a brief survey of english grammar -...
TRANSCRIPT
A brief survey of English grammar M.Ferenčík
A system of language (langue):
clause/sentence
↑↓
phrase
↑↓
word (lexeme)
↑↓
morpheme ↑↓
phoneme
WORD Word clases Description:
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––----------------–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Semantic Morphological Syntactic
N substantiality, nominal categories: H of NP
stable dimension countability, number, gender
in space and time case, determination
V processuality, vebal categories: person, number H of VP
processes developing in time tense, aspect, mood, voice
Aj qualitativity (black) inflected for gradability H of AjP
(comparative, superlative)
Av circumstatiality adverb affixes (-ly, -wise) H of AvP
evaluation of qualities inflected for gradability
and proceses (now)
pn do not denote but point to marginally variable: case (them) proform (=NP substitute)
objects (=deixis) (they)
p relation (at, in front of) invariable ´heads´of PP
det range of reference of N (the) invariable constituent of NP
en quantifying information invariable (often included among
on Ns (third) determiners)
cj linking words (and, but) invariable introduce Clauses and Phrases
ij expressions of feelings (wow) invariable loosely integrated
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––-------------------––––––––––––––––––––-
detThe Nfulfilment pof detthe Ajgeneral Ajcommercial Nconditions punder detthe NSet pof NDocuments AjAvailable
pto detthe NPublic vshall vbe Mvassessed pby detthe Ajrespective Ntypes pof Ncross-border Ntransmission.
PHRASE ((Mn) H (M
n))
major types of phrase: NP, VP, AjP, AvP, PP
NP → det (M) N (M)
AjP → (M) Aj (M)
AvP → (M) Av (M)
PP → p NP
VP → (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) Mv
The fulfilment of the general commercial conditions under the Set of Documents Available to the Public shall
be assessed by the respective types of cross-border transmission.
NP
Determiner(s) (Premodifier(s)) HEAD (Posmodifier(s))
pre- central post-
NP(detThe H
fulfilment M
PP(of NP(the AjP(general commercial) H
conditions PP(under NP(the H
Set PP(of
NP(H
Documents AjP(Available PP(to NP(the H
Public))))))))))
VP(auxshall auxbe Mvassessed)
PP(by NP(the AjP(respective) H
types PP(of NP(cross-border H
transmission))))
CLAUSE
A model of English simple sentence (clause): (A) S (A) P (Oi) (Od) (C) (A)
Clause elements: Subject, Predicate, Object (direct, indirect), Complement (subject, object), Adverbial
Clause elements and phrase types:
S P
O C A
NP VP AjP AvP PP
[NPS(The fulfilment PP(of NP(the AjP(general commercial) conditions PP(under NP(the Set PP(of NP(Documents
AjP(Available PP(to NP(the Public)))))))))) VPP(auxshall auxbe Mvassessed) PP
A(by NP(the AjP(respective) types PP(of
NP(cross-border transmission)))) ]
SPA, where P is passive: shall be assessed
assess = transitive verb: Subject ASSESS Object
Major clause patterns:
Verbs Intensive SVC The culprit seemed tired..
SVA The prison is on the main street.
.
Extensive Intransitive SV The client disagreed.
Transitive mono SVO The lawyers refused the strategy
di- SVOO The senator sent his voters a message.
Complex SVOC My neighbour calls his lawyer Dave.
SVOA The court put the man to prison.
Major sentence types:
Note: Major sentence is built upon a full proposition: Pass me the water!
minor sentence is not: Water please!
Types of syntactic (structural) complexity:
horizontal - the number of modifiers and clause elements
vertical (levels of embedding) - the number of subordinate phrases and clauses
The structural complexity and medium:
writing - complex phrases, longer clauses with multiple embeddings
speech - simple phrases, shorter clauses, lower degree of embedding, extensive use of non-clausal material
(major)
sentence
simple = CLAUSE [ ]
multiple
Complex [ ____ ] → subordination
[ ]
Compound-complex [ [ ____ ] + [ ] ] → coordination +
[ ] subordination
compound [ [ ] + [ ] ] → coordination
Structural analysis of (a stretch of) written language:
1. Identify the type of sequence:
A. does it contain a verb?
a/ if it contains one verb → clause
the verb = predicate (= the core of the clause)
identify other clause elements which Predicate requires: (A) S ← P → (O/C/A)
make sure you can locate the boundaries of each element and the structures which realize it
b/ if it contains more verbs functioning as predicates → multiple sentence
See how the clauses are related to one other:
coordination → compound sentence
subordination → complex sentence
both → compound-complex sentence
2. if it does not contain a verb → phrase
identify its type which depends on the class of its head: ((Mn) H (M
n))
Make sure you can locate the boundaries of each element and the structures which realize it
Cf. BLOCK language = inscriptions, headlines, product names, titles, slogans, lists
See also whether there are any cases of coordination or subordination
Types of coordination: word, phrase, clause
Types of subordination:
direct [ _____ ] ( ____ )
[ ] ( )
Indirect [ _______ ]
( ____ )
[ ]
[S(The TSO and the TS User)
P(will make)
O(all their effort)
A[P(to AvP(amicably) settle)
O(any dispute
[S(which)
P(may arise)
A(from the Contract]). ] ]
Subordination:
[SPOA_____ _]
[PO_____] = direct
(HM___) = direct
[SPA] = indirect
P(to AvP(amicably) settle) = split infinitive
Prevádzkovateľ PS poskytuje užívateľom prenosovej sústavy na základe uzavretej Zmluvy prenosové služby
a cezhraničný prenos elektriny prenosovou sústavou.
SPOAOA
The TSO provides the users of the TS with transmission services and cross-border electricity transmission by
means of the transmission system as subject to the contracts concluded.
SPOOAA
Prevádzkovateľ PS zabezpečuje v súlade s ustanoveniami tohoto Zákona prevádzkovanie PS podľa
Dispečerského poriadku pre riadenie prevádzky Elektrizačnej sústavy Slovenskej republiky (ďalej len ES SR), v
súlade so všeobecne záväznými predpismi a s medzinárodnými záväzkami a štandardmi, ktoré vyplývajú z
členstva v UCTE.
SPAOAA
Pursuant to the Act the TSO ensures the operation of the TS in compliance with the Dispatch Order for the
management of operation of the Power System of the Slovak Republic (hereinafter referred to as the TS SR),
with generally binding regulations and international obligations and standards arisen out of the membership in
the UCTE.
ASPOAA
Labels, symbols and conventions used in structural analysis:
Function labels: Mv Main verb A Adverbial
O Object Aux Auxiliary Od Direct Object
C Complement Oi Indirect Object Cs Subject Complement
P Predicator Co Object Complement S Subject
H Head Voc Vocative M Modifier
Form labels:
ACl Adverbial Clause NCl Noun clause Aj Adjective
NP Noun Phrase AjP Adjective Phrase p Preposition
Av Adverb PCl Prepositional Clause AvP Adverb Phrase
Ph Phrase CCl Comparative Clause pn Pronoun
cj Conjunction PP Prepositional Phrase det Determiner
N Noun e Enumerator RC Relative Clause
GP Genitive Phrase ´s Genitive marker ij Interjection
SCl Subordinate Clause MCl Main Clause Se Sentence
VP Verb Phrase V Verb (lexical, full) Wo Word
v Verb (operator)
Composite labels
Verb forms: V base Vs 3rd
person, singular, present tense
Vi infinitive Ved1 past tense
Ving present participle/-ing form Ved2 past participle
Brackets
( ) used around phrases
[ ] used around clauses
{ } used around optional elements
< > used around coordinated elements
links interrupted (discontinuous) elements
Labelling
NP (form labels) written as subscripts before the opening brackets/words S (function labels) written as superscripts before the opening brackets/words above the form labels
An overview of grammar of (not only) legal English
(based on Bázlik and Ambrus 2008)
MORPHOLOGY
Least different from other registers, unique features: archaic forms, foreign plurals, proforms, subjunctive,
modal verbs, connectors
legal E prefers analytical features over synthetic: make a decision/urobiť rozhodnutie vs. decide/rozhodnúť
occurrence of WC - all exc. ij
NOUNS Typical features:
1.determination: Common Ns used as key words (=unique meaning) behave like proper Ns, hence capitals, or
no determiners:
Specific determiners: the said, the same, such, any (= no matter which)
(3) Any person who averts an attack in a manner referred to in paragraph 2 shall not be held criminally liable if he acted
in a state of intense agitation caused by an attack, in particular as a consequence of confusion, fear or fright.
(3) Ten, kto odvracia útok spôsobom uvedeným v odseku 2, nebude trestne zodpovedný, ak konal v silnom rozrušení
spôsobenom útokom, najmä v dôsledku zmätku, strachu alebo zľaknutia.
1. Countability: non-count Ns → Count Ns: an information/informations, but cf. informations = report
on sb./trestné oznámenie
2. Number: Meaning shifts: moneys → funds, presents → listina, damages → odškodné ...
3. Case: ´s genitive used with a restricted group of Ns, of- is more frequent due to complex NPs:
Cf.: Ajs are descriptive, of-constr. are restrictive:
(1) A felony is an intentional criminal offence carrying a maximum custodial penalty of more than five years
pursuant to the Special Part of this Act.
(1) Zločin je úmyselný trestný čin, za ktorý tento zákon v osobitnej časti ustanovuje trest odňatia slobody s
hornou hranicou trestnej sadzby prevyšujúcou päť rokov.
5.Gender:
He is inclusive (hence he or she, s/he are less common): (2) Where it is more favourable for the offender, he may receive a penalty provided for in the law which is in force
at the time of the proceedings on the criminal offence.
PRONOUNS due to expliciteness, used rel. rarely, rather, full NPs are repeated
Types: pronoun-determiner : his/her
NP pronoun: he/she
impersonality of legal documents → rel. few pns
1st person pn I – rare, but cf. the affidavit: I in apposition to the proper name
generic he → masculine only
Non-generic/gender specific pns:
Proforms: here-/there-/where- + preposition: by, after, in, under, with ...
ADVERBS
ak - where
ADJECTIVES: Types:
a/ preM → Attributive: relatively rare, max. 2/3, descriptive prevail over restrictive, limited
coordination and intensification
- post-posed attributive Ajs: president elect, heir apparent, notary public
- comparative/superlative degree from Latin: major, minor, superior, junior ...
- Ajs within terminological units: mutual rights and obligations, legal entity, established time,
present act, criminal liability ...
-
„dislike“ of premodifying Ajs in legal E (Bázlik and Ambruš 49)
b/ complements → predicative -ed Ajs derived from Vs
VERBS -archaic forms: subjunctive, proved/proven
-phrasal verbs – rare (polysemantic, Germanic) set forth/stipulate
-analytic verb forms (passive, progressive, perfective) common
- performative verbs
1.Tense: depends on the type of text
Present (=timeless) → definitions
Future → will/shall = obligation Past = referential past time
2.Aspect: permanent events/states hence mostly simple aspect
3.Modality: mood: esp. indicative, imperative rare, exclamatory absent
subjunctive (esp. BE-type) I demand that he be present.
modal verbs: esp. shall/may
Esp. deontic (degrees of obligation): shall for binding nature of texts
should for less binding
may for permission (neg.may not)
must is much rarer
epistemic (degrees of possibility): can
4.Voice: passive is common, also with have (is had), often by-PP is present
5.Non-finite verb forms:
-common, add to the syntactic complexity
a/ infinitive: all forms - passive/progressive/perfective
for + NP + inf.constr. It is essential for a witness to testify in person.
split infinitive to timely appear
b/-ing form: participle and/or gerund
c/-ed participle, esp. in NP as postM
PREPOSITIONS - more frequent bec. of the general analytical tendencies of English
- common word + prep. Constructions: liable to, result from, contravene by
- in legalese esp. by (in passive)
through (method, means)
under (= according/pursuant to in cross-referencing)
Secondary prepositions: regarding, according to
Complex prepositions: as of, as for, prior to
notwithstanding (= regardless of)
coordinated pairs: on or before the day
phrasal preps: pursuant to, in lieu of
pronominal compounds there/where/here + prep: hereinafter, whereof
CONJUNCTIONS:
esp. coordin.: and, or, but;
subordin: if, provided, in case, unless, until, whereas
SYNTAX General characteristic of legalese: considerable syntactic complexity
Basic word order: SVOCA, or (A)S(A)VOC(A)
Major syntactic type: declarative sentence
Peculiarities:
1.Coordination – at ALL levels of structure (word, phrase, clause)
–e.g. Noun: binominals/conjoined phrases (comprehensiveness + precision)
e.g. terms and conditions
2.Subordination:
A.Finite – adverbial: conditional: if, in the event that, in case, provided that, unless
temporal: when, as soon as
purpose: in order to/that, so as to, for the purpose of
B.Non-finite: a/infinitive
b/participial: -ing, -ed (instead of finite relative Cl.)
C.verbless cl. (result from ellipsis, esp. of BE):
Literature:
Bázlik, M. and P. Ambrus (2008). A Grammar of Legal English. Iura Edition.
Hrehovčík, T. and M. Bázlik (2009). Súdny preklad a tlmočenie. Iura Edition.
Leech, G., M. Deuchar and D.Hoogenraad (2005). English Grammar for Today. Macmillan.