A Comprehensive Scoping and Assessment Study of Climate Smart

Agriculture (CSA) Policies in Zimbabwe

30 April 2014

By

Emmanuel Manzungu

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering

University of Zimbabwe

Commissioned by

The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis

Network (FANRPAN)

Draft

Executive Summary

Objectives and Methodology of Study

The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network is implementing a

number of climate smart agriculture projects in East and Southern Africa including in Zimbabwe.

The overall objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of

climate smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe. The study sought to conduct a review of the

existing climate smart agriculture policies, analyze gaps in the existing policy frameworks,

identify relevant policy recommendations, and develop and share policy recommendations.

Effort was also made to assess CSA-relevant practices, social and gender equity issues where

possible.

The study followed a number of iterative steps in data collection and analysis. An internet-based

literature survey was used to find out the meaning and scope of climate smart agriculture in the

international arena, which was a precursor to assessing the level of understanding and

implementation of climate smart agriculture in Zimbabwe. This was achieved by reviewing

policies, laws and strategies across the agricultural and related sectors, interviewing 24

individuals who represented stakeholders from the government, non-governmental, research

(national and international), private sector and development agencies and discussing preliminary

findings at the validation workshop attended by 35 participants.

Context for climate smart agriculture

The assessment of climate smart agricultural policies in Zimbabwe took into account the

country‘s biophysical and socio-economic environment. About 60% of the country receives less

than 650 mm of rainfall per year. In these areas are found about 7 million people whose

livelihoods depend on agriculture, which is constrained by poor rainfall, low soil fertility and

weak institutions. Rainfed agriculture remains the only option of these smallholder farmers,

because of high irrigation costs. Rainfed production, is hhowever, negatively affected because of

negative biophysical and socio-economic conditions (low rainfall, poor soil fertility and poor

economic performance), a situation has resulted in a situation of widespread food insecurity.

Research and development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed

agriculture. The country has a long history of development of technological innovations. Climate

change, however, poses serious challenges not just in relation to the development of climate

smart technologies and practices, but also developing a climate smart agricultural policy.

Summary of findings

There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international

research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known

examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature, which included

research, development, advocacy and training involving germplasm selection (e.g. introduction

and seed multiplication of drought tolerant crops and animal breeds), diversification of crop

production (away from crop types and varieties that are susceptible to moisture stress), animal

production diversification through the promotion of small livestock and breeds that are drought

tolerant, promotion of climate change adaptation-related agronomic practices such as

conservation agriculture, and promoting climate change mitigation agricultural production such

as organic farming, to cite the main ones. The activities were spread practically across the entire

country, and involved thousands of vulnerable households. The list of CSA technologies and

practices that were presented is by no means exhaustive because of time and resource

constraints. The list should therefore be regarded as examples of CSA technologies and

practices. Even the examples are by no means complete. For example there was not enough

information on CSA champions that were highlighted during the validation workshop. All the

same the list is adequate for a scoping study.

Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into

land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy

frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional

arrangements. The macro economic and political conditions that obtained in Zimbabwe at the

moment constrained such a development. All the same there were useful elements that were

captured in the various government documents. The Ministry of Environment demonstrated

leadership in the formulation of climate change policies, which incorporated aspects of climate

smart agriculture. Unfortunately the ministry responsible for agriculture lacked the drive to

mainstream CSA in its policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent

makes it critical that a clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced

rather than the current situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and

departments without strong coordinating structures and linkages with other sectors.

Recommendations

Since the need of a climate change policy in Zimbabwe was now agreed it was important that

such a policy should capture critical policy elements, which include:

Clarifying the substantive issues around climate change in agriculture vis-à-vis its actual

meaning and what exactly can be said to be climate smart.

Identifying key agricultural technologies and production systems across all sub-sectors

that would be showcased as climate smart, which can be based on the champions and

community of practice that were identified during the validation workshop

Identifying and promote supporting information production and dissemination in the

farming community, schools and tertiary institutions

Identifying and promote those agricultural practices (REDD+ inclined) that could take

advantage of international funding such as voluntary carbon credits especially against a

backdrop of widespread deforestation in the country due to tobacco curing

Promote good CSA governance by, among other things, ensuring that there was a

coordinated legal and institutional framework for the enforcement of climate smart

agriculture interventions

Ensuring that the general climate change policy was complemented by a current and pro-

climate smart agriculture agricultural policy, which should include to a) best practices

that need to be upscaled, b) strategies for financial mobilization for climate change

mitigation and adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural

prospects due to climate change will affect women and youth, d) effective institutional

arrangements, and e) show linkages with other sectors.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACT African Conservation Tillage Network

AGRITEX Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services

ARC Agricultural Research Council

CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

CSA Climate Smart Agriculture

CIAT The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture

CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento Maiz y Trigo/International Maize and

Wheat Improvement Centre

CTA The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation

DOI Department of Irrigation

DR&SS Department of Research and Specialist Services

FANPARN Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse Gas

HDI Human Development Index

ICRISAT The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

LDC Least Developing Countries

MAMID Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development

MENRM Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management

MET Meteorological Department

NAMAs Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions

NAPAS National Action Plan for Adaptation

NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations

PAYE Payment for Environmental Services

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy papers

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing

Countries

SADC Southern African Development Community

SIMLEZA Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Systems for the Eastern Province of

Zambia

SMME Small Micro and Medium Enterprises

SMS Short Messaging Service

SOFECSA Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USAID United States International Development Agency

UZ University of Zimbabwe

List of Boxes

2.1 Overview of CSA projects undertaken by the Department of Research and Specialist Services

of Zimbabwe 2.2 CSA champions in Zimbabwe

2.3 Examples of CSA Community of Practice in Zimbabwe

3.1 Challenges facing the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe

3.2 Possible interventions to improve agricultural sector in Zimbabwe

3.3 Deficiencies in the institutional arrangements with respect to climate change governance in Zimbabwe

List of Tables

1.1 Categories and number of participants per stakeholder category in the survey and validation

workshop

2.1. Climate smart agriculture capacity building needs of various stakeholders

3.1 Analysis of legal framework for the promotion of Climate Smart Agriculture in Zimbabwe

List of Figures

2. 1 Agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe

1

1. Introduction

1.1 Land, agriculture, food security in Zimbabwe

Most areas in Zimbabwe experience a sub-tropical because of the high altitude rather than

tropical climate that can be expected from its geographical position (15 35’ and 220 30’ South).

The country also experiences a semi-arid climate. The average annual precipitation is estimated

to be between 652 and 674.5mm (FAO, 2011). The climate has a significant on agricultural

production with potential varying across the different agro-ecological regions (see section 2).

Most of the country‘s land (about 84%) is reserved for agricultural production (Rukuni et al,

2006). Agriculture plays a significant role in the country ‘s socio-economic development; .it is

estimated that it contributes about 14% to the country ‘s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 40% to

foreign currency earnings, 35% to formal employment and 36% to industrial raw materials

(Muir-Leresche, 2006). The main crops that are grown include maize, the country‘s staple crop,

as well commercial crops such as tobacco, coffee, tea, sugar cane, cotton and groundnuts. The

country has a small commercial beef and dairy industry. Small livestock such as goats and sheep,

particularly the latter, are kept by smallholder farmers.

The country‘s climate directly affects agricultural production. About 60% of the country receives

less than 650 mm of rainfall per year (Vincent and Thomas, 1960). In these areas are found about

7 million people whose livelihoods depend on agriculture ((Mehretu and Mutambara, 2006).

Agricultural production, however, is constrained by poor rainfall, low soil fertility and weak

institutions (ibid.). Under such conditions, it is only irrigation which can guarantee stable crop

production. The high costs of irrigation costs, however, make this an unrealistic option for many

smallholder farmers. Consequently reliance is on rainfed agriculture, which more often than not,

results in crop failure in most years (Nyamudeza, 1999). All the same rainfed agricultural

production continues to be practiced. As can be expected food insecurity is widespread in these

areas (Rukuni, 2006).

Research and development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed

agriculture. In this regard technological innovations have been and continue to be an important

focus (Nyamudeza, 1999). Against a backdrop of climate models that indicate diminishing

prospects for viable crop production under the current suite of technologies (Nyabako and

Manzungu, 2012), implementation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is increasingly becoming

important. Climate Smart Agriculture has been defined as agriculture that seeks to increase

sustainable productivity, strengthen farmers’ resilience, reduce agriculture‘s greenhouse gas

emissions, increase carbon sequestration, strengthens food security, and delivers environmental

benefits (World Bank, 2012; FAO, 2010). Appendix I presents example of CSA technologies and

practices as depicted in international literature.

2

The overall objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of

climate smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe. Specifically the study sought to a) conduct a

review of the existing CSA practices and policies, b) analyze gaps in the existing policy

frameworks, c) identify relevant policy recommendations, and d) develop and share policy

recommendations at national and regional levels.

1.2 Methodology

The study followed a number of iterative steps in data collection and analysis. A literature survey

to assess the meaning and scope of CSA constituted the first step. This was followed by a review

of Zimbabwean policies, laws and strategies across land, agriculture, water, food and

environment. Both the literature and policy review were used to determine how different

stakeholders in Zimbabwe understood CSA during interviews and a stakeholder validation

workshop which was held in Harare, Zimbabwe on 29 January 2014 (Table 1.1). The details of

the persons who participated in the study are contained in Appendices I and II. The study faced

a number of limitations which included few academic literature sources in the country relating to

CSA, reduced availability of the persons representing some stakeholders, and as the limited time

available to undertake the study.

Table 1.1 Categories and number of participants per stakeholder category in the survey

and validation workshop

Stakeholder category Number of persons

Survey Validation workshop

Government 13 10

Non-Governmental Organisations 5 6

International research

Organisations/Universities

5 11

Farmers/Farmer Organisations - 3

Media - 5

Private sector 1 -

Total 24 35

Male/female ratio 3: 1 2: 1

3

2 Farming Systems and Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies and

Practices

2.1 Overview of farming systems

Zimbabwe has five agro-ecological zones that are characterized by varied rainfall patterns (Fig.

2. 1 Table 2.1). The type of agricultural production that can be undertaken in each agro-

ecological region is affected by the biophysical characteristics of that region (Table 2.1). The

majority of the farmers in Zimbabwe are smallholder farmers who undertake farming in

communal and resettlement areas. Communal areas, that are generally of low agricultural

potential because of poor rainfall and low soil, and weak institutions were created for blacks by

the colonial administrations. Some of the smallholder farmers are found in old and new

resettlement areas. Subsistence is the dominant practice with the exception of smallholder

farmers in high rainfall areas. Commercial agriculture is undertaken on whole farms formerly

owned by white commercial settlers and also on what are locally as A2 farms that are on average

30 ha in size, which are subdivided pieces of land that used to belong to whit farmers. These

were created by a land reform programme, locally known as the fast track land reform

programme that started in 2000.

Table 2.1 Extent and characteristics of Zimbabwe’s agro-ecological regions

Region Area (ha)

% of

total land

area

Rainfall pattern

Recommended farming system

1 613 233 1.56 Rainfall in excess of 1000 mm,

relatively low temperatures.

Specialised and diversified farming.

Forestry, fruit, intensive livestock, tea,

coffee

2 7 343 059 18.68 Rainfall between 750 mm-1000mm

per year mainly in summer.

Intensive farming.

Crops and intensive livestock

production.

3 6 859 958 17.43 Rainfall between 650-800,

infrequent but heavy

falls of rainfall, seasonal droughts,

relatively high temperatures.

Semi-intensive farming. Livestock,

fodder and staple and cash crops like

maize, tobacco, cotton.

4 13 010 036 33.03 Rainfall between 450-650 mm per

year, frequent

seasonal droughts, relatively high

temperatures.

Semi-extensive farming.

Livestock farming, drought tolerant

crops.

4

5 10 288 036 26.2 Rainfall less than 450mm, erratic.

Northern lowveld may have higher

rainfall but topography and poor

soils make it unsuitable for arable

agriculture.

Extensive farming.

Extensive cattle ranching, wildlife

farming,

crops only possible with irrigation.

Source: Adapted fromVincent and Thomas (1962)

Figure 2. 1 Agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe

Land tenure varies across the farming sectors. In communal areas land is used under a semi-

traditional system where rural district councils are the land authority and traditional leaders in

practice administer land. In the commercial farming sector farmers use land on the strength of

the offer letters that carry a 99-year lease. The 99 year leases do not seem to offer enough

security for farmers, certainly for purposed of obtaining agricultural loans. This, and other

factors, that have to do with the political and economic consequences of the fast track land

5

reform programme, has resulted in poor performance by the agricultural sector. In the last one

and half decades there has been reduction in area under export crops such as tobacco, coffee and

tea. The same situation prevailed with food crops such as maize, the country‘s staple food crop.

This negatively affected the performance of the agro-based economy. These macro-economic

conditions are likely to affect the prospects for climate smart agriculture.

2.2 Climate smart agriculture technologies and practices

CSA technologies and practices are undertaken by a number of state and non-state actors as

described below.

2.2.1 Government agencies

Department of Research and Specialist Services The Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS), which is the national research

agency, includes such institutes as Crops Research, Coffee Research, Livestock, Seed Services,

Chemistry & Soils Research Institute, and Crop Breeding. The Department was said to be

undertaking a lot of on-going work in collaboration with a number of organizations e.g. FAO,

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), CIMMYT, etc.. The project included

Conservation Agriculture (CA) which has potential to reduce the impact of increasing farm level

productivity while conserving natural resources, improving resilience of farmers through crop

diversification, increasing crop yields through better agronomic practices and better varieties, as

well as improving nutritional quality of grain food. Box 2.1 presents an overview of CSA

projects being undertaken by the Department.

.

Box 2.1 Overview of CSA projects undertaken by the Department of Research and

Specialist Services of Zimbabwe

Coffee Research Institute

-Developing technologies on planting hole sizes as the size of the hole is directly related to soil

moisture conservation

-Coffee and banana intercrops; shading by banana has a positive influence on moisture

6

dynamics

-Testing suitability of various mulches as a way of moisture conservation

-Greenhouse experiments to evaluate how different coffee varieties respond to water stress

-Testing coffee for drought tolerance

-Soil fertility management for improved coffee productivity incorporating organic x inorganic

fertilizer combinations.

-Water harvesting technologies for coffee plantations.

-Experiments on biological control of coffee pests and diseases.

Agronomy and Crop Breeding Institutes

-In collaboration with CIMMYT undertaking drought tolerant maize breeding for African

conditions.

-Trying intercrops with the climbing bean for increased maize productivity as well as improving

protein content

-Root and tubers being tested for drought tolerance, heat and stress tolerance involving cassava,

sweet potato (yellow, orange varieties as opposed to the usual white variety).

-Soil fertility management complemented by identification of suitable crop types and drought

tolerant varieties

-Promoting production of cowpea and sunflower, which are drought tolerant.

-Organic x inorganic fertilizer trials combining them with heat and drought tolerance in maize

and legume crops in partnership with CIMMYT funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

-In partnership with CIAT conducting bean experiments for drought tolerance. , breeding for low

N environments, and low pH.

CIMMYT –ICARDA project is involved with summer wheat breeding under rainfed conditions

instead of the usual irrigated wheat, in combination with moisture conservation practices..

Chemistry & Soils Research Institute

-Improving water management for increased productivity, focusing on conservation agriculture,

7

crop rotations and intercropping.

-Monitoring soil moisture dynamics under conservation agriculture using a neutron probe. There

are plans to send some samples to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), for

greenhouse gas emission determination.

-Experimentation with slow N-release fertilizer from Italy, assessing its efficiency and its role in

contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.

-Carbon sequestration through repeated measurements of soil organic carbon. Plans are

underway to introduce labeled carbon (13

C) isotope, and monitor the C decomposition.

-Soil moisture management in natural region IV and V using tied ridges, basins, tied furrows

under the predominantly montmorillonite soils, which have a poor water holding capacity.

Seed Services Institute

-Trying high yield sorghum varieties (DC 75, and NS 511), and late maturing types, SV 4 also

being tested and promoted

-Assessing how to manage quelea birds threat by for example growing early maturing variety

such as Marcia that matures before the roosting of quelea, within 80-90 days.

-Scaling up of pearl millet varieties (PMV 3 and Okoshana) which are early maturing varieties,

needing just 75 days to mature.

-Experimenting cassava and pigeon pea intercrops –both crops are very drought tolerant, and can

survive very long dry spell of 7-8 weeks, and yet still produce.

Department of Irrigation

The Department of Irrigation (DOI) invoked CSA in relation to mapping strategies to avail water

in crops and livestock systems and promoting irrigation. The Department ‘s focus is on

upscaling the National Irrigation Programme, which is aimed at reviving the irrigation

infrastructure to help reduce the negative impacts of water scarcity being brought about by

climate change. The emphasis is on promoting smallholder irrigation. The target for

smallholder irrigation in 25,000 ha. The country has a potential to irrigate 2 million ha. However

by year 2000, only 200,000 ha (10%) were under irrigation. Due to economic downturn after the

land reform programme, only about 100,000 ha are under irrigation, i.e. 5% of the country’s

potential. Work is on-going to rehabilitate non-functional units, so that by year 2014, at least

30,000 ha will be added under irrigated land.

Agritex

8

The national extension service department, the Department of Agricultural, Technical and

Extension Service (Agritex) is involved in many CSA activities at different levels starting with

the local (ward)/village) to district, provincial and at national level. Agritex currently chairs

ZIMCAN, a national body coordinating CA activities, of which FAO is the secretariat.

ZIMCAN does not implement projects. It provides a platform for members to network. The

Department is also working with Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA),

on conservation agriculture. Agritex is also involved in information dissemination relating to

conservation agriculture. There is cooperation with the Department of Mechanization to come

up with tillage implements suitable for use in CA operations with the smallholder sector. The

focus was on the development and promotion of CA equipment so as to save labour, time, and

conserve moisture.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development reports that there has

been an increase in numbers of farmers practicing CA, from <3,000 in 2004 to almost 100,000 in

2010, more than 125,000 ha are already under CA across the country, and CA is being practiced

as a risk mitigation strategy due to unreliable and erratic rains (MAMID, n.d.). The initial target

by FAO was the resource constrained farmer with no draught power, but with the realization that

conservation is for all, even the resource endowed farmers are now coming on board. While

labour inputs are higher in manual CA systems, higher returns are also being realized in terms of

yields, and soil conservation compared to conventional systems. CA is being practiced as a risk

mitigation strategy due to unreliable and erratic rains.

There is also on-going in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre in collaboration with

the Department of Research and Specialist Services to promote agroforestry for both crop and

livestock enterprises in the smallholder farming sector. Seedlings are being propagated in at least

five national research stations for distribution.

Agricultural Research Council

The Agricultural Research Council (ARC) is involved in catchment wetland management in

partnership with the Department of Research & Specialist Services (DR&SS), Agritex and

Oxfam. The project ` is in Mahusekwa smallholder community. The funds originally came from

the Rockefeller Foundation but now funding is from Oxfam. The project focuses on organic

farming and biological control mechanisms to reduce use of fertilizers and pesticides. There is

emphasis on environmental and general sustainability. There is also a focus on community

entrepreneurship, developing market linkages for the horticultural crops, increased and

sustainable water management for both dry-land and horticultural crops, and reduction of green

technologies through promoting reduced use of chemicals (pesticides/ fertilizers). This initiative

9

is expected to contribute to the rehabilitation of degraded environments. Women farmers

comprise the majority of members.

Food and Nutrition Council

The Food and Nutrition Council (FNC), in the Office of the President and Cabinet, works closely

with MAMID to promote growing of small grains, which are not only resistant to drought, but

are also of high nutritional value. It also implements a nutrition early warning system focusing

on different target groups, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Health & Child Welfare.

Other activities include promoting high yielding short season varieties to ensure food security,

in collaboration with DR&SS implementing a biofortification project of yellow maize to

enhance the quality of the maize grain, micro-nutrient enhancement and improved nutrition by

enriching grain quality of legume and cereals through biofortification, identifying bird-repelling

properties of small grains, promotion of small livestock, and offering training in aquaculture to

improve protein nutrition of many urban and rural households. These efforts will have the impact

of dietary diversification among poor households. FNC targets vulnerable groups such as the

sick, those living and affected with HIV-AIDS who need specialized nutritious diets, and women

and children.

Department of Livestock

The Department of Livestock (DL) has been undertaking a number of CSA technologies and

practices. For example livestock breeding has also been promoted according to prevailing local

environments. This explains why there are livestock stations for different environments: Matopos

(NR IV), Makoholi (NR IV), Marondera (NR IIb) and Henderson (NRIIa). Small livestock such

as goats are promoted in low rainfall areas since they are more robust to climate change impacts

compared to the larger livestock. CSA also includes good agricultural management practices that

can reduce pest build-up, increased productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Proper

handling of domestic animals through provision of good quality feed is promoted as this helps

to reduce methane emissions, compared to dry and non-nutritious veld feed.

The Department is also working with in partnership with ICRISAT (The International Crops

Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), to promote fodder such as bana grass and mucuna,

which do well in both high and low rainfall areas. It is also working with Unied Nations

Deveopment Programme (UNDP) to promote mucuna in dry Masvingo province. It is also

promoting dairy production in dry areas through crossing indigenous breeds with the jersey cow.

The hybrid is capable of producing dairy milk in dry areas, provided the feed is quality. The

challenge is getting the mixed breeds to satisfy all farmers. There was also diversification into

poultry production for both urban and rural communities, piggery and goat rearing now a

common income generating enterprise. Farmers are also encouraged to grow bana grass, as well

as harvesting nutritious legume pods from indigenous acacias, pounding them and mixing this

with bana grass.

10

2.2.3 International research organizations and universities

CIAT The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), apart of the Consultative

Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is undertaking activities that address the

dryland farming systems. Included here is agricultural intensification of maize focusing on field

water management, up-scaling CA, integrated soil fertility management and micro-dosing of

fertilizers. The aim is to positively impact on rural communities by improving food, health and

nutritional security and sustainable management of natural resources. Gender sensitivity is being

exercised in all projects.

CIMMYT The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre/ Centro Internacional

de Mejoramiento Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), part of the CGIAR system, is undertaking a

number of CSA-related activities. It is implementing an IFAD-funded project that focuses on

mechanized CA options within the smallholder farming systems, which places emphasis on

animal-drawn CA equipment. This is combined with promoting drought tolerant maize and

other small cereal varieties. There is also an Australian-funded funded project which seeks to

integrate crops and livestock project by translating technologies to benefit soils-crops-livestock

within mixed farming smallholder systems. Zimbabwe is one of the target countries. Yet another

project is the USAID funded Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Systems for the

Eastern Province of Zambia (SIMLEZA) project aimed at increasing food security and

productivity, in the context of climate risk and change, through the development of more

resilient, profitable and sustainable maize-legume farming systems and institutional innovations

that improve farmers’ access to technologies, inputs and markets. Zimbabwe not yet a member,

but most project members are Zimbabwean. The two-Zimbabwean projects contribute positively

to reducing poverty, hunger, malnutrition, and environmental degradation for poor smallholder

famers particularly women, who are the custodians of daily meals in most households. The

target households exceed 7,500 for the two projects in four years.

SOFECSA

Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa (SOFECSA) through the University of Zimbabwe

(UZ) is currently partnering Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and African Conservation

Tillage Network (ACT) of Nairobi in two EU-funded project which include components of CSA.

These are: “Supporting smallholder farmers in southern Africa to better manage climate-related risks to

crop production and post harvest handling” funded by the European Union (EU), which is a new

SOFECSA-UZ project commenced August, 2013, in partnership with FAO, who is the lead institution,

and b) “Agro-ecology based aggradation-conservation agriculture (ABACO): Targeting innovations to

combat soil degradation and food insecurity in semi-arid Africa” funded by European Union (EU) and led

by ACT.

SOFECSA has made impact in all the districts it has worked in, influencing over 25,000 farmers to

date in Zimbabwe alone by ensuring that smallholder farmers can define and use integrated soil

11

fertility management principles and concepts towards sustainable agricultural intensification.

Smallholder farmers are also equipped with options to adapt to climate variability and change

including crop diversification, inclusion of different maturity crop varieties and types,

intercropping and rotations, introducing improved germplasm, conservation agriculture, timing

of planting and fertilizer application. In addition, SOFECSA has been working with farmers

through promotion of learning alliances in natural resource management and crop productivity

including input/output market linkages.

World Agroforestry Centre

The World Agroforestry Centre is working with DR&SS and Agritex to propagate Faidherbia

albida, a tree species which fixes atmospheric nitrogen, for use in cropping systems, maize in

particular. This initiative is not yet funded, but results from Zambia show that the tree increased

yields. It is expected that there will be benefits in soil fertility enhancement and livestock

through enhancement of feed quality for livestock. It also provides alternative wood fuel

resources for rural communities.

ICRISAT

TheInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT ) has a number

of CSA projects. One outstanding one is the CALESA-Climate Analogue Locations in Eastern

and Southern Africa project, which aims to compare the grain yield of three varieties each of

maize and sorghum at four analogue sites in Zimbabwe. This involves seasonal climate forecasts

to optimize yields. There is also promotion of Conservation Agriculture (CA) to capitalize on

soil moisture enhancement complemented by, micro-dosing, measures to increases moisture use

efficiency. Farmers in the semi-arid intervention sites stand to benefit as yields are consistently

higher under CA compared to conventional. Micro-dosing increases moisture use efficiency,

accelerated productivity, meaning crops are reaching physiological maturity faster. There are

also initiatives at promoting crop-livestock interactions through interventions in production of

goats and fodder. Fodder crops now sustain animals in dry season, and there is milk production,

better meat quality, more household income

2.2.4 Non-Governmental Organisations

Lead Trust

Lead Trust is involved in a number of projects that can be called climate smart. These include

adaptation projects that have to deal with crop and variety selection and promotion of small

livestock in the dry regions of the country including indigenous chickens, conservation

agriculture, knowledge sharing and weather insurance. Lead Trust operates in Lupane, Nkayi

and Hurungwe districts. The number of beneficiaries amount to 40 000 households among which

are found vulnerable groups such as women.

Oxfam

12

Oxfam is involved in food security projects that include promoting horticulture by managing

frost, through mulching and micro-irrigation), diversification away from maize, introducing

small grains and legumes which are more robust, and climate change adaptation project in

partnership with the Meteorological Department (MET) and Agritex. The project involves

setting up some automatic weather stations across different agroecological regions. The pilot

project is targeting three districts, namely Gutu, Chirimhanzu and Zvishavane. These are

complemented with manual weather stations set up within secondary schools in the target

districts. This is also a capacity building initiative for secondary school geography students. The

automatic weather stations send information straight to MET. Specialists from both MET and

Agritex are trained to impart acquired knowledge and skills to others through training of trainers

TOT). Training involves capacitating trainees to be able to analyse and translate information for

relevance to target groups of farmers. Over 3,000 secondary school pupils are benefiting from

learning to collect weather data from within their environments. The automatic weather stations

give early warnings to farmers to enable decision making and planning. Farmers are trained on

information required. They use mobile phone providers using the Short Messaging Service

(SMS).

Practical Action

Practical Action implements a number of what can be called climate smart agriculture projects.

In the 2011/12 there is reference to projects that addressed reducing vulnerability, making

markets work for the poor and improving access to infrastructure. There is no space here to

document all activities that Practical Action undertakes. What will be highlighted here is the

project, “Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation in Zimbabwe‘s Agricultural Extension

System.” The twelve month project was aimed at integrating climate change adaptation in

national extension department of Agritex. The project trained 60 national and provincial

specialists as trainers for 170 district level staff. The project managed to 60 persons drawn from

farmer organizations and government agricultural agencies. Availability of meteorological data

was demonstrated to be an important ingredient, which should be in a format that is useful for

farmers and extension personnel. Fambidzanai Training Centre

Fambidzanai Training Centre has a long history of promoting organic farming and permaculture

aimed at reducing the ecological footprint of agriculture. Its core business is training although

now it also implements programmes on the ground. Currently it is working in Mashonalnad East

province in Chikomba, Uzumbamarambapfungwe, Wedza, Goromonis, Marondera and Seke

districts. A total of 450 households are involved. It also works in Matebeleland South province

with about 300 households. The Centre also collaborates with other NGOs. The challenges have

to do with level of productivity. The Centre can rightfully claim to have always promoted

climate smart agriculture as its training has always focused on adaptation and mitigation.

13

Zimbabwe Organic Producers and Promoters Association (ZOPPA)

ZOPPA is involved in both advocacy and programming of organic farming. Its thrust is to

promote the growing of organic crops as well as the development of regulations and standards

for organic products for the local and export market. Locally boarding schools and supermarkets

are the major clients. It has a number of programmes in Mashonaland East province. However,

organic products in Zimbabwe do not attract a premium price. Still the price is offset by low

production costs. Recently it has assisted in sending an experimental batch to the United

Kingdom.

2.2.5 Private sector

The sole private sector representative hailed from the largest seed supplier in the country, Seed

Cop that had significant presence on the African continent. While CSA was not referred to by

name, efforts were being made to ensure that the seeds that were produced would withstand

climate variability such as drought and heat. There was a long standing programme for

producing drought and heat tolerant crop varieties. The company had also initiated testing seed

under climate change conditions by taking advantage of its presence in some of the world ‘s

harshest environments.

2.2.6 CSA champions

During the validation workshop participants came up with a list of people/organizations that

were considered to be CSA champions (Box 2.2). Unfortunately no information was provided

with regards to the nature of the activities that were undertaken. In future this should be

undertaken so that best practices can be drawn.

Box 2.2 CSA champions in Zimbabwe

Mr. Phiri of Zvishavane who is involved in water harvesting technology; Ms. F. Chipangura - fish

farmer (youth); Foundation for Farming focusing on Conservation Agriculture; Mr. Brian Oldreive was

also singled out as a promoter of various zero tillage programmes in the communal areas of Mashonaland

East, Central and West since the 1990s; Rural Women’s Advancement Trust; GRM- Seed Production;

Oxfam; Commutech; FAO; Agritex; Sofecsa; ACT`; CIMMYT; ICRISAT; DR&SS; EMA;

SEEDCO; SAT; African Centre for Holistic Management focusing on soil, water and livestock/grazing

management; Fambidzanayi; Eco-Farmer; Environment Africa ; and various public, private and

international organizations.

14

2.2.7 Emerging CSA Community of Practice (COP) in Zimbabwe

Participants at the validation workshop agreed that there was an emerging Community of

Practice (COP) in the country (Box 2.3). Again, just like in the case of CSA champions no

details were provided.

Box 2.3 Examples of CSA Community of Practice in Zimbabwe

African Centre for Holistic Management (ACHM) in Hwange; Mother Earth Foundation in Chegutu

involved in lobbying and protection of the environment; COSMO involved in advocate and lobbying for

the protection of wetlands; ZCFU involved in nationwide campaign for growing gum-tree plantations for

tobacco curing and reclamation of gullies; Ngondome Irrigation Scheme; and River of Life and Roman

Catholic churches.

2.3 Conclusion

There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international

research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known

examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature. It is important to

underline the point that the list of CSA technologies and practices that were presented is by no

means exhaustive. To this end the technologies and practices should be regarded as examples of

CSA technologies and practices because there was simply no time to document all what is

occurring in the country with respect to CSA. Even the examples that have been presented are by

no means complete. For example there was not enough information on CSA champions that were

highlighted during the validation workshop. Having said that, it is important that the examples

are adequate for a scoping study.

3. Climate Change Policy framework

This section examines climate change policy framework in Zimbabwe within the context of

climate change governance, which is relevant for integrated planning and policy-making across

sectors, and is also critical to responding to climatic variability and climate change. For

integrated planning and policy-making across sectors to happen, more flexible governance

structures that are able to manage multiple risks are required (IIED, 2012). In this section climate

change governance is highlighted rather than discussed since the focus is on the policy

framework. In this discussion policy framework refers to a) the legal framework as contained in

the country ‘s statutes b) policy pronouncements as represented by the intention of the state

15

captured in non-legal documents, and c) institutional arrangements. As a prelude to assessing the

policy framework, there is a brief discussion of the link between climate change and

development, and topical climate change issues in Zimbabwean agriculture.

3.1 Climate change and development

Many Zimbabwean government-generated/supported documents point out that climate change

will pose serious developmental challenges to the country (see for example GOZ, 2013;

Zimbabwe, 2013; World Bank, 2013). Indeed a good number of these suggest that climate

change is already having impacts on the Zimbabwean economy with agriculture being the most

vulnerable (Box 3.1). Sustainable development in Zimbabwe will therefore hinge on robust

agricultural sector, which can be improved by taking advantage of the land reform programme

(Box 3.2). As already highlighted this depends on the performance of other economic and social

sectors.

Box 3.1 Challenges facing the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe

Overdependence on rainfed agriculture which is vulnerable to climate change leading to food

insecurity especially among disadvantaged social groups; Failure to harness available scientific

and indigenous knowledge and technologies to increase productivity and stimulate economic

growth; Lack of appropriate responses that focus more on adaptation than mitigation; Increasing

disaster management including floods, droughts, disease outbreaks; Degraded natural resource

base (deforestation, wetland degradation, artisanal mining) as communities try and cope with

climate variability and climate change; Formal institutional mechanisms not building on

traditional practices such as social safety nets e.g. Zunde raMambo concept that aims to use

local capacity to adapt to food security challenges, and can be used to address climate change

challenges. Under the concept traditional leaders organize communities to till a communal field.

Proceeds from the field are used to feed vulnerable members of the community.

Box 3.2 Possible interventions to improve agricultural sector in Zimbabwe

Land reform has opened up virgin land for agriculture which if not well managed can be

degraded; Re-demarcation of agro-ecological regions (see sections 1 and 2) in the face of climate

change, which can also be linked to resource assessment and social assessment; Monitor

surveillance of production and marketing; Value addition of agricultural products through

processing; Capacity building for extension, research and private sectors; Promoting integrated

soil management and landscape approach to agriculture; Promoting appropriate livestock types

and breeds (see section 2) and effective rangeland management; Monitoring GHGs; Warning

systems (local) for effective decision-making; Promote supplementary irrigation, efficiency

water use and rainwater harvesting.

16

Despite this awareness, climate change issues have not yet been mainstreamed into land use

planning, agriculture, natural resource management, industry, energy and transport (GOZ,

2013a). As will be highlighted below, these are some of the policy challenges that need to be

addressed. The suggestion to ensure that climate change be must be addressed from a human

rights based approach is an interesting proposition that remains to be concretized (GOZ, 2013).

The fact that the most recent national economic development plan does not make any reference

to climate change (GOZ, 2013c) shows the scope of the challenges.

There are other challenges. Zimbabwe does not have the required financial resources as well the

human resources to fully undertake the required adaptation and mitigation measures. The country

therefore must seek to tap into international financing mechanisms such as the Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM), the voluntary carbon credit systems and REDD+. However,

Africa in general has not managed to tap into these funds because of capacity constraints. There

have been suggestions to the effect that Zimbabwe would benefit more if became part of the

Least Developing Countries (LCD) on the basis that with a Human Development Index rank of

173 out of 187, Zimbabwe was effectively an LDC.

The suggestion by the draft Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy that, since

climate change straddles the global, regional, national and local levels, governance should be

considered and mainstreamed at national, provincial, district and community levels in both urban

and rural settings taking into account the regional and global levels (Government of Zimbabwe,

2013b) is a step in the right direction However, as already noted, it is the implementation that

remains a challenge.

3.2 Legal framework

There is no stand-alone legislation that deals with climate change. The country relies on a

number of internal agreements such as UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change and other

environmental agreements such as UN Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD),

Convention on Biodiversity, the RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands, which are interlinked.

There is also dependence on sectoral policies, mainly dealing with environmental protection vis-

a-vis mining, biotechnology, disaster risk management, water resource management, wildlife and

fisheries, forestry, agriculture, animal health, pests and diseases. Unfortunately some of the laws

and regulations are not consistent with international obligations. The other problem is that there

has been selective domestication of the agreements. Lastly the laws are enforced by different

institutions. Table 3.1 shows deficiencies in the legal framework as pertains to climate smart

agriculture.

Table 3.1 Analysis of legal framework for the promotion of Climate Smart Agriculture in

Zimbabwe

Sector Name of

legislation

Year

approved

or in

Responsible ministry Updated or

update planned

Availability on line

17

force

Land None None Ministry of Lands Not known No

Village Traditional

Leaders Act

[chapter

29:17]

2001 Ministry of Local

Government

Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach

ments

Communal

Land Act

[chapter 20:

04]

2002 Ministry of Local

Government

Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach

ments/

Rural District

Councils Act

[chapter

29:13]

2002 Ministry of Local

Government

Nor known www.parl/zim.gov.attach

ments

Forestry

Policy

Forestry Act

[chapter 19:

05]

1990 Ministry of

Environment

Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach

ments

Agriculture None None Ministry of Agriculture,

Mechanisation and

Irrigation Development

Not known No

Livestock None None Ministry of Agriculture,

Mechanisation and

Irrigation Development

Not known None

Environment Environmental

Management

Act [chapter

20: 27]

2002 Ministry of

Environmental, Water

and Climate

Aspects1

www.parl/zim.gov.attach

ments

REDD+ None None Ministry of

Environmental, Water

and Climate

None None

1 National Climate Change Strategy and Second National Communication, Climate Change Policy in discussion,

Third Zimbabwe Environment Outlook in preparation

18

3.3 Policy analysis

An effective national policy is critical to a coordinated approach of institutions that are capable

of translating higher-level policy into local action plans to address multi- risk issues as well as

throw light on how the linkages between the national and local levels can effectively be forged

(IIED, 2012). In other words how vertical and horizontal integration that allows for two-way

benefits can be configured is important (IIED, 2012). This will benefit all stages of policy-

making including agenda-setting, policy formulation, local implementation, monitoring and

evaluation and information sharing.

In Zimbabwe climate change policy falls under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment,

Water and Climate (MEWC). The Ministry is responsible for the environmental policy,

environmental legislation and is now coordinating the Climate Change Response Strategy after

having successfully produced the First and Second National Climate Change Communications.

In these documents agriculture is encouraged to be efficient, less polluting as well as the need to

protect water sources.

In the analysis that follows there is extensive reference to the draft Zimbabwe National Climate

Change Strategy Response as it provides the most official authoritative view.

3.3.1 Policy framework

The Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development (MAMID) lacks an

official policy position on CSA. This is because it does not have a current agricultural policy.

The official agricultural policy was produced in 1995. The 2012 draft policy barely mentions the

role of climate change on agriculture (GOZ, 2012).

It is, however, important to note that there are also other related policies, in which aspects of

climate change are addressed. It should be pointed out that the various policies that are referred

to below could not be obtained; they were referred to in the draft Zimbabwe National Climate

Change Strategy Response. The National Policy and Programme on Drought Mitigation,

which provides a framework for accessing financial assistance from international organizations

at provincial and district level, has set up Regional Early Warning Systems and Drought

Monitoring Centres. The Draft Disaster Risk Management Policy and Strategy recognizes

climate change as a cross cutting issue. The 2012 Second Science, Technology and Innovation

Policy speaks of scientific solutions to environmental challenges and proposes to set up the

National Climate Change Research and Development Advisory Council and Climate Change

Mitigation and Adaptation Advisory Council. The Small Micro and Medium Enterprises

19

(SMMEs) Policy and Strategy Framework includes climate change issues. The Energy Policy

incorporates climate change issues in relation to energy, the environment and agriculture. The

Agricultural Marketing and Pricing Policies address food security challenges. The

Zimbabwe Agricultural Investment Plan does not take into consideration climate change

issues. The National Gender Policy takes no account of climate change issues directly although

it suggests mainstreaming gender into all economic sectors. The National Industrial

Development Policy and National Trade Policy do not refer to climate change issues. The

Water Act and National Water Policy cites the precautionary and polluter pays principles as

strategies for climate change adaptation.

3.3. 2 Stakeholder participation and views

In Zimbabwe stakeholder participation in climate change issues varies across sectors.

Stakeholder participation is very strong in the environmental sector where the Second National

Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change involved

stakeholder consultation, which is also true as far as the development of the National Climate

Change Response Strategy. The same is true for the development National Water Policy, as well

as the related policies such as the Strategy for Managing Water Quality and Protecting Water

Sources and Climate Change and Water Resources Planning, Development. As far as agriculture

is concerned more stakeholder consultations vis-s-vis the development of climate smart

agricultural policy as well as a climate smart irrigation policy are needed. The unavailability of

the draft Irrigation Policy further compounds the issue as irrigation is one of the most effective

climate change adaptation interventions.

Government agencies

Across all government agencies there was a general agreement that there were no CSA policy in

place in Zimbabwe. What were in existence were aspects contained in different documents.

Specific submissions were made, namely:

CA should be integrated in normal agricultural training initiatives, as it does improve

yields and improves the adaptive capacity of most households,

Ways should be found to reduce labour in CA systems through mechanization for

example

Exploring green house gas emissions from the different tillage systems under CA.

Promoting summer wheat which has less energy demands on electricity as this is grown

under rainfed conditions

Promoting indigenous and small livestock also an important protein source

Increased support into research for livestock feed alternatives given the competing

demands for maize stover in CA

Promotion of indigenous and traditional crops using CSA technologies that has potential

to increase productivity

20

Capacity building in enterprises beyond the traditional field crops by embracing such

activities as aquaculture, beekeeping

Putting in place effective communication strategies.

Building capacity of extension staff to support upscaling of CSA at national level.

Prioritization of the water sector at national level as a key sector impacting on general

livelihoods of people.

Increasing investment in irrigation schemes both from public and private sector

Promoting growing of small grains for each farming household, as these have many

positive attributes including drought tolerance and longer shelf-life (keeping quality)

compared to maize.

Non-state actors

The non-state actors also agreed that e was not a CSA policy in place. In their operations

organisations tended to guided by their own organizational policies. For example ICRISAT

Global has its own policy. FAO has produced a working paper “Advancing Agroforestry on the

Policy Agenda” in 2012 in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre. CIAT as part of a

global network (CGIAR) has a specific programme, the Climate Change, Food and Agriculture

(CCAFS), which has some of those CSA policies.

Views from the validation workshop

During the validation workshop participants identified a number of policy elements that needed

to be addressed in the country‘s policy:

Appropriate policy, legal and institutional framework: There is a need for need

appropriate policies in the areas of land and agriculture (see section 20 and how these can

relate practically to climate change.

There was a need to harmonise the existing policies/laws as wells ensuring that some of

them incorporated CSA, and in this regard a communication strategy could be useful

There was a need to recognize that each gender group (men, women & youth) has a

specific role to play and each should receive adequate support. This means ensuring that

there is equal and effective participation, access to and control of productive resources

such as land, technology, credit facilities and knowledge. There is a need to acknowledge

the diversified roles women play in CSA instead of just associating them to specific

farming activities such as vegetable farming. If CSA is to present equal opportunities to

both men and women a paradigm shift is required.

21

The Youth tended to suffer from the ‘inexperienced syndrome’ and tend to be overlooked

in relation to access to agricultural credits as they are perceived as a credit risk due to a

number of factors, and yet they are full of ideas, energy and ambition.

3.3 Institutional arrangements

The draft Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy observes a number of

deficiencies as far as effective institutional arrangements are concerned, which mainly relate to

the absence of a coordinating framework that is mandated by law Box 3.3).

Box 3.3 Deficiencies in the institutional arrangements with respect to climate change governance in

Zimbabwe

1. A multi-sectoral National Task Team on Climate Change that is chaired by the Permanent Secretary in

the Office of the President and Cabinet neither has legal mandate to address climate change issues or

coordinate institutions and is not embedded in governance structures that reach the community level such

as the case with the Department of Civil Protection (Disaster Risk Management) which has national,

provincial, district and community level structure.

2. The fact that the National Task Team falls under the Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate

while disaster management falls under the Ministry of Local Government raises coordination challenges.

3. The Early Warning of the Department of the Meteorological Services has for a long time fell under the

Ministry for Transport and Communications. While it now falls under the Ministry of Environment it is

not clear how this assists climate change issues. The Department is more into weather prediction and not

risk prediction and has outdated early warning system.

4. Lack of synergy between the Ministry of Economic Planning which mainstreams climate through the

economic strategies while these are not budgeted for by the Ministry of Finance.

5. Challenges in pollution management where the polluter pays principles and protection of water sources

and water bodies is compromised by lower pollution fines, and poor coordination between various sectors

although the Environmental Management Agency has the overall coordinating role.

3.5 Conclusions

Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into

land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy

frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional

arrangements. It was also highlighted that the macro economic and political conditions that

obtained in Zimbabwe at the moment constrained such a development. All the same there were

useful elements that were captured in the various government documents. The ministry of

22

environment was leading in attempts to formulate climate change policies as part of its

international mandate.

The ministry responsible for agriculture was shown to lacks the drive to mainstream CSA in its

policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent makes it critical that a

clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced rather than the current

situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and departments without strong

coordinating structures. Such a policy framework must contain issues relating to a) best

practices that need to be upscaled, b) financial mobilization for climate change mitigation and

adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural prospects will affect

women and youth, d) effective institutional arrangements, and e) linkages with other sectors.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Summary of findings

4.1.1 Context for climate smart agriculture

A climate smart agriculture policy in Zimbabwe should be assessed and crafted against a

backdrop of the country ‘s biophysical and socio-economic environment. About 60% of the

country receives less than 650 mm of rainfall per year, and in these areas are found about 7

million people whose livelihoods depend on agriculture, which is constrained by poor rainfall,

low soil fertility and weak institutions. High costs of irrigation costs has meant rainfed

agriculture remains the only option of these smallholder farmers, which however rainfed

agricultural production because of negative biophysical and socio-economic conditions. This

situation has resulted in a situation of widespread food insecurity, and explains why research and

development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed agriculture. The

country has a long history of development of technological innovations. However, climate

change poses serious challenges not just in relation to the development of climate smart

technologies and practices, but also developing a climate smart agricultural policy.

The objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of climate

smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe by a) conducting a review of the existing CSA practices

and policies, b) analyzing gaps in the existing policy frameworks, c) identify relevant policy

recommendations, and d) developing and share policy recommendations at national and regional

levels.

4.1.2 CSA technologies and practices

23

There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international

research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known

examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature, which included

research, development, advocacy and training involving germplasm selection (e.g. introduction

and seed multiplication of drought tolerant crops and animal breeds), diversification of crop

production (away from crop types and varieties that are susceptible to moisture stress), animal

production diversification through the promotion of small livestock and breeds that are drought

tolerant, promotion of climate change adaptation-related agronomic practices such as

conservation agriculture, and promoting climate change mitigation agricultural production such

as organic farming, to cite the main ones. The activities were spread practically across the entire

country, and involved thousands of vulnerable households. The list of CSA technologies and

practices that were presented is by no means exhaustive because of time and resource

constraints. The list should therefore be regarded as examples of CSA technologies and

practices. Even the examples are by no means complete. For example there was not enough

information on CSA champions that were highlighted during the validation workshop. All the

same the list is adequate for a scoping study.

4.1.3 Policy framework

Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into

land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy

frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional

arrangements. The macro economic and political conditions that obtained in Zimbabwe at the

moment constrained such a development. All the same there were useful elements that were

captured in the various government documents. The Ministry of Environment demonstrated

leadership in the formulation of climate change policies, which incorporated aspects of climate

smart agriculture. Unfortunately the ministry responsible for agriculture lacked the drive to

mainstream CSA in its policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent

makes it critical that a clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced

rather than the current situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and

departments without strong coordinating structures and linkages with other sectors.

4.2 Recommendations

Since the need of a climate change policy in Zimbabwe was now agreed it was important that

such a policy should capture critical policy elements, which include:

Clarifying the substantive issues around climate change in agriculture vis-à-vis its actual

meaning and what exactly can be said to be climate smart.

24

Identifying key agricultural technologies and production systems across all sub-sectors

that would be showcased as climate smart, which can be based on the champions and

community of practice that were identified during the validation workshop

Identifying and promote supporting information production and dissemination in the

farming community, schools and tertiary institutions

Identifying and promote those agricultural practices (REDD+ inclined) that could take

advantage of international funding such as voluntary carbon credits especially against a

backdrop of widespread deforestation in the country due to tobacco curing

Promote good CSA governance by, among other things, ensuring that there was a

coordinated legal and institutional framework for the enforcement of climate smart

agriculture interventions

Ensuring that the general climate change policy was complemented by a current and pro-

climate smart agriculture agricultural policy, which should include to a) best practices

that need to be upscaled, b) strategies for financial mobilization for climate change

mitigation and adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural

prospects due to climate change will affect women and youth, d) effective institutional

arrangements, and e) show linkages with other sectors.

References

CTA (The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation. 2011 Farming ;’s climate-

smart future: Placing agriculture at the heart of climate change policy.

FAO. 2010. Climate-Smart Agriculture: Policies, practices and financing for food security,

adaptation and mitigation: FAO. Rome.

Fischer, G., Shah, M., Tuibello, F.N., and van Velhuizen. 2005. Socio-economic and climate

change impacts on agriculture: An integrated assessment, 1990-2080. Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences, 360, 2067-2083.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Climate-Smart Agriculture: Ecosystems for

sustainable livelihoods www.fao.org/climatechange/climatesmart.

GOZ (Government of Zimbabwe) (n.d.). Conservation Agriculture Upscaling Framework for

Zimbabwe. MAMIDMinistry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development. Harare.

Government of Zimbabwe. 2013a. National Water Policy, Ministry of Water Resources and

Development, Harare.

25

Government of Zimbabwe. 2013b. Zimbabwe National Climate Change Strategy Response

Strategy, Draft. Harare: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management,

Government of Zimbabwe. 2013c. Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-economic

Transformation. Harare. Government of Zimbabwe.

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2012. Climate-Smart smallholder

agriculture: What ‘s different. IFAD Occasional paper no 3. IFAD. Rome.

International Institute for Environmental and Development (IIED). 2012: Climate change

impacts, vulnerability and adaptation in Zimbabwe: Working Paper no. 3. December 2012.

Mehretu, A. and Mutambirwa, C.C. 2006. Social poverty profile of rural agricultural areas, In:

Rukuni, M., Tawonezvi, P., Eicher, C., Munyukwi, M., and Matondi, P. (Eds.) Zimbabwe ‘s

agricultural revolution revisited. Harare, University of Zimbabwe Publications, 119-140.

MAMID (Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development). n.d.

Conservation agriculture : Upscaling framework for Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Nyabako, T. and Manzungu, E. 2012. An assessment of the adaptability to climate change of

commercially available maize varieties in Zimbabwe, Environment and Natural Resources

Research, 2(1), pp. 32-46. doi:10.5539/enrr.v21p32.

Nyamudeza, P. 1999. Agronomic practices for the low rainfall regions of Zimbabwe. In:

Manzungu, E., Senzanje, A., and van der Zaan P. (Eds.) Water for agriculture: Policy and

management options for the smallholder sector, Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications,

49-63.

Practical Action. 2012. Annual Report 2011/12. Harare.

Rosenzweig, C. and Parry, M. 1994. Potential impact of climate change on world food supply,

Nature, 367. 133-138.

Rukuni, M. 2006. Revisiting Zimbabwe ‘s agricultural revolution. In: Rukuni, M., Tawonezvi,

P., Eicher, C., Munyukwi, M., and Matondi, P. (Eds.) Zimbabwe ‘s agricultural revolution

revisited. Harare, University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1-21.

World Bank, 2011. Climate Smart Agriculture: A call to action. World Bank. Washington DC.

World Bank. 2013. Climate Change and water resources planning, development and

management in Zimbabwe: Draft Issues paper

Zimbabwe. 1996a. Rural District Councils Act [chapter 29: 13]. Government Printer, Harare.

26

Zimbabwe. 1990. Forest Act [chapter 19:05], Government Printer, Harare.

Zimbabwe. 1996b. Urban Councils Act [chapter 29: 25] Government Printer, Harare.

Zimbabwe. 1998. Water Act [chapter 20: 24], Government Printer, Harare.

Zimbabwe. 2001. Traditional Leaders Act [chapter 29: 17], Government Printer, Harare.

Zimbabwe. 2002a. Environmental Management Act. [chapter 20: 27] Government Printer,

Harare.

Zimbabwe. 2002b. Communal Lands Act [chapter 20: 04], Government Printer, Harare.

Zimbabwe. 2012a. Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management,

Harare.

Zimbabwe. 2012b. Comprehensive Agriculture Policy Framework. Ministry of Agriculture,

Mechanisation and Irrigation Development. Harare.

Appendix I. Examples of Climate Smart Agriculture

Soil and nutrient management: Use of cover crops, crop rotations, intercropping, organic fertilization

Pest and disease control: Needs to be re-oriented in the light of new pest and disease regimes

Resilient ecosystems: Improving ecosystems and biodiversity results in better productive and sustainable systems

Genetic resources use and conservation: Efficient and selective use of seed systems, local varieties, diversified

genetic pool, improved crop varieties and animal breeds

Tillage systems: Soil protection through no tillage, minimum tillage, and crop reside management

Water Management: Improved use of available water through terrace and contour farming as well as improve

irrigation efficiency

Water harvesting: Improve efficiency and conservation of moisture, and reduce soil loss reduction through ex

and in situ water harvesting

Agroforestry: Use of trees and shrubs in agricultural crop and/or animal production to improve food security and

has both adaptation and mitigation effects

Improved pasture/grazing management: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Harvesting, processing and supply chains: Efficient harvesting, early transformation of produce and shorter

/efficient supply chains reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Conservation Agriculture: Efficient use and conservation of resources through minimal mechanical soil

disturbance, and maintenance of mulch of carbon-rich organic matter.

Livestock production efficiency and resilience: Increased animal productivity, feed and manure management

contributes to mitigation

Fisheries and aquaculture: Selection of appropriate stock and integration with broader farming systems to

increase adaptation while improved energy, low use of fish meal and fish oil feeds, and low energy fuel efficient

fishing leads to increased mitigation

Urban and peri-urban agriculture: Mitigation achieved through greening of cities which improves air quality

and lowering of temperature while adaptation is achieved through improved food security

Diversified and integrated food-energy systems: Ensuring sustainable energy needs for food production and

other needs leads to food security and mitigation as well as adaptation

Adaptive management: Efficient use of resources that contributes to increased productivity and reduction of

greenhouse gas emissions

Integrated crop-livestock management: Efficient use of resources contributes to increased productivity and

reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Better weather forecasting and use of weather data: Ensures adaptation which leads to increased production

Risk insurance: Ensures that farmers are protected and are resilient

Carbon credits: Carbon markets contribute to overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and improvement in

the incomes of vulnerable groups.

1

Local participation: Promotes good governance which is critical to success of any interventions

Diversified incomes: Puts less pressure on agriculture as a source of livelihood

Sources: Branca et al (2011); FAO (2010); CTA (2011); IIED (2011); IFAD (2012); World Bank (2011)

Appendix II. List of persons consulted during the survey

NAME INSTITUTIONAL

AFFILIATION

POSITION TYPE OF

ORGANIZATION

CONTACT

1. Mrs Danisile

Hikwa

Department of Research &

Specialist Services (DR&SS) of

the Ministry of Agriculture,

Mechanization & Irrigation

Development (MAMID)

Principal Director –

Agronomy Research

Institute

Ministry/ Research dhikwa@africaonline.co.zw

+263 4 704650

2. Mr Reston

Muzamhind

o

MAMID – Mechanization &

Irrigation

Principal Director –

Mechanization &

Irrigation

Ministry/ Research,

Development

restonjustin@yahoo.com

+263 4 797432

3. Dr Isaiah

Mharapara

Agriculture Research Council Director Research imharapara@mango.zw

+263776161977

4. Dr Nelson

Mango

CIAT (Zimbabwe) Research Scientist/

Country Focal Person

International

Research

organization

(CGIAR)

n.mango@cgiar.org

+263772572726

5. Dr Walter

Mupangwa

CIMMYT (Southern Africa) Research Scientist International

Research

organization

(CGIAR)

w.mupangwa@agiar.org

+263773930140

6. Mrs Sepo

Marongwe

AGRITEX/ Zimbabwe

Conservation Agriculture

Network (ZIMCAN)

CA Coordinator Extension/ Research +263772735060

sepomubiana@gmail.com

7. Prof Paul

Mapfumo

Soil Fertility Consortium for

Southern Africa (SOFECSA)/

University of Zimbabwe

SOFECSA Regional

Coordinator

Research/ Knowledge +263712803971

pmapfumo@agric.uz.ac.zw

8. Mr Bernard

Mache

AGRITEX, MAMID Acting Director –

Technical Services

Ministry/ Extension/

Research

+263773289446

bernard.mache@yahoo.com

9. Mrs

Nozizwe

Chigonga

Food & Nutrition Council of

Zimbabwe

Senior Officer Research +263775603846

nhc325@gmail.com

10. Mr Livai

Matarirano

World Agroforestry Centre

(Zimbabwe)

Research Scientist/

Country Focal Person

International

Research

organization

l.matarirano@cgiar.org

+263772922837

2

NAME INSTITUTIONAL

AFFILIATION

POSITION TYPE OF

ORGANIZATION

CONTACT

(CGIAR)

11. Prof Justice

Nyamangara

ICRISAT - Bulawayo Senior Scientist International

Research

organization

(CGIAR)

j.nyamangara@cgiar.org

+263772234965

12. Mr

Dumisani

Kutywayo

DR&SS, MAMID, Agronomy

Research Institute

Director – Crops

Research

Ministry/ Research dumisanikutywayo@yahoo.

co.uk

+263772598903

13. Mr D.

Maringa

DR&SS, MAMID - Seed

Services

Chief Research

Officer –

Ministry/ Research dmaringa@gmail.com

+263777818409

14. Dr Joseph

Sikosana

DR&SS, Livestock Unit Director – Livestock

Research

Ministry/ Research jlns6@yahoo.com

jsikos@yahoo.co.uk

+263 4 704531

15. Mr

Emmanuel

Chikwari

DR&SS, MAMID - Chemistry

& Soils Research Institute

Acting Head Ministry/ Research chikiema@yahoo.co.uk

+263773149791

16. Ms Busi

Olga

Mavhankeni

DR&SS, MAMID, Crop

Breeding Institute

Senior Research

Officer

Ministry/ Research busiolga@yahoo.com

+263 4 704531

17. Mr Mahoya DR&SS, MAMID, Coffee

Research Institute

Senior Research

Officer

Ministry/ Research +263 227 2476; +263 227

2951

18. Mr

Chengetai

Jiri

Oxfam Program Manager –

Sustainable

Livelihoods Dept

NGO(Development/

Research)

cjiri@oxfam.org.uk

+263773584924

19. Ms Veronica

Gundu

Ministry of Environment,

Water and Climate

Senior Officer Ministry + 263 772 496 626

20. Mr Kudzai

Marovanidz

e

Practical Action Senior Officer NGO

21. Mr Eliot

Takaindisa

Lead Trust Chief Executive

Officer

NGO eliot_takaindisa@leadtrust.c

o.zw

+263 712 619 977

22. Mr Bornface

Matimba

Fambidzanai Training Centre Senior Officer NGO matimbabornface@yahoo,c

om

23. MS

Nyakanda

Zimbabwe Organic Producers

and Promoters Association

Director NGO +263 772 491 487

24. Mr Zvareva Seed Cop Manager Private + 263 772 169 722

3

Appendix III. List of Attendants at the validation workshop

Surname Name Gender Institutio

n

Email Contact

Dube Dumisan

i

M ARC dmjdube@yahoo.co.uk 0772211227

Mapika Clemenc

e

M ARC cmapika@mango.zw 0772892318

Munyoro Chivako M Media munyoho@yahoo.com 0736258423

Nyathi Zenzo M Theatre ingxoxoats@gmail.com 0772593897

Chipangura Fortunat

e

F Fisheries 4tuechipy@gmail.com 0772460031

Chisipo Jabulani M Media jabuchi72@yahoo.com 0773211244

Kuchiko Tariro

M.

F UZ tarrycuchico@yahoo.com 0774178964

Zambuko Fadzai F UZ fadzizambuko@gmail.com 0775009970

Grey Darius M UZ deebilly68@yahoo.com 0775019210

Zawe Conrade M Dept of

Irrigation

conradezawe@yahoo.com 0712573170

Mukwende Berean M ZFU bmukwende@zfu.org.zw 0772338089

Nyoni Dumisan

i

M Agritex dumienyoni@yahoo.com 0712517767

Sibanda Edwin M Agritex 0712535251

Poshai Paul M Agritex bphoshai@gmail.com 0773394452

Pambirei Nyasha M Agritex pambireinyasha@yahoo.com 0773941839

Vere Maureen F CWAT waf_zimbabwe@operamail.com 0733388684

Hikwa Danisile F DR&SS dhikwa@africaonline.co.zw

pd.hq@drss.gov.zw

263(4)706960/706

650

0712871140

Chiketa Dorcas F MEF earthfoundzim@yahoo.com 0772935693

Mtambaneng

we

Florence F UZ-SSAE fmtamba@gmail.com 0773284063

Manzungu Emmanu

el

M UZ-SSAE manzungu@mweb.co.zw 0772254231

4

Machiri Didmas M ZCFU manicalandzcfu@gmail.com 0774189378

Kwazira Karsto M FAO karsto.kwazira@fao.org 0773168678

Mharapara Isiah M ARC-

FANRPA

N

imharapara@mango.zw 0776161977

Chivandikwa Nehemia

h

M UZ-

Theatre

nehemiahchivandikwa@yahoo.c

om

0772420296

Gudhlangah Tawanda M ZBC-

SFM

daftgu@gmail.com 0776124495

Tshabangu Lynette F OXFAM ltshabangu@oxfam.org.uk 0772437819

Mupfupi McDona

ld

M MEF

Zimbabw

e

earthfoundzim@yahoo.com 0773461639

Kandawasvik

a

Ruth F UZ rambisai@yahoo.com 0712706855

Wabvuta Gideon M UZ wabvuta@gmail.com 0777401872

Handsome Maseko M UZ handsome.maseko1@gmail.com 0773737658

Ranganakia Amanda F UZ amandaranganowa1990@gmail.

com

0775088994

Ngwenya Hlami F FANRPA

N

Hngwenya@fanrpan.org +27 (0) 79694

1780

Zifamba Coletta F ARC coletta.zifamba@yahoo.com 0772328522

Mateyo Brian M CCOSA bmatza@gmail.com 0712916393

Mutingwende Byron.

A.

M NewsDay byronadmut@yahoo.com 0774037020