8. through the mill—excavation of an early medieval ... · bm 82.16 77.68 78.29 80.23 81.04 81.69...

8. Through the mill—excavation of an early medievalsettlement at Raystown, County MeathMatthew Seaver

On a long, low ridge in the small townland of Raystown, Co. Meath, west of what is nowAshbourne, people began burying their dead in an enclosed cemetery in the early fifthcentury AD. This place was to endure for at least 600 years as a large farming settlement.The building and maintenance of a remarkable series of watermills and watercourses andthe production of cereals defined the lives of generations before the site became disusedsometime in the 11th or 12th century.

Excavations in 2004 and 2005 by Cultural Resource Development Services Ltd (CRDSLtd) in the road corridor of the N2 Finglas–Ashbourne road scheme uncovered theextensive remains of this settlement (NGR 304976, 251474; height 65–71 m OD;excavation licence no. 03E1229 extension; ministerial direction no. A011). This routebypasses the growing town of Ashbourne. Raystown was one of 20 sites (Illus. 1) excavatedon behalf of the National Roads Authority and Meath County Council (see FitzGerald,this volume). This paper aims to outline the results of the excavation of this unique site andto illustrate its potential to add to our knowledge of early medieval Ireland.

Discovery

The site is in the barony and parish of Ratoath, between the towns of Ashbourne andRatoath. It is situated c. 350 m north of the east–west road between Swords and Ashbourne.This was a medieval communications route from Dublin to Trim and was used by King Johnin 1185 (Orpen 1911, 247). The importance of the road declined after the construction ofthe north–south turnpike road in the 18th century, which became known as the N2. Thesite is centred on a north–south ridge in an area of relatively low-lying land, criss-crossed bynumerous streams (Illus. 2). It is bordered to the east by a stream, which farther north entersthe Broad Meadow River, and to the west by low-lying, sometimes waterlogged, ground.This leaves the site bounded on three sides by water. The site was discovered by GSBProspection Ltd during an extensive pre-development geophysical survey of selected areasin 2002. The survey suggested that the site, which extended beyond the road corridor,covered an area measuring at least 160 m east–west by 250 m. Trial trenching and initialexcavation by Judith Carroll Network Archaeology Ltd in 2003 confirmed the presence ofa significant early medieval site. The entire area within the road corridor, approximately one-third of the overall site, was subsequently excavated by CRDS Ltd.

History and landscape

It is important to place the site within its contemporary early medieval landscape: it lay inthe ancient kingdom of Brega and in the sub-kingdom of Deisceart Breg (Southern Brega).This important early kingdom, which may have evolved in the seventh century, was later

73

Settlement, Industry and Ritual

74

80.20

80.77

SPRICKLESTOWN

1.83m RH

UND

1.83m RH 1.83m

RH

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

1.83 F

F

BM 82.16

77.68

78.29

80.23

81.04

81.69

80.87

80.73

81.59

81.53

82.14

82.22

82.12

81.80

82.29

82.12

81.58

75.54

75.39

76.93

77.68

Ward River

CR

CR

110Kv

Co Council Bdy

Union Bdy

38Kv

CR

1.83m FF

UND

110Kv

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

CS

CS

UND

CR

1.83m FF

UND

CR

CS

70.31

70.95

70.71

70.41

71.39

71.94

71.54

70.09

70.35

70.18

70.61

70.61

70.60

71.10

70.88

70.37

70.14

70.60

70.60

70.46

70.57

70.56

Ward River

Unio

n Bd

y

Unio

n Bdy

38Kv

38kv

1.83m FF

CS

CR

CR

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m RH

1.83m FF

1.83

m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

CD

10Kv

10Kv

110Kv

1.83m FF

UND

CR

CR

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

BM 71.26

BM 71.40

70.34

70.83

70.84

71.39

38kv

CS

1.83m

FF

CS

CD

CD

CS

10Kv

10Kv

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

82.8

38Kv

Co Boro Bdy & Co Council Bdy

81.9

BM 67.94

10kv

38kv

LS

LS

LSLS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

H

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

Mhs

Mh

H

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

NORTH ROAD

1.83m RH

UND

Co Boro

Bdy & Co

Council

Bdy

CF

Ward Bdy

114

119

109

109

71.1

69.3

67.7

77.4

76.5

73.2

71.8

78.2

BM 76.29

10kv

38kv 38kv

10kv

LS

LS

LSLS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

10kv

10kv

220kv

220kv

T

38kv

38kv

10kv

38kv

T

10kv

38kv

38kv

110kv

38kv

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

MhMh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

H

H

H

Mh

H

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

1.83m RH

RH

UND

UND

UND

1.83m

RH

1.83m

UND

1.83m

RH

UND

UND

1.83m

RH

Ward Bdy

CF

UND

Co Boro Bdy

UND

1.83m RHUND

Co Boro Bdy UND

Co Bor

o Bdy

Tank

77.62

78.38

78.54

77.60

UND

UND

Co Boro Bdy

10Kv

110Kv

220Kv

110Kv

38Kv

38Kv

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

1.83m FF

BM 82.87

79.2

78.9

83.4

82.9

82.4

82.5

81.7

82.1

82.7

golf course

roof

Rockmount

CR

UND

CR

1.83m

RH

1.83m

RH

UND

1.83m RH

UND

1OKv

38Kv

10Kv

10Kv

10Kv

UND

UND

UND

1.83m

FW

1.83m

RH

UND

UND

FW

BM 80.19

BM 79.30

81.03

80.12

80.34

79.68

79.80

79.97

79.11

78.38

77.39

solid pk

ef

top slope

top

top

top

North Road

Church Well

CS

CS

1.83m FF

UND

CW

CF

(Site of )

1.83m FF

38Kv

38Kv

110Kv

38Kv

10Kv

10Kv

110Kv

38Kv

38Kv

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m

RH

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

RH

UND

UND

UND

1.83m RH

1.83

m R

H

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

DUBBER

38Kv

ES

10kv

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

H

H

H

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh Mh Mhs

Mh

McKELVEY AVENUE

1.83m RH

68

58

56

42

40

5549

47

41

39

29

21

27

19

38kv

LS

LS

10kv

Mh

MhMh

UND

UND

1.83m

RH

BM 83.97

82.8

83.1

83.4

83.2

(Site of )

Dubber Castle

Meakstown

Cottages

Williamsville

DUBBER

10Kv

220Kv

81.5

golf course

UND

Rath

(Site of )

80.8

BM 77.9878.4

78.4

79.3

78.7

79.2

77.9

78.4

77.6

Newtown Caroline

CR

CR

CR

CR

CS

1.83m

FF

UND

FF

1.83m FF

UND

77.11

84.29

83.03

Earthwork

(Site of )

220Kv

38Kv

10Kv

BM 78.42

BM 78.55

BM 83.42

BM 77.11

BM 77.20

81.2

76.0

78.6

77.7

85.4

84.0

77.5

77.3

77.0

77.7

77.4

76.9

79.7

78.3

79.9

78.2

76.2

78.2

77.9

77.2

77.5

77.3 76.9

77.1

73.36

84.9

84.8

82.0

79.0

75.1

81.6

83.1

gl

ef

yd

North Road

Chapel

Dunsoghly

Castle

Kilshane Bridge

Kilshane

House

Kilshane Motte

Connaberry

Motte

CR

CS

CS

CS

(Disused)

CR

CS

CS

CS

CD

(Site of )

38Kv

38Kv

39Kv

Well

UND

10Kv

Well

Well

I.83m

FF

1.83m RH

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

UND

1.83m FF

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

UND

1.83m

RH

1.83m

RH

1.83m

RH

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m RH1.83m RH

UND

1.83

m FF

1.83m

FF

I.83m RH

T

38Kv

10Kv

38Kv

10Kv

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m RH

CS

UND

CS

CS

220Kv

BM 78.42

BM 75.33

76.88

77.49

75.65

75.55

75.24

76.10

76.51

78.53

79.73

81.86

82.82

74.73

74.58

74.83

77.52

78.87

81.54

85.04

85.84

84.19

80.61

77.90

77.69

80.42

76.13

78.03

76.38

77.38

76.91

76.11

75.04

76.71

74.70

75.37

75.17

76.46

76.99

73.87

73.55

71.43

Broghan

House

Broghan

New Bridge

Ward

House

110kv

1.83m RH

CD

CD

CH

RH

CH

CS

CD

CS

CS

CS

CR

CR

CR

UND

10Kv

38Kv

10Kv

10Kv

10Kv

10Kv

10Kv

UND

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

1.83m RH

1.83m

RH

1.83m RH

UND

UND

1.83m RH

UND

1.83m RH

1.83m

FF

1.83m RH

BM 85.63

83.52

82.47

84.34

84.20

84.12

83.94

83.37

83.22

83.03

81.81

80.62

79.72

Church(in ruins)

Grave Yard

38Kv

CR

UND

1.83m RH

70.63

68.05

70.16

70.96

69.46 Coolatrath Bridge

CR

CR

CR

BM 69.84

T

UND

1.83m RH

UND

Union Bdy

10Kv

10Kv

10Kv

38Kv

BM 70.65

71.34

71.83

72.23

71.97

70.24

70.20

69.71

70.89

70.20

69.79

71.14

71.35

War

d Ri

ver

Union Bdy

38Kv

LB

TK

PO

10Kv

10Kv

T

UND 1.83m RH

CR

UND

CR

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m

FF

81.6

CR

78.5

79.2

77.7

78.7

CR

CR

UND

1.83m RH

UND

69.27

1.83m FF

5

63

65

71

6

7

7977

61

Mh

Mh

LS

34

33

32

31

18

15

14

11

10 9

6

1

5

8 7

6

3

4

5

2

17

2

25

2

7

17

22

14

10

7

2

10

7

27

20

11

6

20

27

30

2 14

4

41

1

4

12

18

10

5

16

23

1

8

1

24

18

9

15

9

8

8

30

23

1

6

22

19

23

28

46

29

28

1918

13

12

5

2

16

22

39 38

4342

39

85

1

11

23

5

4

7

8

13

12

4

3

13

14

1

2

17

19

22

21 20

51 49 25

26

29

37

35

40

41

46

47

1

2 3

4

1.83m

FF

The Bailey

WESTVIEW

Broadmeadow Green

Lawns Tara

Lindsay Mew's

COURT

BOURNE

AVENUE

BOURNE AVENUE

ARKLE HILL

BROA

DMEA

DOW

GREENFIELD

BOURNE

ROAD

BOUR

NE

Close Tara

Mast

H

H

H H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

MhMh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

MhMh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

MhMh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mhs

Mh

H

Mhs

Mh

Mhs

Mhs

H

Mh

Mh

Mh Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

Mh

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

LS

10kv

10kv

69.56

68.85

74.92

74.71

73.94

72.97

71.52

70.93

70.85

70.85

70.47

69.58

Sports Ground

1.83m FF

1.83

m FF

UND

1.83m FF

10kv

72.24

72.98

75.83

76.77

78.16

78.26

78.01

77.52

77.28

Mound

Pond

CR

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

CR

CR

1.83m FF

Pond

BM 65.12

64.74

66.45

66.52

67.06

67.44

67.63

BALTRASNA

1.83m

FF

T

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

CS

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m

FF

10kv

T

10kv

10kv

10kv

Well

Pump

BM 76.66

BM 69.15

65.81

77.87

68.31

68.19

68.66

69.69

69.78

67.34 66.33

67.65

67.98

68.37

67.04

67.81

66.82

65.16

66.68

67.29

68.00

69.16

69.63

70.43

70.54

71.09

71.19

77.65

77.85

76.99

76.53

75.02

74.39

73.25

71.02

69.78

69.58

68.48

Fox Covert

E.S

Harlockstown

Cozey Lodge

Factory

Factory

RATHCOOL

10kv

10kv

Tk

T

10kv

10kv

10kv

10kv

CR

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

CS

UND CS

1.83m

FF

Pond

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83

m FF

1.83m

FF

CR

UND

69.80

68.85

68.84

70.46

68.90

69.33

69.47

BM 70.77

10kv

LB

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

CS

UND

CS1.83m FF

1.83m FF

UND

CS

CS

CS

CS

CS

BM

70.84

BM

71.90

69.53

71.24

71.38

66.88

66.45

66.78

67.40

68.37

69.53

72.58

71.54

71.40 70.73

70.79

71.10

71.64

71.32

71.09

70.05

69.10

68.41

68.51

Newtown

Cross Roads

38kv

CR

CR

1.83m FF

UND

Well

Sluice

UND

10Kv

10Kv

Unio

n Bd

y

1.83

m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

BM

67.68

BM 68.15

BM

69.25

66.76

69.12

70.34

68.33

69.11

69.07

68.67

68.93

68.50

68.34

Wotton Bridge

10kv

10kv

E.S

T

1.83m

FF

CR

CR

Pond

10kv

1.83m FF

1.83

m FF

1.83

m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

1.83

m FF

10kv

10kv

110kv

110kv

110kv

1.83m

FF

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

72.35

73.27

73.02

72.03

72.56

73.69

72.22

72.79

71.88

72.30

70.24

70.52

Sports

Grounrd

Muckerstown

Fort

110kv

Well

UND

CR

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

71.11

73.92

74.96

75.14

73.73

72.41

72.10

71.85

69.53

69.50

70.06

71.53

72.05

70.72

70.35

69.89

68.92

68.63

66.35

64.12

63.68

63.75

64.33

63.04

62.21

Fleenstown

House

Chapel Hill

Muckerstown

House

Muckerstown

10kv

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

CR

CR

CS

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

CR

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF

UND 1.83m

FF

CR

1.83

m FF

1.83m FF

CR

Pond

Tk

Pond

Pond

Ruin

T

10kv

10kv

10kv

110k

v

110k

v

10kv

BM 58.30Donaghmore

Bridge

St Patricks

(Catholic Church)

Donaghmore Lodge

Robertstown Bridge

BM

54.58

BM

53.09

56.54

55.49

50.82

50.92

53.69

54.74

61.74

60.33

61.25

57.74

58.20

56.39

53.80

54.81

55.23

CR

Electricity

Station

Grave Yard

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

38kv

10kv

110kv

10kv

10kv

10kv

10kv

BM 62.67

BM 66.28

64.05

63.32

63.31

63.07

62.79

62.01

61.65

61.98

63.14

65.69

66.78

67.59

65.66

66.51

66.89

66.03

65.44

65.63

65.62

65.98

66.49

66.83

66.25

65.83

63.99

62.83

62.20

62.86

63.11

63.57

61.59

61.13

61.37

61.04

61.65

64.80

66.87

61.06

59.09

57.70

57.68

56.79

55.99

56.45

56.77

61.03

61.70 61.94

62.32

58.94

55.81

55.24

55.33

55.96

Brindley Testimonial

Mound

Sports Ground

Sports Ground

1.83m

FF

1.83m

FF

T

CR

1.83m FF

1.83m

FF1.8

3m FF

CS

UND

UND

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

1.83m FF

UND

CR

T

10kv

110kv

10kv

10kv

10kv

10kv

67.54

57.68

Sports Ground

Pitch and Putt

Course

Dublin Road

10kv

CR

UND

Cherry Lane

72.15

73.20

69.97

68.13

67.76

67.47

72.82 74.18

69.76

ew

ef efef

Factory

Church

Bridge

Cookstown

Tudor Grove

10kv

BM 68.03

(in ruins)

10kv

Tanks

CS

CS

CD

1.83m FF

UND

1.83m

FF74.61

78.90

79.67

80.80

83.35

85.46

87.09

87.80

87.81

87.22

79.15

79.35

78.52

77.40

77.46

76.56

75.41

77.48

77.29

77.38

77.70

77.64

77.43

76.51

79.45

82.23

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incorporated into the expanding kingdom of Mide (Charles-Edwards 2000, 234;Bhreathnach 1999, 3). Southern Brega was in turn divided into a number of smallerterritories, whose extents correspond with the later barony boundaries. The barony ofRatoath relates to the area held by the Mac Gilla Sechnaill (Clann Chernaig Sotail), a familyof the Southern Uí Néill dynasty.

In the immediate area the physical remains of this period survive both as sites listed inthe Record of Monuments and Places (RMP) and as sites discovered througharchaeological excavation. The kingship of Brega was centred on the royal stronghold atLagore crannóg, an artificial island in a lake close to Dunshaughlin, excavated in the 1930s.Christianity was introduced to the area in the fifth century, and missionaries linked to StPatrick founded churches at Dunshaughlin (RMP No. ME044-003), Trevet (ME038-017)and Kilbrew (ME038-023). Raystown is close to early church sites at Donaghmore(ME045-008) and Killegland (ME045-002 & -003). Both sites incorporate undergroundpassages known as souterrains. Another souterrain is known from Baltrasna (ME045-022-06). Another church site of unknown, but at least medieval, date can be found atCookstown bridge (ME045-001). (All of the sites noted above are 1–9 km from theRaystown site.)

Ringforts, the ubiquitous monuments of the period, are relatively sparse in the area.These were circular, ditched farmstead enclosures, often set within their own fields. Owingto ploughing and clearance, many of these monuments have been levelled and areidentifiable only through aerial/geophysical survey, careful observation of field patterns,accidental discovery or archaeological excavation. Probable examples can be found atKillegland, and a further enclosure (Site 22) in the same townland may also be a ringfort.The N2 realigned route passes close to the latter site, and a number of kilns and furnaceswere excavated nearby and are likely to be late Iron Age/early medieval in date. (Site 22was excavated by Laurence McGowan under excavation licence no. 03E1327.) Part ofanother large ringfort (Site 25) was also excavated on the route at Cookstown. (Site 25 wasexcavated by Richard Clutterbuck under excavation licence no. 03E1252.)

The excavated site

The excavations at Raystown uncovered a burial ground enclosed by a series of concentricditches, as well as two areas of domestic activity, one of which incorporated two souterrains.Outside this core area were a large number of radiating boundary and drainage ditches,clusters of cereal-drying kilns and the remains of at least eight watermills and the largewatercourses that powered them (Illus. 3 & 4).

Secrets from the graveThe burial ground at Raystown was centred on the top of a ridge, and approximately halfof it was within the road corridor. There was no excavated evidence for an entrance, butgeophysical survey suggests that this was on the western edge, beyond the road corridor. Afurther concentric enclosure, measuring 50 m across, was defined by a more substantialditch, which had been recut on numerous occasions.

The presence of a burial ground always makes the actions of humans in the past seemmore tangible, and excavations here recovered 93 articulated burials. Grave-digging and

An early medieval settlement at Raystown, County Meath

75


76

Illus. 2—Aerial photograph of Raystown with topographical contours at 1 m intervals (white lines) andgeophysical survey data (blue lines) (CRDS Ltd and GSB Prospection Ltd)


77

Arch

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later agriculture had disturbed at least a further 40 burials, which were indicated bydisarticulated bone scattered through the soil. Sometimes this was placed in clusters knownas charnel deposits, in which bones disturbed during grave-digging were stacked, either inthe grave or in a separate pit. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the human bone indicateburial between the early fifth and the late 10th century (for details see Appendix 1). Theburials were in simple, shallow and mostly unlined graves, and the skeletons were generallyaligned with heads to the west. The tightly bound postures of a number of skeletonssuggested that these people had been buried in shrouds. Others may have been dresseddifferently for burial: objects such as an iron knife and an iron pin (probably ringed) mayindicate this. Other objects found included a copper-alloy ring and, perhaps mostpoignantly, a blue glass bead at the neck of a child. The practice of including personalobjects, jewellery and dress-fasteners is seen in other, contemporaneous burials in Britainand Ireland (O’Brien 1999, 179–84).

The human bone was analysed by osteoarchaeologist Linda Fibiger. The burialscomprised 68 adults, three adolescents, 20 juveniles and two older infants. During thisperiod children frequently did not live beyond four years of age. The percentage of juvenilesand infants is very low, and neonatal babies (babies from birth to four weeks) are absentfrom the Raystown burials, suggesting that they may have been buried elsewhere. Themajority of children at Raystown who had died at between one and eight years of age wereburied in a specific area to the south of an inner ring-ditch. Of the adults at Raystown, 70per cent had lived beyond 36–45 years, and women had lived longer than men.Measurements of stature showed that women were taller than those on comparable earlymedieval Irish sites, perhaps owing to diet and/or hereditary factors. Chemical analysis ofisotopes laid down in bone during life indicated that the diet at Raystown was mainly land-based.

Disease was a factor of everyday life, and relatively high numbers of adults suffered fromsystemic infections such as tuberculosis. These would have been more prevalent than theskeletal remains suggest, as only severe cases leave impacts on bone. The close proximity oflarge numbers of animals would have contributed to the spread of disease. Lifestyle andwork also directly affected human bone. This could be observed in patterns of degenerativejoint disease in men, with compression of the lower spine indicating heavy lifting, whilewomen had degenerative changes of the neck, suggesting repetitive back-and-forthmovement. Women generally suffered more than men from non-spinal joint disease. Theexception to this pattern was that men had higher levels of joint disease in the wrist andshoulder on their less dominant side. The archaeological evidence suggests many activitiesthat could have caused these patterns in women and men, including hauling timbers andstones, digging for mill-races, reaping, threshing, food preparation and tending largenumbers of animals.

A number of burials demonstrate the violent nature of early medieval Irish life. Twomale burials had cuts to the bone, indicating blade trauma. One had been struck on theneck and jaw, and the other had more than 108 cut-marks all over his body. Although thistranslates into a smaller number of injuries, as each wound could leave multiple impacts, itsuggests a ferocious attack indicative of armed combat.

Unusual burial practice was also in evidence. A male burial was inserted in a formerdrying kiln, a considerable distance from the other burials. Unlike the other burials he wascovered with stones and laid in a north-south position on his right side with legs flexed.


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79

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The outer burial enclosure later cut through this burial (Illus. 5). Why was he deliberatelyplaced away from the other burials and treated differently?

LivingOn either side of the cemetery were dense areas of settlement. To the north was an areapaved with small stones. It was littered with animal bone and artefacts such as bone and ironpins, needles, iron tools and a horse bit. Gullies and post-holes suggested a structure, possiblya house, and a small stone-built cereal-drying kiln. Two souterrains were uncovered in thisarea (Illus. 6). The first had a narrow, low, winding passageway leading to a roundedchamber. It was initially timber-built, with the entrance having been replaced in stone.Wooden souterrains are relatively unusual in County Meath. The second souterrain wasstone-built and had a corbelled roof. It had a narrow passageway leading to a large,rectangular chamber. This structure had a rear exit through a lintelled opening (Illus. 7). Itis not known which souterrain was built first, and scientific dating is currently under way.

It is clear that the souterrains were later additions to the settlement. This area of Bregawas originally thought to have had relatively few souterrains (Clinton 2001, 38), butexcavations are now suggesting a complex picture. The northern settlement area and thecemetery were later enclosed by a large, subrectangular enclosure (Illus. 4), indicating thatthe people felt the need to distinguish this area of the site from the farming activity outside.To the south of the cemetery was a dense pattern of gullies, hearths and a probable housesite.


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Illus. 5—Unusual burial in the remainsof a kiln on the edge of the enclosure. Thisman was buried a considerable distancefrom the other burials and was laid in anorth–south position (CRDS Ltd)


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Illus. 6—Excavation in progress of two souterrains in the northern area of the Raystown site (Hawkeye)

Illus. 7—Souterrain in northern area with rear exit through lintelled opening, with inset of excavation in progress(CRDS Ltd)

After the harvest—grain and grindingFeatures relating to work and production, with field enclosures, possible livestockenclosures, kilns and mills, dominated the land outside the cemetery and settlement areas.Ditches radiating out from the core enclosures subdivided it. These ditches ran downslopeand would have formed drains and boundaries. Several of them had been recut numeroustimes over the centuries. Repeated actions such as recutting boundaries suggest that theinhabitants strictly maintained and controlled the way that land was divided.

Five cereal-drying kilns were found in these outlying areas. They were all figure-of-eight-shaped pits. These structures, found on early medieval sites throughout Ireland,allowed heat to dry cereal crops gently after harvesting and threshing. The surviving pits arethe remains of a more complex kiln structure that would have had a clay or wattlesuperstructure. Processing of the soil from the kilns recovered large quantities of barley, oats,wheat, rye and weed species that had been accidentally charred during drying. The dryingwas essential in the damp and cold Irish climate. It staved off decay and allowed the grainto be milled more efficiently.

The remains of up to eight watermills were excavated at Raystown, along with thesubstantial watercourses that fed them. They were concentrated in clusters: two in thenorthern part of the site, one in the centre and up to five in the southern area. Watermillshad been introduced to Ireland by the mid-first millennium AD, possibly from mainlandEurope (Rynne 2000, 47). They are known from both archaeological and historicalevidence. Watermills revolutionised the processing of cereals, which had previously beenground by hand on quern-stones.

At Raystown the water source was situated a considerable distance to the south of theexcavated areas and is likely to have been a natural or artificial channel connecting to theBroad Meadow River. The levels of the mill-races were carefully designed to bring waterfrom the source to the mills. This meant that some of the races had to be cut to a depth ofover 2 m into the hillside. The water may have provided a resource for other purposes, suchas watering animals, washing and drinking. The mill-races led to the mill, in some cases viaa reservoir or a pond, and the water was held in place by an earthen, wooden or stone dam.

The remains of the mills themselves consisted of the undercrofts or wheel-pits (Illus. 8& 9). The majority used horizontal wheels and were fed water from the race or pond by awooden chute known as a flume. This allowed water to be directed at force at the wheel,which in turn drove a shaft that turned the millstones in the upper building. This buildingwas supported on wooden and/or stone foundations that survived in the waterloggedconditions in five of the mill sites. The mill buildings were variously supported by large oakbase plates, which had carpentry joints to hold upright timbers, by large posts driven intothe undercrofts or by stone walls bonded with clay (Illus. 10). Horizontal mills of these typescan still be seen operating in parts of the world such as Bosnia, Spain and Portugal and werein common use in Ireland until the 20th century (Moog 1994; Knox 1907).

A vertical undershot mill may also have been present in the southern area of the site. Inthis type of mill, water runs through a race and enters the mill at the same level as the baseof the vertical wheel. This required a gearing system to drive the shaft and millstones. Nomillstones or wheels were recovered, and it is likely that these were intentionally removedfrom each structure because of their high value. The mills were radiocarbon-dated tobetween the seventh and the 10th century AD. (Dendrochronology or tree-ring datingcould not be employed because the oak used in the construction of the mills came from


82

fast-growing, slightly warped trees that did not have enough rings.) Owing to thesymmetrical arrangement of mill-races on either side of the site, it is possible that pairs ofmills were used together. The people of the site were physically and socially defined bythem.

AnimalsWhile the physical remains of the mills are spectacular, animal husbandry clearly played alarge part in the lives and subsistence of the inhabitants of this site. More than 700 kg ofanimal bone was recovered during excavations, and a corral-like feature was noted in theresults of the geophysical survey to the west of the site. Analysis of this bone is continuing,but it is clear that cattle, pig, sheep/goat, horse, deer and bird are all represented.Examination of this bone will aim to discover whether differences in the patterns of animaluse over the centuries can be distinguished.

End of a settlementThe current dating and artefactual evidence suggests that the mills, settlement and cemeteryhad been abandoned by the 12th century. The latest of the mill structures contained a sherdof medieval pottery in the soil that filled the upper part of it. Anglo-Norman settlers arrived


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Illus. 8—Aerial photograph of mills under excavation (Hawkeye)

in the area in the late 12th century, and the first mention of the name Raystown is in a14th-century document, which refers to Walter Ray, a free tenant, with land in Raystown(Orpen 1921, 73). The original name of the townland is unknown, and there are no earlymedieval references that can be linked to the site. Plough-pebbles, which are small stonesfor protecting the sides of wooden ploughs, were found during the excavation and suggestthat the land continued to be cultivated in the 13th century. The recovery of a smallnumber of medieval potsherds and an iron candleholder suggest continued occupationnearby.

Towards meaning

Raystown clearly has a fascinating tale to tell and raises a number of important issues. Theearliest dated activity is the burial of the dead. Cemeteries form powerful symbolic placesin the landscape and signify spiritual claims to the land. Burials began in Raystown atapproximately the time when the first Irish Christians sought a bishop from Rome. Burialsof a relatively small community continued into the 10th century. There are considerabledifficulties in distinguishing Christian from non-Christian ancestral cemeteries. There isalso confusion about how ancestral cemeteries were allowed to continue. Circular burialenclosures around burial sites had a long ancestry in Ireland and were used to surround


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Illus. 9—Northern Mill 2under excavation (CRDS Ltd)

groups of inhumations (burials of articulated skeletons) in the early centuries AD. Some ofthese may have been focused on a central or principal burial. Circular enclosures were alsoused to surround monastic sites, often including outer settlements. In this sense Raystownis different—only the cemetery was enclosed in the initial phase.

Excavations at Raystown have allowed a close examination of the context of milling inearly medieval Ireland. The Raystown community lived through the building, maintenanceand use of mills. Mills have often been recovered in small-scale excavations but can rarelybe placed in context with their surroundings. In recent years a strong link has emergedbetween church sites and large-scale milling. Monastic and ecclesiastical sites such asNendrum, Co. Down, and, on a smaller scale, Killoteran, Co. Waterford, (Murphy &Rathbone, this volume) used watermills to process cereals. In these cases the mills weresituated at some distance from the monastery. Documentary evidence suggests that farmers,such as those who inhabited ringforts, and religious sites had access to, or a share in, mill


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Illus. 10—Reconstruction of Northern Mill 2 (Simon Dick for CRDS Ltd)


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Illus

. 11—

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sites. The mills were central to life at Raystown and suggest that the people needed tomaximise the potential of the location through the power of water, even if it meantengineering complex and labour-intensive watercourses, probably with specialist assistance.Millwrights are well attested in early medieval documents and held the same kind of statusas shipbuilders. All of this suggests planning, control and power.

How does Raystown differ from traditional church sites, which may also have containeda cemetery, settlement, farm and mills? A number of sites have emerged in recent years thatinclude cemeteries, large enclosures and, in some cases, souterrains and mills. None haveunambiguous church buildings or associations.These sites have a different range of activitiesfrom those at ringforts and are generally of a much larger scale. Indeed their scale suggeststhat they may have been controlled by larger interests, possibly a significant ecclesiasticalsite, such as Dunshaughlin, or by local rulers, such as the kings at Lagore crannóg, in thecase of Raystown.

Conclusion

The discovery of Raystown on the N2 Finglas–Ashbourne road scheme is a dramaticillustration of how archaeological research can flow from previously unknown sites.Research-based archaeology picks its subject carefully, moving from the general to theparticular. The building of roads and the associated archaeological investigations have meantthat unknown sites and new site types have emerged. With scientific excavation and analysisthese sites can change and initiate research agendas. The site at Raystown tells a fascinatingstory of a people’s efforts to produce food through technology. Moreover, the evidencefrom this site can be used to discuss power relationships between people, both on the siteand within the region. Although the mills are silent, the intentions of those who built themwill occupy the thoughts of anyone with an interest in early medieval Ireland for some timeto come.

Acknowledgements

Sincere thanks to the excavation team, especially to the supervisors, Stephanie Durning,Kevin Martin, Mairéad McLaughlin, Alex Southeran, Mandy Stephens and Bernice Watts,to the post-excavation team, particularly Madeleine Murray, post-excavation manager, andto Niall Lynch and the drafting team. The excavation would not have been possible withoutthe management and advice of Finola O’Carroll, project manager for CRDS Ltd. I wouldlike to express my gratitude to Dr Maria FitzGerald, project archaeologist for MeathCounty Council. Thanks to Simon Dick for the site reconstruction drawings and to all ofthe specialists who have contributed. Thanks to Colin Rynne, Department of Archaeology,University College Cork, for comment on milling technology. All errors and omissions aremy own.


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8. through the mill—excavation of an early medieval ... · bm 82.16 77.68 78.29 80.23 81.04 81.69...

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