a comparison of the usage of Δakouw and Δakouw - compounds in the septuagint and new testament...

8/20/2019 A Comparison of the Usage of ΔAKOUW and ΔAKOUW - Compounds in the Septuagint and New Testament (Paul D…

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A COMPARISON OF THE USAGE OF ∆AKOUW AND ∆AKOUW-COMPOUNDS IN THESEPTUAGINT AND NEW TESTAMENT

PAUL DANOVE

This study characterizes all occurrences of ajkouvw and seven relatedverbs (aj ntakouvw, diakouvw, eijsakouvw, ej nakouvw, ej pakouvw, parakouvw,and uJ pakouvw) in the Septuagint and New Testament according to theirsemantic and syntactic properties, develops a single set of rules to describethe distribution of noun phrase objects of these verbs, and then comparesthe patterns of usage of these verbs in the Septuagint and New Testament.

A preliminary discussion identifies the semantic and syntactic propertiesnecessary to describe all biblical occurrences of ajkouvw and proposes a setof descriptive rules that govern the syntactic case of its noun phraseobjects. Further investigation then indicates that this same set of rules

with only one minor modification also is adequate to describe the syntac-tic case of noun phrase objects of the noted ajkouvw-compounds. The dis-cussion concludes by comparing the distribution of noun phrase objectsin particular syntactic cases within the Septuagint and New Testament 1.

1. ajkouvw

1.1. Preliminary Observations about ajkouvw

The verb, ajkouvw, requires two arguments to express its meaning, anexperiencer of perception and an object of perception. It may expressdirect perception («hear,» «listen to») or indirect perception («hearabout,» «hear of,» «hear that»). In the active voice, the subject designatesthe experiencer of the perception, and the object designates either what /

1 The analysis uses A. Rahlfs, ed., Septuaginta (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft,1935) and K. Aland et al., eds., The Greek New Testament (Stuttgart: Deutsche

Bibelgesellschaft, 1993). Codex Vaticanus [B] serves as the basic text for the LXX; andcontributions from other manuscripts [Sinaiticus (S), A, R, V, Syro-hexaplaris (Sy)] arenoted when they diverge from B. The discussion omits ajkouvw or one of its compounds

when coordinated with another verb or participle with which it shares a single object:Exod 19:8; 24:3; 24:7 [with poihvsomen]; 1 Kgs 3:9 [with diakriv nw]; Job 13:1 [withoJravw]; Isa 43:9 [with eij pav twsan]; 64:3 [with ei\don]; Sus 53 [with ej piferouvsa~].This study builds on earlier work in P. Danove, «The Theory of Construction Grammarand its Application to New Testament Greek,» in Biblical Greek Grammar and Linguistics: Open Questions in Current Research, S. E. Porter and D. A. Carlson, eds.(JSNTSS 80; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), pp. 119-151, and idem, «Verbsof Experience: Toward a Lexicon Detailing the Argument Structure Assigned by Verbs,»in Linguistics and the New Testament: Critical Junctures , S. E. Porter and D. A. Carson,eds. (JSNTSS 168; SNTG 5; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), pp. 144-205.

Filología Neotestamentaria - Vol. XIV - 2001, pp. 65-85Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de Córdoba (España)


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who is heard (direct perception) or the topic of the perception (indirectperception) 2:

1. direct: o{ te oiJ nekroi; ajkouvsousin th"̀ fwnh"̀ tou ̀uiJou ̀tou ̀qeou` when the dead will hear the voice of the son of God (John 5:25).

2. indirect: oJ de; jIwav nnh" ajkouvsa" ej n tw/ ̀ desmwthrivw/ ta; e[rga tou`Cristou`but John in prison hearing about the works of Jesus (Matt 11:2).

The former example indicates that the dead will hear the voice direct-ly, whereas the latter indicates that John, who is in prison and not at thescene of Jesus’ activity, does not hear the actual works of Jesus as they areaccomplished but only a report about them. These modes of perceptionyield two distinct constructions in the active voice:

direct perception indirect perceptionajkouvw Explanation ajkouvw

syntactic 1 [2] || 1 = sub., 2=obj., [] =def. null complement || 1 [2]semantic Exp Con || Exp(eriencer), Con(tent), Top(ic) || Exp Toplexical N N/V+ || N = noun phrase, V+ = clause || N N/V+

These representations recognize that the subject, ‘1,’ of ajkouvw in theactive voice is realized by a noun phrase (noun or pronoun) or is indicat-ed by the verbal ending and that the object, ‘2,’ is realized by either a

noun phrase or a clause. The brackets, [], indicate that the second argu-ment (object) may be definite and null, that is, that the object may beomitted (null) only if the linguistic context provides a definite indicationof the nature of the omitted argument 3:

kai; ajkouvsante~ oiJ devka h[rxanto aj ganaktei' n peri; jIakwvbou kai; jIwav nnou

And hearing [that James and John had asked to sit, one at Jesus’ right hand and one at his left, in his glory (10:37)], the ten began to be angry

with James and John (Mark 10:41).

Definite null objects account for all active voice intransitive uses of ajkouvw.In the passive voice, ajkouvw continues to require two arguments; butthe subject, ‘1,’ now designates the content (direct perception) or topic(indirect perception), and the second argument, ‘2,’ designates the expe-riencer. This experiencer usually is indefinite and null:

2 The discussion avoids the use of multiple examples of each noted usage and pro-vides examples only from the NT when these are available. Otherwise examples are fromthe LXX.

3 A detailed account of definite null complements appears in C. J. Fillmore, «‘U’-semantics, Second Round,» Quaderni di Semantica 7 (1986) 49-58.

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1. direct: aj nqæ w| n o{sa ej n th' / skotiva/ ei[ pate ej n tw' / fwti; ajkousqhvsetaitherefore whatever you said in the dark will be heard in the light(Luke 12:3a).

2. indirect: ejk tou' aijw' no~ oujk hjkouvsqh o{ ti hj nevwxev n ti~ oj fqalmou;~ tuflou' gegennhmev nouthat anyone opened [the] eyes of one born blind was never heard(John 9:32).

These modes of perception yield two distinct constructions in the pas-sive voice:

direct perception indirect perceptionajkouvw Explanation ajkouvw

syntactic 1 [2] || 1 = sub., 2 = sec. argu., () = indef. null comp. || 1 (2)semantic Con Exp || Con(tent), Top(ic), Exp(eriencer) || Top Explexical N/V+ P || N = noun phrase, V+ = clause, P = prep. phrase || N/V+ N

These representations recognize that the subject, ‘1,’ of ajkouvw in thepassive voice is realized by a noun phrase or clause or is indicated by theverbal ending and that the second argument, ‘2,’ is realized by either a noun phrase (only in 2 Esdr 16:1) or a prepositional phrase (only in 1Macc 14:43). The parentheses, (), indicate that the second argument may be indefinite and null, that is, omitted (null) even without a definite con-textual indication of the nature of the experiencer (indefinite). In such

cases the general connotation, «someone» or «anyone,» must be supplied.Under certain circumstances, objects denoting speakers (that is, a human being, God, or another being attributed with speech) receive dif-ferent syntactic (case) realization than those denoting non-speakers. Within the analysis, objects designating speakers are deemed to be char-acterized by the semantic feature, «+ speaker,» and all other objects by thefeature, «– speaker.»

1.2. Indirect Perception (Topic Construction) [265 occurrences]

1.2.1. Noun Phrase Objects [56 occurrences] Noun phrase objects of the topic construction consistently utilize the

accusative case 4:

4 Object noun phrases (active, indirect): Exod 2:15; 18:1; Num 30:5, 6; Deut 4:6;1 Sam 2:23; 3:11; 2 Sam 13:21; 1 Kgs 3:28; 8:42; 10:1; 2 Chr 9:1; Esth 1:18; Jdt 4:1;11:8, 9; Tob 14:15; 1 Macc 8:12; 10:15, 22, 88; 2 Macc 11:24; 14:15; 3 Macc 4:12; Ps131:6; Job 2:11; Wis 11:13; Isa 16:6; 33:15; 48:7; 66:19; Jer 26:12; 40:9; 43:3; 48:11;Matt 11:2; 24:6; Mark 13:7; Luke 9:7; 21:9; Acts 5:11b; 7:12; 17:32a; 23:16; 28:15;Gal 1:13; Eph 1:15; 3:2; 4:21; Phil 1:27; Col 1:4; 2 Thess 3:11; Phlm 5; Jas 5:11; 1 Jn4:3; 3 Jn 4. The case of the subject depends on its function in its own verb phrase.

A Comparison of the Usage of ajkouvw and ajkouvw -Compounds 67


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o{ tan de; ajkouvshte polevmou~ kai; ajkoa;~ polevmwn, mh; qroeis̀qe when you hear about wars and reports of wars, don’t be alarmed (Mark

13:7).

In this usage both speaker and non-speaker objects [± speaker] appearin the accusative, and the verb usually is translated «hear about» or «hearof» but may have the translation, «hear that,» when a noun phrase objectis modified by a participle 5:

i{ na ajkouvw ta; ejma; tevkna ej n th` / ajlhqeiva/ peripatou` ntaso that I may hear that my children are walking in the truth (3 John 4).

1.2.2. Clausal Objects [121 occurrences] The topic construction also appears with four types of clausal objects:

o{ ti clauses, infinitive with subject accusative phrases, relative or correla-tive clauses, and the eij interrogative clause. The object o{ ti clause has 109occurrences 6:

h[kousen jIhsou~ o{ ti ejxevbalon auj to; n e[xw... Jesus heard that they threw him out .... (John 9:35a).

The object infinitive with subject accusative phrase appears three times

and receives the translation, «hear that» or «hear about7

:»dia; tou' to uJ phnthsen auj tw' / oJ o[ clo", o{ ti h[kousan tou' to auj to; n

pepoihkev nai to; shmei'onTherefore the crowd met him because they heard that he had done this

sign. (John 12:18).

5 Object noun phrases [+ speaker] (active, indirect): 2 Macc 11:24; 3 Macc 4:12; Wis 11:13]; Eph 4:21; 2 Thess 3:11; and 3 John 4.

6 Object o{ ti clauses (indirect): Gen 14:14; 29:33; 34:5; 39:15, 18; 42:2; 43:25;

Num 14:13, 14; 22:36; Josh 2:10; 5:1; 9:16; 10:1; Judg 20:3; Ruth 1:6; 1 Sam 7:7;14:22; 22:6; 23:10; 25:4; 25:7, 39 [A]; 2 Sam 4:1; 5:17; 8:9; 11:26; 16:21; 1 Kgs 1:11;5:1; 11:21; 12:20, 24d; 20:16; 2 Kgs 3:21; 5:8; 19:8; 20:12; 25:23; 1 Chr 14:8; 18:9; 2Chr 20:29; 2 Esdr 4:1; 13:33; 14:1, 9; Esth 4:17m; Tob 7:7; 1 Macc 3:13; 5:1; 6:1, 55;9:1; 10:8, 19; 11:63; 12:24, 28, 34; 13:1; 14:2, 16, 17, 40; 4 Macc 4:22; Zech 8:23; Isa 37:8, 9; 39:1; Jer 45:7, 25; 47:7, 11; Lam 1:21; Dan 5:14, 16; Matt 2:22; 4:12; 5:21,27, 33, 38, 43; 20:30; 22:34; Mark 6:55; 10:47; 16:11; Luke 1:58; John 4:1, 47; 9:35a;11:6, 20; 12:12, 34; 14:28; 21:7; Acts 8:14; 9:38; 11:1; 15:24; 16:38; 19:26; 21:22;22:2; Gal 1:23; Phil 2:26; 1 John 2:18.

7 Object infinitive with subject accusative phrases (active, indirect): Tob 6:14; John12:18; 1 Cor 11:18). R. W. Funk, A Beginning-Intermediate Grammar of Hellenistic Greek (Missoula: University of Montana Press, 1973), 462-463, considers such phrasesto be the semantic equivalents of a subordinate clause introduced by o{ ti.

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The object (cor)relative clause has eight occurrences and is translated«hear about 8:»

plhq̀o~ polu; ajkouvonte~ o{sa ej poiv ei h\lqon pro;~ auj tov n A great crowd, hearing about the things that he was doing , came to him

(Mark 3:8b).

The object eij interrogative clause appears only in Acts 19:2b and istranslated «hear whether:»

oiJ de; [ ei\ pon] pro;~ auj tov n, jAllæ oujdæ eij pneum̀a a{ gion e[stin hjkouv-samen

But they [said] to him, «We did not even hear whether [/that] there is a holy spirit .»

1.2.3. Intransitive Usages [88 occurrences]

Intransitive occurrences of the topic construction of ajkouvw may beeither active or passive voice. In the active, the object denoting the topicis definite and null. In the passive, the experiencer is indefinite and null.Examination reveals 79 active intransitive occurrences 9:

ajkouvsa~ de; oJ jIhsou'~ aj necwvrhsen ejkei'qen ej n ploivw/ eij~ e[rhmon tov pon katæ ijdivan: kai; ajkouvsante~ oiJ o[ cloi hjkolouvqhsan auj tw' / pezh' /aj po; tw' n povlewn

But hearing [about John’s death (14:1-12)] Jesus went away from therein a boat to a deserted place by himself; and hearing [about Jesus going away from there in a boat to a deserted place by himself] the crowds followedhim on foot from the towns (Matt 14:13).

There are two passive voice topic usages of ajkouvw, with the subjecteither a noun phrase or a o{ ti clause. The subject noun phrase has fiveoccurrences 10:

8 Object (cor)relative clauses (active, indirect): 1 Sam 2:22; 31:11; 1 Macc 5:56; Isa 33:13; 37:11; Mark 3:8; Luke 4:23; Acts 28:22

9 Object definite and null (surface intransitive, active, indirect): Gen 21:26; 34:7;35:22; 47:5; Exod 15:14; Num 21:1; 30:8a, 8b, 9, 12, 15, 16; 33:40; Deut 4:32; 17:13;19:20; 21:21; 30:12; Josh 2:11; 7:9; 9:1; 11:1; Judg 9:46; 1 Sam 14:27; 16:2; 22:1;23:25; 25:39; 2 Sam 3:28; 5:18; 10:7; 17:9a, 9b; 19:3; 1 Kgs 11:43; 15:21; 2 Kgs 9:30;19:25 [A]; 21:12; 1 Chr 14:8; 19:8; 2 Chr 10:2; 16:5; 2 Esdr 12:10, 19; 16:16; Jdt 4:6;8:1; 15:1, 5; 1 Macc 4:3; 9:43; 10:2, 10 [A], 26, 68; 11:15, 22; 2 Macc 14:18; Ps 91:12[A, R]; Job 29:11; Wis 8:15; Sir 22:26; Isa 37:1; Bel 28; Matt 14:13a, 13b; Mark 3:21;6:14, 29; 10:41; 11:18; Acts 5:5b; 14:14; Rom 10:14b; 15:21; Phil 1:30; Col 1:9.

10 Subject noun phrases (passive, indirect): 2 Chr 26:15; Nah 2:14; Isa 60:18; Matt28:14; 1 Cor 5:1.



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o{lw~ ajkouv etai ej n uJmi` n porneivaImmorality among you is widely heard about (1 Cor 5:1a).

The subject o{ ti clause has five occurrences:11

kai; eijselqw; n pavlin eij~ Kafarnaou;m diæ hJmerw' n h[kouvsqh o{ ti ej noi[kw/ ejstiv n

And entering again into Capernaum after [a few] days, it was heardthat he is at home (Mark 2:1).

1.3. Direct Perception (Content Construction) [1209 occurrences]

1.3.1. Noun Phrase Objects [815 occurrences]

Noun phrase objects of the content construction appear in the geni-tive, accusative, and dative cases. All but one of the 188 objects denoting speakers appear in the genitive case:12

jAgriv ppa~ de; pro;~ to; n Fh'ston, jEboulovmhn kai; auj to;~ tou' aj n-qrwv pou ajkou'sai. Au[rion, fhsiv n, ajkouvsh/ auj tou`

Agrippa [said] to Festus, «I also wanted to hear the man.» He said,«Tomorrow you will hear him» (Acts 25:22).

The one example of a [+speaker] noun phrase object in the accusative(Rev 5:13) is deemed an anomaly by most commentators and is treated assuch in this analysis 13.

11 Subject o{ ti clauses (passive, indirect): 2 Esdr 16:1, 6; 1 Macc 14:16; Mark 2:1; John 9:32.

12 Object noun phrase [+ speaker] (genitive, direct): Gen 23:5, 8, 11, 13, 16; 27:5,6, 8; 28:7; 37:17; 41:15; 49:2; Exod 18:19; 19:9; Num 11:10; 20:10; Deut 1:17; 10:10;13:12; 18:14, 15; Josh 1:17a, 17b; Judg 9:7; 19:25; 1 Sam 8:19; 13:4; 2 Sam 18:5;22:45; 1Kgs 12:15, 16; 15:20; 16:16; 2 Kgs 16:9; 17:14 [A]; 1 Chr 28:2; 2 Chr 10:15,16; 15:2; 16:4; 20:20; 28:11; 1 Es 5:63, 66; Jdt 8:11, 32; 14:1; Tob 6:12a, 12b [S], 13,

16; 1 Macc 2:19, 65; 5:61; 8:16; 4 Macc 10:18; Ps 33:12; 80:8, 14; Prov 1:33; 5:7; 7:24;8:32; 23:22; Eccl 7:21; Cant 2:8 [S]; Job 15:17; 29:21; 30:20; 31:35; 32:10, 11; 33:31[A], 33; 34:2, 10; 42:4, 5; Sir 3:1; 16:24; 19:9; 31:22; 33:19; Zech 3:8; Isa 36:16; 46:3;48:12; 49:1; 51:1, 4a, 4b, 7, 21; 55:2 [A, S, R]; Jer 7:13, 24, 26; 13:11 [A, S]; 17:23,24 [A], 27 [R]; 25:7; 33:4, 5, 7; 34:9; 41:14, 17; 42:16; 44:14 [A, S]; 45:15; 51:5, 16;Bar 2:30; Ezek 2:2, 8; Dan 6:23 [Sy]; 8:13; 9:6 [Sy]; 10:9 ; 12:7; Matt 2:9; 17:5; 18:15;Mark 6:11, 20a, 20b; 7:14; 9:7; 12:28, 37; 14:58; Luke 2:46, 47; 6:18; 9:35; 10:16a,16b; 15:1; 16:29, 31; 18:36; 19:48; 21:38; John 1:37; 3:29; 7:32; 9:31a, 31b; 10:8, 20;11:41, 42; Acts 2:6, 11; 3:22, 23; 4:19; 6:11, 14; 8:30; 10:46; 14:9; 15:12, 13; 17:32;18:26; 22:22; 24:4, 24; 25:22a, 22b; 26:3, 29; Rom 10:14; 1 Tim 4:16; 1 John 4:5, 6a,6b; 5:14, 15; 6:1, 3, 5; 8:13; 16:5, 7.

13 In Rev 5:13 ([kai; pa' n ktivsma... h[kousa lev gonta"] «and every creature...I heardthem saying»), the noun, ktivsma, which originally need not refer to speakers and may

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The 625 non-speaker noun phrase objects of ajkouvw divide into threegroups: 183 genitive objects, 441 accusative objects, and three dative

objects14

. In 181 of the 183 occurrences of genitive non-speaker objects,the subject of ajkouvw reappears in the immediate context as the subject of another verb that presents a response to the «hearing 15.»

The nature of the «response» under discussion admits to four qualifi-cations. First, it may be real (usually indicative), potential (usually subjunctive), or only desired (usually imperative):

oJ ou\ n Pila` to~ ajkouvsa~ tw` n lov gwn touv twn h[ gagen e[xw to; n jIhsou` n

then Pilate, hearing these words, brought [indicative] Jesus outside(John 19:13)

shvmeron, eja; n th~ fwnh~ auj tou ̀ajkouvshte, mh; sklhruv nhte ta;~kardiva"

Today, if you hear his voice, do not harden [subjunctive] your hearts(Heb 3:7; cf. Ps 94:7d-8a).

h[kousan fwnh~ megavlh~ ejk tou ̀ oujranou ̀ legouvsh~ auj toi"̀, jAnavbate w|de

They heard a great voice from heaven saying to them, «Come up[imperative] here» (Rev 11:12).

Second, the response may be positive or negative:

appear in the accusative case, later is made to denote speakers through the choice of thegender (masculine/ animate) of the participle, lev gonta". Here the use of the accusativecase may reflect a desire to establish at least tenuous syntactic continuity between thenoun and participle. This option receives the support of the NRSV and of M. Zerwick,

Analysis Philologica Novi Testamenti Graeci (Rome: Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici,1966), p. 575.

14 The genitive relative pronoun (w| n) in 1 Sam 15:14 [A] expresses an adverbial tem-poral relationship, indicating that in this occurrence ajkouvw is intransitive.

15 The response sometimes is expressed within the same content through an infinitive

phrase: (1) [+speaker] (genitive) Jer 17:27; 33:4; 41:17; (2) [–speaker, +response] (gen-itive) Deut 13:19; 28:45 [A]; 2 Chr 34:21; 1 Macc 2:2; Jer 42:8 ( pro;~ to; +); 50:4; Bar1:18; 2:10; 2:22; 2:24; Dan 9:10 [Sy]; (3) [–speaker, +response] (accusative) Deut11:13(M) [A,R]; 11:22(M); Jer 42:18. Once (1 Sam 4:19) the response immediately follows the o{ ti clause. These occurrences may indicate the presence of a third con-struction, translated by «respond [concerning what is heard] to [the speaker] by [infini-tive phrase] / that [o{ ti clause],» that is characterized by three required arguments, agent(Agt) or doer of an action, experiencer (Exp) of the response, and content (Con) [whatis responded]:

ajkouvw1 2 3

Agt Exp ConN N V-i1, V+o{ ti



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1. positive h[kousa de; kai; fwnh~ legouvsh~ moi, jAnastav", Pev tre,qus̀on kai; fav ge And I heard a voice saying to me, «Peter, rising , slaughter and eat.»(Acts 11:7).

2. negative: kai; ejav n tiv~ mou ajkouvsh/ tw ̀n rJ hmav twn kai; mh; fulavxh/and if someone hears my words and does not keep them(John 12:47).

Third, the response may be to something «not heard» when this con-notes a refusal to hear:

kaqa; kai; ta; loipa; e[qnh, o{sa kuvrio~ aj polluv ei pro; proswv pou uJmw` n, ou{ tw~ aj poleis̀qe, aj nqæ w| n oujk hjkouvsate th'~ fwnh'~ kurivou tou ̀qeou ̀uJmw` n.

And like the other nations which [the Lord] destroyed before yourface, so too will you be destroyed because you did not listen to the voice of [the] Lord your God (Deut 8:20).

Fourth, the response may precede ajkouvw when actions appear out of chronological sequence 16:

kai; uJ pevstreyan oiJ poimev ne~ doxavzonte~ kai; aij nou` nte~ to; n qeo; n ej pi; pa`sin oi|~ h[kousan kai; ei\don kaqw;~ ejlalhvqh pro;~ auj touv"

And the shepherds returned glorifying and praising God for all the thingsthat they heard and saw, just as it was told to them (Luke 2:20).

Within this analysis, subjects that register a response to hearing aredeemed to be characterized by the semantic feature, «+ response,» with allother subjects receiving the feature, «– response 17.» The genitive in 181of 183 transitive occurrences of ajkouvw (direct perception) indicates thefeature [+ response] 18. Of the two remaining examples of the genitive,

16 In 1 Sam 15:22 the response appears in the infinitive in 15:23, whose subject ref-erent is the same as that of ajkouvw.

17

The appeal to semantic considerations in contexts of extension greater than a clauseor verb phrase is similar to that required for the analysis of anaphora: cf. C. J. Fillmore,«Pragmatically controlled zero anaphora,» in Papers from the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society , (1986) 95-107.

18 Object noun phrase [+ response, - speaker] (genitive, direct): Gen 3:8, 10, 17;4:23; 21:12; 24:52; 27:43; 37:6; Exod 3:7; 15:26; 18:24; 19:5; 23:22a, 22b; 32:17;Num 12:6; Deut 4:1; 8:20; 13:4, 5, 19; 21:20 [A]; 28:1, 2, 9, 13, 45 [A], 49; Josh 1:18;6:20; 24:24; Judg 5:16; 11:28; 20:13; 1 Sam 2:25; 4:6; 8:7, 9, 22; 12:1, 14, 15; 15:1,19, 20, 22, 24; 19:6; 24:10; 25:24 [R], 35; 28:18, 21, 22, 23; 2 Sam 13:14, 16; 1 Kgs[5:14a, 14b], 21; 8:28; 9:3; 10:24; 12:24, 24z; 13:4; 21:25, 36; 2 Kgs 18:12; 19:6; 20:5;22:13; 2 Chr 6:20, 21, 35, 39; 7:12; 9:23; 34:21; 35:22; 1 Esdr 5:62; 9:40, 50; 2 Esdr19:16; 1 Macc 2:22; 6:41; 10:74; 13:7; 14:25; 2 Macc 7:30; 3 Macc 6:23; Ps 6:9 [A, S];17:7; 80:12; 94:7; 101:21 [R]; 102:20; 118:149; Prov 1:5; Job 21:2; Jonah 2:3; Hag

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Col 1:23, which has no explicitly noted response, represents an occasionof the attraction of the relative (ou|) to the case of its antecedent ( eujagge-livou

)

19

. Finally, although Rev 16:1 [ h[kousa...legouvsh»

, «I heard a greatvoice...saying»] presents no explicit response, this statement is in parallel with two other statements (Rev 16:5, 7) that have genitive objects with a modifying participle of lev gw. Here the genitive may be attributed to nar-rative concerns overruling grammatical expectations 20.

This indicates that noun phrase objects of ajkouvw that do not producea response by the subject [– response] consistently exhibit objects in theaccusative case. Examination reveals that 134 of the accusative occur-rences in fact are characterized by the feature [– response] 21:

oiJ de; su; n ejmoi; o[ nte~ to; me; n fw'~ ejqeavsanto th; n de; fwnh; n oujk

h[kousanThose with me saw the light but didn’t hear the voice (Acts 22:9).

1:12; Isa 6:8; 28:23; 32:9; 37:6; 38:5; 42:24; 48:18; 50:10 [A]; Jer 3:13, 25 [A]; 5:15;6:17; 7:23, 28; 9:12; 11:3, 4, 10; 18:10; 20:16; 22:21; 23:22; 33:10 [A], 13; 34:16;39:23; 42:8; 47:3; 49:6, 13, 21; 50:4, 7; 51:23; Bar 1:18, 19, 21; 2:5, 10, 22, 24, 29;3:4a, 4b; Ezek 35:12; Dan 3:5, 7, 10, 15, 29; 9:10 [Sy], 11, 14; Mark 14:64; Luke 6:47;15:25; John 5:25, 28; 7:40; 10:3, 16, 27; 12:47; 18:37; 19:13; Acts 7:34; 9:7b; 11:7;22:1, 7; 2 Tim 1:13; Heb 3:7, 15; 4:7; 12:19; Rev 3:20; 11:12; 14:13; 16:1; 21:3. Theseobservations assume a continuity in the referents of subjects between «you [s.]» to «your

[s.] eyes» (1 Kgs 8:28). Although 1 Kgs 5:14a and 5:14b offer no explicit statement of a response by those listening to Solomon’s wisdom, the context links Solomon’s recep-tion of gifts (5:41b) with the action of hearing his wisdom by others. These occurrencesestablish the possibility of fulfilling the requirement of a response by the context. Theparallel passage in 2 Chr 9:23 explicitly recognizes the hearers’ response in giving gifts(9:24).

19 Attraction of the relative pronoun to the case of its antecedent is well-attested inthe LXX and NT: cf. F. Blass, A. Debrunner, and R. W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1961), p. 153-154.

20 An alternative explanation would be that the narrator’s action in reporting the exe-cution of the command given by the voice itself constitutes a response to hearing: thatis, the narrator hears the voice; and its response is the narration of the events instigated

by the voice.21 Object noun phrase [– response, – speaker] (accusative, direct): Num 7:89; 24:16;Deut 4:12, 33; 11:27; 32:1; Josh 6:10; 1 Sam 15:14; 2 Sam 19:36; 1 Kgs 10:6, 7, 8;22:19; 1 Chr 17:20; 2 Chr 9:7; Jdt 5:5; 11:16; Tob 3:7 [S], 13, 15; 5:10 [S]; 10:12; Ps61:12; 80:5; 140:6; Prov 16:21; Eccl 7:5a, 5b; Job 3:18; 4:16; 5:27; 13:17; 15:8; 27:9[A]; 28:22; 31:30; 33:8; 37:2; 42:5; Sir 6:35; 16:5; 17:13; 29:23; Hos 4:1; Amos 3:1;8:4; Mic 1:2; 3:1, 9; 6:2; Joel 1:2; Obad 1; Zeph 2:8; Isa 21:10b; 28:22, 23; 29:18; 30:9;37:26; 41:26; 48:1, 16; 66:19; Jer 2:4, 31; 4:31; 8:16; 9:9; 11:2, 6; 18:13, 18; 19:3;23:16; 27:45; 30:8; 42:13; 49:14; Ezek 1:24; 2:1; 3:12; 6:3; 21:3; 34:7; 36:1, 4; Matt10:14; 11:4; 12:19, 42; 13:17, 18, 22; 21:33; Mark 4:18, 24; Luke 5:1; 7:22a; 10:24b,39; 11:31; 19:11; John 8:43, 47a; 14:24; Acts 2:22, 33; 10:22, 33; 13:7, 44; 17:21;19:10; 22:9; 1 Cor 2:9; 2 Cor 12:6; Gal 4:21; 2 Pet 1:18; 1 John 2:7, 24a; Rev 5:11, 13;6:6; 7:4; 9:13, 16, 20; 12:10; 14:2a, 2b; 18:4; 19:1, 6; 22:8a.



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To these must be added the previously noted example, Col 1:23, whose object, a relative pronoun, appears in the genitive case through

attraction to the case of its antecedent.The remaining 307 accusative objects and three dative objects, whicharise through the attraction of relatives to the case of their antecedents, arecharacterized by the feature [+ response] 22. The presence of uses of ajkouvw characterized by the features [+ response, – speaker] with objectsin both the genitive and accusative indicates that a one-to-one correspon-dence between feature and object case is not possible. This is apparent incomparisons of minimally paired verb phrases characterized by the fea-tures [+ response, – speaker]:

22 Object noun phrase [+ response, – speaker] (accusative, direct): Gen 3:8 [A], 10[A]; 11:7; 24:30; 27:34; 29:13; 31:1; 39:19; Exod 32:17 [A], 18; 33:4; 41:15; Lev 5:1;Num 14:27; Deut 1:17 [A, R], 34; 2:25; 4:10, 36; 5:1, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28a, 28b; 7:12;11:13 [A, R], 22, 28; 18:16; 29:18; Josh 3:9; 6:20; 9:3, 9; 14:12; 22:2, 30; 24:27;

Judg 3:4; 7:15; 9:30; 14:13; 1 Sam 2:24; 4:6 [A], 14, 19; 8:21; 9:27; 11:6; 17:11;25:24; 26:19; 2 Sam 5:24; 7:22; 14:17; 15:10, 35, 36; 20:17; 1 Kgs 1:41, 45; 2:41[A]; 14:6; 2 Kgs 6:30; 7:1; 11:13; 19:4, 6, 7, 11, 16; 20:16; 22:11, 18; 1 Chr 10:11;14:15; 2 Chr 9:5; 15:8; 18:18; 23:12; 24:19 [A, R]; 34:26, 27; 1 Esdr 8:68; 2 Esdr9:3; 11:4, 6; 14:14; 15:6; 18:9; 19:9; 23:3; Esth 1:1n; 4:4; Jdt 7:9; 8:9a, 9b; 10:14;13:12; 14:7, 19; Tob 3:6, 10a, 10b [S]; 6:19; 7:10 [S]; 1 Macc 2:22; 3:27, 41; 4:27[A]; 5:16; 6:8; 10:46; 3 Macc 5:35, 48; 4 Macc 8:15; 9:27; 10:17; 14:9a, 9b; Ps 25:7;30:14; 48:2; 77:3; 101:21; 137:1, 4; Prov 1:8; 4:1; 5:13; 8:33; 19:20; 22:17; Job 13:6,

17b; 16:2; 20:3; 26:14; 32:11 [V]; 33:1; 34:16, 34; 37:4; 39:7; 40:4; 42:11; Wis 18:1;Sir 19:10; 21:15; 23:7; 29:25; 48:7; Hos 5:1; Amos 4:1; 5:1, 23; 7:16; 8:11; Mic 6:1;Nah 3:19; Zech 8:9; Isa 1:10; 24:16; 28:14; 30:21; 32:9; 36:13; 37:4, 7; 39:5; 47:8;48:6; 66:5; Jer 4:19, 21; 5:21; 6:10 [A, S], 24 ; 7:2; 9:19; 10:1; 17:20; 18:2, 10 [A];19:3; 20:10; 21:11; 22:2, 29; 27:43; 28:51; 30:14, 29; 31:5; 33:10, 12, 21; 35:7;37:5; 38:10, 18; 41:4; 42:18; 43:11, 13, 16, 24; 44:2, 5; 45:1, 20; 49:6, 15; 51:24,26; Bar 3:9; Lam 1:21; 3:56, 61; Ezek 3:6, 17; 13:2; 16:35; 25:3; 33:4, 5, 7, 30, 31,32; 37:4; 44:5; Sus 26; Dan 4:9, 28, 31 [Sy]; 6:15; 8:16; 10:9; Matt 7:24, 26; 10:27;11:4; 13:19, 20, 23; 14:1; 15:12; 19:22; 21:45; 26:65; Mark 4:16, 20, 24; Luke 1:41;2:20b (dative); 4:23b, 28; 8:15, 21; 9:7, 9; 11:28; 14:15; 16:14; 18:23; John 3:8, 32b;5:24, 37; 8:26, 38b, 40b; 9:40; 15:15b; 16:13b; 19:8; Acts 1:4; 4:4, 20; 5:5a, 24;7:54; 9:4; 10:44; 15:7; 17:8; 21:12; 22:14; 26:14; 2 Cor 12:4; Eph 1:13; Phil 4:9; 2Tim 2:2; 1 John 1:1, 3, 5; 2:24b; 3:11; Rev 1:3, 10; 4:1; 6:7; 9:16; 10:4, 8; 22:18.

These observations assume a continuity in the referents of subjects even though theexplicitly stated subject changes in some cases: 2 Sam 7:22 («we» to «they»); Sir 23:7(«you [pl.]» to «he»); Isa 24:16 («we» to «they»); 30:22 («your [s.] hands» to «you [s.]»;

Jer 6:24 («we» to «our hands»); 27:43 («you [s.]» to «your [s.] hands»); 45:20 («you[s.]» to «your [s.] hands»); Bar 3:9 («Israel» to «you [pl.]»); 1 John 3:11 («you [pl.]» to«we»). They also include examples in which the notice of the response precedes thatof the hearing: 2 Sam 15:36b [15:36a]; 1 Kgs 1:45 [1:41]; 2 Kgs 19:20b [19:20a]; Ps137:4b [137:4a]; Jer 28:51b [28:51a]; 43:13b [43:13a]; 43:24b [43:24a]; Luke 2:20b[2:20a]; 4:23b [4:23a]; John 3:32b [3:32a]; 8:38b [8:38a]; 8:40b [8:40a]; 15:15b[15:15a]; 16:13b [16:13a]. In Amos 8:11 [8:12], the permissibly omitted subject of an infinitive relates the response to the hearing. Finally, in Ps 137:1 [137:4] the noticeof the response is separated from the notice of the hearing by an intervening verb

which relates activity prior to the hearing.

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tiv e[ ti creivan e[ comen marturw ̀n...hjkouvsate th;n blasfhmivan ...oiJde; aj pokriqev nte~ ei\ pan (Matt 26:65b-66)

tiv e[ ti creivan e[ comen marturw` n...hjkouvsate th~ blasfhmiva" ...pav nte~katevkrinan auj to; n (Mark 14:63-64)

«What further need do we have of witnesses. You heard the blasphe-my»...and responding they said.../...all condemned him.

kai; h[kousa fwnh;n ejk tou' oujranou' levgousan , Sfrav gison (Rev 10:4)kai; h[kousa fwnh'~ ejk tou' oujranou' legouvsh" , Grav yon (Rev 14:13)«and I heard a voice from heaven saying,» «Seal/Write.»

1.3.2. Clausal Objects [26 occurrences]

The content construction also appears with two types of clausal

objects: (cor)relative and interrogative pronoun clauses. The object(cor)relative clause has 10 occurrences 23:

tov te lev gei auj tw` / oJ Pila` to", Oujk ajkouv ei~ povsa sou katamar- turous̀in… kai; oujk aj pekrivqh

Then Pilate says to him, «Don’t you hear how many things they are tes-tifying against you? And he didn’t respond (Matt 27:13-14a).

Object interrogative pronoun clauses have 16 occurrences 24:

kai; ei\ pan auj tw` /, jAkouv ei~ tiv ou| toi lev gousin… oJ de; jIhsou'~ lev gei

auj toi"̀, Naiv And they said to him, «Do you hear what they are saying ?» Jesus saysto them, «Yes.» (Matt 21:16a).

1.3.3. Intransitive Usages [368 occurrences]

Intransitive occurrences of the content construction of ajkouvw may bein either active or passive voice. In the active, the object denoting thecontent is definite and null; and in the passive, the experiencer generally is indefinite and null. Examination reveals 318 active voice intransitive

occurrences with noun phrase subjects25

:

23 Object (cor)relative clauses (active, direct): Deut 5:27; 18:19; 2 Kgs 19:20; 22:9;Isa 21:10a; 37:21; Jer 23:25; Matt 13:17; 27:13; Luke 10:24a.

24 Object interrogative pronoun clauses (active, direct): Num 9:8; Deut 9:2; Judg 7:10; 2 Sam 17:5; Ps 84:9; Matt 21:16; Luke 16:2; 18:6; John 18:21; Rev 2:7, 11, 17,29; 3:6, 13, 22.

25 Object definite and null (active, direct): Gen 18:10; 21:6; 23:10, 15, 16 [A];37:21, 27; 42:23; 45:2; 49:2; Lev 10:20; Num 11:1; 12:2; 16:4; 23:18; Deut 4:28, 33;5:27; 6:3, 4; 9:1; 13:11; 19:9; 20:3; 27:9; 29:4; 31:12a, 12b, 13; Judg 5:3; 11:10, 17;Ruth 2:8; 1 Sam 3:9, 10; 13:3; 17:23, 28, 31; 22:7; 23:10, 11; 2 Sam 15:3; 20:16, 17;



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tiv ne~ ga;r ajkouvsante~ parepivkranan… ajllæ ouj pav nte~ oiJ ejxelqov nte~ ejx Aij guv ptou dia; Mwu>sevw"…

For who, upon hearing [the Lord’s voice (3:15)] , rebelled? But [was]n’tit all those leaving Egypt with Moses? (Heb 3:16a).

There are two passive voice content usages of ajkouvw, the subject cor-relative clause which appears only in Luke 12:3 (cited above) and the subject noun phrase which has 49 occurrences 26:

hjkouvsqh de; oJ lov go~ eij~ ta; w\ ta th'~ ejkklhsiva~ th'~ ou[sh~ ej n jIerousalh;m peri; auj tw' n kai; ejxapevsteilan Barnaba' n ªdielqei' nº e{w~ jAntioceiva"

And the report about them was heard in the ears of the church in

Jerusalem, and they sent Barnabas [to go] to Antioch (Acts 11:22).1.4. General Descriptive Rules Concerning the Case of Noun Phrase Objects

These results permit a reconsideration of traditional distribution-al rules that attempt to explain the presence of genitive and accusa-tive case noun phrase objects. Such rules, generally rendered in three

1 Kgs 1:41; 5:8; 12:24n; 13:26; 17:22 [A]; 19:13; 20:15; 21:8; 22:28 [A]; 2 Kgs 9:13;

14:11; 17:14, 40 [A]; 18:12, 26, 31, 32; 19:1, 9, 16; 21:12; 22:19; 2 Ch 6:21; 13:4;18:27; 20:9, 15; 24:19 [A]; 25:20; 29:5; 33:10 [A]; 34:27; 1 Es 5:62; 2 Esdr 13:36;19:27, 29a, 29b; Esth 1:20; 1 Macc 4:27; 6:28; 16:22; 2 Macc 10:13; 14:37; 4 Macc15:21; Ps 25:3; 29:11; 33:3; 37:14, 15; 44:11; 47:9; 49:7; 58:8; 65:16; 77:21, 59; 80:8;93:9; 96:8; 113:14; 134:17 [A]; Prov 4:10; 18:13; 20:12; 23:19; 29:24; Eccl 4:17; Job1:20 [A]; 13:17a; 21:2; 29:10; 36:11, 31; Wis 6:1; 15:15; Sir 6:23, 33; 11:8; 21:15;25:9, 18; Amos 3:13; Mic 6:9; Mal 2:2; Isa 1:2; 6:9, 10a, 10b; 7:13; 21:3, 10a; 28:12,19; 30:15; 32:3, 4; 33:19a, 19b; 34:1a, 1b; 35:5; 36:11; 40:28; 42:18, 20; 44:1, 8; 46:8,12; 48:14; 50:4; 52:15; 66:8; Jer 6:10a, 10b, 18, 19; 8:6; 13:15, 17; 17:23; 20:1; 22:21;23:18; 33:3, 11; 36:8; 38:7 [S], 42:14, 15; 43:31; 49:4; Bar 2:16, 31; 3:2, 4:9; Lam1:18; Ezek 2:5, 7; 3:10, 11, 27a, 27b; 9:5; 10:13; 12:2a, 2b; 18:25; 19:4; 33:4; 35:13;40:4; Sus 52a [Sy]; 52b [Sy]; Dan 9:18, 19; 12:8; Matt 2:3; 8:10; 9:12; 11:5, 15; 12:24;13:9, 13,14, 15a, 15b, 16, 17, 43; 15:10; 17:6; 18:16; 19:25; 20:24; 22:22, 33; 27:47;

Mark 2:17; 4:3, 9a, 9b, 12a, 12b, 15, 23a, 23b, 33; 6:2, 16; 7:16a, 16b, 37; 8:18; 11:14;14:11; 15:35; Luke 1:66; 2:18; 5:15; 6:27, 49; 7:22b, 29; 8:8a, 8b, 10, 12, 14, 18, 50;10:24c; 14:35a, 35b; 18:22, 26; 20:16, 45; 22:71; 23:6; John 1:40; 4:42; 5:25b, 30;6:45, 60; 7:51; 8:9, 47b; 9:27a, 27b; 11:4, 29; 12:29; Acts 2:8, 37; 4:24; 5:21, 33; 7:2;8:6; 9:21; 13:16, 48; 16:14; 18:8; 19:5, 28; 21:20; 22:26; 28:26, 27a, 27b, 28; Rom10:18; 11:8; 1 Cor 14:2; Eph 4:29; Col 1:6; 2 Tim 2:14; 4:17; Heb 2:3; 3:16; 4:2; Jas1:19; 2:5; 2 Jn 6; Rev 3:3; 13:9; 22:8b, 17.

26 Subject noun phrases (passive, direct): Exod 23:13; Judg 18:25; 1 Sam 1:13; 1 Kgs6:7; 1 Chr 15:9; 2 Esdr 3:13; 22:42, 43; Esth 1:20; 2:8; 1 Macc 5:63; 14:43; Ps 18:3;Prov 16:21; Eccl 9:16 [A, S], 17; 12:13; Cant 2:12; Sir 33:4; Isa 5:9; 15:4; 42:2; 58:4;65:19; Jer 3:21; 4:5, 15; 5:21; 6:7; 9:18; 27:46; 29:21; 30:15; 38:15; 40:10; 45:27; Bar3:22; Ezek 10:15; 19:9; 26:13; 36:15; Dan 10:12; Matt 2:18; Acts 11:22; Heb 2:1; Rev 18:22a, 22b, 23.

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parts, cite classical rules and then describe divergences in LXX andNT usage 27:

1. that of or about which one hears is in the accusative,2. the person speaking appears in the genitive,3. the sound which one hears is in the genitive, unless it is a speech,

lov go", which may be in either the genitive or the accusative. Attempts to adapt these rules for the study of the LXX and NT are of

limited use 28:

Rule #1: that of or about which one hears is in the accusative.

The analysis of sec. 1.2.1. revealed that the accusative case requirementof the topic construction extends to all objects, including those charac-

27 Many grammarians cite these or similar classical rules before qualifying their appli-cability to the NT: H. W. Smyth, Greek Series for Colleges and Schools (New York:

American Book Company, 1916), p. 322; F. Blass, A. Debrunner, and R. W. Funk, AGreek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1961), p. 95; M. Zerwick, Biblical Greek Illustrated by Examples , trans. Joseph Smith (Rome: Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici, 1963), p. 24;N. Turner, A Grammar of New Testament Greek , Vol. III: Syntax (Edinburgh: T. & T.Clark, 1963), pp. 233-234; R. Kühner and B. Gerth, Ausführliche Grammatik der Griechische Sprache , Vol. 2 (Munich: Max Hueber, 1963), pp. 357-359; H. W. Smyth,Greek Grammar (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), pp. 324-325; and S. E.

Porter, Idioms of the Greek New Testament (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992),p. 97; cf. A. T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1914), pp. 448-449.

28 The lack of rigor in accounting for the distribution of the syntactic case of objectshas led to various approaches to the problem. Turner accepts a semantic distinctionbetween the genitive and accusative objects in John (the genitive with the meaning,«obey,» [John 5:25, 28; 10:3, 6; etc.] and the accusative with the meaning, «hear,» else-

where in John) and a possible distinction in the similar occurrences in Acts 9:7 and 22:9but finds no semantic basis for a general distinction in case usage [Syntax , pp. 233-234].Mueller suggests that there is no real difference in meaning between the two cases andthat «the different usages could be due to dialectal influences or represent the speaking habits of different socio-economic groups» [New Testament Greek: A Case Grammar

Approach (Fort Wayne, Indiana: Concordia Theological Seminary Press, 1978), p. 46].

This proposal, however, fails to address the fact that both structures can appear in thesame author and on the lips of the same character (Acts 22:7, 9). Joseph Smith offersrules patterned on the classical rules which highlight semantic considerations associated

with the object: the accusative designates «what is directly grasped by the hearing (sound, news, what is said)» (e.g., John 3:8; 5:37; Rev 19:1); and the genitive designates«the source of what is heard, whether the person speaking or a voice conceived not as a sound but as speaking,» (e.g., John 5:25; 10:3; 18:37; Acts 11:7; 22:7; Rev 11:12) [inZerwick, Biblical Greek, p. 24]; cf. Blass, Debrunner, Funk, Greek Grammar , p. 95].These rules do not account for apparent examples (1) of the genitive relating that whichis said (Luke 6:18; John 7:40; 12:47) or (2) of the accusative referring to a speaking voice(Acts 9:4; 26:14). H. R. Moehring adds a new dimension to the discussion by citing classical examples which do not conform to the proposed classical rules [«The Verb

AKOYEIN in Acts IX 7 and XXII 19,» Novum Testamentum 3:1-2 (1959) 87-88].



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terized by [+ speaker], and to subjects characterized [+ response].29 Thusthe first classical rule is consistently valid in the LXX and NT.

Rule #2: the person speaking appears in the genitive.

The analysis revealed that the genitive case requirement is always validfor the content construction with objects characterized by [+ speaker](sec. 1.3.1.), whether or not the subject registers a response [± response]but is never valid for the topic construction (sec. 1.2.1.) 30. Thus the sec-ond classical rule is not consistently valid as stated.

Rule #3: the sound which one hears is in the genitive, unless it is a speech, lov go", which may be in either the genitive or the

accusative.

The analysis of sec. 1.3.1. indicates that this rule is not consistently valid for non-speaker objects of the content construction in the LXX andNT. However, that analysis established a basis for reformulating the clas-

29 There are 44 (out of 55) occurrences of object noun phrases of indirect perceptioncharacterized by the feature [+ response], 30 in the LXX and 14 in the NT: Exod 2:15;18:1; Num 30:5; Deut 4:6; 1 Sam 2:23; 3:11; 2 Sam 13:21; 1 Kgs 3:28; 8:42; 10:1; 2Chr 9:1; Esth 1:18; Jdt 4:1; Tob 14:15; 1 Macc 8:12; 10:15, 22, 88; 2 Macc 11:24; 14:15;

3 Macc 4:12; Ps 131:6; Job 2:11; Wis 11:13; Isa 16:6; 33:15; 48:7; Jer 40:9; 43:3; 48:11;Matt 11:2; 24:6; Mark 13:7; Luke 9:7; 21:9; Acts 7:12; 17:32a; 23:16; 28:15; Eph 1:15;4:21; Col 1:4; 2 Thess 3:11; Phlm 5. The remaining 11eleven occurrences (4 in the LXX and 7 in the NT) are characterized by the feature [– response]: Jdt 11:8, 9; Isa 66:19;

Jer 26:12; Acts 5:11b; Gal 1:13; Eph 3:2; Phil 1:27; Jas 5:11; 1 Jn 4:3; 3 Jn 4.30 There are 96 occurrences of object noun phrases of direct perception characterized

by the features [+ response, + speaker]: Gen 23:5, 8, 11, 13, 16; 27:5, 6, 8; 28:7; 37:17;41:15; Exod 18:19; Num 11:10; Deut 10:10; 13:12; Judg 19:25; 1 Sam 8:19; 13:4; 2Sam 22:45; 1Kgs 12:15, 16; 15:20; 16:16; 2 Kgs 16:9; 17:14 [A]; 1 Chr 28:2; 2 Chr10:15; 15:2; 16:4; 20:20; 28:11; 1 Es 5:63, 66; Jdt 8:11, 32; 14:1; Tob 6:12a, 12b [S],13, 16; 1 Macc 2:19, 65; 5:61; 4 Macc 10:18; Ps 33:12; 80:8, 14; Prov 1:33; 5:7; 7:24;8:32; 23:22; Job 29:21; 30:20; 32:11; 33:31 [A], 33; 34:2; 42:4; Sir 3:1; 16:24; 19:9;31:22; 33:19; Zech 3:8; Isa 36:16; 46:3; 51:1, 4a, 7, 21; 55:2 [A, S, R]; Jer 7:13, 24,

26; 13:11 [A, S]; 17:24 [A], 27 [R]; 25:7; 33:4, 5, 7; 34:9; 41:17; 42:16; 44:14 [A, S];45:15; 51:5, 16; Bar 2:30; Ezek 2:2, 8; Dan 6:23 [Sy]; 8:13; 10:9 ; 12:7; Matt 2:9;Mark 6:20a; 7:14; 12:28; 14:58; Luke 2:46, 47; 10:16a; 16:31; 18:36; John 1:37; 3:29;6:60; 7:32; Acts 2:6, 11; 3:22, 23; 4:19; 6:11, 14; 8:30; 10:46; 14:9; 15:13; 17:32;18:26; 22:22; 24:24; 25:22b; 26:29; Rev 6:1, 5. The remaining 59 occurrences (25 inthe LXX and 34 in the NT) are characterized by the features [– response, + speaker]:Gen 49:2; Exod 19:9; Num 20:10; Deut 1:17; 18:14, 15; Josh 1:17a, 17b; Judg 9:7; 2Sam 18:5; 2 Chr 10:16; 1 Macc 8:16; Eccl 7:21; Cant 2:8 [S]; Job 15:17; 31:35; 32:10;33:31 [A], 33; 34:10; 42:5; Isa 48:12; 49:1; 51:4b; Jer 17:23; 41:14; Dan 9:6 [Sy];Matt 17:5; 18:15; Mark 6:11, 20b; 9:7; 12:37; 14:58; Luke 6:18; 9:35; 10:16b; 15:1;16:29; 19:48; 21:38; John 9:31a, 31b; 10:8, 20; 11:41, 42; Acts 15:12; 24:4; 25:22a;26:3; Rom 10:14; 1 Tim 4:16; 1 John 4:5, 6a, 6b; 5:14, 15; Rev 5:13 [accusative]; 6:3;8:13; 16:5, 7.

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sical rules describing the distribution of object noun phrases of the con-tent construction that appeals to two semantic features, one concerning

the subject [± response] and the other concerning the object [± speaker],and that recognizes that the requirements of the topic construction andthe attraction of the relative to the case of its antecedent take precedenceover other grammatical considerations:

Reformulated Rules 31:

Except for occasions of attraction of a relative object to the case of itsantecedent and assuming a hierarchy of rules, the noun phrase object of a transitive occurrence of ajkouvw appears in

1. the accusative case if the object relates the topic of perception (indi-rect perception);2. the genitive case if the object is characterized by the feature, [+

speaker] (direct perception);3. the accusative case if the object is characterized by the feature [– speak-

er] and the subject is characterized by the feature [– response] (direct per-ception);

4. the genitive or accusative case if object is characterized by the feature[– speaker] and the subject is characterized by the feature [+ response](direct perception).

This detailed study of the content construction of ajkouvw and thesemantic considerations that govern its noun phrase objects serve as thebackground for the discussion of the noun phrase objects of ajkouvw-com-pounds.

2. aj ntakouvw

The verb, aj ntakouvw, is a hapax legomenon and is exceedingly rare innon-biblical literature. It requires two arguments, an experiencer and a

31 These rules address suggestions by Turner (Syntax , p. 234, Blass, Debrunner, Funk (Greek Grammar , p. 95) and Smyth (Greek Grammar , p. 323) that occurrences of ajkouvw

with genitive objects in John have the meanings, «obey,» «heed,» and «listen to.» Thesetranslations find support in Reformulated Rule #4 which states that occurrences of ajkouvw characterized by the features [+ response, – speaker] may have genitive caseobjects. However, since they also may have accusative case objects, the translations,«obey,» «heed,» or «listen to,» may be appropriate for noun phrase objects of directperception, genitive or accusative, whose verb is characterized by the features [+ response,– speaker]. Also, since occurrences of ajkouvw characterized by the feature [+ speaker]need not register a response, the suggested translations are appropriate only for occurrencescharacterized by the features [+ response, + speaker]. Finally, the translation, «hear,» isalways appropriate for direct perception ([± response, ± speaker]).



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content (that is, its usage is characterized by the content construction). In Job 11:2 it is used intransitively; and the context indicates that its trans-

lation is «hear in return/response.»3. diakouvw

The verb, diakouvw, requires two arguments, an experiencer and a con-tent of direct perception (content construction), always characterized by [+speaker]. The content may be expressed by either a noun phrase [oneoccurrence] or a prepositional phrase, aj na; mevson «between» [two occur-rences] 32. The example of a noun phrase object follows the rule #2 estab-lished for ajkouvw. The verb may be translated, «hear the side(s)/argument(s)of» [– response] or «listen to the side(s)/argument(s) of» [+ response].

4. eijsakouvw

Eijsakouvw, requires two arguments, an experiencer and a content of direct perception (content construction). It may be translated, «listen to»or «heed.» The content, when present, is expressed only through a nounphrase [239 occurrences] or a prepositional phrase [one occurrence: eij~

ta; ej percovmena (Isa 42:23)]. Noun phrase objects follow the rules #2,3, and 4 established for ajkouvw except for one occurrence of a dativeobject characterized by [+ speaker] in 1 Chr 21:28:

1. [+ speaker, ± response]: in the genitive case [116 occurrences]332. [– speaker, + response]: in the genitive [99 occurrences]34

or in the accusative case [20 occurrences]353. [– speaker, – response]: in the accusative case [4 occurrences]36

32 Object noun phrase (gen) [+speaker]: Acts 23:35 [– response]; Object preposi-tional phrase complement (aj na; mevson, «between»): Deut 1:16 [+ response]; Job 9:33[A] [– response].

33 Object noun phrase [+speaker] (genitive): Gen 34:17; 34:24; 42:21; 42:22; Exod6:9; 6:12a; 6:12b; 6:30; 7:4; 7:13; 7:22; 8:11; 8:15; 9:12; 11:9; 16:20; 22:26; 23:21;

Num 16:8; 27:20; Deut 1:43; 3:26; 9:19; 10:10 [A, R]; 13:9; 21:18; 23:6; 34:9; Judg 3:9 [A]; 19:25 [A]; Esth 1:12; Ps 3:4 [A]; 4:2a; 4:4; 12:4; 16:6a [A]; 17:42; 21:25; 26:7;33:7; 33:18; 54:3; 54:17; 65:19; 68:17; 68:34; 85:1; 85:7; 90:15; 98:6 [A]; 101:3;119:1; 140:1; 142:1b; 142:7; 151:3 [A]; Prov 1:28; 8:6; 8:33; Job 5:1 [A]; 9:14 [A];9:15; 9:16b; 22:27; 27:10; 30:20 [A,S]; 33:26 [S]; 36:10; Sir 3:6; 4:15 [S]; 39:13; Hos9:17; Mic 3:4; 3:7b; 7:7 [A]; Jon 2:3; Zech 1:4 [A]; 7:13a; Isa 1:15; 1:19; 1:20; 19:22;55:3; 58:9; Jer 7:13; 7:24 [S]; 7:26 [A, R]; 11:11; 13:11 [A,S]; 17:23 [A]; 17:24; 17:27;18:19a; 25:7 [A]; 33:5b; 36:12; 44:14; Bar 2:30 [A]; Ezek 3:6; 3:7a [A, R]; 3:7b [A, R];8:18 [A]; 20:8; Dan 1:14; 9:6; 9:10; 1 Cor 14:21.

34 Object noun phrase [+response, –speaker] (genitive, direct): Gen 21:17; Exod3:18; 4:1; 4:8; 4:9; 5:2; 22:22; Num 14:22; 20:16; 21:3; Deut 1:45; 4:30; 9:23; 13:19[A]; 15:5; 27:10; 28:1 [A]; 28:2 [A]; 28:9 [A]; 28:15; 28:45; 28:62; 30:2; 30:8; 30:10;30:20; 33:7; Josh 22:2; Judg 2:2; 2:17; 2:20; 5:16; 6:10b; 11:28; 13:9; 20:13; 1 Sam

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The verb, eijsakouvw, has a significantly greater usage in contexts in which a response is registered (>98% of occurrences) in comparison to

ajkouvw (approximately 60%)37

. The verb also is used intransitively [50occurrences]38 and in the passive [4 occurrences] 39.

5. ej nakouvw

jEnakouvw, requires two arguments, an experiencer and a content of direct perception (content construction). It may be translated, «listen to»or «obey.» The two active voice occurrences are characterized by [+response] and follow rules #2 and 3 established for ajkouvw:

1.[+ speaker, + response]: in the genitive case (1 Esdr 4:10)2.[– speaker, + response]: in the accusative case (1 Esdr 4:3)

It also appears in the passive (Nah 1:12).

6. ej pakouvw

jEpakouvw, is characterized by two distinct constructions. The first, a content construction, requires two arguments, an experiencer and a con-

12:15; 1 Kgs 8:29; 8:30a; 8:45; 2 Kgs 10:6; 2 Chr 34:21; Jdth 4:13; 8:17; 9:4; 9:12; 2Mac 8:3; 3 Mac 2:10; 2:21; Ps 4:2b; 5:4; 6:9; 6:10; 16:1; 16:6b; 26:7; 27:2; 30:23;

38:13; 39:2; 53:4; 54:18; 60:2; 60:6; 63:2; 64:3; 83:9; 101:2; 105:25; 105:44; 114:1;129:2; 142:1a; 144:19; Prov 12:15; 28:9; Sir 4:6 [S]; 34:24; 34:26; 36:16; Zeph 3:2;Zech 6:15b; 7:12; Jer 11:10; 14:12; 18:19b; 19:15; 23:22; 33:5a; 42:8 [A] (introducedby prov »); 47:3b [A]; 49:21 [A]; Bar 2:14; Sus 35; 44; Dan 9:10; 9:11 [A]; 9:14; 9:17.

35 Object noun phrase [+response, –speaker] (accusative, direct): Exod 2:24; 6:5;16:7; 16:8b; 16:9; 16:12; 16:28; Deut 11:13 [A,R]; 11:28 [A]; 30:16; Judg 5:16 [A]; 2Kgs 19:4; Esth 4:17z; Ps 9:38; 57:6; Job 34:28; Sir 35:13; Hab 3:2; Isa 32:9; 37:4.

36 Object noun phrase [–response, –speaker] (accusative, direct): 1 Kgs 3:11; Tob3:15; Job 27:9; Ez 13:19.

37 As in the case of ajkouvw, this response may occur through an infinitive phrase in thesame clause and may indicate the presence of a third characteristic construction trans-lated by «respond [concerning what is heard] to [the speaker] by [infinitive phrase]: eja; n eijsakouvsh/~ th'~ fwnh'~ kurivou...fulavssein pavsa~ ta;~ ej ntola;~ auj tou`

if you listen to the voice of [the] Lord...to keep all his commandments (Deut 13:19 [A])It occurs with (1) [+speaker: Gen 34:17; Esth 1:12; Sir 3:6; Jer 17:24; Dan 9:10], (2)[–speaker, genitive: Deut 13:19 [A]; 15:5(M); 28:1 [A]; 28:15; 28:45; 30:10; 2 Chr34:21; Jer 17:27; 42:8 [A] (introduced by prov~); Dan 9:10], and (3) [–speaker, accusa-tive: Deut 11:13 [A,R]; 30:16].

38 Object definite and null (active): Exod 7:16; 11:10; Deut 30:17; Judg 11:28a [A];1Kgs 8:30b; 8:32; 8:36; 8:39; 8:42; 8:49; 2 Chr 6:21; 6:23; 6:25; 6:27; 6:30; 7:14; Neh9:17; 9:28; Ps 21:3; 37:16; 54:20; 65:18; 91:12; 151:3; Prov 21:13; Job 9:16a [A];35:12; 37:23; Mic 7:7; Hab 1:2; Zech 6:15a; 7:11; 7:13b; Mal 3:16; Isa 37:17; 42:23;46:7; 59:1; Jer 6:10 [R]; 7:16; 7:24 [A]; 11:14; 25:4; 40:6; 42:14 [A]; 42:15 [A, R]; Bar2:16 [A]; Dan 9:17.

39 Experiencer indefinite and null (passive): Tob 3:16; 2 Macc 1:18; Eccl 9:16; Sir3:5; 51:11; Dan 10:12; Matt 6:7; Luke 1:13; Acts 10:31; Heb 5:7.



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tent of direct perception. It may be translated, «hear,» «listen to,» or «giveattention to.» The content, when present, is expressed only through a

noun phrase and follows rules #2, 3, and 4 established forajkouvw

:1. [+ speaker, ± response]: in the genitive case [89 occurrences]402. [– speaker, + response]: in the genitive case [15 occurrences]413. [– speaker, – response]: in the accusative case [2 occurrences]42

It also is used intransitively [15 occurrences]43 and passively [2 Chr30:27] and has a significantly greater usage in contexts in which a response is registered (>86% ) than ajkouvw (60%).

The second construction of ej pakouvw requires two arguments, anagent (Agt) or doer of an action and an experiencer to whom the response

is directed. Its distinct semantic properties (the presence of an agent)make direct comparisons to the content construction of ajkouvw inappro-priate. It may be translated «respond [concerning what is heard] to [thespeaker].» The experiencer, when present, is expressed by a dative casenoun phrase for both [+ speaker (11 occurrences)]44 and [– speaker (fiveoccurrences)] 45. It is used intransitively [3 occurrences]46 but never in thepassive.

7. parakouvw

Parakouvw, requires two arguments, an experiencer of and a content

of direct perception (content construction). It may be translated as either«refuse to listen (to)» or «overhear,» depending on the context: there areno discernible grammatical markers to assist in translation. The verb fol-lows rules #2 and 3 established for ajkouvw:

40 Object noun phrase [+ speaker] (genitive): Gen 16:11; 17:20; 25:21; 30:17 [A];30:22; Josh 10:14; Judg 2:17; 1 Sam 7:9; 8:18; 28:15 [A]; 2 Sam 22:42 [R]; 1 Kgs18:26a; 18:26b; 18:36a; 18:36b; 18:37a; 18:37b; 2 Kgs 13:4; 1 Chr 29:23; 2 Chr 32:24[A]; 33:13a; 33:19; 1 Mac 10:38; Ps 3:5; 16:6; 17:45; 19:2; 19:7; 19:10; 21:25b; 33:5;51:11b [S]; 59:7; 64:6; 68:14; 68:18; 80:8; 85:1 [A, S]; 85:7 [A]; 90:15 [A, S]; 98:6;98:8; 107:7; 117:5; 117:21; 117:28; 118:26; 118:145; 142:1; Prov 21:13a; Cant 5:6;

Job 33:12; 38:34; Sir 46:5; 48:20; Mic 3:7 [A]; Isa 19:22 [A]; 30:19; 49:8; 55:3 [A, S];

65:24; Dan 9:18; 2 Cor 6:2.41 Object noun phrase [+ response] (genitive): Gen 21:17; 27:13 [R]; 30:6; Deut26:14a; Josh 22:2; Judg 13:9 [A]; 1 Sam 30:24 [A, R]; 2 Sam 22:7; 2 Chr 6:19; 11:4;25:16; 33:13b; Esth 4:17h; 2 Macc 1:5; Ps 101:2 [S]; 144:19; Eccl 10:19; Job 8:6;33:13; Sir 4:6; Isa 50:10 [S]; Jer 18:19; Sus 44; Dan 9:17.

42 Object noun phrase [– response] (accusative): Prov 29:12; Hos 2:24.43 Object definite and null: Deut 26:14b; 2 Sam 21:14; 24:25; 2 Chr 33:10; Jdth

14:15; Prov 21:13b [S]; Cant 5:6 [A]; Job 37:23; Isa 8:9; 10:30a; 10:30b; 41:17; 45:1;50:2 [S]; Dan 9:19.

44 Experiencer noun phrase [+ speaker]: Gen 30:33; 35:3 [A]; 1 Chr 5:20; 21:26;21:28; 2 Chr 24:17; 32:24; 2 Esdr 8:23; Ps 17:45 [A]; Zech 10:6; 13:9.

45 Experiencer noun phrase [– speaker]: Prov 15:29; Hos 2:23a; 2:23b; 2:24a; 2:24b.46 Experiencer definite and null: 1 Kgs 18:24; Hos 2:24a; Dan 6:22(M).

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1. [+ speaker, ± response]: in the genitive case [3 occurrences]472. [– speaker, + response]: in the genitive case [2 occurrences]48

or in the accusative [2 occurrences]49

It may be used intransitively [3 occurrences]50 but never in the passive.

8. uJ pakouvw

JUpakouvw, is characterized by two constructions. The first, a contentconstruction, requires two arguments, an experiencer and a content of direct perception. When present, the content always is expressed by a noun phrase that follows rules #2, 3, and 4 established for ajkouvw, with

the modification that 50% of the noun phrases characterized by [+speak-er] appear in the dative and 13% characterized by [–speaker, +response]appear in the dative. There are no contextual markers to distinguishbetween genitive and dative noun phrase objects:

1.[+ speaker, ± response]: in the genitive case [24 occurrences]51or in the dative case [24 occurrences]52

2.[– speaker, + response]: in the genitive case [21 occurrences]53or in the dative case [3 occurrences]54

3.[– speaker, – response]: in the accusative case [1 occurrence:Prov 29:12 [A, R]

47 Object noun phrase [+ speaker] (genitive): 1 Esdr 4:11; Matt 18:17a; 18:17b.48 Object noun phrase [+ response] (genitive): Esth 3:8; Tob 3:4.49 Object noun phrase [+ response] (accusative): Esth 3:3; Mark 5:36.50 Object definite and null (active): Esth 4:14; 7:4; Isa 65:12.51 Object noun phrase [+ speaker] (genitive): Lev 26:14; 26:18; 26:21; 26:27; Deut

17:12; Judg 2:17; 2 Sam 22:42; 22:45 [A]; 1 Chr 29:23 [A]; Esth 3:4; 1 Mac 10:38 [A,R]; 13:43; Ps 17:45 [A]; Prov 21:13; Cant 3:1; 3:2; Job 9:14; 38:34; Sir 4:15; 24:22; Isa 65:24; 66:4; Jer 16:12.

52 Object noun phrase [+ speaker] (dative): Deut 20:12; 1 Mac 12:43; Ps 17:45; Prov 8:1; 15:23; 28:17 [R]; Job 5:1; 9:3; 13:22; Isa 29:24; 66:44 [S]; Bar 3:33; Matt 8:27;

Mark 1:27; 4:41; Luke 8:25; 17:6; Rom 6:16; Eph 6:1; 6:5; Col 3:20; 3:22; Heb 5:9; 1Pet 3:6.53 Object noun phrase [+ response] (genitive): Gen 16:2; 22:18; 26:5; 27:13 [A];

Deut 21:20; 26:14 [A, R]; 26:17; 30:2; Josh 22:2 [A]; Judg 2:20; 1 Sam 30:24; 2 Chr11:14; 2 Mac 1:5; 7:30; Prov 2:2; 17:4; Isa 50:10; Jer 3:13; 3:25b; 11:10 [S]; 13:10.

54 Object noun phrase [+ response] (dative): Esth 3:4; Prov 15:29 [S]; Acts 6:7.55 Object definite and null: Gen 41:40; Jdth 14:15; Prov 1:24; 29:19; Job 9:16;

19:16; Sir 42:23; Mal 2:2 [A]; Isa 11:14; 29:24; 50:2; 65:12; Dan 3:12; 7:27; Acts12:13; Rom 6:17; Phil 2:12.

56 On both occasions it appears with an infinitive expressing the content of theresponse and may indicate (as for ajkouvw and eijsakouvw) the presence of a constructionrequiring three arguments that would be translated «respond [concerning what is heard]to [the speaker] by [infinitive phrase].»



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It may be used intransitively [17 occurrences]55 but never in the pas-sive; and it has a significantly greater usage in contexts in which a

response is registered (>98%) than ajkouvw (60%)The second construction of uJ pakouvw is similar to the second con-struction of ej pakouvw in that it requires two arguments, an agent and anexperiencer. It may be translated «respond [concerning what was heard]to [the speaker].» It appears only twice, once with a dative noun phraseobject [+speaker] (Gen 39:10) and once intransitively (Heb 11:8) 56.

9. Comparison of the Usage of akouvw and ajkouvw-compounds in theLXX and NT:

The analysis indicates significant continuity in the patterns of usagefor ajkouvw and its compounds in the LXX and NT:

1. only ajkouvw may indicate indirect perception (topic construction)and have arguments realized by verb phrases (topic and content con-structions)

2. all of the noted verbs exhibit usages of the content construction3. among verbs of multiple attestation, eijsakouvw, ej pakouvw (#1), and

uJ pakouvw (#1) show a marked bias for use in contexts characterized by [+response]: this may indicate a preference for these verbs over ajkouvw when the presence of a response is to be stressed

4. genitive [–speaker] noun phrase objects of ajkouvw, eijsakouvw, ej pa-kouvw (#1), parakouvw, and genitive and dative [–speaker] noun phraseobjects of uJ pakouvw (#1) always are characterized by [+response]

5. [–speaker, + response] noun phrase objects of ajkouvw, eijsakouvw, ej nakouvw, and parakouvw may appear in the accusative

6. [–speaker, –response] noun phrases objects of all the verbs alwaysare in the accusative: this is the only permitted use of the accusative with

ej nakouvw, ej pakouvw (#1), and uJ pakouvw (#1)These results indicate a very high degree of continuity in usage between

the LXX and NT. They also reveal differences in the distribution of usagesfor ajkouvw in the NT: (1) an increased use of object interrogative pronounclauses and (2) the introduction of two new usages: the subject correlativeclause for the content construction (Luke 12:3) and the eij clause objectfor the topic construction (Acts 19:2b). The differences in the distributionof noun phrase objects of direct perception in which the subject indicatesa response is more pronounced: of the 397 such noun phrases objects inthe LXX , the accusative appears 1.56 times more frequently than the gen-itive (242/155); whereas in the NT the accusative appears 2.62 times morefrequently than the genitive (68/26). The investigation also reveals thatthe use of all ajkouvw-compounds except uJ pakouvw is significantly curtailedin the NT: the already rare aj ntakouvw and ej nakouvw are absent from the

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NT; diakouvw appears only in Acts 23:35; eijsakouvw is limited to passiveusage (Matt 6:7; Luke 1:3; Acts 10:31; Heb 5:7) except for one occurrence

in a citation of Scripture (1 Cor 14:21; cf. Isa 28:12); ej pakouvw appearsonly in a citation of Scripture (2 Cor 6:2; cf. Isa 49:8); and parakouvwappears only three times (Matt 18:17a,b; Mark 5:36). The only frequent-ly occurring ajkouvw-compound in the NT, uJ pakouvw, however, indicatessignificant changes in the distribution of usages: whereas in the LXX it fol-lows modified rules #2 and 3 that permit a dative (instead of genitive) casenoun phrase object in a minority of occurrences for both [+speaker] (12dative, 24 genitive) and [+response, –speaker] (2 dative, 21 genitive); inthe NT it consistently uses the dative case for noun phrase objects for[+speaker] (12 dative) and [+response, –speaker] (1 dative). These obser-vations indicate that the syntactic case of noun phrase objects of ajkouvw

and ajkouvw-compounds for the content construction in the LXX and NT(1) may be described according to a unitary set of rules but (2) differ sig-nificantly in distribution for ajkouvw [+response, –speaker] and for

uJ pakouvw #1 [+response, ±speaker).

Paul DANOVEVillanova University

800 Lancaster AvenueVillanova, PA 19085-1699 (U.S.A.)


a comparison of the usage of Δakouw and Δakouw - compounds in the septuagint and new testament...

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