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PSYCHOLOGY(9th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2010
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Sensation
Sensing the World:Some Basic Principles Thresholds Sensory Adaptation
Vision The Stimulus Input: Light Energy The Eye Visual Information Processing Color Vision
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Hearing The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves
The Ear
Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture
Other Important Senses Touch
Pain
Taste
Smell
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Perceptual Interpretation Sensory Deprivation and Restored
Vision
Perceptual Adaptation
Perceptual Set
Perception and the Human Factor
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Is There Extrasensory Perception? Claims of ESP
Premonitions or Pretensions?
Putting ESP to Experimental Test
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Sensation & Perception
How do we construct our representations of the external world?
To represent the world, we must detect physical energy (a stimulus) from the environment and convert it into neural signals. This is a process
called sensation.
When we select, organize, and interpret our sensations, the process is called perception.
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Bottom-up Processing
Analysis of the stimulus begins with the sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain
and mind.
Letter “A” is really a black blotch broken down into features by the brain that we perceive as an “A.”
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Top-Down Processing
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes as we construct perceptions, drawing on our experience and expectations.
THE CHT
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Our sensory and perceptual processes work together to help us sort out complex images.
Making Sense of Complexity
“The Forest Has Eyes,” Bev Doolittle
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Sensing the World
Senses are nature’s gift that suit an organism’s needs.
A frog feeds on flying insects; a male silkworm moth is sensitive to female sex-attractant odor; and
we as human beings are sensitive to sound frequencies that represent the range of human
voice.
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Psychophysics
A study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological
experience with them.
Physical World Psychological World
Light Brightness
Sound Volume
Pressure Weight
Sugar Sweet
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Thresholds
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
Prop
ortio
n of
“Y
es”
Res
pons
es0.
00
0.5
0
1.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 Stimulus Intensity (lumens)
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Subliminal Threshold
Subliminal Threshold: When stimuli are below
one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
Kurt Scholz/ S uperstock
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Weber’s Law
Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount), to be perceived as different. Weber fraction: k = δI/I.
Stimulus Constant (k)
Light 8%
Weight 2%
Tone 3%
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Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Put a band aid on your arm and after awhileyou don’t sense it.
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Transduction
In sensation, the transformation of stimulus energy (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses.
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Wavelength (Hue)
Hue (color) is the dimension of
color determined by the
wavelength of the light.
Wavelength is the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the
next.
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Wavelength (Hue)
Different wavelengths of light resultin different colors.
400 nm 700 nmLong wavelengthsShort wavelengths
Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
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Intensity (Brightness)
Intensity: Amount of energy in a
wave determined by the amplitude. It is related to
perceived brightness.
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Intensity (Brightness)
Blue color with varying levels of intensity.As intensity increases or decreases, blue color
looks more “washed out” or “darkened.”
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Parts of the eye
1. Cornea: Transparent tissue where light enters the eye.
2. Iris: Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of the opening (pupil) for light.
3. Lens: Focuses the light rays on the retina.4. Retina: Contains sensory receptors that process
visual information and sends it to the brain.
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The LensLens: Transparent
structure behind the pupil that changes shape
to focus images on the retina.
Accommodation: The process by which the
eye’s lens changes shape to help focus near or far
objects on the retina.
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Retina
Retina: The light-sensitive inner
surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones in
addition to layers of other neurons
(bipolar, ganglion cells) that process
visual information.
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Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
http://www.bergen.org
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there. Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.
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Test your Blind Spot
Use your textbook. Close your left eye, and fixate your right eye on the black dot. Move the page towards your eye and away from your eye. At
some point the car on the right will disappear due to a blind spot.
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Bipolar & Ganglion Cells
Bipolar cells receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells, which converge to form the optic nerve.
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Visual Information Processing
Optic nerves connect to the thalamus in the middle of the brain, and the thalamus connects to
the visual cortex.
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Feature Detection
Nerve cells in the visual cortex respond to specific features, such as edges, angles, and
movement.
Ros
s K
inna
ird/
Alls
port
/ Get
ty I
mag
es
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Shape Detection
Specific combinations of temporal lobe activity occur as people look at shoes, faces, chairs and
houses.
Isha
i, U
nger
leid
er, M
artin
and
Hax
by/ N
IMH
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Visual Information Processing
Processing of several aspects of the stimulus simultaneously is called parallel processing. The
brain divides a visual scene into subdivisions such as color, depth, form, movement, etc.
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Color VisionTrichromatic theory: Young and von Helmholtz
suggested that the eye must contain three receptors that are sensitive to red, blue and green colors.
Blue Green Red
Medium LowMax
Standard stimulus
Comparison stimulus
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Color Blindness
Ishihara Test
Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the
Trichromatic theory.
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Opponent Colors
Gaze at the middle of the flag for about 30Seconds. When it disappears, stare at the dot and report
whether or not you see Britain's flag.
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The Ear
Outer Ear: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum.
Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
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Cochlea
Cochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to
auditory signals.
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Intensity (Loudness)
Intensity (Loudness):
Amount of energy in a wave,
determined by the amplitude, relates to the perceived
loudness.
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Frequency (Pitch)
Frequency (pitch): The dimension of
frequency determined by the
wavelength of sound.
Wavelength: The distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the
next.
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Localization of Sounds
Because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to
localize the sound.
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Localization of Sound
1. Intensity differences2. Time differences
Time differences as small as 1/100,000 of a second can cause us to localize sound. The head acts as a
“shadow” or partial sound barrier.
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Touch
The sense of touch is a mix of four distinct skin senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.
Bru
ce A
yers
/ Sto
ne/ G
etty
Im
ages
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Skin Senses
Only pressure has identifiable receptors. All other skin sensations are variations of pressure,
warmth, cold and pain.
Burning hot
Pressure Vibration Vibration
Cold, warmth and pain
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Pain
Pain tells the body that something has gone wrong. Usually pain results from damage to the
skin and other tissues. A rare disease exists in which the afflicted person feels no pain.
Ashley Blocker (right) feels neither painnor extreme hot or cold.
AP
Photo/ Step hen M
orton
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Gate-Control Theory
Melzack and Wall (1965, 1983) proposed that our spinal cord contains neurological “gates” that
either block pain or allow it to be sensed.G
ary Com
er/ PhototakeU
SA. com
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Pain Control
Pain can be controlled by a number of therapies including, drugs, surgery, acupuncture, exercise,
hypnosis, and even thought distraction.
Todd R
ichards and Aric V
ills , U.W
. ©
Hunter H
offman, w
ww
.vrp ain.com
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Taste
Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.
Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami(Fresh
Chicken)
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Sensory Interaction
When one sense affects another sense, sensory interaction takes place. So, the taste of strawberry
interacts with its smell and its texture on the tongue to produce flavor.
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SmellLike taste, smell is a chemical sense. Odorants
enter the nasal cavity to stimulate 5 million receptors to sense smell. Unlike taste, there are
many different forms of smell.
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Smell and Memories
The brain region for smell (in red) is closely
connected with the brain regions involved with memory (limbic system). That is why strong memories are
made through the sense of smell.
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Body Position and Movement
The sense of our body parts’ position and movement is called kinesthesis. The vestibular sense monitors the head (and body’s) position.
http://w
ww
. he
yoka
ma
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m
Whirling Dervishes Wire Walk
Bob D
aemm
rich/ The Im
age Works
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Perceptual Organization
How do we form meaningful perceptions from sensory information?
We organize it. Gestalt psychologists showed that a figure formed a “whole”
different than its surroundings.
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Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings
(ground).
Form Perception
Tim
e Saving s S
uggestio n, © 2003 R
oger Sheper d.
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Grouping
After distinguishing the figure from the ground, our perception needs to organize the figure into
a meaningful form using grouping rules.
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Grouping & Reality
Although grouping principles usually help us construct reality, they may occasionally lead us astray.
Both photos by W
alter Wick . R
eprinted fro m G
AM
ES
Magazine. .©
1 983 PC
S Gam
es Lim
ited Pa rtnership
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Depth Perception
Visual Cliff
Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human
infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.
Inne
rvis
ions
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Binocular CuesRetinal disparity: Images from the two eyes differ. Try looking at your two index fingers when pointing them
towards each other half an inch apart and about 5 inches directly in front of your eyes. You will see a “finger
sausage” as shown in the inset.
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Monocular Cues
Relative Size: If two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image
to be farther away.
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Monocular Cues
Interposition: Objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceived as closer.
Rene M
agritte, The Blank Sign ature, oil on canvas,
National G
alle ry of Art, W
as hington. Colle ction of
Mr. and M
rs. Paul M
ellon. Photo by R
ichar d Carafelli.
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Monocular Cues
Relative Height: We perceive objects that are higher in our field of vision to be farther away than those that are lower.
Image courtesy o f S
haun P. V
ec era, Ph. D
., adapted from
sti muli that appere d in V
ecrera et al., 2002
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Monocular Cues
Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those
objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction.
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Monocular Cues
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge in the distance. The
more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
© T
he New
Yorker C
oll ection, 2002 , Jack Ziegl er
from cartoon bank.com
. All rights re served.
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Monocular Cues
Light and Shadow: Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than more distant objects. Given two identical
objects, the dimmer one appears to be farther away.
From “P
erceivin g Shape F
rom S
hading” by Vila yaur
S. Ram
achandra n. © 1988 by S
c ientific Am
eric an, Inc. A
ll rights reserv ed.
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Perceptual Constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.
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Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even when changing illumination filters
the light reflected by the object.
Color Constancy
Color Constancy
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Size-Distance Relationship
The distant monster (below, left) and the top red bar (below, right) appear bigger because of
distance cues.
From Shepard, 1990
Alan C
hoisnet/ The Im
age Ba nk
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Size-Distance RelationshipBoth girls in the room are of similar height.
However, we perceive them to be of different heights as they stand in the two corners of the
room.
Both photos from S. Schwartzenberg/ The Exploratorium
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Lightness Constancy
The color and brightness of square A and B are the same.Cou
rtesy
Edw
ard
Adelso
n
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Perceptual Interpretation
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) maintained that knowledge comes from our inborn ways of
organizing sensory experiences.
John Locke (1632-1704) argued that we learn to perceive the world through our experiences.
How important is experience in shaping ourperceptual interpretation?
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Sensory Deprivation & Restored Vision
After cataract surgery, blind adults were able to regain sight. These
individuals could differentiate figure and ground relationships, yet they had difficulty distinguishing a circle
and a triangle (Von Senden, 1932).
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Facial Recognition
After blind adults regained sight, they were able to recognize distinct features, but were unable
to recognize faces. Normal observers also show difficulty in facial
recognition when the lower half of the pictures
are changed.
Courtesy of R
i chard LeG
rand
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Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later
had difficulty perceiving horizontal
bars.
Blakemore & Cooper (1970)
Sensory Deprivation
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Perceptual Adaptation
Visual ability to adjust to an artificially
displaced visual field, e.g., prism glasses.
Courtesy of H
ubert Dole zal
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Perceptual Set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. What you see in the center picture is influenced by flanking pictures.
From S
hepa rd, 1990.
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(a) Loch ness monster or a tree trunk; (b) Flying saucers or
clouds?
Perceptual Set
Other examples of perceptual set.
Frank Searle, p hoto A
dams/ C
orbis-Sygma
Dick R
uhl
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Is the “magician cabinet” on the floor or hanging from the ceiling?
Context Effects
Context can radically alter perception.
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To an East African, the woman sitting is balancing a metal box on her head, while the family is sitting under a tree.
Cultural Context
Context instilled by culture also alters perception.
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Is There Extrasensory Perception?
Perception without sensory input is called extrasensory perception (ESP). A large percentage
of scientists do not believe in ESP.
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Claims of ESP1. Telepathy: Mind-to-mind communication. One
person sending thoughts and the other receiving them.
2. Clairvoyance: Perception of remote events, such as sensing a friend’s house on fire.
3. Precognition: Perceiving future events, such as a political leader’s death.
PsychokinesisThe power of “mind over matter” such as levitating a table/influencing a role of the die.