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  • 8/10/2019 A Cognitive Developmental Approach to Morality

    1/29

    E L S E V I E R

    Cognition 57 (1995) 1-29

    C O G N I T I O N

    A cogni t ive deve lopmenta l approach to moral i ty :

    invest igat ing the psychopath

    R . J . R . B l a i r a 'b

    aMRC Cogni t ive Development Uni t , 4 Tavi ton Stree t , London WCIH OBT, UK

    Department of Psychology, University College Lo ndo n, 26 Bedford Way,

    L o n d on W C I H O A H , U K

    Received M arch 7, 1994, final version accepted July 28, 1994

    A bs t rac t

    V a r ious soc ia l a n im a l spe c ie s ha ve be e n no t e d t o i nh ib i t a gg r es s ive a t t a c ks w he n a

    conspec i f ic d isp lays submiss ion cues . B la i r (1993) has sugges ted tha t humans possess

    a f unc t iona l ly s im i l a r m e c ha n i sm w h ic h m e d ia t e s t he supp r e s s ion o f a gg r e s s ion in t he

    c on te x t o f d i s tr e s s c ues . H e ha s sugge s t e d t ha t t h i s m e c ha n i sm i s a p r e r e qu i s i t e f o r

    the de ve lopm e n t o f t he m or a l / c onve n t iona l d i s t i nc t i on ; t he c ons i s t e n t ly obse r ve d

    d i s t i nc t i on i n sub j e c t ' s j udgm e n t s be tw e e n m or a l a nd c onve n t iona l t r a nsg r e s s ions .

    P syc ho pa ths m a y l a c k th i s v io l enc e i nh ib i t o r. A c a usa l m od e l i s de ve lop e d show ing

    how the l a c k o f t h i s m e c ha n i sm w ou ld e xp la in t he c o r e be ha v iou r a l sym ptom s

    a ssoc i a t e d w i th t he p syc hopa th i c d i so r de r. A p r e d i c t ion o f suc h a c a usal m ode l w ou ld

    be t ha t p syc hopa ths shou ld f a i l t o m a ke the m or a l / c onve n t iona l d i s t i nc t i on . Th i s

    predic t ion was conf i rmed. The impl ica t ion of th is f inding for o the r theor ies of

    mora l i ty i s d iscussed .

    1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n

    A c c o r d i n g t o D S M - I I I - R ( A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 8 7 ) , t h e

    e s s e n t ia l f e a t u r e o f a n t is o c ia l p e r s o n a l it y d i s o r d e r ( A P D ) i s a p a t t e r n o f

    i r r e s p o n s i b l e a n d a n t i s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r b e g i n n i n g i n c h i l d h o o d o r e a r l y

    a d o l e s c e n c e a n d c o n t i n u i n g i n t o a d u l t h o o d . I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h A P D t e n d t o

    b e i r r i t a b l e a n d a g g r e s s i v e a n d t o g e t r e p e a t e d l y i n t o p h y s i c a l f i g h t s a n d

    a s s a u lt s , in c l u d in g s p o u s e - o r c h i l d - b e a t i n g ( A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c al A s -

    s o c i a t i o n , 1 98 7 ). P s y c h o p a t h s 1 s h o w e a r l y b e h a v i o u r a l p r o b l e m s a n d t h e y

    The diagnostic criteria for APD and psychop athic disorder are similar. Hare (1985b) found

    that 73% of those patients diagnosed as APD by two clinicians fulfilled Ha re's criteria for

    psychopathy. It is plausible to suggest that the two criteria are two correlated behavioural

    descriptions of the same disorder.

    0010-0277/95/$09.50 (~) 1995 Elsev ier Scienc e B.V. All rights reserv ed

    S S D I

    0 0 1 0 - 0 2 7 7 ( 9 5 ) 0 0 6 7 6 - I

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    2 R.J .R . B la ir / Cognit ion 57 1995) 1 - 29

    a r e d e s c r i b e d a s l a c k in g r e m o r s e o r g u i l t a n d a s b e i n g c a l l o u s / l a c k i n g

    e m p a t h y ( i te m s 1 2 , 6 a n d 8 o n H a r e ' s ( 19 8 5 a ) P s y c h o p a t h y C h e c k l i s t) .

    T h e y s h o w , i n s u m m a r y , a n e a r l y o n s e t o f e x t r e m e l y a g g r e s si v e b e h a v i o u r

    t h a t i s n o t t e m p e r e d b y a n y s e n s e o f g u il t o r e m p a t h y w i t h t h e v i ct im .

    G i v e n t h e r e c u r r e n t t h e m e o f t h e e a r l y o n s e t o f p s y c h o p a t h i c b e h a v i o u r , i t

    w o u l d s e e m r e a s o n a b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e d i s o r d e r i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l t e r m s .

    H o w e v e r , m a n y t h e o r ie s o f p s y c h o p a t h y h a v e i g n or e d t h is d e v e l o p m e n t

    a s p e c t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e f r o n t a l / l i m b i c s y s t e m p o s i t io n o f G o r e n s t e i n

    ( 1 9 82 ; G o r e n s t e i n & N e w m a n , 1 98 0) m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e t o d e v e l o p m e n t . 2

    N o r i s t h e r e r e f e r e n c e t o d e v e l o p m e n t i n e i t h e r H a r e , W i l l i a m s o n , a n d

    H a r p u r ' s ( 1 9 8 8 ) d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h o p a t h y a n d

    l a n g u a g e o r in G o u g h ' s ( 1 9 4 8) p a p e r s u g g e s ti n g th a t p s y c h o p a t h y i s d u e t o a

    de f i c i t i n r o l e t ak ing . Mul l en (1992) does desc r ibe psychopa thy as a

    d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i s o r d e r b u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s h e d e s c r i b e s a s p s y c h o p a t h i c d o

    n o t m a t c h t h e c r i t e ri a o f A P D i n D S M - I I I - R o r t h e c r it e r ia o f p s y c h o p a t h i c

    a c c o r d i n g t o H a r e ' s ( 1 9 80 , 1 9 85 a) P s y c h o p a t h y C h e c k l i s t ( P C L ) .

    T h e m a i n e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e s e a d e v e l o p m e n t a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e w h a t m i g h t

    b e t e r m e d t h e P u n i s h m e n t p o s i t i o n s o f E y s e n c k ( e . g . , 1 9 64 ) a n d T r a s l e r

    ( 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e s e a u t h o r s s u g g e s t a m o d e l o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r a l i ty a n d

    f r o m t h i s m a k e c l a i m s a s t o t h e i m p a i r m e n t i n p s y c h o p a t h s . T h e s e a u t h o r s

    p r inc ipa l ly c l a im tha t soc i a l i za t ion i s ach ieved th rough pun i shmen t . Re-

    m o r s e , f o r e x a m p l e , is v i e w e d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f c o n d i ti o n in g : C o n -

    sc i ence is a con d i t i oned r e f l ex (Ey sen ck , 1964). Th e bas i c pos i t i on o f t hese

    a u t h o r s i s t h a t a n x i e t y , i n d u c e d b y t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n b e i n g p u n i s h e d ,

    b e c o m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e t r an s g r e s s io n . T h i s a r g u m e n t is e x t e n d e d t o t h e

    c l a im tha t p sychopa thy i s a consequence o f a de f i c i ency in cond i t i onab i l i t y .

    E a r l y w o r k d i d su g g e s t t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s m i g h t b e i m p o v e r i s h e d i n c o n -

    d i t i o n a b i l i t y . L y k k e n ( 1 9 5 7 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

    in f e r io r t o no rm al con t ro l s and a neu ro t i c soc iop a th i c g roup in a t t a in ing a

    c o n d i t i o n e d g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e t o a b u z z e r t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n

    p a i r e d w i th a n e l e c t r ic s h o c k . H o w e v e r , t h e c e n t r a l t h r u s t o f th e P u n i s h m e n t

    p o s i t i o n s h a s b e e n d i s c r e d i t e d . D e v e l o p m e n t a l s t u d i e s h a v e c l e a r l y d e m o n -

    s t r a t ed tha t pun i shmen t i s no t a ssoc i a t ed wi th a r educ t ion in an t i soc i a l

    beh av io ur ; i n s t ead , t he use o f i nduc t ive t echn iques ( e .g . , a sk ing the ch ild

    how the v i c t im o f t he ac t f ee l s ) i s a ssoc i a t ed wi th a r educ t ion in an t i soc i a l

    b e h a v i o u r ; s e e H o f f m a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) f o r a r e v i e w .

    1 1 A violence inhibition mechani sm

    Severa l e tho log i s t s (E ib l -Eibesf e ld t , 1970 ; Lorenz , 1966) have p roposed

    t h e e x i s t e n c e o f m e c h a n i s m s w h i c h c o n t r o l a g g r e s s io n i n s o m e s o c i al a n i m a l

    spec i es . These e tho log i s t s no ted tha t t he d i sp l ay o f submiss ion cues t o a

    2 Thoug h D am as i o , Tr ane l , and D am as i o ( 1991) do d r aw a d is t inc t ion be t w een acqu i r ed

    socio pathy fol lowing f ronta l dam age in adul thoo d and c l in ica l , DS M -II I (1980) def ined

    s oc i opa t hy fo l l ow ing dam age du r i ng t he deve l opm en t o f h i s pe r s ona l i ty .

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    R.J.R. Blair / Cognition 57 1995) 1-29 3

    c o n s p e c i f i c a g g r e s s o r r e s u l t e d i n t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a t t a c k . F o r e x a m p l e ,

    d o g s w h e n a t t a c k e d b y a s t r o n g e r o p p o n e n t b a r e t h e i r th r o a t s . T h i s r e s u l ts

    i n t h e c e s s a t io n o f th e f i g h t. B l a i r ( 1 9 9 3) p r o p o s e d a m o d e l o f th e

    d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r a l i t y w h i c h i m p l i es a sp e c if ic c a u s e f o r p s y c h o p a t h y . H e

    s u g g e s t e d t h a t h u m a n s m i g h t p o ss e s s a f u n c t i o n a l l y a n a l o g o u s m e c h a n i s m : a

    v i o l e n c e i n h i b it i o n m e c h a n i s m ( V I M ) . H e c o n s i d e r e d V I M t o b e a c o g n i ti v e

    m e c h a n i s m w h i c h , w h e n a c t iv a t e d b y n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f d is tr e ss

    ( i . e . , s a d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n , t h e s i g h t a n d s o u n d o f t e a r s ) , i n i t i a t e s a

    w i t h d r a w a l r e s p o n s e ; a s c h e m a w i l l b e a c t i v a t e d p r e d i s p o s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l

    t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e a t t a c k . I n l i n e w i t h t h i s s u g g e s t i o n , C a m r a s ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a s

    o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e d i s p la y o f d i s tr e s s c u e s ( a sa d f a c ia l e x p r e s s io n ) d o e s r e s u l t

    i n th e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a g g r e s s io n i n 4- t o 7 - y e a r - o ld s . S h e s t u d i e d t h e u s e a n d

    t h e e f f e c t o f f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s in c h i l d r e n d e f e n d i n g p o s s e s s i o n s . W h e n a

    c h i l d d i s p l a y e d a s a d f a ci a l e x p r e s s i o n w h e n r e s is t in g a n o t h e r c h i l d 's a t t e m p t

    t o t a k e a p o s s e s s i o n , t h e a g g r e s s o r c h i l d u s u a l l y t e r m i n a t e d h i s / h e r d e m a n d s

    a n d a l l o w e d t h e o r i g in a l p o s s e s s o r t o c o n t i n u e p l a y i n g f o r a r el a t iv e l y l o n g

    t i m e .

    D i s t r e s s c u e s a r e a s s u m e d t o a c t i v a t e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s t o w i t h d r a w i n a n y

    o b s e r v e r w h o p r o c e s s e s t h e m , r e g ar d l es s o f w h e t h e r t h a t o b s e r v e r is th e

    a g g r e s s o r o r a b y s t a n d e r . H o w e v e r , t h i s d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t t h e f i n a l

    b e h a v i o u r a l r e s p o n s e s o f a ll o b s e r v e r s w h o p r o c e s s a v i c ti m ' s d is t r es s c u e s

    a r e t h e s a m e . T h e a c t i v a ti o n o f V I M i n a n y o b s e r v e r w il l p r e d i s p o s e

    h i m / h e r t o w i t h d ra w f r o m t h e s it u at io n . H o w e v e r , V I M is n o t t h e o n l y

    c o g n i t i v e d e v i c e c o n t r o l l i n g b e h a v i o u r ; f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e t h e e x e c u t i v e

    f u n c t i o n s ( e . g . , t h e S u p e r v i s o r y A t t e n t i o n a l S y s t e m ; s ee N o r m a n & S h a l l ic e ,

    1 9 8 6 ) . T h e s e o t h e r c o g n i t i v e d e v i c e s m a y d e t e r m i n e t h e f i n al r e s p o n s e .

    T h u s , i n a g i v e n a g g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n , a n a t t a c k e r m a y c o n t i n u e t o a t t a c k a n d

    a n o b s e r v e r i n it i a te a n i n t e r v e n t i o n ; i n b o t h c a s e s , t h e V I M - m e d i a t e d

    p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o w i t h d r a w w i l l h a v e b e e n o v e r r u l e d b y e x e c u t i v e f u n c -

    t i o n i n g . F i n a l l y , t h e s t r e n g t h o f th e w i t h d r a w a l r e s p o n s e i s a s s u m e d t o b e a

    f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e o f a c ti v a t io n o f V I M . A n i s o l a t e d sa d f a c ia l

    e x p r e s s i o n m a y e x c i t e l i m i t e d w i t h d r a w a l . A s c r e a m i n g , s o b b i n g i n d i v i d u a l

    m a y e x c i te m u c h g r e a t e r w i t h d ra w a l . 3

    1 .2 . D e v e l o p m e n t a l c on s e qu e n c es o f V I M

    B l a i r ( 1 9 9 3 ) s u g g e s t e d th a t V I M i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

    t h r e e a s p e c t s o f m o r a l i t y : th e m o r a l e m o t i o n s ( e. g . , s y m p a t h y , g u i lt ,

    3 Again, it should be noted that the activation of VIM does not inevitably resu lt in the

    withdrawal of the individual from the situation. The operation of executive functions may

    overrule the activation of V IM ; the individual may help the distressed per son . Frequent

    instances of helping a distressed individual may result in the development of an approach

    schema. In this case helping behaviour could become the prepotent response to certain distress

    cue situations.

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    4 R.J .R . B la ir / Cognit ion 57 1995) 1 -2 9

    r e m o r s e a n d e m p a t h y ) , t h e i n h i b it io n o f v io l e n t ac t i o n a n d t h e m o r a l /

    conven t iona l d i s t i nc t ion .

    (1 ) The moral emotions B e h a v i o u r a l i n t e r r u p t i o n s h a v e b e e n c l a i m e d t o

    i n d u c e a r o u s a l r e s p o n s e s ( e . g . , M e y e r , 1 9 5 6 ; M a n d l e r , 1 9 8 4 ) . M a n d l e r

    ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s c l a i m e d t h a t e m o t i o n s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i n t e r p r e ta t i o n o f

    a r o u s a l t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f m e a n i n g a n a l y s i s . I n a d d it i o n , M a n d l e r h a s

    c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f a r o u sa l f o l lo w i n g a w i t h d r a w a l r e s p o n s e

    r e s u l t s i n t h e c o n s e q u e n t e m o t i o n a l s t a t e b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a s a v e r s i v e . A s

    s t a t e d a b o v e , B l a i r ( 1 99 3 ) s u g g e s t e d th a t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f V I M r e s u lt s in t h e

    i n t e r r u p t i o n o f o n g o i n g b e h a v i o u r ; t h e a c t i v a ti o n o f V I M r e s u lt s in a

    wi thd rawal r e sponse wh ich wi l l d i r ec t ly i n t e r rup t ongo ing behav iour . Fo l -

    l o w i n g M a n d l e r , B l a i r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a r o u s a l i n d u c e d b y t h e a c t i v a t i o n

    o f V I M w ill b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s o n e o f t h e m o r a l e m o t i o n s . I n a d d i t io n , s i n ce

    V I M i n i t i a t e s a w i t h d r a w a l r e s p o n s e , h e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e m o r a l e m o -

    t ions wou ld be exper i enced as ave r s ive . I n l i ne wi th t h i s , seve ra l s tud ies

    h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t p e r c e i v e d d i s t r e s s i n o t h e r s g e n e r a t e s a n a v e r s i v e

    e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t h a t c a n b e m e a s u r e d a s p h y s i o l o g i c a l a r o u s a l i n

    o b s e r v e r s ( e . g . , B a n d u r a & R o s e n t h a l , 1 9 6 6 ; B e r g e r , 1 9 6 2 ; C r a i g & L o w e r y ,

    1969; Krebs, 1975) .4

    E m p a t h y i s d e f i n e d a s a n a f f e c t iv e r e s p o n s e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o

    s o m e o n e e l s e 's s it u a t io n t h a n t o o n e ' s o w n ( H o f f m a n , 1 9 87 , p . 4 8 ). I t is a n

    e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o a n o t h e r ' s s t a t e . E m p a t h y i s f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d t o

    b e a p r o d u c t o f r o l e t a k i n g ( B a t s o n , F u l tz , & S c h o e n r a d e , 1 9 87 ). R o l e

    t a k i n g i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n o t h e r ' s i n t e r n a l s t a t e - a

    ca l cu la t ion o f wh a t t he o the r migh t be th ink ing / f ee l ing g iven the i r s i t ua t ion .

    E m p a t h y i s t h u s a n e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n o t h e r ' s

    i n t e rn a l s t a t e . H o w e v e r , f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f th e p r e s e n t p a p e r t h i s de f in i ti o n

    w i l l b e n a r r o w e d f u r t h e r ; e m p a t h y w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a n e m o t i o n a l

    r e a c t i o n t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r e ss e d i n t e rn a l s t a t e o f a n o t h e r . T h e

    i n t e n t i o n h e r e i s t o p r o v i d e a n a c c o u n t o f a r o u s a l t o t h e t h o u g h t o f a n o t h e r

    be ing d i s t r e ssed as opposed to t he s igh t o r sound o f t he i r d i s t r e ss . I t i s

    e m p a t h y , d e f i n e d i n th i s w a y , t h a t i s m o s t r e l e v a n t t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

    p s y c h o p a t h .

    D u r i n g n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l w i t n e s s o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s

    d i sp l ay ing d i s t r e ss cues r e su l ti ng in t he ac t iva t ion o f VIM . O n m any

    occas ions the obse rve r s may ro l e t ake wi th the d i s t r e ssed v i c t ims ; t hey wi l l

    ca l cu l a t e r ep rese n ta t ion s o f t he v i c t im ' s i n t e rna l s t a t e ( e .g . , she ' s su f f e r -

    i n g ; w h a t a p o o r l it tl e b o y ; h e m u s t b e c o l d a n d h u n g r y ) . T h e r e w i ll

    4 M a n d l e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r o u s a l f o l l o w i n g a n a p p r o a c h

    r e s p o n s e r e s u l ts i n t h e v a l a n c y o f t h e c o n s e q u e n t e m o t i o n a l s t a t e b e i n g p o s i ti v e . B a t s o n ( s e e,

    f o r a r e v i e w , B a t s o n , F u l t z , & S c h o e n r a d e , 1 9 8 7 ) h a s f o u n d t h a t s u b j e c t s r e p o r t t h e e m o t i o n a l

    expe r i ence a s soc i a t ed wi t h app r oach ( he l p i ng ) t endenc i e s t o d i s t r e s s cues a s be i ng pos i t i ve .

    A d j e c t i v e s s u b j e c t s u s e t o d e s c r i b e t h e e x p e r i e n c e a r e : t e n d e r , w a r m a n d s o f t - h e a r t e d .

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    R.J .R . Bla ir / Cognit ion 57 1995) 1 - 29 5

    t h u s b e p a i ri n g s o f d i st r es s c u e s a c t iv a t in g V I M w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r m e d

    t h r o u g h r o l e t a k i n g . I t i s s u g g e s t e d h e r e t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r m e d

    th rough ro le tak ing wi l l become, th rough c lass ica l cond i t ion ing , t r igge r

    s t i m u l i f o r V I M . D i s t r e ss c u e s c a n b e s e e n a s u n c o n d i t i o n e d s t im u l i ( U S ) f o r

    t h e u n c o n d i t i o n e d r e s p o n s e ( U R) : t h e a c ti v a t io n o f V I M . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

    f o r m e d t h r o u g h r o l e t a k i n g , p a i r e d w i t h t h e U S o f t h e d i s t r e s s c u e s o f t h e

    t a r g e t o f t h e r o l e t a k i n g , w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b e c o m i n g

    c o n d i t i o n e d s t i m u l i f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n e d r e s p o n s e o f V I M a c t i v a t i o n . T h u s ,

    a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y g e n e r a t e e m p a t h i c a r o u s a l t o j u s t t h e t h o u g h t o f

    s o m e o n e ' s d is t re s s (e . g . , w h a t a p o o r l it tl e b o y ) w i t h o u t d is t re s s c ue s

    be ing ac tua l ly p rocessed . In l ine wi th th i s , fi lm sequenc es , wh ere v ic t ims ta lk

    abou t the i r cond i t ions (po ten t ia l ly in i t i a t ing ro le tak ing in obse rve rs ) bu t

    w h e r e t h e y d o n o t a c t u a l l y s h o w d i s t r e s s c u e s , h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o i n d u c e

    p h y s i o l o g i c a l a r o u s a l c h a n g e s i n o b s e r v e r s ( E i s e n b e r g , F a b e s , Bu s t a m a n t e ,

    M a t h y , M i l l e r , & L i n d h o l m , 1 9 8 8; E i s e n b e r g e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ; F a b e s , E i s e n b e r g ,

    & E isenbud , 1993) .

    (2 ) The inhibition of violent action. As s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e p o s t u l a t e d

    o p e r a t i o n o f V I M i n i t i a t e s a w i t h d r a w a l r e s p o n s e r e s u l t i n g i n t h e o n - l i n e

    in te r rup t ion o f v io len t ac t ion . However , and in add i t ion , i t i s sugges ted tha t

    developmentally

    VIM resu l t s in the inh ib i tion o f v io len t ac t ion . Th e norm al ly

    dev e lop in g ch i ld wi ll be ne ga t ive ly re in fo rced by the d i s t re ss cues eve ry t im e

    he engages in any aggress ive ac t iv i ty . Through c lass ica l cond i t ion ing th i s

    s h o u l d r e s u l t i n e v e n t h e t h o u g h o f a g g r e s s i o n b e i n g a v e r s i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d ;

    t h e t h o u g h t o f t h e a g g r e ss i o n w ill c o m e t o t r i g g e r V I M . H e n c e , o v e r t i m e ,

    the chi ld wil l be less l ikely ,

    ceteris paribus

    to engage in v io len t ac t ions .5

    (3 ) The moral~conventional distinction. T h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c -

    t i o n i s t h e d i s t i n ct i o n b e t w e e n m o r a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l t r an s g r e s s io n s f o u n d

    i n t h e j u d g e m e n t s o f c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s . W i t h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s

    d is t inc t ion (e .g . , Ars en io & Fo rd , 1985 ; Nucc i & Tur ie l , 1 978 ; S iega l &

    S t o r e y , 1 9 8 5 ; S m e t a n a , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 5 ; S m e t a n a & Br a e g e s , 1 9 9 0 ; T i s a k &

    Tur ie l , 1988 ; see , fo r a rev iew, Tur ie l , Ki l len , & H e lwig , 1987), m ora l

    t r a n s g r e s s i o n s h a v e b e e n d e f i n e d b y t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e r i g h t s a n d

    w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s , a n d s o ci al c o n v e n t i o n a l t ra n s g r e ss i o n s h a v e b e e n d e f i n e d

    as v io la t ions o f the behav ioura l un i fo rmi t ie s tha t s t ruc tu re soc ia l in te rac t ions

    wi th in soc ia l sys tems .

    T h e j u d g e m e n t s , c r i t e r i o n j u d g e m e n t s a s T u r i e l ( 1 98 3 ) t e r m e d t h e m ,

    t h a t c h i l d r e n h a v e b e e n a s k e d t o m a k e a b o u t m o r a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l

    5 Of cou r se , i f t he ch i l d i s r ewar ded f o r h i s a t t a cks , pa r t i cu l a r ly du r i ng t he a t t a ck , e i t he r by

    m a t e r i a l g a i n o r b y p e e r / p a r e n t a l p r a i se , t h e c h i l d is li k el y to o v e r r u l e V I M a n d c o n t i n u e t h e

    a t t a ck . Such a ch i l d , by con t i nu i ng t o f i gh t , w i l l obv i ous l y no t expe r i ence a w i t hd r awa l

    r e sponse . Consequen t l y , such a ch i l d w i l l no t expe r i ence t he agg r e s s i on a s ave r s i ve ( a s sumi ng

    t hey do no t have t o w i t hd r aw f r om t he f i gh t because t hey l o s t t he con f l i c t ) . I ndeed , t hey may

    eve n en j o y t he v i o l ence ( i f t he agg r e s so r con t i nue s t o app r oach t he v i c t i m ch i l d ) . Such a ch i l d

    wi l l no t be l e s s l i ke l y t o engage i n f u t u r e v i o l en t a c t i on . I ndeed , t hey may be mor e l i ke l y t o

    agg r e s s .

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    t r ansgress ions can be d iv ided in to two b road ca tegor ies : se r iousness and

    modi f iab i l i ty . Usua l ly , ch i ld ren and adu l t s judge mora l t ransgress ions a s

    m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l t r an s g r e ss i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h i le a ll o f t h e

    t r a n s g r e s s i o n s i t u a t i o n s , w h e t h e r m o r a l o r c o n v e n t i o n a l , a r e g e n e r a l l y

    j u d g e d n o t

    pe rmi s s i b l e

    c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e

    j u d g e d

    pe rmi s s i b l e

    than mora l t ransgress ions (Smetana , 1985 , 1986 ;

    Sm etan a & Bra eges , 1990 ; T isak & Tur ie l , 1988 ; W es ton & Tur ie l , 1980). In

    a d d i t i o n , s u b j e c ts g e n e r a l l y s ta t e t h a t m o r a l t r a n sg r e s s io n s a r e m o r e

    ser ious

    t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o r r a n k t h e m a s m o r e

    ser ious

    t h a n

    c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n sg r e s s io n s ( N u c c i , 1 9 8 1 ; S m e t a n a , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 5 ; S m e t a n a &

    Br a e g e s , 1 99 0; S m e t a n a , B r i d g e m a n , & T u r i e l , 1 9 8 3 ; S t o d d a r t & T u r i e l ,

    1 98 5) . A s r e g a r d s t h e m o d i f i ab i l it y c a t e g o r y o f c r i te r i o n j u d g e m e n t s , t h e

    r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a r e j u d g e d

    di f f erent ly

    f r o m

    c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a r e j u d g e d

    less

    ru l e c on t i nge n t

    than co nven t iona l t ransgress ions (Arsen io & Ford , 1985 ;

    S m e t a n a , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 5 ; S m e t a n a e t a l ., 1 9 8 3 ; S m e t a n a , K e l ly , & T w e n t y m a n ,

    1984 ; Nucc i , 1981 ; Nucc i & N ucc i , 1 982 ; Nucc i & T ur ie l , 1978 ; W es ton &

    Tur ie l , 1980) ; ind iv idua ls s ta te tha t mora l t ransgress ions a re no t pe rmiss ib le

    e v e n i n t h e a b s e n c e o f p r o h i b i t i n g r u l e s w h i l e c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s

    a re judged pe rmiss ib le i f the re i s no ru le p roh ib i t ing them. In add i t ion ,

    m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s io n s a r e l es s u n d e r

    author i ty jur i sdic t ion

    ( t h e a c t w o u l d n o t

    b e p e r m i s s i b l e e v e n i f t h e t e a c h e r s a y s t h a t y o u c a n d o t h e a c t ) t h a n

    c o n v e n t i o n a l t r an s g r e s si o n s ( L a u p a & T u r i e l , 1 9 8 6 ; T i s a k & T u r i e l , 1 9 84 ,

    1988 ; Tur ie l , 1983) . The mora l /conven t iona l d i s t inc t ion has been found in

    t h e j u d g e m e n t s o f c h i l d r e n f r o m t h e a g e o f 3 9 m o n t h s ( S m e t a n a , 1 9 8 1 ) a n d

    across cu l tu res (e .g . , H o l los , Le is , & Tur ie l , 198 6 ; Nucc i , Tur ie l , &

    E n c a r n a c i o n - G a w r y c h , 1 9 8 3 ; S o n g , S m e t a n a , & K i m , 1 98 7) .

    1.3. Theo ries o f the mo ral~co nven t ional di s t inc t ion

    T h e e x i s t i n g f r a m e w o r k o f m o d e l s o f t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n

    ( e .g . , S m e t a n a , 1 9 8 3 ; T u r i e l , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 3 ; T u r i e l e t a l ., 1 9 8 7 ; T u r i e l &

    Smetana , 1984) invo lves the sugges t ion tha t the d i s t inc t ion i s a re su l t o f the

    f o r m a t i o n o f t w o , i n d e p e n d e n t c o n c e p t u a l d o m a i n s ( s e e T u r i e l & D a v i d s o n ,

    1986) . These au thors have p roposed tha t the ch i ld

    constructs

    t h e s e d o m a i n s

    f r o m t h e q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f m o r a l

    and conven t iona l t ransgress ions . Th is

    const ruc t ion

    p r o c e s s h as n o t b e e n w e l l

    spec i f ied by mos t au thors . Ho we ver , Tur ie l (1983) has desc r ibed two fo rms

    o f m a n i p u l a t i o n o f g a t h e r e d d a t a w h i c h r e s u lt i n t h e

    const ruc t ion

    o f w h a t h e

    t e r m s j u d g e m e n t s o f m o r a l n e c e s s i ty . T h e s e t w o f o r m s ar e : m a n i p u l a t i o n s

    of pas t exper iences and coun te r - fac tua l reason ing . Tur ie l (1983) s ta te s tha t

    t h e c h i l d w i l l c o n n e c t h i s o r h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f p a i n ( a n u n d e s i r a b l e

    e x p e r i e n c e ) t o t h e o b s e r v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v i c ti m ( p . 4 3 ). A c c o r d i n g t o

    Tur ie l , by fo rming th i s connec t ion the ch i ld wi l l genera te a p rosc r ip t ion

    aga ins t the even t wh ich resu l ted in the v ic t im. In add i t ion , Tur ie l (1983)

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    s t a t e s t ha t t he ch i ld wi ll a r r ive a t j udg em en t s o f mo ra l nece ss i ty t h rough

    c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a c t i t s e l f w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e . I f t h e

    c o n s t r u c t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f it s n o n - o c c u r r e n c e ( t h e r e is n o v i ct im ) a r e

    j u d g e d to b e m o r e d e s i r a b l e t h a n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i ts o c c u r r e n c e ( t h e

    v i c t i m i s h a r m e d ) , t h e n i n f e r e n c e s w i l l b e m a d e r e g a r d i n g h o w p e o p l e

    shou ld ac t i n t hese c i r cumstances . As s t a t ed above , t he ch i ld wi l l j udge the

    p r e s e n c e o f a v i c t i m a s u n d e s i r a b l e i f h e h a s c o n n e c t e d h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e

    of pa in wi th t ha t o f t he v i c t im .

    A c c o r d i n g t o T u r i e l , t h e s e s a m e m a n i p u l a t i o n s , w h e n a p p l i e d t o c o n v e n -

    t iona l t r ansg ress ions , w i l l no t r e su l t i n au tomat i c p rosc r ip t ions . F i r s t , Tur i e l

    d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e a r e a n y p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s th a t m i g h t r e s u l t in t h e

    g e n e r a t i o n o f p r o sc r i p ti o n s . S e c o n d , T u r i e l a r g u e s t h a t c o m p a r i s o n o f a

    conven t iona l ac t w i th i t s oppos i t e wi l l no t r e su l t i n one s i t ua t ion be ing

    j u d g e d a s o b v i o u s l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r. T a k i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e

    con ven t iona l t r ansg ress ion o f t a lk ing in c la ss , Tur i e l cons ide r s t ha t t he r e i s

    no in t r in s i c bas i s f o r a r equ i r emen t t ha t ch i ld r en do no t t a lk i n c l a ss .

    Accord ing to Tur i e l ( 1983) , i t i s soc i a l o rgan iza t iona l f ac to r s , such as

    c o n s e n s u s , r u l e s a n d a u t h o r i t y , t h a t p r o v i d e m e a n i n g t o c o n v e n t i o n a l

    p rosc r ip t ions .

    I n s u m m a r y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e o r i g in o f t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s ti n c ti o n ,

    accord ing to Tur i e l , i s t he ch i ld ' s c o n s t r u e d c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s p e r s o n a l

    e x p e r i e n c e o f p ai n a n d t h e o b s e r v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v i c ti m . I t i s a

    consequence o f t h i s connec t ion tha t t he ch i ld j udges any ac t t ha t r e su l t s i n a

    v i c t im as wrong w ha te ver t he con tex t . I t i s t he ch i ld 's expe r i ence o f h i s own

    p a i n t h a t m a k e s t h e o b s e r v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f th e v i c ti m a v e r s iv e . I t w o u l d

    t h u s b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m t h i s t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o h a s n e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d

    p a i n w o u l d n o t m a k e t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n .

    Bla i r ( 1993) , i n con t r as t , sugges t ed tha t VIM i s a p r e r equ i s i t e f o r t he

    d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i st in c t io n . H e c la i m e d t h a t th e

    a c t i v a t io n o f V I M m e d i a t e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l

    d i s t i nc t ion t a sk bu t t ha t t h i s on ly occur s a f t e r r ep resen ta t ions o f mora l

    t r a n s g r es s i o n s h a v e b e c o m e s t im u l i fo r th e a c t iv a t io n o f V I M . H e s u g g e s t e d

    tha t r e pe a t ed pa i r ing o f r ep rese n ta t ions o f t he t r ansg ress ion wi th the d i s t r e ss

    c u e s t h a t a r e b e i n g c a u s e d b y t h e a c t r e s u l t s i n t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e

    t r ansg ress ion becoming , t h rough c l ass i ca l cond i t i on ing , cond i t i oned s t imul i

    fo r t he ac t iva t ion o f VIM . S ince conve n t iona l t r ansg ress ions , b y de f in i ti on ,

    do no t r e su l t i n v i c t ims , t hey a r e t he r e fo r e never pa i r ed wi th d i s t r e ss cues

    and wi l l no t t he r e fo r e become s t imul i f o r t he ac t iva t ion o f VIM. Bla i r

    ( 1 9 9 3 ) c l a i m e d t h a t i t w a s th e o n - l i n e o p e r a t i o n o f V I M w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s

    t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n . H e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e w i t h d r a w a l

    r e s p o n s e f o l l o w i n g th e a c t i v a ti o n o f V I M is e x p e r i e n c e d , t h r o u g h m e a n i n g

    ana lys i s , a s ave r s ive ( fo l lowing M and le r ' s , 1984 , pos i t i on on va lue ) . He

    sugg es t ed tha t i t was th is sense o f ave r s ion to t he mo ra l t r ansg ress ion tha t

    r e s u l t e d i n t h e a c t b e i n g j u d g e d a s b a d . M a n i p u l a t io n s o f t h e t r a n s g r e s s io n ' s

    con tex t ( i . e . , s t a t i ng tha t t he r e i s no ru l e aga ins t t he t r ansg ress ion ) wou ld

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    8 R.J .R . B la ir / Cognit ion 57 1995) 1 -2 9

    no t a l t e r t he ac t iva t ion o f VIM by the de t a i l s o f t he t r ansg ress ion . Thus ,

    accord ing to t h i s pos i t i on , t he t r ansg ress ion wou ld s t i l l be j udged bad .

    C o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s w o u l d n o t g e n e r a t e t h i s s e n s e o f a v e r s i o n . T h e y

    a r e d e f i n e d a s t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o n l y b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f r u l e s . R e m o v a l o f t h e

    r u l e , b y m o d i f y i n g t h e t r a n s g r e s si o n c o n t e x t , a n d t h e t r a n s g r e ss i o n s h o u l d

    n o l o n g e r b e j u d g e d a s b a d t o d o . 6

    1 4 A developmental a ccount of morality

    I n F ig . 1 , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f V I M a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s a

    causa l mode l . Causa l mode l s a r e d iv ided in to th r ee l eve l s : phys io log ica l ,

    cogn i t i ve and behav ioura l ( see Mor ton & F r i th , 1993) . The r e l a t i onsh ip o f

    c o n n e c t e d e l e m e n t s w i t h i n a c a u s a l m o d e l i s o n e o f c a u s a l i t y . N o r m a l l y ,

    c a u s a l m o d e l s a r e a p p l ie d t o a b n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e t h e a b s e n c e o f a

    p a r t i c u la r n e u r a l s t r u c t u r e h a s c o g n i t iv e a n d b e h a v i o u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s ; e . g . ,

    i n au t i sm. In t h i s case , ca us e has a s t r a igh t fo rward mea n ing . I n t he case

    o f no rmal dev e lop m en t , i t has t he impl i ca t ion o f c r i ti ca l necess i ty . Thus , t he

    m o d e l i n F ig . 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e c l a im t h a t V I M c a u s e s th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

    mo ra l em ot ions ; i . e . , VI M i s c r it ica l ly necessa ry i f t he m ora l em ot ion s a r e t o

    d e v e l o p n o r m a l l y . F i g . 1 a ls o r e p r e s e n t s t w o a l t e r n a t iv e a c c o u n t s o f t h e

    d e v e l o p m e n t o f V I M : e i t h e r a s t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f a p h y s i o lo g i c a l s t r u c tu r e

    o r a s t he r e su l t o f t he ex per i enc e o f ce r t a in ea r ly soc i a l i za t ion ev en t s . I t is

    poss ib l e t ha t VIM i s an inna t e ly spec i f i ed phys io log ica l s t r uc tu r e . A l t e r -

    n a t i v e l y , V I M m a y b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e v e r y ea r l y e x p e r i e n c e o f

    soc i a l i za t ion to wi thd raw f rom ce r t a in d i s t r e ss cue con tex t s ; e .g . , when

    a n o t h e r ' s d i s tr e s s c u e s h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y t h e s e lf . F ig . 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e

    c l a i m t h a t t h e a u t o n o m i c n e r v o u s s y s t e m ( A N S ) i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e

    d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l l e m o t i o n s ; t h e A N S p r o v i d e s t h e a r o u s a l w h i c h i s

    i n t e r p r e t e d a s an e m o t i o n t h r o u g h m e a n i n g a n a l y si s (M a n d l e r , 1 9 84 ). V I M ,

    s p e c if ic a l ly , a ll o w s th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m o r a l e m o t i o n s . V I M , w h e n

    a c t i v a t e d , g e n e r a t e s a r o u s a l w h i c h w i l l b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s o n e o f t h e m o r a l

    em ot io ns ( see above ) . I n add i t i on , pa i r ing o f t he ac t iva t ion o f VI M w i th

    6 I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n m o r a l i ty a n d c o n v e n t i o n i s a l so m a d e f o r

    p o s i t i v e ac t s . F o r e x a m p l e , S m e t a n a e t a l . ( 1 9 8 3) f o u n d t h a t m o r a l p o s i t iv e a c t i o n s ( e .g . ,

    c o m f o r t i n g a y o u n g c h i l d ) w e r e r a n k e d b y s u b j e c t s a s b e t t e r t o d o t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l p o s i ti v e

    a c t i o n s ( e . g . , w e a r i n g t h e s c h o o l ' s u n i f o r m ) . T h e V I M p o s i t i o n m a k e s n o d i r e c t p r e d i c t i o n s

    a b o u t t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t io n i n p o s i ti v e a c t io n s n o r d o e s i t m a k e s p e c if ic c l a i m s a s

    t o w h y w e s h o u l d a p p r o v e o f m o r a l p o s i ti v e a c ti o n s . I t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t m o r a l p o s i t iv e

    a c t i o n s a r e e v a l u a t e d a s g o o d i f t h e y r e s u l t in t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a s i t u a t io n e v a l u a t e d a s b a d

    b e c a u s e o f t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f V I M ( i . e . , a d i s t re s s e d o t h e r ) . I n t h i s c a s e , V I M w o u l d b e

    c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s ti n c t i o n i n

    p o s i t i v e a c ts . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t V I M h a s n o r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

    a p p r o v a l f o r m o r a l p o s i t iv e a c t s, t h a t V I M i s o n l y i n v o l v e d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i s a p p r o v a l

    f o r m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s io n s . I n t h is c a s e , V I M w o u l d h a v e n o r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

    m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t in c t i o n f o r p o s it i v e ac t s. A t p r e s e n t , t h e s e t w o p o s i t i o n s h a v e n o t b e e n

    e m p i r i c a l l y r e s o l v e d .

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    9/29

    R.J .R . B la ir Cognit ion 57 1995) 1 - 29 9

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    b e h e v l o u r o f v i o l e n t c o n v e n t i o n a l ,

    i c l O o f l d i s t i n c t i o n

    F i g . 1 . A c a u s a l m o d e l o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f V I M .

    r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e t r a n s g r e ss i o n s it u a t io n o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r m e d

    t h r o u g h r o l e t a k i n g o f t h e v i c t im ' s e x p e r i e n c e w i l l , t h r o u g h c l a s si c a l

    c o n d i t i o n i n g , r e s ul t i n t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e V I M t r ig g e r d a t a b a s e . 7 T h i s

    e x p a n s i o n a l lo w s t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f e m p a t h y ,8 t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d d i ti o n a l

    i n h i b i t i o n s o n v i o l e n c e a n d t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l

    d i s t i n c t i o n ( s e e a b o v e ) .

    1 5 A de ve l o pmen t a l a c c o un t o f p sy c h opa t h i c d i so r d e r

    F i g . 2 r e p r e s e n t s t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a b s e n c e o f V I M a s

    a c a u s a l m o d e l . E l e m e n t s w i t h i n a c a u s a l m o d e l t h a t a r e u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e

    7 F o r t h i s e x p a n s i o n o f t h e t r i g g e r d a t a b a s e t o o c c u r , V I M m u s t a c t u a l l y c o n t r o l b e h a v i o u r :

    t h e i n d i v i d u a l m u s t w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s i t u a t i o n . I f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t i n u e s t o

    a p p r o a c h t h e v i c t im ( p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f p e e r p r e s s u r e t o i n f li c t g r e a t e r d a m a g e ) , t h e i n d i v i d u a l

    w i l l a s s o c i a t e a n y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e v i c t im ' s p l i g h t o r t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h e

    a p p r o a c h r e s p o n s e . S u c h a n i n d i v i d u a l is m o r e l i k e l y t o b e a g g r e s s iv e i n f u t u r e .

    8 E m p a t h y , d e f i n e d a s a b o v e , i s a n e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r e ss e d

    i n t e r n a l s ta t e o f a n o t h e r ; i . e . , a n e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m s h e ' s

    s u f f e r i n g ; w h a t a p o o r l i tt l e b o y ; h e m u s t b e c o l d a n d h u n g r y .

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    10/29

    10 R . J .R . B l a i r / Cogn i t i o n 57 1995) 1 2 9

    a b s e n c e o f a n o t h e r e l e m e n t a re s h o w n p r o t e c t e d w i t h i n b o x e s . T h u s , i n

    F i g . 2 , t h e T h e o r y o f M i n d M e c h a n i s m ( L e s l i e , 1 9 8 7, 19 8 8 ) a n d A l l o t h e r

    e m o t i o n s a r e s h o w n a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f V I M . I n l in e

    w i t h t h i s , B l a i r e t a l . ( i n p r e s s ) f o u n d t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s , r e l a t i v e t o n o n -

    p s y c h o p a t h s , a r e n o t i m p o v e r i s h e d o n T h e o r y o f M i n d t a s k s w h i l e

    P a t r i c k , B r a d l e y , a n d L a n g ( 1 9 9 3) o b s e r v e d t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s s h o w e d

    a r o u s a l t o f e a r s t i m u l i .

    I n F i g . 2 , t h e a b s e n c e o f V I M i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s e i th e r a c o n s e q u e n c e o f

    a p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e f i c i t o r t h e a b s e n c e o f e a r l y s o c i a l i z a t io n e x p e r i e n c e s . T h e

    l a c k o f V I M w i l l r e s ul t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e m o r a l e m o t i o n s . A n a b s e n c e o f

    t h e m o r a l e m o t i o n s i s r e p o r t e d i n t h e c l i n i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f p s y c h o p a t h y

    ( K a r p m a n , 1 94 1; H a r e , 1 9 85 a ). T h e l a c k o f V I M w i l l o b v i o u s l y p r e v e n t t h e

    a d d i t i o n o f l e a r n e d t r ig g e r s f o r t h e a c t i v a ti o n o f V I M . N o r m a l l y , r e p r e s e n t a -

    t i o n s h e l d d u r i n g t h e d i s p l a y o f d i s tr e s s c u e s w i ll c o m e t o a c t i v a t e V I M

    t h r o u g h c l as s ic a l c o n d i t i o n in g . F o r e x a m p l e , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e v i c t im ' s

    i n t e r n a l s t a te , f o r m e d t h r o u g h r o l e t a k i n g , w i l l c o m e t o a c t iv a t e V I M .

    O b v i o u s l y , w i t h o u t V I M , t h i s w i l l n o t o c c u r ; t h e r e w i l l b e n o p a i r i n g s o f

    r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e v i c t i m ' s i n t e r n a l s t a t e w i t h t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f V I M

    b e c a u s e t h e r e w i l l b e n o a c t i v a t io n o f V I M . P s y c h o p a t h y i s a s s o c i a te d w i t h

    P h y s i o l o g i c a l

    P h y s l o l o o i a l d e f l c l l

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    og o.ivo .,.' k

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    A l l o t h e r i M o r a l e m o t i o n s L e a r n e d 1 r i g g e rs

    i m o t i o n g I I.e.. gui lt r em orse f or V I M

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    i n h i b i t i o n M o r e a /

    o f v i o l e n t c o n v e n t l a a a l

    a c t i o n d i s t i n c t i o n

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    c a u sa l m o d e l o f th e d e v e l o p m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a bs e n c e o f V I M .

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    11/29

    R.J.R . Blair / Cognition 57 (1995) 1-29 11

    the inab i l i t y t o f ee l empa thy wi th the v i c t im (Hare , 1985a) . As s t a t ed above ,

    n o t o n l y d o e s V I M i n t e r ru p t v i o l e n t a c ti o n o n l in e ( i n t h e c o n t e x t o f d i s tr e s s

    cues) bu t i t a l so deve lop me n ta l ly i nh ib it s v io l en t ac tion . T he ch i ld wi th VI M

    wil l be , ce ter us par ibus , nega t ive ly r e in fo r ced fo l lowing any ac t ion tha t

    r esu l t s i n t he d i sp l ay o f d i s t r e ss cues by a v i c t im . The ch i ld wi thou t VIM

    w o u l d n o t b e n e g a t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d ; h e w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e m u c h m o r e

    l i k e l y t o s h o w v i o l e n t t e n d e n c i e s f r o m a v e r y e a r l y a g e . P s y c h o p a t h s a r e

    a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e v i o l e n t t e n d e n c i e s f r o m a v e r y e a r l y a g e

    (Am er i can Psycho log ica l Asso c ia t ion , 1987 ; H are , 1985a). Th us , t he co re

    f e a t u r e s o f t h e b e h a v i o u ra l d e s c ri p ti o n o f t h e p s y c h o p a t h - t h e e a rl y o n s e t

    o f e x t r e m e l y a g g r e ss i v e b e h a v i o u r t h a t is n o t t e m p e r e d b y a n y s e n s e o f g u il t

    o r e m p a t h y w i t h t h e v i c t i m - a r e a ll d i re c t c a u s a l p re d i c t io n s o f a l a c k o f

    V I M .

    Now i t i s t he case tha t , i n genera l , a cogn i t i ve de f i c i t i s no t de t e rmina te a t

    t h e b e h a v i o u r a l l e ve l . T h u s , a l a ck o f V I M n e e d n o t r e s u l t in t h e i n d i v id u a l

    b e c o m i n g a p s y c h o p a t h . P s y c h o p a t h s a r e d e f i n e d , f o r c l i n i c a l p u r p o s e s , b y

    the f r eq uen cy o f t he i r c r imina l and o the r an t i soc i a l ac t s . A l ack o f VI M d oes

    no t o f it se l f mo t iva t e an ind iv idua l t o comm i t aggress ive ac t s . A l ack o f V IM

    j u s t m e a n s t h a t o n e s o u r c e o f th e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f v io l e n t a c t io n i s l o s t. T h u s ,

    i n F ig . 2 , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e p s y c h o p a t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s a c o n s e -

    q u e n c e o f th e l a c k o f V I M t o g e t h e r w i t h e it h e r u n s p e c i f ie d c o g n i ti v e o r

    e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c to r s . I t is p e r h a p s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

    psychopa th may r equ i r e de f i c i t s w i th in execu t ive func t ion ing as we l l a s

    w i t h in V I M ; t h a t b o t h s o u r c e s o f b e h a v i o u r a l i n h ib i ti o n m u s t b e i m p a i r e d i n

    o r d e r f o r t h e c h i l d t o d e v e l o p a s a p s y c h o p a t h . C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e h a v e b e e n

    r e p o r t s o f i m p a i r m e n t s i n e x e c u t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g i n p s y c h o p a t h s i n t h e

    l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g . , G o r e n s t e i n , 1 9 8 2 ) . I t c a n t h e r e f o r e b e p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e r e

    m a y e x i s t a p o p u l a t i o n w h o s h o w t h e s a m e c a l l o u s b e h a v i o u r a n d l a c k o f

    m o r a l e m o t i o n s a s t h e p s y c h o p a t h . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s , b e c a u s e o f e i t h e r t h e

    l a c k o f t h e c o g n i t iv e f a c t o rs o r t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t p r e d i s p o s i n g t h e m t o

    c r i m e , w o u l d n o t b e k n o w n t o t h e l e g a l a n d p s y c h i a t r i c s e r v i c e s . H o w e v e r ,

    a t t h e c o g n i ti v e l e v el , t h e s e i n d i v id u a l s w o u l d s h o w a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e s a m e

    s t ruc tu r a l de f i c i t s a s t he psychopa th : t he l ack o f VIM.

    F i n a l ly , F i g . 2 r e p r e s e n t s t w o u n i q u e p r e d i c ti o n s o f t h e V I M p o s i t io n :

    i n d i v id u a l s l a c k i n g V I M s h o u l d f a il t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s ti n c ti o n a n d

    fa i l t o i n t e rna l ly genera t e mora l j u s t i f i ca t ions . B la i r ( 1993) has sugges t ed

    t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f V I M m e d i a t e s t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n ct i on ( s e e

    a b o v e ) . I f p s y c h o p a t h s l a c k V I M t h e y s h o u l d f a i l t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s

    d i s t i n c t i o n . V I M m a y a l s o b e a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e i n t e r n a l g e n e r a t i o n o f

    m o r a l m e t a - k n o w l e d g e ; i . e . , t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n s c i o u s l y a c c e s s i b l e t h e o r i e s

    a b o u t w h y m o r a l t r a n s g re s s i o n s a r e b a d t o d o . C h i ld r e n h a v e b e e n

    c o n s i s t e n t ly f o u n d t o j u s t i f y t h e ir o p i n i o n s a b o u t m o r a l t r a n s g re s s i o n s b y

    r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e v i c t i m s w e l f a re a n d b y appea l s to fa i r nes s ( e . g . , A r s e n i o &

    Fo rd, 1985; Nu cci , 1981; Sm etan a, 1985; Son g et a l ., 1987) . Blai r (1993)

    sugges t ed tha t when the ind iv idua l i s a sked why a mora l t r ansg ress ion i s

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    12/29

    1 2

    R.J .R . B la ir / Cogni tion 57 1 995) 1 - 29

    bad , h e shou ld be ab l e t o do som e so r t o f causa l ana lys i s wh ich wi ll

    d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e d i s t r e s s t o t h e o t h e r i s t h e o b j e c t w h i c h a c t i v a t e d t h e

    wi thdrawal r e sponse ; i . e . , i t i s t he ob jec t t ha t i s bad . B la i r sugges t ed tha t

    w i t h o u t V I M t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l j u d g e a c t s a s b a d o n l y b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n

    t o l d t h a t t h e y a r e b a d ( b y p a r e n t s / p e e r s ) . W i t h o u t V I M , i f t h e s u b j e c t is

    a s k e d a b o u t w h y t h e a c t i s b a d , h e w i l l m a k e r e f e r e n c e t o w h a t h e h a s b e e n

    to ld .

    P r e v i o u s i n v e s t ig a t io n s o f t h e m o r a l r e a s o n i n g o f t h e p s y c h o p a t h h a v e

    b e e n e x c l u s i v e ly c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c f r a m e w o r k o f K o h l b e r g

    (1969 ; Co lb y & Koh lb e rg , 1987). W hi l e it app ear s c l ea r t ha t t he mo ra l

    r easo n ing o f de l inque n t s i s a t a l ower l eve l than tha t o f no rm al c on t ro l s 9

    ( see Blas i , 1980 ; Treva than & Walker , 1989) i t i s more deba tab le whe the r

    the mo ra l r easo n ing o f psyc hop a ths i s a t a l owe r leve l t han tha t o f c rimina l

    c o n t r o l s. F o d o r ( 1 9 7 3 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e m o r a l r e a s o n i n g o f p s y c h o p a t h i c

    y o u t h s w a s a t a l o w e r l e v e l t h a n t h e m o r a l r e a s o n i n g o f o t h e r d e l i n q u e n t s .

    C a m p a g n a a n d H a r t e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) fo u n d t h e m o r a l r e a s o n in g o f s o c i o p a t h s to b e

    l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f n o n - i n c a r c e r a t e d n o r m a l s , e v e n w h e n c o n t r o l li n g f o r

    m e n t a l a g e . J u r k o v i c a n d P r e n t i c e ( 1 9 7 7 ) f o u n d t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s g i v e

    e v i d e n c e o f l e ss m a t u r e m o r a l r e a s o n i n g t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s o f d e l in q u e n t

    a n d n o r m a l y o u t h s . H o w e v e r , L e e , a n d P r e n t i c e ( 1 9 8 8 ) o n l y f o u n d t h a t

    d e l i n q u e n t s r e s p o n d e d a t a l o w e r l e v e l t h a n n o n - d e l i n q u e n t s ; t h e p s y -

    c h o p a t h s d i d n o t r e a s o n a t a l o w e r l e v e l t h a n t h e o t h e r d e l i n q u e n t g r o u p s .

    A l s o , t h e a b o v e s t u d i es u s e d s c a le s o f p s y c h o p a t h y ( e . g . , Q u a y ' s B e -

    h a v i o u r P r o b l e m C h e c k l i s t ) t h a t a r e o f d o u b t f u l v a l i d i t y ( s e e H a r e & C o x ,

    1 9 7 8 ). T h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e f ic i t w a s r e m e d i e d b y T r e v a t h a n a n d W a l k e r

    ( 1 9 8 9 ) , w h o u ti l iz e d H a r e ' s P s y c h o p a t h y C h e c k li s t. T r e v a t h a n a n d W a l k e r

    ( 1 9 8 9 ) o b s e r v e d a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e p s y c h o p a t h s t o r e a s o n a t a l o w e r l e v e l

    t h a n n o n - p s y c h o p a t h i c c o n t r o l s b u t t h i s w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . H o w e v e r , b o t h

    groups o f de l inquen t s sco red a t a s ign i f i can t ly l ower l eve l t han non- inca r ce r -

    a t ed con t ro l s . Thus , wh i l e i t i s c l ea r t ha t c r imina l g roups may r eason a t a

    lower l eve l t han non-c r imina l con t ro l s , i t i s unce r t a in whe the r t he mora l

    r e a s o n i n g o f p s y c h o p a t h s is lo w e r t h a n t h a t o f o t h e r c r im i n a l g r o u p s .

    N o p r e v i o u s w o r k h a s i n v e s t i g a t e d w h e t h e r t h e p s y c h o p a t h m a k e s a

    d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m o r a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l r u l e s . N o p r e v i o u s w o r k h a s

    l o o k e d a t m o r a l m e t a - k n o w l e d g e . T h i s is d e s p i t e t h e f a ct th a t b o t h o f t h e s e

    a r e f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r a l i ty . T h e V I M

    p o s i t i o n w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t t h e p s y c h o p a t h s h o u l d f a i l t o m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n

    i n h i s j u d g e m e n t s b e t w e e n m o r a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a n d t h a t

    he wi l l no t m ake v i c t im-based jus t i f ica t ions o f wh y mora l t r ansg ress ions a r e

    b a d t o d o . I n s u m m a r y , i t w a s p r e d i c t e d t h a t :

    9 T h o u g h t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e n o t ( s e e B l a s i , 1 9 80 ) .

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    R .J .R . B l a i r / C o g n i ti o n 5 7 1 9 9 5 ) 1 - 2 9 13

    ( 1 ) t h a t p s y c h o p a t h s w ill n o t m a k e a d i st in c t io n b e t w e e n m o r a l a n d

    c o n v e n t i o n a l r u l e s ;

    (2 ) t ha t p sy cho pa ths wi ll t r ea t mo ra l r u l es a s i f t hey were conv en t iona l ; t ha t

    i s , und er pe rm iss ion cond i t i ons , t he psych opa ths wi ll say tha t m ora l a s

    w e l l a s c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a r e O K t o d o ;

    (3 ) t ha t p sychopa ths wi l l be l e ss l i ke ly to make r e f e r ences t o t he pa in o r

    d i s c o m f o r t o f v i c ti m s t h a n t h e n o n - p s y c h o p a t h c o n t ro l s .

    2 . M e t h o d

    2 1 Design

    T h e e x p e r i m e n t i n v o l v e d a 2 2 r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s f a c t o ri a l d es i g n . T h e

    i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e r e t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t g r o u p s ( p s y c h o p a t h s

    a n d n o n - p s y c h o p a t h i c c o n t r o l s ) a n d t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n s o f s t o r y

    ( m o r a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l ) . T h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e w a s th e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e

    s u b j e c t s t o t h e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s i t u a t i o n .

    2 2 Subjects

    T e n p s y c h o p a t h s a n d 1 0 n o n - p s y c h o p a t h s c o n t r o l s t o o k p a r t i n t h i s s t u d y .

    A l l w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h c o n t a c t s i n B r o a d m o o r a n d A s h w o r t h S p e c i a l

    H o s p i t a l s a n d h a d b e e n a d m i t t e d t o t h e h o s p i t a l s u n d e r t h e

    legal

    c a t e g o r y o f

    P s y c h o p a t h i c D i s o r d e r . T h e f il es o f a ll t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e e x a m i n e d t o o b t a i n

    a P s y c h o p a t h y C h e c k l i s t ( P C L ) s c o r e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f

    H a r e ( 1 9 85 a ) . W o n g ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a s s h o w n t h a t P C L s c o r e s d e r i v e d e n t i re l y f r o m

    f i l e d a t a c a n b e v a l i d a n d r e l i a b l e . F o u r i t e m s o n t h e P C L w e r e n o t s c o r e d :

    i t e m s 1 ( G l i b n e s s / s u p e r f i c i a l c h a r m ) , 2 ( G r a n d i o s e s e n s e o f s e l f

    w o r t h ) , 4 ( P a t h o l o g i c a l l y i n g ) a n d 1 3 ( L a c k o f re a l is t ic , l o n g t e r m

    g o a l s ) . T h e s e i t e m s w e r e n e g l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e d i f fi c u lt y o f o b t a i n in g

    s u c h in f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e file s. H o w e v e r , H a r e s t a t e s t h a t a s m a n y a s 5

    i t e m s c a n b e o m i t t e d w i t h o u t a n y a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n r e l i a b i l i t y

    ( H a r e , 1 9 8 5a , p . 1 0 ). T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e t h e n d i v i d e d i n to t w o g r o u p s

    a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s c o r e o n t h e P C L : o n e h i g h f o r p s y c h o p a t h y ( t h e

    p s y c h o p a t h s ) , o n e l o w f o r p s y c h o p a t h y ( t h e n o n p s y c h o p a t h s ) . A l l o f t h e

    s u b j e c t s w e r e m a l e a n d w h i te . A l l o f t h e s u b j e c t s h a d c o m m i t t e d c r i m e s o f

    v i o l e n c e . I n d e e d , a ll o f t h e s u b j e c t s a p a r t f r o m o n e o f th e h i g h P C L s c o r e r s

    ( i . e . , one o f t he psychopa ths ) had k i l l ed . Fu l l sub jec t cha r ac t e r i s t i c s a r e

    s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 .

    T w o - w a y A N O V A s ( c o m p a ri n g t h e t w o s u b j e c t g r o u ps ) w e r e u n d e r t a k e n

    fo r each o f t he sub jec t c r i t e r i a . These r evea l ed no s ign i f i can t d i f f e r ences i n

    a g e b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s ( F ( 1 , 1 8 ) = 1 . 1 0 ; n . s . ). T h e t w o t e s ts o f

    i n t e l l i g e n c e r e v e a l e d n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s e i t h e r

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    14/29

    14 R.J.R. Bla ir / Cogni t ion 57 1995) 1 -29

    T a b l e 1

    M e a n s f o r e a c h o f t h e s u b j e c t c r i t e ri a ( s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s in p a r e n t h e s e s )

    G r o u p N A g e I Q ( W A I S )

    R a v e n ' s

    ma t r i c e s

    score

    H a r e ' s

    p s y c h o p a t h y

    score a

    Psyc hopa t h s 10 33 . 3 91 . 6 6 . 4 31 . 6

    ( 7 . 7 ) ( 17 . 2 ) ( 2 . 1 ) ( 2 . 1 )

    No n- psy chop a t hs 10 37 . 5 92 . 7 6 . 3 16 .1

    (9 .43) (16.0) (3 .3) (4 .6)

    aTo g a i n a s c o r e o u t o f 4 0 w h e n o n l y 1 6 it e m s w e r e b e i n g m e a s u r e d t h e s c o r e f r o m t h e 1 6 i t e m s

    ( ou t o f 32 ) was mu l t i p l i ed by 40 / 32 .

    w h e n u s i n g t h e W A I S ~ ( F ( 1 , 1 2 ) = 0 . 0 8; n . s. ) o r R a v e n ' s A d v a n c e d m a t r i c e s

    ( F ( 1 , 1 8 ) = 0 . 0 1 ; n . s . ) .

    2 3 Materials

    T h e s t o r i e s u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n w e r e a l l

    t a k e n f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e . T h e f o u r m o r a l s t o r i e s in v o l v e d a c h il d h i t ti n g

    a n o t h e r c h i ld , a c h i l d p u l li n g t h e h a i r o f a n o t h e r c h i l d a n d t h e v i c t im c r i e s , a

    c h i l d s m a s h i n g a p i a n o a n d a c h i l d b r e a k i n g t h e s w i n g i n t h e p l a y g r o u n d .

    T h e f o u r c o n v e n t i o n a l s to r i e s i n v o l v e d a b o y c h il d w e a r i n g a sk i r t, t w o

    c h i l d r e n t a l k in g i n c l as s , a c h il d w a l k i n g o u t o f t h e c l a s s r o o m w i t h o u t

    p e r m i s s i o n a n d a c h i l d w h o s t o p s p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l e s s o n a n d t u r n s h i s

    b a c k o n t h e t e a c h e r . S u b j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d o n

    s t a n d a r d s c o r i n g s h e e t s .

    2 4 Procedure

    S u b j e c t s w e r e t e s t e d i n o n e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w r o o m s a t t a c h e d t o t h e w a r d

    o n w h i c h th e s u b j e c t w as h o u s e d . B e f o r e t h e s t u d y c o m m e n c e d t h e s u b j e c ts

    w e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o th e e x p e r i m e n t e r a n d i n f o r m e d a b o u t w h a t t h e y w e r e t o

    d o . S u b j e c t c o n s e n t f o r m s w e r e t a k e n .

    B e f o r e a n y o f th e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s s c e n e s w e r e r e a d o u t t o t h e s u b j e c t s , t h e y

    w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t a l l o f t h e s c e n e s w o u l d o c c u r w i th i n a s c h o o l e n v i r o n -

    m e n t . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o p l a c e t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s s c e n e s w i t h i n a s c h o o l

    e n v i r o n m e n t , a s o p p o s e d t o a w a r d o r o t h e r a d u l t e n v i r o n m e n t , b e c a u s e

    p i l o t i n g h a d s h o w n t h a t t e a c h e r s w e r e r e g a r d e d b y t h e s u b j e c t s as l e g i t im a t e

    a u t h o r i t y f i g u re s f o r c h i ld r e n . S o m e s u b j e c t s d i d n o t r e g a r d n u r s e s a s

    l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s f o r o t h e r a d u l t s .

    E a c h o f t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c e n e s w a s r e a d o u t t o t h e s u b j e c t o n e a t a t i m e .

    10 W A I S s c o r e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p a t i e n t s ' f il es a n d n o t b y t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t e r .

    W A I S s c o r e s w e r e n o t a v a i l ab l e fo r t h r e e o f t h e p s y c h o p a t h s a n d t h r e e o f t h e n o n - p s y c h o p a t h s .

    B e c a u s e o f t h e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e s e d a t a , a l l o f t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e s u b m i t t e d R a v e n ' s

    A d v a n c e d m a t r i c e s .

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    R.J.R. Blair / Cognition 57 1995) 1-29

    15

    T h e o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t ra n s g r e s s io n s c e n e s w a s r a n d o m i z e d a c r o s s

    s u b j e c t s . A f t e r t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c e n e h a d b e e n p r e s e n t e d , t h e s u b j e c t w a s

    a s k e d f o u r q u e s t i o n s :

    ( 1 ) W a s i t O K f o r X t o d o Y ? ( E x a m i n in g t h e s u b j e c t' s j u d g e m e n t o f t h e

    p e r m i s s i b i l i t y of t he ac t . )

    ( 2 ) W as i t bad fo r X to t o [ t he t r ansg ress ion?] and then O n a sca l e o f

    o n e t o t e n , h o w b a d w a s it f o r X t o d o ] th e tr a n s g r e s s i o n ] ? ( E x a m i n i n g

    t h e s u b j e c t ' s j u d g e m e n t o f t h e se r io u sn e ss of t he ac t . )

    ( 3 ) W h y w a s i t b a d fo r X t o d o [t h e t r a n s g r e s s io n ] ? ( E x a m i n i n g t h e

    s u b j e c t ' s j u s t i f i c a t io n c a t e g o r ie s fo r t he ac t . )

    T h e s u b j e c t w a s t h e n t o l d :

    N o w w h a t i f t h e t e a c h e r s a i d b e f o r e th e l e s s o n , b e f o r e X d i d [ th e

    t r a n s g re s s i o n ] , t h a t A t t h is s c h o o l a n y b o d y ca n Y if t h e y w a n t t o .

    A n y b o d y c a n Y .

    T h e s u b j e c t w a s t h e n a s k e d a f i n a l q u e s t i o n :

    ( 4 ) W o u l d i t b e O K f o r X to Y i f t h e t e a c h e r sa y s X c a n ? ( E x a m i n i n g t h e

    ru l e ' s

    a u th o r i t y j u r i sd i c t i o n . )

    A l l r e s p o n s e s w e r e r e c o r d e d b y h a n d o n a s ta n d a r d s c o r in g s h e e t .

    2 . 5 . S c o r i n g p r o c e d u r e

    T h e s c o r in g p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t h a t c o m m o n l y u s e d i n th e l i t e r a tu r e

    ( e .g . , Smetana , 1981 ; Smetana & Braeges , 1990) . The answer s t o a l l

    q u e s t i o n s , e x c e p t t h r e e , w e r e s c o r e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y . Y e s r e s p o n s e s w e r e

    ass igned a sco re o f 0 , and

    n o n o t O K )

    r e s p o n s e s a s c o r e o f 1 . S u b j e c t s

    c o u l d t h u s a c h i e v e a c u m u l a t i v e s c o r e o f b e t w e e n 0 a n d 4 f o r e a c h o f t h e

    d o m a i n s f o r e a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s . Q u e s t i o n 3 w a s s c o r e d a c c o rd i n g t o t h e

    v a l u e ( b e t w e e n 1 a n d 1 0 ) t h e s u b j e c t h a d g i v en t h a t tr a n s g r es s i o n . T h e

    jus t i f i ca t ions o f t he sub jec t s were sco red accord ing to ca t egor i es s imi l a r t o

    those used in p r ev ious r esea r ch ( e .g . , Smetana , 1985) . The jus t i f i ca t ion

    ca t egor i es a r e shown in Tab le 2 . Two coder s sco red a l l j u s t i f i ca t ions , and

    in t e r - r a t e r r e l i ab i l i t y was h igh (91%) .

    3 . R e s u l t s

    3 . 1 . C r i t e r io n j u d g e m e n t s

    T a b l e 3 p r e s e n t s t h e m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f m o r a l a n d

    c o n v e n t i o n a l j u d g e m e n t s f o r e a c h o f t h e c r i t e r i o n j u d g e m e n t s f o r b o t h

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    16

    R.J.R. Bla ir Cognition57 1995) 1-29

    T ab le 2

    A descript ion of the jus t i f ica tion ca tegories

    Descript ion

    Othe r ' s we l fa re

    Norm a t ive re fe rences

    Dis o rde r s t a t emen t s

    L ack o f change

    R u d e n e s s

    O t h e r

    An y reference to the welfare of the vic t im (e .g ., i t wi ll hurt

    h i m )

    An y reference , even implic i t (e .g . , I t ' s not acceptable to do

    that ) , to rules

    Any reference to the dis rupt ion caused by the t ransgress ion (e .g . ,

    It will distract the class ).

    An y reference to the long-term implica t ions of the t ransgress ion

    (e .g . , I f he ge ts away with i t now he ' l l a lways do i t )

    An y reference to the rudeness of the t ransgress ion (e .g . , I t ' s bad

    m a n n e r s )

    Any o the r re s pons e

    s u b j e c t g r o u p s . T h r e e 2 ( D o m a i n ) 2 ( G r o u p ) A N O V A s w e r e p e r f o r m e d

    o n t h e s u b j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e s f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e c r i t e ri o n j u d g e m e n t s . T h e s e

    t h r e e A N O V A s r e v e a l e d m a i n e f f e c t s o f d o m a i n f o r all th r e e j u d g e m e n t s :

    permissibili ty, F(1, 38) = 9 .51, p = .05; seriousness, F(1 , 38) = 8 .83, p < .01,

    a n d ; authority jurisdiction (mod i f i ab i l i t y ) , F (1 , 38 ) = 30 .07 , p < .001) . Mora l

    t r ansg ress ions were judged s ign i f i can t ly l e ss permissible, m o r e serious a n d

    less authority dependent t han conven t iona l t r ansg ress ions .

    S ign i f i can t g roup d i f f e r ences were on ly shown in t he r e su l t s o f t he

    A N O V A o n t h e authority jurisdiction (mod i f i ab i l i t y ) c r i t e r ion judgemen t .

    T h i s A N O V A s h o w e d a m a i n e f f e c t o f g r o u p F ( 1 , 3 8 ) = 5 .5 3 , p < .0 5 a n d a

    s i gn i fi c an t D o m a i n x G r o u p i n t e ra c t i o n F ( 1 , 3 8 ) = 9 . 9 7 , p < . 0 1. H o w e v e r ,

    a s i m p l e e f fe c t s a n a ly s i s u s i n g t w o - w a y A N O V A s t o e x a m i n e t h e m o r a l /

    c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t in c t io n o f t h e t w o g r o u p s i n d e p e n d e n t l y r e v e a l e d d i f f e r e n t

    p a t t e r n s o f r e s p o n d i n g f o r th e t w o g ro u p s . T h e n o n - p s y c h o p a t h s m a d e a

    s i g n i f i c a n t m o r a l / c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n o n a l l t h r e e c r i t e r i o n j u d g e m e n t s

    permissibili ty, F(1 , 18) = 11.76, p < .05; seriousness, F(1 , 18) = 6 .49, p