9- copyright 2007 prentice hall 1 organizational theory, design, and change fifth edition gareth r....

Copyright 2007 Prentice Hall 19-

Organizational Theory, Design, and Change

Fifth EditionGareth R. Jones

Chapter 9

Organizational Design,

Competences, and Technology


Learning Objectives

1. Identify what technology is and how it relates to organizational effectiveness

2. Differentiate between three different kinds of technology that create different competences

3. Understand how each type of technology needs to be matched to a certain kind of organizational structure if an organization is to be effective


Learning Objectives (cont.)

4. Understand how technology affects organizational culture

5. Appreciate how advances in technology, and new techniques for managing technology, are helping to increase organizational effectiveness


What is Technology?

Technology: the combination of skills, knowledge, abilities, techniques, materials, machines, computers, tools, and other equipment that people use to convert or change raw materials into valuable goods and services


What is Technology? (cont.) Technology exists at three levels

Individual level: the personal skills, knowledge and competences that individuals possess

Functional or department level: the procedures and techniques that groups work out to perform their work and create value


What is Technology? (cont.) Technology exists at three levels

(cont.) Organizational level: the way an

organization converts inputs into outputs

Mass production: the organizational technology based on competences in using standardized, progressive assembly process to manufacture goods

Craftswork: the technology that involves groups of skilled workers who interact closely to produce custom-designed products


Technology and Organizational Effectiveness

Technology is present in all organizational activities:

Input: allows each organizational function to handle relationships with outside stakeholders so that the organization can effectively manage its specific environment

Conversion: transforms inputs into outputs

Output: allows an organization to effectively dispose of finished goods and services to external stakeholders


Figure 9-1: Input, Conversion and Output Processes


Technical Complexity: The Theory of Joan WoodwardProgrammed technology: a

technology in which the procedures for converting inputs into outputs can be specified in advance Tasks can be standardized and the

work process can be made predictable


Technical Complexity (cont.) Technical complexity: the extent

to which a production process can be programmed so that it can be controlled and made predictable

High technical complexity: exists when conversion processes can be programmed in advance and fully automated

Low technical complexity: exists when conversion processes depend primarily on people and their skills and knowledge and not on machines


Technical Complexity (cont.) Woodward identified 10 levels of

technical complexity that are associated with three types of production technology:

Small-batch and unit technology Large-batch and mass production

technology Continuous-process technology


Technical Complexity (cont.) Small-batch and unit technology

Involves making one-of-a-kind, customized products or small quantities of products

The conversion process is flexible, thereby providing the capacity to produce a wide range of goods that can be adapted to individual orders

Is relatively expensive Scores lowest on the dimension of

technical complexity


Technical Complexity (cont.) Large-batch and mass production

technology Involves producing large volumes of

standardized products The conversion process is

standardized and highly controllable Allows an organization to save

money on production and charge a lower price for its products

Scores higher on the technical complexity dimension


Technical Complexity (cont.) Continuous-process technology

Involves producing a steady stream of output

Production continues with little variation in output and rarely stops

Individuals are only used to manage exceptions in the work process

Tends to be more technically efficient than mass production

Scores highest on the technical complexity dimension


Figure 9-2: Technical Complexity and Three Types of Technology


Technical Complexity and Organization Structure An organization that uses small-

batch technology Impossibility of programming

conversion activities because production depends on the skills and experience of people working together

An organic structure (chap. 4) is the most appropriate structure for this technology


Technical Complexity and Organization Structure (cont.)

An organization that uses mass production technology

Ability to program tasks in advance allows the organization to standardize the manufacturing process and make it predictable

A mechanistic structure (chap. 4) becomes the appropriate structure for this technology



An organization that uses mass production technology Tasks can be programmed in advance,

and the work process is predictable and controllable in a technical sense

Still the potential for a major systems breakdown

An organic structure is the appropriate structure for this technology


Figure 9-3: Technical Complexity and Organizational Structure



Technological imperative The argument that technology

determines structure Aston studies found that:

Technology is one determinant of structure

Organizational size is a more important determinant of structure


Routine Tasks and Complex Tasks: The Theory of Charles Perrow

Perrow’s two dimensions underlie the difference between routine and nonroutine or complex tasks and technologies:

Task variability Task analyzability


Theory of Charles Perrow (cont.)Task variability: the number of

exceptions – new or unexpected situations – that a person encounters while performing a task Is low when a task is standardized or

repetitiousTask analyzability: the degree to

which search activity is needed to solve a problem Is high when the task is routine


Theory of Charles Perrow (cont.) Four types of technology

Routine manufacturing: characterized by low task variability and high task analyzability

Craftswork: both task variability and task analyzability are low

Engineering production: both task variability and task analyzability are high

Nonroutine research: characterized by high task variability and low task analyzability


Figure 9-4: Charles Perrow


Theory of Charles Perrow (cont.) When technology is routine,

employees perform clearly defined tasks – work process is programmed and standardized Mechanistic structure

Nonroutine technology requires the organization to develop structure that allows employees to respond quickly to manage exceptions and create new solutions Organic structure


Table 9-1: Routine and Nonroutine Tasks and Organizational Design


Task Interdependence: The Theory of James D. Thompson Task interdependence: the

manner in which different organizational tasks are related to one another affects an organization’s technology and structure

Three types of technology Mediating Long-linked Intensive


Theory of James D. Thompson (cont.) Mediating technology: a

technology characterized by a work process in which input, conversion, and output activities can be performed independently of one another

Based on pooled task interdependence

Each part of the organization contributes separately to the performance of the whole organization


Theory of James D. Thompson (cont.) Long-linked technology: based

on a work process in which input, conversion, and output activities must be performed in series

Based on sequential task interdependence

Actions of one person or department directly affect the actions of another

Slack resources: surplus resources that enable an organization to deal with unexpected situations


Theory of James D. Thompson (cont.)Intensive technology: a

technology characterized by a work process in which input, conversion, and output activities are inseparable Based on reciprocal task

interdependence The activities of all people and all

departments are fully dependent on one another

Specialism: producing only a narrow range of outputs


Figure 9-5: Task Interdependence and Three Types of Technology


From Mass Production to Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Mass production is based on: Dedicated machines: machines

that can perform only one operation at a time and that produce a narrow range of products

Fixed workers: workers who perform standardized work procedures, thereby increasing an organization’s control over the conversion process


From Mass Production to Advanced Manufacturing Technology (cont.)

Mass production: Attempts to reduce costs by

protecting its conversion processes from the uncertainty of the environment

Makes an organization inflexible Fixed automation Expensive and difficult to begin

manufacturing a different kind of product when customer preferences change


Figure 9-6: Work Flows


Advanced Manufacturing Technology: Innovations in Materials Technology

Advanced manufacturing technology: technology which consists of innovations in materials and in knowledge that change the work process of traditional mass-production organizations

Materials technology: comprises machinery, other equipment, and computers Organization actively seeks ways to

increase its ability to integrate or coordinate the flow of resources between input, conversion, and output activities


Advanced Manufacturing Technology (cont.)

Computer-aided design (CAD): an advanced manufacturing technique that greatly simplifies the design process Computers can be used to design and

physically manufacture products Computer-aided materials

management (CAMM): an advanced manufacturing technique that is used to manage the flow of raw materials and component parts into the conversion process, to develop master production schedules for manufacturing, and to control inventory Flow of inputs determined by customer

demand


Advanced Manufacturing Technology (cont.)Just-in-time inventory (JIT)

system: requires inputs and components needed for production to be delivered to the conversion process just as they are needed Input inventories can then be kept to a

minimum CAMM is necessary for JIT to work

effectively Increases task interdependence

between stages in the production chain


Figure 9-7: Just-in-Time Inventory System


Flexible Manufacturing TechnologyTechnology that allows the

production of many kinds of components at little or no extra cost on the same machine Each machine is able to perform a

range of different operations Machines in sequence able to vary

operations so that a wide variety of different components can be produced


Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

An advanced manufacturing technique that controls the changeover from one operation to another by means of commands given to the machines through computer software

Depends on computers programmed to: Feed the machines with components Assemble the product from components and

move it from one machine to another Unload the final product from the machine to

the shipping area Use of robots integral to CIM

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Documents

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