9 domains of development 1.physical-maturational 2. cognitive-intellectual 3. artistic-creative 4....

9 Domains of Development

1. Physical-Maturational

2. Cognitive-Intellectual

3. Artistic-Creative

4. Linguistic-Communicative

5. Knowledge-Skill

6. Social-Interpersonal

7. Moral-Ethical

8. Personality-Individuality

9. Emotional-Affective

Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Theorists Connected with Each of the 9 Domains of Development

1. Physical-Maturational (Gesell)

2. Cognitive-Intellectual (Piaget, Damon)

3. Social-Interpersonal (Youniss, Selman, Damon)

4. Moral-Ethical (Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan, Hoffman, Damon)

5. Knowledge-Skill (Vygotsky, Damon)

6. Linguistic (Chomsky)

7. Artistic-Creative (Lowenfeld, Gardner)

8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby, Ainsworth)

9. Emotional-Affective (Hoffman, Kagan)


1. Psychosexual Personality Development (Freud)

2. Psychosocial Personality Development (Erikson)

3. Developmental Tasks as Developmental Milestones (Havighurst)

4. Cognitive Development (Piaget)

5. Moral Reasoning Development (Kohlberg, Piaget, Havighurst)

6. Moral Emotion Development (Hoffman, Kagan)

7. Social-Conceptual Development (Damon, Selman, Youniss)

8. Scaffolded Knowledge and Skill Development (Vygotsky, Damon)

9. Ecological-Social Development (Bronfenbrenner)

10. Maturational-Biological Milestones (Gesell)

11. Ethological Personality-by-Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth)

Descriptors of These Theorists’ Models


Some Developmental Mechanisms

• Maturation (genetic program for growth)

• Imitation (essential for learning)

• Practice (essential for consolidation)

• Habituation (promotes novel exploration)

Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Three issues addressed by developmental theorists

Three issues addressed by developmental theorists

• Continuity or Discontinuity of GrowthCan development be characterized as a gradual change process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of change?

• The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience

Is development primarily influenced by biologically inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental experiences (nature or nurture)?

• Individual DifferencesWhat makes individuals different?To what extent are individual characteristics stable over time?

• Continuity or Discontinuity of GrowthCan development be characterized as a gradual change process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of change?

• The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience

Is development primarily influenced by biologically inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental experiences (nature or nurture)?

• Individual DifferencesWhat makes individuals different?To what extent are individual characteristics stable over time?


Some theories view development as a relatively continuous process. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is discontinuous and involves periodic qualitative milestone changes.

INFANCY

ADULTHOOD

ADULTHOOD

DISCONTINUOUSCONTINUOUS


Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years of age

SensorimotorExperiencing the world through thesenses and exploration (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, etc.)

• Object permanence• Stranger anxiety

About 2 to 6 years of age

About 7 to 11 years of age

About 12 years of age through adulthood

PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but have no logical reasoning abilities

• Pretend play• Egocentrism• Rapid language development

Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing math operations

• Conservation • Mathematical

transformations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning; reflection; thinking about thinking

• Abstract logic• Potential for moral

reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development


Sensorimotor Stage

The child begins to interact with the

environment

Preoperational Stage

The child begins to represent the world

symbolically.

Concrete Operational Formal Operational

The adolescent can transcend concrete situations and think about the future and their own thinking

The adolescent can transcend concrete situations and think about the future and their own thinking

Children learn rules such as game rules and the law of conservation, and they take them very seriously


Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four stages marked by qualitatively different modes

of thinking. Interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think.

Sensorimotor

Coordination of sensory input

and motor responses;

development of object

permanence; begin to explore

environment

Pre-Operational

Early symbolic thought

marked by irreversibility, concentration, & egocentrism;

assume you know what they know; cannot

decenter

Concrete Operational

Mental operations are

applied to concrete

events only; mastery of

conservation and

hierarchical classification; cannot think

abstractly

Formal Operational

Mental operations are

applied to abstract ideas; begin logical,

systematic thinking; imagine

hypothetical events;

manipulate symbols in their minds

Birth to 2 Years 2 to 7 Years 7 to 11 Years 12 to adult


Types of Games

and PlayPre-CooperativePre-Cooperative

Parallel Egocentric Immature Cooperative Mature Cooperative

Game Rule Practice

and Consciousness

A casual attitude toward game rules; few rules are understood;

games ignored

Rules are viewed as sacred, obligatory,

unchangeable; game rules are vaguely understood

Rules are viewed as a product of mutual

consent; game rules are codified and of intense

interest Basic Morality

Is Respect for Rules

Heteronomy: morality of constraint; imposed constraints maintain egocentrism; constraints

are a necessary precondition for the development of moral autonomy

Sense of Justice

Justice is what iscommanded by authority:

Heteronomy

Equalitarianism Born of solidarity & mutual

respect among equals

EquityConsider intentions & situation when judging

Thinking Capacity

Pre-OperationalCan't take the perspective of others; can't think

about their own thinking

Concrete OperationalTake the perspective of

others; conceptual but not abstract reasoning

Concept of

Responsibility

Objective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of material consequences;

evaluations based on observable factors

Subjective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of motives/intentions; acts judged immoral if

they violate norm of reciprocity central to moral rules

Morality of Good

Moral Affect

Feeling of obligation to follow rules of respected authority; raw material for future autonomous

moral behavior is present in sympathetic tendencies and affective reactions

Piaget's Theory of Moral DevelopmentPiaget's Theory of Moral Development

Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Formal Operational Can think logically andabstractly; can consider

many viewpoints

Affection between parent and child yields morality of good; develops along side the

morality of justice

Cooperative

No further explanation

Feeling of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperation and respect among equals (reflects valuing of reciprocity); "moral sentiments and motivation" to do right reflect the

subordination of early "sympathetic tendencies" and "affective reactions" to rules; "will" is the permanent set of constructed

"values" to which one one adheres

Autonomy: morality of cooperation; cooperation and reciprocity emerge from relationships among peer equals that deliver them from egocentrism to

moral autonomy and a mature sense of justice

The idea of "developmental tasks" is appropriately credited to Robert Havighurst who stated that the concept was developed in the 1930s and 40s by Frank, Zachry, Prescott, and Tyron. He further stated, “The developmental-task concept occupies a middle ground between two opposing theories of education: the theory of freedom — that the child will develop best if left as free as possible; and the theory of constraint — that the child must learn to become a worthy, responsible adult through restraints imposed by his society [inculcation]. A developmental task is midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes an active learner interacting with an active social environment.” Tasks for three of the developmental stages are presented on the next three slides. Drawn from the description of Havighurst’s book in Developmental Advising: Annotated Bibliography for Research Published Prior to 1999, an annotated bibliography compiled by G. Steele and Melinda McDonald for the NACADA Journal. Retrieved from http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Journal/developmental.htm The book is Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

Robert Havighurst’s “Developmental Task

Theory”

He also introduced the concepts of “teachable moment,” “authoritarian conscience,” and “rational conscience,” concepts similar to those of Piaget.

Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Click Here

Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood: Ages 6-12

1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games;

2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism;

3. Learning to get along with age-mates;

4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role;

5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating;

6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living;

7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values;

8. Achieving personal independence;

9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions.


Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Ages 12-18

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes;

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;

3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;

4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults;

5. Preparing for marriage and family life;

6. Preparing for an economic career;

7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology;

8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Ages 12-18

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes;


3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;

4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults;

5. Preparing for marriage and family life;

6. Preparing for an economic career;

7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology;

8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.



Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1. Selecting a mate;


3. Learning to live with a marriage partner;

4. Starting a family;

5. Rearing children;

6. Managing a home;

7. Getting started in an occupation;

8. Taking on civic responsibility;

9. Finding a congenial social group.

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1. Selecting a mate;


3. Learning to live with a marriage partner;

4. Starting a family;

5. Rearing children;

6. Managing a home;

7. Getting started in an occupation;

8. Taking on civic responsibility;

9. Finding a congenial social group.



9-12 months is the quiet period since there is a

decrease in vocalization

Grpmph

!

Cat! said with gestures;

serves as whole sentence

See cat! Telegraphic

means lacking connection words

Gradual narrowing of sounds to meaningful phonemes of the

language being learned

16 of 25 consonant sounds by 30 monthsEarly Language

Development

Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively. Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where am I going?” The stages are described above in terms of personality traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises.

Epigenetic principle: genetically determined unfolding of maturation; HOW we turn out is a function of social/environmental forces and experience in interaction with genotype.

Integrityversus

Despair

Have Iliveda full

life andtaken

advantageof what

lifeoffered?

Generativity versus

Absorption

Will Iproduce

somethingof realvalue

or leavea legacy?

Intimacy versusIsolation

Shall Ishare mylife withanother

or livealone?

Identityversus

Role Confusion

Who am Iand

wheream I

going?

Industryversus

Inferiority

Am ICompetent

or am I aworthless

failure?

Initiativeversus

Guilt

Am IGoodor amI Bad?

AutonomyversusShame

& Doubt

Can I do things myself

or must Idepend

on others?

Trustversus

Mistrust

Is my worldPredictable

andSupportive?

Late Adult

Middle Age

Young AdulthoodAdolescen

ce

Late Childhoo

d

Early Childhoo

dToddlerho

od

Infancy Babies


Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York:Norton. Erikson, E.H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility. NewYork: Norton. To learn more about Erikson, begin here: http://elvers.stjoe.udayton.edu/history/people/Erikson.html

Trust vs

Mistrust

Autonomy vs

Shame/Doubt

Initiative vs

Guilt

Industry vs

Inferiority

Identity vs Role

Confusion

Generativity vs Self-

Absorption

Intimacy vs

Isolation

Integrity vs

Despair

Psychosocial Crisis

or Conflict

Important Events

Significant

Relations

Healthful Virtues

Problematic Traits

Developmental Stages and Age Ranges

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises (Stages) of Personality Formation

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises (Stages) of Personality Formation

Oral-Sensory Birth to 12-18 MonthsMuscular-Anal 18

Months to 3 Years of

AgeLocomotion 3 to 6

Years of AgeLatency

6 to 12 Years of Age

Adolescence 12 to 18 Years of Age

Young Adult 19 to 29 Years of Age

Middle Age 30 to 55

Years of Age

Old Age 56 to 100 Years of Age

Mother

Parents

Family

Neighbor & School Children

Peer Cliques Girl/Boy

Friend Role Models

Friends & Life Partners

Household Members & Work Mates

Mankind or “My-kind”

Feeding

Toilet Training

Exploration Doing ThingsSchool Making

Things Well

Consolidation of Roles Identification

sCommitted Relationship

sSupporting

Next Generation

Physical Decline

Death

Hope Faith

Will Independenc

ePurpose Courage

Imagining

Competence Skill, Pride Conscience

Fidelity Loyalty

Love Trust

Caring Altruism

Wisdom

Sensory Distortion

WithdrawalImpulsivity

Compulsivity Self-Doubt

Cruelty Inhibition

Fear of Failure

Fanaticism

RepudiationPromiscuity

Exclusivity

Over- Extension Rejecting

Presumption Despair

Inferiority Lack of Self-Confidence


©


Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued

Early AttachmentEarly Attachment• Erikson proposes that our first major

conflict is encountered in the first yearTrust vs. Mistrust

• Infants develop trust through Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory)

• Erikson proposes that our first major conflict is encountered in the first yearTrust vs. Mistrust

• Infants develop trust through Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory)


Erikson’s Psychosocial Erikson’s Psychosocial Development ContinuedDevelopment Continued

• In the second year of development the In the second year of development the child encounters the conflict of . . . child encounters the conflict of . . . Autonomy vs Shame and DoubtAutonomy vs Shame and Doubt

• The child explores the environment The child explores the environment and seeks the independence to do so.and seeks the independence to do so.

• Parents who stifle their children during Parents who stifle their children during this stage cause feelings of shame and this stage cause feelings of shame and doubt.doubt.

• In the second year of development the In the second year of development the child encounters the conflict of . . . child encounters the conflict of . . . Autonomy vs Shame and DoubtAutonomy vs Shame and Doubt

• The child explores the environment The child explores the environment and seeks the independence to do so.and seeks the independence to do so.

• Parents who stifle their children during Parents who stifle their children during this stage cause feelings of shame and this stage cause feelings of shame and doubt.doubt.


Erikson’s Psychosocial Erikson’s Psychosocial Development ContinuedDevelopment Continued

• In the third year of development, the In the third year of development, the child faces the conflict of . . .child faces the conflict of . . .Initiative vs. GuiltInitiative vs. Guilt

• The child starts to show initiative in play The child starts to show initiative in play and control over emotions.and control over emotions.

• The child also begins to gain a sense of The child also begins to gain a sense of what is right and wrong based on their what is right and wrong based on their experiences.experiences.


Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued

• From ages 6 through 12, the child faces the conflict over

• Industrious children build a sense of competence and self-confidence.

• Non-industrious children begin to develop inferiority complexes.

• From ages 6 through 12, the child faces the conflict over

• Industrious children build a sense of competence and self-confidence.

• Non-industrious children begin to develop inferiority complexes.

Industry vs InferiorityIndustry vs Inferiority


• Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors via relationships.

• Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people, usually parents and teachers.

• The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they may be close to having the necessary mental skills, they need guidance in order to complete the tasks.

• Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to children’s needs.

• Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors via relationships.

• Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people, usually parents and teachers.

• The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they may be close to having the necessary mental skills, they need guidance in order to complete the tasks.

• Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to children’s needs.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition)Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition)


• Zone of Proximal Development encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but within their capacity to learn with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children.

• Scaffolding involves changing the level of support over the course of teaching something — the more skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of guidance to fit students’ current performance level.

• Language and Thought: young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this “inner speech” or private speech.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Development


Primary Source: Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Another source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1989). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. To learn more, begin with Clifford Morris’s information at http://www.igs.net/~cmorris/zpd.html entitled Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development 1..

Ecological Theories of Human Development

It is important to study human development

in it’s broader social-environmental context because the structure of

the environment influencesdevelopment.


Environmental Systems:microsystem: setting where individual lives

mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems comprising the local community

exosystem: experiences in the larger social system or society of which the microsystem and mesosystem are parts

macrosystem: the individual’s culture

chronosystem: environmental events and

transitions over time

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory5


One PPT source retrieved at http://www.ualberta.ca/~liame/106b1/notes7.ppt#20 – no author identified.

MESOSYSTEMMESOSYSTEM

MICROSYSTEMMICROSYSTEM

EXOSYSTEMEXOSYSTEM

MACROSYSTEMMACROSYSTEM

CHRONOSYSTEMCHRONOSYSTEM

INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL

Workplace

Church

Peer Group

Neighborhood

Home

School

Sch

ool

H

om

e

Neighborhood

Workplace C

hu

rch

Peer Group

Religion

Ed

uc

atio

nal

S

yste

m

Go

vernm

ent

Ag

encies

Mass Media

Commerce and Industry

Transp

ortatio

n

Syste

ms

Com

municatio

n Technology

Sub

cultu

res

Legal

System

Dominant Beliefs and Ideologies

Cu

ltural N

orm

s Tra

dit

ion

s L

ife S

tyle

s

Cho

ices

Opportunities

Structures

Life Course

Options

Pat

tern

s of S

ocial

Inte

rchan

geCULTURE

SOCIETY AT LARGE

Changes in systems over time

Interrelations among

microsystems

Where the individual lives


Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Prenatal Development

BIOLOGICAL-MATURATIONAL THEORIES

Placenta

Umbilical Cord

Amniotic Sac

Sperm Cells

Egg


Liver

Eye

Frontal Lobes

Biological-Maturational Theories of Development

Emphasize the genetic, biological, and evolutionary basis of human development.

The central concept is maturation — a genetically predetermined sequence of physical and psychophysiological changes. These changes take place at about the same age for most people.

The environment has a significant influence on when changes occur and the degree of growth that takes place.


Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement (K.M.B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability .

Fear

Delight

Excitement

Distress

Anger

Disgust

Elation

Affection for adults

Affection for children

Joy

Jealousy

Months 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27

K. M. B. Bridges, (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 37. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Temperament• The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive,

arousal, and self-regulatory components of personality. These are evident in infancy in the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability, etc.

• In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2-3 months of age. They identified tree types of temperament evident in infancy:

• Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood (mild to moderate intensity); quick adaptability;

• Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent negativemood of high intensity; slow adaptability;

• Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses ( mild to moderate intensity); slow adaptability.

Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel

• In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for temperament:

Inherited,present early in development,predictive of later personality development. Buss, A., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early personality traits. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Side by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Maturation does not take place in a vacuum.

There are critical periods during which children must have certain types

of experiences in order for perceptual and cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus

confirming the “use it or lose it” saying.

For example, in order to develop correct binocular depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input

between age one and three years.

A child who was kept in confinement by her parents until the age of thirteen without

being spoken to never acquired spoken language beyond two

or three word phrases.

Maturation does not take place in a vacuum.

There are critical periods during which children must have certain types

of experiences in order for perceptual and cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus

confirming the “use it or lose it” saying.

For example, in order to develop correct binocular depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input

between age one and three years.

A child who was kept in confinement by her parents until the age of thirteen without

being spoken to never acquired spoken language beyond two

or three word phrases.

Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Environmental Factors and Prenatal DevelopmentThe mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways:

• Severely inadequate nutrition

– Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems

– Increased risk of mental disorders later in life

• Drug use

– Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly

(small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor abnormalities, abnormal facial features.

– The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social skills.

– Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked to birth defects.

• Viral Illnesses

– Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness,

and (c) the medications taken.– Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause

extreme abnormalities or death.

Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels. Primary sources: Gurnee, Mary C. and Sylvestri, Mario F. (2005). Teratogenicity of Drugs, accessed at U.S. Pharmacist, a Johnson Publication at http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Feat/ACF3001.cfm&pub_id=8&article_id=134; The Ohio State University Medical Center (2005).

Risks during pregnancy, a public service document accessed at http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/patientcare/healthinformation/diseasesandconditions/maternity/care/risks.cfm

Attachment Theory

• Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to respond to it’s caregiver.

• Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors promote close proximity to the caregiver so that the child can be protected from danger.

• Type of attachment is influenced by care-giving behavior; children can be categorized as:

– Secure– Ambivalent (seek comfort but show

anger or resistance)– Avoidant– Insecure-disorganized

Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby

Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types_of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Researching Attachment: Strange Situation TestThe Strange Situation Test involves separating the very young child (toddler) from its mother or primary caregiver and then reuniting the child with the parent.

The infant is put through eight standardized episodes or situations, all meant to elicit

differing levels of distress. These include an experimenter entering the room, one or

both leaving, and a stranger entering either with or without the parent

in the room. Based on the infant’s reaction to these situations, his

or her type of attachment with the mother or

is identified.

This is carried out under controlled and monitored conditions and involves carefully recording the child’s reactions and the parent’s behavior. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth who extended the earlier groundbreaking work of John Bowlby.


From Messer, D. and Miller, S. (1999). Exploring Developmental Psychology. Copy of photo found at http://ibs.derby.ac.uk/~steve/devpsy/powerpoint/lec7social.ppt#7

Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Infant reunion responses following their separation

from their mothers:

Infant reunion responses following their separation

from their mothers:

• Secure (B type) behavior– positive, greeting of mother, being

comforted• Avoidant (A type) behavior

– not seeking contact, avoiding gaze• Ambivalent (C type) behavior

– not comforted, overly passive, show anger

• Disorganised (D type) Behavior– totally disorganised and confused


Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to be inconsistent, insensitive, and unpredictable in their interactions with their babies.

The mothers of insecure-avoidant babies tend to be averse to physical contact, are inclined to interfere unnecessarily, and generally appear emotionally unavailable or dismissive.

The mothers of insecure-disorganized infants are typically suffering from an unresolved trauma, such as abuse or the unresolved loss of an attachment figure, which results in their babies being afraid of them. The mother may actually be abusive or neglectful.

Click to Learn More

Source: Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In C.M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, (Eds.) The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior. (pp 3-30) New York: Basic Books. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

Correspondence Between Child & Adult Attachment Styles

Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

CHILD ATTACHMENT STYLE PARENT ATTACHMENT STYLE

SECURE: Limited distress, continued exploration after initial reunion

SECURE/AUTONOMOUS: developmentally appropriate interaction; recognizes significance of attachment.

AVOIDANT: child appears indifferent

DISMISSING: dismissive about attachment; withdrawn and rejecting

RESISTANT OR AMBIVALENT: child appears distressed and is preoccupied with caregiver and clingish

PREOCCUPIED: recognizes significance of attachment but is preoccupied with past and appears angry; blurred or unclear boundaries

DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: difficult to categorize reunion with caregiver; describes 80% of maltreated children.

UNRESOLVED/DISORGANIZED: frightened by memory of past; trauma promotes momentary disassociation; scripts child into past dramas

In the United States, about two thirds of all children

from middle-class families are securely attached.

About one child in three is insecurely attached.

63%22%

10% 5%

Avoidant Secure

Ambivalent Unclassified


Bowlby’s Attachment Stages

• Birth to 2-3 months– Undiscriminating social responsivenss

• 2-3 months to 6-7 months– Discriminating social responsiveness

• 6-7 months to 3 years– Active proximity seeking /true

attachment

• 3 years and older– Goal-corrected partnership


Sources: Bowlby, John. (1982). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. NY: Basic Books; list presented in this slide also listed in slide #5 created at the University of Idaho, retrieved at http://www.class.uidaho.edu/psych/faculty/Tammy/Tammy's%20305%20Notes/socialrelationships.ppt#5.

Separation Distress: Another Indicator of Attachment

Separation Distress: Another Indicator of Attachment

0.0

20

40

60

80

100

3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 29

Per

cen

tag

e o

f in

fan

ts w

ho

cri

ed

wh

en t

hei

r m

oth

ers

left

Age in months

Day-care

Home

Groups of infants who had and had not

experienced day-care were left by

their mothers in an unfamiliar room.

Groups of infants who had and had not

experienced day-care were left by

their mothers in an unfamiliar room.

Gordon Vessels’ 2005 recreation of graph in a PPT show by Mahnaz Rehmatullah at http://www.uta.edu/psychology/faculty/mahnaz/classnotes/1315/Ch04_Developing%20Person.ppt#34ed. He took it from Kagan, Jerome (1976), The role of the family during the first half decade. In V. Vaughn& T. Brazelton (Eds.), The family:Can it be saved? Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.

15.5

0

17.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

Attachment Theory Research Findings• Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to

secure attachment. Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415-426.

• Lamb et al., (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable. Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127-171.

• Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem solvers than insecurely attached infants.

• Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs. Crandell, L.E. and Hobson, R.P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 455-464(10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing

• Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their activities with friends more harmoniously than others. Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076-1081.

• Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63-76

• Sroufe et al., (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that 10-11 year old children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes.” Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to manage at home and school (e.g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc.). Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood. Child Development, 61, 1363-1373. Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships. In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.) Relationships as developmental context: The 29th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

• Fonagy et al., (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children were more competent on various mental tasks. Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 51-61.

Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Ainsworth’s Attachment Classifications

versus Thomas & Chess’s Temperament

ProfilesTemperament Profile

Percent of Infants

Attachment Classification

Percent of One Year

Olds

Slow to Warm UpSlow to

Warm Up AvoidantAvoidant

DifficultDifficult ResistantResistant

EasyEasy SecureSecure60%60%

15%15%

23%23%

63%63%

8%8%

29%29%

Data drawn from a similar chart created by faculty at the University of Western Ontario for undergraduate students taking course 240 B . No specific faculty author is listed. Retrieved at http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/undergraduate/psych240b-2/lectureslides/attachment_final.ppt#79

Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind• Authoritarian

– Child is told, “Do it because I said so!”– A punitive and highly controlling parenting style– Only concerned about obedience

• Authoritative– Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication

and high expectations for moral maturity– Are less likely to use physical punishment– Involve children in decisions and rule-making

• Permissive– Loose and inconsistent structure– Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and

schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel comfortable making.

Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.

Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

BaumrindBaumrindParent-Child Relationships

Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of parenting:

• Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish their children.

• Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on punishment.

• Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair discipline and much communication about moral maturity

Parent-Child Relationships

Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of parenting:

• Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish their children.

• Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on punishment.

• Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair discipline and much communication about moral maturity


Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967).

Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.

What parenting style is best?

Outcomes associated with different styles– Authoritarian

• Lack of social competence• Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights • Most social contact confined to deviant peers• Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality

– Authoritative• Greater self-reliance and self-confidence• More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others

– Permissive• Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective

Limitations of research– Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white,

middle class children and adolescents)– Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles.

Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels in 2005. His Sources: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind,

Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION of PARENTING STYLES

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION of PARENTING STYLES

PARENTING STYLES

Accepting Nurturing Responsive

Rejecting Unresponsive

Emotionally Aloof

Demanding Controlling

Authoritative Diana Baumrind

Authoritarian Rejecting

Overly Strict

Not Demanding Not Controlling

Indulgent Accepting Permissive

Neglectful Rejecting Permissive


Development of “Prosocial” Behavior

• Pro-social behavior is the aspect of moral conduct that includes socially desirable behaviors such as sharing, helping, and cooperating.

• Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies cry when they hear the crying of other babies but not when they hear tape-recorded crying ─ suggests at least a primitive level of global empathy

• Martin Hoffman traced the development of empathy through four stages.

Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Development of empathy• Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s

emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy.• Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following:

– emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy)– during the second year, babies actively attempt to

comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms• has been shown in reactions to staged events

such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle.– preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings

and can empathize with people they have not met including story characters they can only imagine and people they learn about through the media.

– between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to empathize with people based on their knowledge of troublesome social-environmental conditions such as being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative.

Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

The Development of Moral ReasoningLawrence Kohlberg

Explained how children and teens develop a sense of right and wrong (an ethic of justice)– Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather

than behavior or moral emotion– Examined the nature and progression of moral

reasoning or judgment through several stages.

– He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:• Preconventional

– Punishment orientation (stage 1)– Reward orientation (stage 2)

• Conventional– Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3)– Respect for authority orientation (stage 4)

• Postconventional– Social contract orientation (stage 5)– Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6)

Kohlberg, Lawrence (Ed.) (1983). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

View of "Right" Primary Levels Motivation Perspective Age/Grade

That Which Gains

Approval From

Others

That Which Adheres

to Rules or

Principles

Pre-Conventional(self-serving)

Conventional(other- serving)

Post-Conventional

(principle-serving)

Punishment Avoiding

Pleasure/ Reward Seeking

Acceptance/ Approval Seeking

Rule Following/Status Seeking

Law Abiding/Rights Respecting

Justice Seeking/Conscience Driven

Egocentric

Individualistic

Interpersonal

Organizational

Societal

Universal

PreschoolEarly Childhood

Grades K-2 Middle Childhood

Grades 3-5 Late Childhood

Grades 6-8 Early Adolescence

Grades 9-12 Late Adolescence

Adulthood

Developed by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

KOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORYKOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY

Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon

Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas about fairness (positive justice), and how they thought rewards and resources should be divided-up or distributed. A sample story:

A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some children drew well; others did not. Some children were well-behaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the students who painted pictures?

Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.


• In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel, Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon found that ideas of fairness develop through a sequence of levels:– Under age 4, children simply state their

desires and give no reason for their choice.– Four and five year old kids state their desires

but justify their choices on the basis of external factors (e.g. ¨we should get more because we are girls, or . . . we are bigger¨)



• Five to seven year old children believe that equality is the only fair way to divvy up valued rewards, and they will argue their point.– No mitigating circumstances for them

• For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and need enter into children’s moral reasoning.– They start to take into account all the factors

involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in each situations — a case by case decision.


Reasoning and Actual Behavior• How does the thinking of young children about fairness

correspond to their behavior in the real world?

• Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old children were asked to divide candy bars given to their group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets.– Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each

person should get the same number of candy bars.– Older children were better able to adjust the outcome

to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions made by each group member.

• In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their concept level in the simulated situations.

• In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level.

• In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy made a real difference.


InfantsTrust,

Openness, Hope Global Empathy Naturally & Non-Selectively ProsocialAutonomy

(Independence), WillToddlers

PreschoolInitiative,

Imagining, Purpose

Guilt forUncontrolledAggression

Shame & GuiltDawn of

Conscience

AuthoritarianConscience

Perspective Takingor the Cognitive

Component of Empathy;Guilt for

Irresponsibility

Affective Empathy

EarlyElementary

Conscience Inner Moral Guide

Industry,Competence, Skill

LateElementary

MiddleSchool

High School

Anxiety Related to Inconsistency

Between Beliefs and Actions

(exact point of emergence not clear)

No

Information

Identity Formation(Consolidation of

Roles,Identifications, and

PersonalCharacteristics)

Erikson Havighurst Knowles

HoffmanKagan

HayHavighurst

Affective DevelopmentalistsAffective Developmentalists

Rational Conscience

Complete Set of Moral

Principles


Grade Clusters Shown Below

Havighurst Erikson Hoffman Kagan Hay Selman / Damon

Infants Age 0-1

Preschool Early Child-

hood 4-5

Early Elementary

Middle Childhood

Late Elementary

Late Childhood

Middle School Early

Adolescence

High School Late

Adolescence

Toddlers Age 2-3

Emotions of shame and guilt

Naturalnon-

selectiveprosocialtendency

Prosocialbehavior becomes

moreselective

anddeclines

Global Empathydiscomfort at

another's distress

Self-RegulatoryEmpathy

feelings of concern that limit aggression

Beginning of moral responsibility; the

Dawn of Conscience

AuthoritarianConscience:

voice of parent takenin as a moral guide via

love & discipline

Rational Conscience:

through cooperationwith peers and an

understanding of rules

Complete Setof Moral

Principles

Can’t distinguish theirperspective from that of

others; know self in terms of unrelated

surface characteristics

Know people have different viewpoints but can take only one at a time and favor their own; understand

self in terms of comparisons

Better understanding of different viewpoints and

know they can have more than one plus

mixed feelings; self the same

Step outside situation and see as complex; have third-party view of self, others, and relationships; know

self in terms of effects on others

Understand self in terms of personal philosophy &

plan for the future

no

information

no

information

no information

no information

Moral feeling of guilt presumably extant with uncontrolled

aggression

Perspective Taking the cognitive component

of empathy combineswith affective compo-nent that is present at birth; guilt and

self-scorn related toirresponsibility and over-indulgence are

presumably experienced

Moral emotion of

Anxiety related toinconsistency

between beliefs andactions presumablyemerges sometimeafter late childhood

or during adolescence no information

Need to become Trusting, open, and Hopeful or will be

fearful throughout life

Need to become Independent, and Willful or be self-

doubting

Need to take Initiative and Imagine or may be cruel and critical

throughout life

Move from a needfor initiative to need for Industry, Skill,and competence

Need to be Competent or do

things well or they will feel

inferior and be unable to

work well with others

Need to form anIdentity or consolidate

roles, identifications, and characteristics or will be insecure, compulsive, or even deviant; tend to be

clannish and preoccupied with how they are

perceived by peers.

no information

no information


Affective DevelopmentAffective Development

Piaget on

Cognitive

Development

Piaget

on Moral

Development

Kohlberg

on Moral

Development


KindergartenPre-Kindergarten

● They can’t decenter or take theperspective of others but are imitative.

● They can sense and perceive but not symbolically manipulate.

● They cannot comprehend classes and subclasses.

● They cannot relate to adults’ abstract reasoning.

● They can’t reflect on or think about their own thinking.

● They assume you know what they know.

● They are subject to the morality of constraint.

● They exhibit social play but do not try to win.

● Justice is viewed as that commanded by authority.

● Casual attitude about rules. ● Authority maintains egocentrism.● Egocentrism a step between the solitary

play of younger children and the social play of children six and older.

(Preconventional 1)● They display heteronomous or adult-

dependent morality. ● They think in absolutes of right and

wrong.● They have an egocentric viewpoint.● They are good to avoid punishment or gain rewards.● They view the value of life the way they

do the value of objects.

Early ElementaryMiddle ChildhoodFirst and Second

Grades

Concrete Operations● They move from perceptual or preoperational to conceptual or concrete-

operational thought, i.e., they begin to solve problems in their heads because

they can manipulate objects symbolically.

● They cannot imagine events that are not real events, need real things to think about, and cannot think abstractly.

● They can take the perspective of others.

● They are becoming more and more interested in their peers.

● They willfully engage in social cooperation.

● They display instrumental cooperation. ● They are largely subject to the morality

of constraint.● They want to win by age seven but have

a vague notion of game rules.● They view rules as sacred and

unchangeable.● They view justice as that which is

commanded by authority.

(Preconventional 2)● They see right as that which satisfies

their needs.● They have a concrete, pleasure/ reward-

seeking, individualistic perspective.● Their cooperation is instrumental, and

they exchange favors to satisfy needs.● The value of life is viewed as

instrumental to need satisfaction.

Late ElementaryLate Childhood

Grades Three Through Five

● They are in transition between heteronomy and moral autonomy.

● They come to know codified game rules and show an intense interest in them.

● They continue to view rules as unchangeable.

● They view justice in terms of equality that comes about from solidarity and mutual respect.

(Conventional 3)● They view right as what gains approval.● They have an interpersonal, Golden

Rule, good-child/bad-child perspective.● They gain approval by being caring and

accommodating toward significant others.

● They view the value of life in terms of affectional bonds.

Middle SchoolEarly Adolescence

Grades Six Through Eight

High SchoolLate Adolescence

Grades Nine Through Twelve

Formal Operations

● They move from concrete operational to formal-operational thought, think logically and abstractly, and begin to manipulate

symbols in their heads. They can imagine hypothetical as well as real

events.● They can introspect, reflect, and think

about their own thinking.● They can consider many view-points

and take the perspective of others fully.● They are much more self-conscious

than they were previously.

● They have principled moral autonomy, morality emerging from cooperation.

● Their rule mastery and codification of game rules, that began at about age

ten, continues.● They view justice as equity,not equality.● Rules are viewed as a changeable

product of mutual consent.

(Conventional 4)● They view right as doing one's duty,

showing respect to authority, and maintaining social order.● They have an organizational-need,

societal-need, law-maintaining view. ● They view life as sacred within the

context of a scheme or moral rights.

(Post-conventional)● They view right as guarding basic

rights and legal contracts, or as meeting mutual obligations in context of societal rights and standards.

● They have a law-creating, moral-legal view that obligates them to honor social commitments.

● Principled moral reasoning.

unexplained

Juxtaposition of Relevant

Developmental Theories (part 2 is on the next slide)



KindergartenPre-Kindergarten

Early ElementaryMiddle ChildhoodFirst and Second

Grades

Late ElementaryLate Childhood

Grades Three Through Five

Middle SchoolEarly Adolescence

Grades Six Through Eight

High SchoolLate Adolescence

Grades Nine Through Twelve

Juxtaposition of Relevant

Developmental Theories (part 1 is on previous slide)


(Level 1)● Friendship is defined by uneven-handed

reciprocity that derives from a subjective, unilateral, or one-way social

perspective. Friends begin to realize that feelings and intentions and not just

actions keep them together. They know others have a different perspective but can focus only on one.

(Level 2)● Friendship is defined by two-way,

cooperative, even-handed reciprocity. Fair- weather friendships may not withstand conflicts. They can self reflect and realizethat people have an outer and inner self. They realize that people have varying viewpoints and are awareof their own mixed feelings.

(Level 3)● Friendship is defined by mutual and

exclusive trust, loyalty, and intimacy that involves sharing inner-most feelings with

a trusted few. It is built on the ability to take a third-party view of self, others,

and relationships, i.e., they can step outside a social situation and view its complexities.

(Level 4)● Friendship is defined by autonomous

inter dependence whereby friends are close and intimate yet grant eachother the independence to establish other close friendships. Words, glances, and gestures can have deeper shared meanings that are unknown to others.

(Level 1)● Children have an egocentric understanding of friendship that involves sharing toys and enjoyable activities with incidental playmates. They are becoming more selective and selfish with their prosocial behavior. They can’t distinguish between their own

perspective and that of others.

● 0-A: (4 years old): They make no attempt to justify choices and feel they should get more because they want more. They distort adult orders to fit their wishes.

● 0-B: (5 years old): They justify choices in a selfish, after-the-fact way and view authority only as a block to satisfying their own desires.

(Egalitarianism)● 1-A: They view fairness as equality.

Authority is confused with the power to enforce. ● 1-B: They view fairness in terms of

merit and reciprocal obligation. Fairness takes on value in its own right. Children see obedience as legitimate trade for adult favors and help.

(Equity/Benevolence)● 2-A: They view fairness as a right of all,

and they view leaders with knowledge as more legitimate.

● 2-B: They view justice (by age 10) as context dependent and can make reasoned decisions based on claims and conditions, but their perspective is limited to the situation.

(General)● Self-understanding is based on social

and personality traits rather than the abilities of childhood or the beliefs of late adolescence.

● Will gain ability to view situations that involve disparate claims to justice from a wider perspective than the situation and can apply moral principles.

● Self understanding or self-concept is based on beliefs, philosophies, and thoughts rather than personality qualities as was the case in early adolescence.

(Havighurst/Hoffman)● They begin to form a complete set of

moral principles that they use to judge self and others.

(Erikson)● They seek to consolidate their roles

and identifications into an identity. ● They tend to over-identify with

individuals and groups and tend to be clannish and intolerant.

● They are driven by a concern for how they are perceived by their peers.

● The resolution of this crisis allows for growth in terms of moral development and the capacity for sexual intimacy.

● Failure can be due to unresolved earlier crises or the failure to commit to an ideology and way of life.

(Havighurst)● A rational conscience replaces the

authoritarian conscience via peer-group identification, peer cooperation, and an understanding of the function of rules.

(Hoffman)● Feel guilty for violating internalized

abstract moral rules and can take the perspective of others.

(Havighurst/Hoffman)● They internalize adult standards and

the voice of parent(s) as a result of love and empathy-mediating inductions that connect actions with felt affects.

(Erikson)● They must gain a sense of competence

and will feel inferior and have relationship problems if they fail.

(Erikson/Hoffman)● They must take initiative and will

experience much guilt and fail to realize their potential if they fail.

● They are at the “dawn of conscience” but have not internalized adult standards.

● They have affectively empathetic feelings that limit aggression and enable social and moral growth.

Erikson, Hoffman, & Havighurst onMoral-AffectiveDevelopment

Damon on

Moral

Development

Selman &Youniss onFriendship

Development

3-6

6-8

8-10

10-13

13-18

18-25

6

8

10

13

18

6 year old childrentell stories aboutsharing toys and

play activities

no stories gathered

10 year old childrentell stories about

playing and sharingplay activities

13 year old childrentell stories about

assisting each other

18 year old adolescents tell stories about sharing private

thoughts and feelings

YounissChildren's

Friendship Stories

SelmanFriends Are . . . Friendship Is . . . Perspective Taking Ability

those who live nearby;those with whom they

are playing; those whosetoys they want

subjectivity and uneven-handed reciprocity; know

feelings, not just activities, keep them together

more cooperative, even-handed reciprocity; fair-

weather friendships don't withstand conflict

mutual understanding and exclusive trust replaces

reciprocal interest; friend-ships withstand conflicts

autonomous interdepen-dence: close and intimate

friends grant each other the right to have other friends

cannot distinguish their own perspective

from that of others

recognize others may have different viewpoints but can consider only one at a time

and favor their own; a one-way social perspective

have a better understanding of peoples’ different view-points and know they can

have more than one or mixed feelings; two-way perspective

can step outside a situation and view its complexities

and have a third-party perspective on self, others,

and relationships

Damonself-concept and

view of self

understand self interms of unrelated

surfacecharacteristics

understand self interms of comparisons

with others, particularly peers

same as above

understand self interms of effects onothers of personal

characteristics

understand others interms of personal

philosophy and plansfor the future

Friendship / Self / Perspective Taking


9 domains of development 1.physical-maturational 2. cognitive-intellectual 3. artistic-creative 4....

Documents

domains of development

cognitive development

gordon vessels

skill development vygotsky

concrete events

concrete analogies

concrete situations

years of age sensorimotor