9am

Jimmy G. : has STM, has LTM only for longtime past, can’t form new LTMpr

esen

tST

M LTM

Lenny in Memento: has STM, can’t form new LTM

LTMpres

ent

STM

LTM: what is it?-not just storage-LTM & Working Memory help create our present-wealth of background information retrieval

Short-Term = Long-Term Memory?

Demonstration: Serial position curve.

Stimuli (Murdoch, 1962)

Barricade Children Diet Racket Antenna Folio Meter Game Journey Phoenix Crossbow Doorbell Muffler Sandwich Mouse Colt Menu Airplane

Primacy effect: -has time to rehearse and store in LTM-first word attended 100% (no other presented before)

Recency effect: -last words still in STM

Hypothesis 1: Primacy due to more rehearsal.– Test: slower pace => more rehearsal possible.– Result: Increased primacy effect

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): Hypothesis 2: Recency due to STM.– Test: intermediate task (30 seconds counting backwards) prior to recall delete STM.– Result: Reduced recency effect, can’t rehearse, 30sec enough to lose STM

Neurophysiological evidence for difference between STM and LTM:

Double Dissociationsuggests independent mechanisms

HM: hippocampus removed to avoid epileptic seizures

KF: digit span = 2; recency effect reduced

Semantic Coding of LTM (Sachs, 1967):

read passage and then multiple choice of what sentence was present in passageThe Galileo StoryThere is an interesting story about the telescope. In Holland, a mannamed Lippershey was an eyeglass maker. One day his children wereplaying with some lenses. They discovered that things seemed very closeif two lenses were about a foot apart. Lippershey began experiments andhis "spyglass" attracted much attention. He sent a letter about it toGalileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once realized theimportance of the discovery, and set out to build an instrument of his own.He used an old organ pipe with one lens curved out and the other curvedin. On the first clear night he pointed the glass towards the sky. He wasamazed to find the empty dark spaces filled with brightly gleaming stars!Night after night Galileo climbed to a high tower, sweeping the skywith his telescope. One night he saw Jupiter, and to his great surprisediscovered with it three bright stars, two to the east and one to the west.On the next night, however, all were to the west. A few nights later therewere four little stars.

Some participants remember the gist of meaning rather than exact sentence-eyewitness testimony

Which sentence did you read?1. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.2. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.3. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.4. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.

Changes:1. None: identical.2. Semantic: A difference in meaning.3. Voice: Changed from active to passive4. Formal: syntactic change, but same meaning.

Which sentence did you read?1. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.2. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.3. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.4. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.

Changes:1. None: identical.2. Semantic: A difference in meaning.3. Voice: Changed from active to passive4. Formal: syntactic change, but same meaning.

10am

Declarative-conscious recollection of events or facts-episodic : personal events-‘time travel’-self-knowing (Tulving)-semantic : facts and knowledge-’no time travel’-knowing (Tulving)

Double Dissociation-demonstrates difference between episodic and semantic-suggests independent mechanisms

KC (hippocampus injury) has memory “skeleton”, no details (richness lost)Italian woman (encephalitis): trouble recognizing familiar people, meaning of words on a shopping list; can tell lively stories about events

Are they different?-brain imaging studies indicate overlapping but different patterns of activation-the jury is still out

Connections

-Episodic gateway to semantic: “morphing” episodic into semantic (only facts remain about a personal event e.g. graduation)

-Episodic used to infer semantic information: better recall for names that I have personal experience with (“I’m a fan of actor X”) Westmacott & Moscovitch (2003)

-Semantic knowledge can influence the formation of episodic memories (e.g. remember more personal details about the game based on knowledge about football)

Implicit-not consciously aware when using it-nonknowing (Tulving)-repetition priming : response to item increases in speed or accuracy because has been encountered before-procedural : how to do thingsRepetition Priming (Tulving, 1962)-words presented - priming stimulus-fragment word to complete

Keyboard c _ l o _ ColorTruckTableComputer

primed words completed more than new words

Recognition & Recall-recognition test: pick stimulus previously presented-delay of 1 hour or 7 days

Is repetition priming conscious?

Know it’s a memory task!

Warrington & Weiskrantz (1968):Korsakoff’s syndrome patients(lack of B1 vitamin, damage to frontal and temporal lobe)

Is implicit memory conscious?

Procedural Memory-no memory of where or when learned -perform procedures without being ‘consciously’ aware of how we do them

Motor skills…

But also cognitive skills such as reading…

Implicit Learning-mere exposure can affect behavior

Perfect & Askew (1994): -higher ratings for ads previously seen-conscious recognition is not better

propaganda effect : -rate statements previously seen orheard as true even when told false at the time

-eyewitness testimony...

11am

How is information stored in LTM?

CODING: form of stimulus for memory (visual, auditory, semantic)

ENCODING: the process of storing memories

LTMencoding

retrieval

How to encode? REHEARSAL

-repeat to keep in STM -rehearse meaning-no transfer to LTM -transfer to LTM-shallow memorization -connect to existing knowledge-memory for phone #

Maintenance Elaborative

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

-memory depends on HOW information is encoded

LIST#1: count vowels

chairmathematicselephantlampcar…

LIST#2: how useful on deserted island

umbrellaexerciseforgivenessrockhamburger…

BETTER

MEMORIZATION

Conclusion: memory depends on DEPTH OF PROCESSING

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY

Craik & Tulving (1975) experiment:

TASK: PROCESSING:

Does bird have capital letters? SHALLOW

Does train rhyme with pain? DEEPER

Does car fit? “He saw a ____ on the street.” DEEPEST

TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING (Morris et al., 1977)

-circumstances of encoding and retrieval should match

DEPTH-OF-PROCESSING

?Did joy rhyme with a word from the list?

Bower & Winzenz (1970)using imagery to remember pairs ofwords

What affects encoding:DEPTH OF PROCESSINGTRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING...what else?

Forming connections with other information

Self Reference effect-memory better if relate word to self-self as a retrieval cue-deeper processing

generation effect : generating material on your own enhances learning and retention

Slameka & Graf (1978):

28% more if generated

king-cr____ horse-sa____ lamp-sh___

Organization: Jenkins & Russell (1952)spontaneously organize information similar items group together (and recalled together)

Bower et. al. (1969)73:21 if organized in meaningful trees[if all words are under right category]

Study guide… Organize your knowledge!

How is memory stored in the brain?

HEBB (1948): physiological changes at the synapse

LTP: long-term potentiation

H.M. had both types of amnesia

memory for recent events more fragile than for remote events

Because these structural changes at the neural level take time to build up, memory for distant past is more stable

memory for recent events more fragile than for remote events

Why?

CONSOLIDATIONhas to occur (which takes time)

Synaptic(rapid)

Systemsgradual reorganization

of circuits

standard model of consolidationduring consolidation (recent memories) : retrieval depends on hippocampusafter consolidation (remote memories): only cortical areas

hippocampus

Mechanism of consolidation: REACTIVATION (replay neural activity) Mostly true for semantic memories (hippocampus not active)

but... hippocampus also active during remote episodic memory retrieval as well

This result would call for the revision of the standard model of consolidation, because standard model of consolidation claims that hippocampus active only in the beginning.

Emotionsemotional and arousing words and pictures areremembered betteremotion enhances process of consolidationmore activity in the amygdala

1pm

Retrievalprocess of transferring information from LTM into WM

most failures of memory are failures of retrieval

the memory is there, you just can’t access it

Retrieval Cueslike ‘keys’ that help to retrieve the memory

associations between the cue and the memory help inretrieving it

LTMencoding

retrieval

Recall the words

Recall the words.The categories

were birds, furniture…

40%

75%

Cued Recall (Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966)

create associations with 600 nouns: say 3 features about “banana”

peel, bunch, yellow

Cued Recall (Mantyla, 1986)

Encoding Specificity = transfer-appropriate processing

Context is also key!

Grant (1998)

Eich & Metcalfe (1989)

State Dependent LearningInternal state is also key!

How to Study

elaborate and generate: elaborative rehearsal, not only maintenance

“I read the book and notes twice.” ask questions

organize: outlines, ‘trees’, framework

associate: imagery, cues

take breaks: consolidation, sleep

match learning and testing conditions: encoding specificity, state dependent learning

2pm

Memory occurs in real environments, not labs

Memory as a creative mental process ErrorsFill in incomplete information

Everyday memory: “what I’m going to do later”

Remember what and when to do in future

Event-based tasks (cues can trigger memories)better memories using distinctive versus familiar cues

Time-based tasks: take pill every morningharder due to lack of cuesalarm clock converts it into event-based cue

Remembering Personal Experiences

Autobiographical memory = Episodic

Field perspective (what you saw) vs Observer perspective (what outsider observer saw)

Recent memories are experienced from a field perspectiveDistant memories are experienced from an observer perspective (more abstract)

Cabeza et al. (2004):Difference between personal and nonpersonal

Parietal cortex Hippocampus

Self (A) Other (L)

The Reminiscence BumpSchrauf & Rubin (1998): Enhanced memory for (episodic and semantic) facts of adolescence & young adulthood.

Two explanations:

1. Life-narrative hypothesis:Personal identity is determined in those years.

2. Cognitive hypothesis:Encoding is better in periods of rapid change, followed by relative stability.

Question: How to argue for #2?

Find people who experienced rapid changes at different life periods.Hypothesis: Reminiscence bump should shift…

Schrauf & Rubin (1998):

US immigrantsin 20s vs. 30s

=> shifted(& attenuated)reminiscence bump

Flashbulb MemoriesWhat did you do on Sep 09 2001?What did you do on Sep 11 2001?What did you do on Dec 11 2001?

Phenomenon: Shocking and emotionally charged events tend to be remembered very vividly (and more detailed than other events).

Question: Do these phenomena highlight a special memory mechanism?

FbM: A Special MechanismBrown & Kulik (1977):FbM are created by a special ‘now print’ mechanism.

Conditions for invocation:– emotionally charged circumstances– high consequentiality of events- no change or loss of details (like a photograph)

FbM: No Special MechanismNeisser (2000):FbM reflect ordinary memory processes.

Conditions of invocation:

– Frequent narrative rehearsal: saw it on TV million times

– Decay and inaccuracies:FbM are often distorted, just like other memories

FbM: Evidence against a Special Mechanism

Experimental method: Repeated recall (does memory change over time?)

Neisser & Harsch (1992): Challenger in 1986 vs. 1989

– Increased distortions were affected by common knowledge.– Specifically: Increase in TV-memories from 21% to 45%.

Schmolck et al. (2000): O.J. Simpson in 1995 vs. 1998

– Increased inaccuracies => Decay mechanisms.– “it seems unlikely that so-called flashbulb memories differ from ordinary episodic memories in any fundamental way. (p. 44)

3pm

FbM: Evidence against a Special Mechanism

Experimental method: Repeated recall (does memory change over time?)

Neisser & Harsch (1992): Challenger in 1986 vs. 1989

– Increased distortions were affected by common knowledge.– Specifically: Increase in TV-memories from 21% to 45%.

Schmolck et al. (2000): O.J. Simpson in 1995 vs. 1998

– Increased inaccuracies => Decay mechanisms.– “it seems unlikely that so-called flashbulb memories differ from ordinary episodic memories in any fundamental way. (p. 44)

inacc

ura

cies

FbM: Evidence for & against?

• Talarico and Rubin (2003): 9/11 at 9/12 vs. 1/6/32 weeks later)

=> Illusion of better memory?

Davidson et al. (2006)• Asked questions related to ...• an event associated with 9/11• an everyday event• 1 year later, surprise retest on events• Cue provided for subject if needed• Congruence score (0-2)Different results!?!• Telarico: FbM and everyday memories decay at the same rate• Davidson: Less decay for FbM

Why was recall for every day event better in Telarico et al. ?• Subs not surprised by retest• Subs chose their own cuesBoth support the idea that FbM declines over time.

Why are we so confident in our inaccurate memories???

Memory is fallible• But, we don’t realize just how fallible it is...• because memory is constructive, and is based on...• Familiarity• Culture• Knowledge• Suggestion

When reporting what’s remembered:omitdistortchangefabricate facts and events

English subjects read story, retell• (is from Canadian folklore)• Recall story• Errors consistent with English culture (“canoe” “boat”; seal hunt “sailing expedition”)

Proof that memory is constructive: Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts”

Proof that memory is constructive: remember high school grades

A’s accurately remembered 89% of the time

D’s accurately remembered 29% of the time

79/99 students inflated their grades

Why?a) Better memory for better gradesb) “best guess” about most likely grade

How do we construct memories?

Source Misattribution (forget or mislabel source of memory)• Jacoby et al. (1989): “Becoming Famous Overnight”

How do we construct memories?

Pragmatic inference:

If presence of object (hammer) is suggested/assumed by knowledge of the context, it becomes part of memory (correctly or incorrectly).

4pm

Brewer & Treyens (1981)

Schema: knowledge about an event, experience

typical office has booksfalse memory reflects “office schema”

Script: knowledge about sequence of actionssets up expectations about what usually happens

Solomon Shereshevskii: “the man who remembered everything”

too much memory is not goodneed to forgetoverload

We selectively remember IMPORTANT + FREQUENT things.

Misleading Postevent Information

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

How fast were the carsgoing when they ____

each other?

“smashed into” : 41 mph“hit” : 34 mph

Any broken glass?

“smashed into” : 32% said yes“hit” : 14% said yes

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Video about a car

Group 1: “Did another car pass the first car at the stop sign? Group 2: “Did another car pass the first car at the yield sign?

more likely to produce false memories

Lindsay (1990)• Saw slide show narrated by a woman• 2 days later, heard a story again (without slides)• Changes:cigarettes: MarlboroWinstoncoffee: Maxwell HouseFolgers• Same voice for both stories = source misattribution

Test: what cigarettes?what coffee?what shoes? (control)what shoes? (control)