific Groups



TYP ES OF R E WA RD S AN D TH E IR OBJ E CT IV ES

A.Membership and Seniority-Based RewardsB.Job Status-Based Rewards (based on job

evaluation and worth of job)C.Competency-Based Rewards (based on skills,

knowledge, other underlying characteristics thatlead to superior performance.

D.P erformance-Based Rewards (Individual, Team,Organizational)

8. motivation

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