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TRANSCRIPT
Science and Technology in Development
Rich Mulwa, Ph.D.
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition
Agriculture is the art and science of crop and livestock production i.e. the entire range of
technologies associated with production of useful products (plants and animals). These
include soil cultivation, crop and livestock management etc.
Factors influencing kind of agriculture practiced in an area include climate, soil,
topography, proximity to markets, transport facilities, land costs, general economic
performance. These factors vary widely in various parts of the world e.g.
Tropical vs temperate climate
Red soils vs black cotton soils
Highlands vs lowlands
This brings out a wide range of agricultural practices
1.2 Crop and animal domestication and the Anna Karenina principle
Crop production is the use of land, water, light to produce food, fibre, shelter and
recreation. Animal production involves selection, breeding, nutrition and management of
domestic animals for production of meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides, draft power, recreation.
From around 7 million years ago, humans on earth fed themselves on hunting of animals
and gathering of wild plants. Food production started about 11,000 years ago.
Table 1: Independent origins of plants and animal domestication
Area Domesticated Earliest
domestication date
Plants Animals
Southwest Asia Wheat, pea, olive Sheep, goat 8500 B.C.
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China Rice, millet Pig, silkworm 7500 B.C.
Mesoamerica Corn, beans Guinea pig, Llama 3500 B.C.
Sahel Sorghum Guinea fowl 5000 B.C.
Ethiopia Coffee, Teff None XXX
Source: Guns, Germs and Steel; Diamond, J.
All crops and animals are believed to have been derived from wild species. However, the
current crops and animals as we know them have undergone extensive modification from
their wild prototypes as result of continual efforts to improve them.
Table 2: Wild ancestors of domestic animals
Domestic animal Wild ancestor
Sheep Asiatic mouflon sheep
Goat Bezoar goat of West Asia
Cow Extinct Auroch
Pig Wild boar of Eurasia and north Africa
Horse Extinct wild horses of Southern Russia
Donkey African wild ass of North africa
Source: Guns, Germs and Steel; Diamond, J.
“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” This is a
line from the novel Anna Karenina by Tolstoy. The author is saying that for a family to be
happy, the marriage has to succeed in many aspects, including attraction, financial
management, religion, in-laws etc. This is true for crop and animal domestication. For
successful domestication the candidate had to succeed in many aspects. Most species were
useless as food and other uses for one ore more reasons:
Indigestibility e.g. most tree barks
Poisonous e.g. some butterfly species and death-cap mushrooms
Low nutritional value e.g. jelly fish
Difficult to gather e.g. insect larvae
Difficult to hunt e.g. rhinos
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Slow growth rates e.g. elephants and Gorillas
Problems of captive breeding e.g. cheetahs
Nasty dispositions e.g. grizzly bears, African Buffalo, zebras
Tendency to panic e.g. antelopes, Deer, gazelles
Social structure e.g. horses, cows, sheep etc.
These factors knock-off most of plant and animal species and retain small proportions
which have hitherto been domesticated.
1.3 Agro-ecological zones and crop and animal production
Sub-Saharan Africa has very diverse agriculture environments, determined primarily by
climate, natural resources and human population density. Sub-Saharan Africa can be
divided into 5 principle agro-ecological zones namely; arid, semi – arid, sub-humid, humid,
and highlands.
The basis of this classification is the amount and the distribution of rainfall, altitude and its
affects on temperature and the length of annual plant growing period. The arid zone covers
over a 1/3 of sub-Saharan Africa. The sub-humid and humid zones each occupy about 20%.
Highlands make only 5% of the region.
The arid zone
The arid agro-ecological receives 0– 500mm of rainfall annually with extreme annual
variations from one part of the zone to the other. It has less than 90 plant growth days and
is only suited for grazing. Substance crop encroachment occurs in the 300 – 500mm rainfall
range. The low and variable rainfall is not suited for cropping in most years. Vegetation
consists of short annual grasses and legumes that wither at the end of the rainy season.
New plants quickly emerge when the rains begin. The zone has scattered shrubs and trees
that are being over- harvested for fuel.
Characteristic soils of this region are shallow saline, coarse textured and low in organic
matter serious land degradation has occurred around water points and areas of permanent
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human habitation. Temperatures are warm to hot for most of the year, with little variation.
In Lodwar, mean daily temperatures range between 290C and 300C. The lowest
temperatures occur in July and August and highest temperatures in March and October.
Mean maximum temperatures range from 330C in July and August to 370C in February and
March. Temperatures are influenced by elevation (altitude) decreasing at the rate of 6 0C
per 1000m.
Year to year variation in rainfall is high, more so in the drier parts of the region. Serious
degradation of land has occurred around water points and areas of permanent human
habitation.
Ruminants are the only practical means of transfering pasture and browse forage into food
and income. The arid zone in sub-Saharan Africa has 34 million cattle, 42 million sheep 55
million goats and 13 million camels (ILCA, 1987). Of all the agro-ecological zones, the arid
zone has the lowest capacity to supply food, housing and other necessities for humans
(human support capacity). Consequently this zone is thinly populated and infrastructure is
poorly developed. Lack of roads limits access to markets and reduces availability of inputs
and consumer goods.
Semi-arid zone
Semi arid agro-ecological zones receive 500mm to 1000mm of rainfall annually. It has a
plant growing season of 90 – 180 days followed by a 7 – 9 month dry season. Soils are
generally low in plant nutrients. High temperatures accelerate the degradation of organic
matter. This reduces the water holding capacity of the soil – this is particularly serious
because moisture in this zone is very precious.
The lower rainfall areas of this zone (500 – 750mm) areas are best suited for grazing. In
the higher rainfall areas crop farming and crop livestock system predominate. The main
crops grown are millet, sorghum, groundnut, maize and cowpea.
Livestock keeping is the main economic activity. In the drier areas of this zone, normadic
and transhumant systems in a very similar way to the arid zone. There is more crop
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farming in this zone game farming and livestock-wildlife mixed enterprises are also done
here.
Sub-humid zone
The subhumid zone has 1000mm – 1500mm of annual rainfall. The growing period is 180 –
270 days. Rainfall is less variable than in the drier zones making crop production less risky
and pastures potentially more productive. A wide variety of crops is grown in the sub-
humid zone such as cassava, yams, maize, fruits and vegetables. Cotton growing is
expanding in this region. The zone is suited to the production of soybeans and leguminous
forages. Farms are generally small reflecting the productivity of the zone.
Forages are of poor quality because the soils are poor. During the dry season, the protein
content of manure forages often falls below 5%. Livestock density in this region is low
because of diseases particularly tryponosomiasis.
Humid zone
This zone has over 1,500mm – annual rainfall, and a growing period of 270 – 365 days. It
consists of rain forests and derived savannahs. It is generally lightly settled, except in west
Africa.
The soils suffer from high levels of iron and aluminium and low levels of phosphorus,
calcium, sulfur and numerous micronutrients. Their organic matter content is low, and
they are fragile and easily degraded when the vegetative cover is lost.
Native vegetation has very low nutritive value for livestock. The major factor that limits
livestock production is trypanosomiasis. A high proportion of the cattle are of
trypanotolerance breeds. Expansion of livestock production in this zone would interfere
with tropical forests which have a vital ecological function. Clearing forest for cattle
production is not likely to be biologically or economically sustainable.
Highland zone
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The highland agro-ecological zone is defined as the area where temperatures are less than
200C. The area has: favourable climate; relatively moderate disease and pest problem; high
production potential highlands agro-ecological zone is attractive to people and has a
favourable environment for livestock.
Soils are deep, fertile vertisols and nitosols rainfall is bimodal. There are 2 growing
seasons facilitating perennial pastures. Forage production is intensive. A wide range of
vegetable matter and cultivated forages are used to feed livestock.
Highlands have the greatest density of people and livestock. The most common farming
system is small-holder crop-livestock farms. Most of the area is described as kikuyu grass
ecological zone and has a high potential for crop production.
1.4 Mathusian Theory on Population
According to Malthusian theory of population, population increases at a geometrical rate
where as food supply increases at an arithmetical rate. This disharmony would lead to
widespread poverty and starvation which would only be checked by natural occurrences
such as:
Disease
High infant mortality
Famine
War
Moral restraint
An example where high population growth rates have been recorded is the East African
region. In 1950, the population in the area which now comprises Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania was estimated at 23 million. By 1975, this had become 49 million. This indicates
that the growth rate was in excess of 3% per annum. To get the measure of this rate of
increase, we may calculate that, if it were it to continue, there would be 104.39 million
people by the turn of the turn of century (this seems true); 222.40 million by 2025 and
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473.81 million by 2050. That is to say, by the year 2050, the East African population would
equal that of China in the year 1900 and it would exceed the Indian population of the year
1975.
These numbers are impossible; and an epidemic of AIDS has already supervened which
seems bound to retard the growth of population. If such numbers were to be realized, food
production would be greatly compromised and the region could be caught in a Malthusian
trap. However, one of the main criticisms to the theory is that Malthus ignored increased
food production due to advancement in agricultural science and technology.
1.5 Agrarian Revolution
A revolution in agriculture saw the introduction of farming methods that relied upon crop
rotation and which achieved various other organizational changes that enhanced the
essential processes of nitrogen fixation. That is to say, the fertility of the soil was greatly
increased over wide areas of farmland. The agricultural revolution was necessary to
sustain the increasing number of urban dwellers and non-agricultural laborers.
1.6 Green revolution
In the 20th century, massive public investments in modern scientific research for
agriculture led to dramatic yield breakthroughs in the industrial countries. The story of
English wheat is typical. It took nearly 1,000 years for wheat yields to increase from 0.5 to
2 metric tons per hectare, but only 40 years to climb from 2 to 6 metric tons per hectare.
Modern plant breeding, improved agronomy, and the development of inorganic fertilizers
and modern pesticides fueled these advances. Most industrial countries achieved sustained
food surpluses by the second half of the 20th century, and eliminated the threat of
starvation.
2. Science and technology in Agriculture
2.1 Improving Soil fertility
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Soon after crops were domesticated, the need for fertilizers was realized. The first widely
used fertilizer was manure, but bonemeal, fishmeal, dried blood, sewage, and seaweed all
have served as fertilizers as well. In some cases green manuring is used; this takes place
when crops such as clover or alfalfa are grown and then plowed under and left to rot. A
1669 paper published in England, however, suggested the use of fertilizers to replace soil
minerals--phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium.
According to Liebig's Law of the Minimum, growth is controlled not by the total of
resources available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). This concept was
originally applied to plant or crop growth, where it was found that increasing the amount
of plentiful nutrients did not increase plant growth. Only by increasing the amount of the
limiting nutrient (the one most scarce in relation to "need") was the growth of a plant or
crop improved) i.e. "the availability of the most abundant nutrient in the soil is as available
as the availability of the least abundant nutrient in the soil." This discovery and others have
helped advance the use of fertilizers for crop production.
Synthetic fertilizers have dramatically increased crop yields since the early twentieth
century. Today, however, the amount of synthetic fertilizers in use, coupled with increased
emissions from fossil fuels has resulted in a rate of excess nitrogen deposits on fields and
through runoff in streams and rivers that has caused an increase in growth of algae in
estuaries, oceans, and lakes. As the algae die, they deplete the oxygen supply in the water
resulting in massive fish kills. Clearly, this state of affairs must be addressed, as it will have
a direct effect on biodiversity, and on the health of the planet and its inhabitants. This has
resulted to other approaches of addressing soil fertility.
Despite the developments in fertilizer use, the average intensity of fertilizer use throughout
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) remains much lower than elsewhere (roughly 9 kilograms per
hectare versus 86 kg/ha in Latin America, 104 kg/ha in South Asia, and 142 kg/ha in
Southeast Asia) and has been virtually stagnant during the past decade. According to ABSF,
a large agrochemical company in Germany, even if all land in the world is put under crops
without fertilization, it cannot be able to feed the world. This calls for more innovative way
of improving soil fertility, especially in Africa. One such method has been agroforestry.
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2.2 Agroforestry
Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining
woody perennials (trees, shrubs, bamboo, palms, etc.) with crops and/or livestock. It
combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems. The importance of this practice
includes:
In sub-humid areas, certain nitrogen fixing trees have the capacity to yield 100-200
kg N per year. This will raise crop yields of of maize to 2-3 tonnes per acre. e.g
Sesbania, Crotolaria.
Biomass transfer: If the woody perennial has high content of nutrients, its biomass
enriches the soil and improves yield e.g. Tithonia.
Multipurpose trees: These include Calliandra which contributes high protein forage
for livestock and foliage (biomass).
Soil conservation through: a) roots holding soil together; b) foliage reducing impact
of raindrops on soils; and c) windbreaks.
2.3 Plant and Animal Breeding
Breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants or animals for the benefit
of humankind. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques
ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to
more complex molecular techniques.
Plant and animal breeding have been practiced for thousands of years, since near the
beginning of human civilization. It is now practiced worldwide by individuals such as
gardeners and farmers, or by professional plant breeders employed by organizations.
International development agencies believe that breeding new crops and animals is
important for ensuring food security by developing new plant varieties that are higher-
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yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to
different environments and growing conditions; or animal breeds that are higher-yielding,
resistant to pests and diseases etc. Government institutions, universities, crop-specific
industry associations or research centers are instrumental in carrying out breeding
programmes.
2.4 Water use efficiency
Water is essential for crop production. Some plants grow in extreme conditions e.g. water
logged areas e.g. water lillies or paddy rice, and desert conditions e.g. cactus. However,
most food crops grow in what we would term as ‘normal’ conditions. Crops transpire large
amounts of water e.g. maize transpires about 350lbs of water for each kg of dry matter
produced.
Agriculture in developing countries in mainly rainfed, and this compromises food security,
especially in times of drought. This calls for alternative ways of conserving water especially
in situations of drought or limiting water availability. Different irrigation methods have
been developed. These include flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and
drip irrigation. The latter is more efficient in water utilization. Organizations such as KARI
have developed miniature versions of drip irrigations such as the bucket-kit which can be
used for kitchen gardening.
2.5 Farm mechanization
Farm machines and other advances in farm technology make work easier. For instance in
1850 machines contributed 35% of farm work done in the United States, while people and
animals contributed 13% an 52% respectively. In 1980, machines contributed over 98% of
farm work done, people contributed 1% and animals less than 1%. This contrasts the
situation in most sub-Saharan African countries where production is almost purely a
function of human labor.
A number of machines have been developed for different farm operations. These include
harrowing, planting and tillage.
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3 New Animals in Agribusiness
3.1 Crocodile Farming
Location
The location of the site is very important (if not the most important consideration) for
prospective farmers. Crocodiles need to maintain body temperatures of approximately 30
degrees. Any area where winter temperatures drop consistently below 10 degrees is
considered unsuitable for any form of outdoor breeding. Indoor breeding is expensive as
housing requirements are expensive (all round insulation) and energy cost is high due to
external temperature demand for these houses (which have to be supplied via boilers
through out the year). A good guideline would be to establish if crocodiles were historically
present in the area through out the year.
The site should have a ample supply of clean water and electricity, is close to feed
suppliers, processing plants and links to markets. The site will need to be secured and meet
the requirements of your local authority. You will also need substantial capital (an
economic unit of 3000 skins per year will cost approximately Ksh. 40 million to establish)
and patience (it will take approximately 3 years to establish and another 2 years before you
will produce your first skins).
Feeding
Crocodiles maintained in captivity are fed chickens and/or discarded meat. Sometimes beef
and horse offal is used. Pellet feed made from manufactured ingredients such as carcass
meal, meat meal, fish meal etc. is being developed. Some farms use a combination of the
above.
Products and markets
The main products are skin (80%) and meat (20%). Markets for skins are in Asia (Japan
and Singapore) and Europe - France, for example. Meat is sold in Asia (Japan, China),
Europe and in South Africa.
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Terminology
Hatchlings: baby crocodiles and the term may apply up to one year of age; Clutches : groups
of hatchlings from the same nest; Growers: animals of about one year old to harvest;
Breeders: large adult animals. Breeders are further described as male and female. Males
are sometimes called bulls; Colony: sometimes used to describe a group of growers or
breeders.
3.2 Ostrich Farming
Introduction
The first commercial ostrich farm was established in South Africa in about 1860 solely for
harvesting the feathers every six to eight months. Ostrich farms began to spread gradually
to other countries, particularly Egypt, Australia, New Zealand, the United States and
Argentina, until the total number of ostriches raised commercially reached over 1 million
by 1913.
The ostrich is very adaptable and thrives under extreme conditions. Among the many ways
of regulating its body temperature, it controls heat loss during cold weather by covering its
thighs with its wings, and during hot weather, by lifting and moving its wings, it creates a
gentle breeze. It has a remarkable tolerance to heat, withstanding air temperatures of 56°C
without undue stress.
Ostriches are completely diurnal. They are on their feet for most of the daylight hours,
except when dust-bathing, resting or nesting. They invariably sit down at dusk and remain
virtually inactive throughout the night unless disturbed (Degen et. al., 1989).
The wild ostrich is sexually mature at four to five years of age, while the domesticated
ostrich is mature at two to three years; the female matures slightly earlier than the male.
Male ostriches attain the black-and-white plumage when mature. Females and immature
birds have a much duller colouring, with grayish-brown plumage.
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Ostriches are seasonal breeders, breeding only during particular seasons of the year. On
average, the breeding/mating season lasts from six to eight months every year, although
the timing and duration of breeding can vary with latitude and altitude (Shanawany,
1994a). In the northern hemisphere, breeding commences during March and ends around
August/September (Leuthold, 1977), while in the southern hemisphere it begins around
July/August and finishes by the end of March (Jarvis, Jarvis and Keffen, 1985).
The ostrich lays the largest egg of any living bird. Oddly enough, however, the ostrich egg is
one of the smallest in relation to the size of the bird. Measuring 17 to 19 cm in length, 14 to
15 cm in width and weighing up to 1.9kg, the ostrich egg is only just over 1 percent of the
female's body weight. The eggs vary from white to yellowish white in colour and their hard
shiny surface is pitted with superficial pores of various sizes and shapes.
Products
Feathers: Ostrich feathers are used for cleaning fine machinery and equipment as well as
for decorations and in the fashion industry. The best feathers come from the more arid
regions of the world.
Meat: Ostriches produce red meat that is very similar in taste and texture to veal and beef
depending on the age at which they are slaughtered. It is high in protein yet low in fat. In
Kenya a kg is between Ksh. 3000-4000.
Hide: Ostrich skin (hide) is considered to be one of the most luxurious leathers, and some
even place it on a par with crocodile and snake skin. Ostrich leather is thick, durable and
extremely soft and can be manufactured into a variety of products, such as shoes, bags,
purses and jackets
Medical and medicinal purposes: The tendons of the ostrich leg are used to replace torn
tendons in humans as they are long and strong enough for the human leg, and recent
research in ophthalmology points to the possible use of ostrich eyes in cornea transplants.
Ostriches are able to see clearly for over 12 km, and the cornea is large enough to be
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trimmed down to fit the human eye. Furthermore, the ostrich brain produces a substance
that is being studied for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia.
Future of Ostrich farming
In the last few years, ostrich farming has progressed dramatically and the world ostrich
industry has achieved some economic stability. On many farms, however, the management
of the birds, particularly the young chicks, is still relatively primitive. There is considerable
scope for improvement in the areas of artificial incubation, chick nutrition, environmental
requirements and selective breeding. Unfortunately, despite its great potential, the ostrich
has received and-continues to receive little attention from scientists.
4 Biotechnology
Definition
This is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.
Biotechnology industry has developed in a very short time period to become a multi-billion
dollar industry providing products in the areas of human health care, industrial processing,
environmental bioremediation and food and agriculture.
It is an industry that has developed, been financed and is firmly based in developed
countries (especially North America). Whereas public funding for agricultural research has
stagnated or declined, the biotechnology industry has continued to invest heavily in
agricultural research due to the large advances made in the area and the strengthening of
intellectual property rights for biological materials. The biotechnologies used and
developed by the industry reflect market realities and are used primarily to provide
products for developed countries. The biotechnologies used for food and agriculture are no
exception in this regard.
Most significant breakthroughs in recent years in the area of crop biotechnologies have
stemmed from research into the genetic mechanisms behind economically important traits.
The rapidly progressing discipline of genomics, providing information on the identity,
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location, impact and function of genes affecting such traits, is producing knowledge that has
driven and will increasingly drive the application of biotechnologies in crops.
1.7.1 Biotechnologies based on molecular markers
All living things are made up of cells that are programmed by genetic material called DNA.
This molecule is made up of a long chain of nitrogen-containing bases (A, C, G and T). Only a
small fraction of the sequence in plants makes up genes, i.e. that code for proteins, while the
remaining and major share of the DNA represents non-coding sequences whose role is not
yet clearly understood. The genetic material is organised into sets of chromosomes and the
entire set is called the genome. Molecular markers are identifiable DNA sequences, found at
specific locations of the genome. They may differ between individuals of the same
population. Molecular markers can be used for:
Marker-assisted selection: the use of markers to increase the response to selection.
A quantitative trait (i.e. one such as fruit yield that shows continuous variation and
cannot be classified into a few discrete classes) is usually controlled by many genes,
called quantitative trait loci (QTL). By using molecular markers closely linked to, or
even located within, one or more QTL, information at the DNA-level is used directly
and selection response can be increased.
Marker-assisted introgression, where markers are used to increase the speed or
efficiency of introgression (i.e. the introduction of new gene(s) from a population A
to a population B by crossing A and B and then repeatedly backcrossing to B).
Studies of genetic diversity and of taxonomic/phylogenetic relationships between
plant species or between populations (or varieties) within species.
Studies of biological processes, such as mating systems, pollen movement or seed
dispersal, and of the genetic mechanisms behind physiological traits.
1.7.2 Genetically-modified crops
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are those that have been modified by the
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application of recombinant DNA technology (where DNA from one organism is transferred
to another organism). The term ''transgenic crops'' is also used for genetically modified
crops, where a foreign gene (a transgene) is incorporated into the plant genome. It may
help us to distinguish between 3 distinctive types of genetically-modified crops:
Wide Transfer: where genes are transferred from organisms of other kingdoms (e.g.
bacteria, animal) into plants
Close Transfer: where genes are transferred from one species of plant to another
Tweaking: where genes already present in the plant's genome are manipulated to
change the level or pattern of expression.
Transgenic plants have been the subject of much controversy, although they now cover
large areas in certain parts of the world. Estimates for 1999 indicate that 39.9 million
hectares of land were planted with transgenic crops. Of these, 18% were in developing
countries, almost all in Argentina (6.7 million hectares) and China (0.3), while the US and
Canada accounted for 32.7 million hectares (82%).
71% were modified for tolerance to a specific herbicide (which could be sprayed on
the field, killing weeds while leaving the crop undamaged
22% were modified to include a toxin-producing gene from a soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis, which poisons insects feeding on the plant
7% were planted with crops having both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance.
Most of the transgenic crops planted so far have thus incorporated only a very limited
number of genes. However, some transgenic crops of greater potential interest for
developing countries have been developed in the research laboratories but have not yet
been released commercially, such as transgenic rice of high iron content developed by
transferring the ferritin gene from soybean to rice, or transgenic rice producing provitamin
A.
1.7.3 Micropropagation
This is the in-vitro multiplication and/or regeneration of plant material under aseptic and
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controlled environmental conditions on specially prepared media that contain plant
nutrition and growth regulators. The most commonly used materials are excised embryos,
shoot-tips or pieces of stems, roots, leafs etc.
It is the basis of a large commercial plant propagation industry involving hundreds of labs
around the world. The technique can be used to multiply, in large numbers, clones of a
particular variety. Apart from its rapid propagation advantages, micropropagation can also
be used to generate disease-free planting material, especially if combined with the use of
disease-detection diagnostic kits. Micropropagation techniques have been developed and
are applied for a wide range of crops, including woody and fruit plants.
1.7.4 Factors for Consideration in crop sector biotechnology
The factors determining or influencing the appropriateness of the different
biotechnologies
environmental impact;
impact on human health;
status with respect to intellectual property rights;
status with respect to biosafety regulations and controls;
degree of access to the biotechnologies;
level of capacity-building or resources required to use them;
impact on food production and food security;
The relative costs (financial, social, political or otherwise) of the biotechnologies
versus the relative benefits (productivity, food security or otherwise);
Whether they are more (or less) appropriate than existing conventional methods in
the crop sector for food production and agriculture, given the realities of life in
developing countries;
Whether some of the biotechnologies are more (or less) appropriate than others;
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Whether some biotechnologies are more (or less) suited to certain regions in the
developing world than others.
1.8 Biosafety
Biosafety deals with prevention of large-scale loss of bio-integrity, focusing both on ecology
and human health. It is related to several fields:
In ecology: referring to imported life forms from beyond ecoregion borders
In agriculture: reducing the risk of alien viral or transgenic genes, or prions such as
BSE/"MadCow", reducing the risk of food bacterial contamination.
In medicine: referring to organs or tissues from biological origin, or genetic therapy
products, virus etc.
In chemistry : e.g. nitrates in water etc.
The international biosafety protocal deals primarily with the agricultural definition but
many advocacy groups seek to expand it to includepost-genetic threats e.g. new molecules,
artificial life forms, and even robots which may compete directly in the natural food chain.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an
international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living
modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse
effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. It was
adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. As of august,
2010, there were 160 parties
In Kenya, The Biosafety Act 2009, lays down legal and institutional frameworks for
governing modern biotechnology in the country. It ensures that Kenya maximizes the
benefits of modern biotechnology while safeguarding against any potential risks.
Biosafety Regulations
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The Minister responsible for Science and Technology may, in consultation with the
National Biosafety Authority, make regulations for the better carrying into effect the
provisions of the Act, and in particular for prescribing:
anything required by this Act to be prescribed;
procedures for conducting contained use activities involving genetically modified
organisms;
procedures for release of genetically modified organisms into the environment;
procedures for importation and exportation of genetically modified organisms;
procedures for genetically modified organisms in transit;
procedure for handling, packaging, identification and transportation labelling of
genetically modified organisms;
forms to be used for applications for approvals;
schedules of fees to cover administrative costs of processing applications and
notices;
Public Awareness and Participation
The Act promotes and facilitates public awareness, education and participation concerning
the safe transfer, handling, and use of GMO’s in relation to the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. Approach of
promoting transparency, education and awareness are seen through publication of final
decisions on all intentional introductions into the environment, as well as any compliance
matters involving cases of material non-compliance. It allows for direct public participation
in decision-making on any regulation proposed under the authority of this Act, any
application for placing a GMO on the market, and any petition to exempt GMO’s or activities
from authorization requirements.
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The Kenya National Biosafety Authority implements the Cartagena protocol on Biosafety in
order to address safety for the environment and human health in relation to modern
biotechnology. It is under the Ministry of Higher Education Science & Technology and has
the following duties & responsibilities:
The National Biosafety Clearing House (BCH).
Data sharing with the Biosafety Clearing House in Montreal Canada.
Is the National Focal Point of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
Collaborate with relevant Government Departments and Universities' faculties, to
develop strategies in the fields of Biotechnology & Biochemistry.
Identifying Research areas that could lead to formulation of policies to foster science
education and popularization of science and evolving project proposals in line with
modern Biotechnology.
Liasing with the other government ministries, relevant government organizations,
relevant stakeholders and relevant International Organizations.
Co-ordinating Biotechnology & Biosafety issues in the country to all the relevant
stakeholders.
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