a design-based research study exploring student interest
TRANSCRIPT
A design-based research study exploring student interest inan early learning enrichment program
Author
van Aswegen, Ellie Christoffina
Published
2019-11
Thesis Type
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
School
School Educ & Professional St
DOI
https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/212
Copyright Statement
The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise.
Downloaded from
http://hdl.handle.net/10072/389518
Griffith Research Online
https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au
A design-based research study exploring
student interest in an early learning
enrichment program
Ellie Christoffina van Aswegen
B. Soc. Sc., BA Psychology (Honours), B. Ed. (Honours), M.Ed. Educational Psychology
School of Education and Professional Studies
Arts, Education and Law
Griffith University
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
June 2019
II
Abstract
It has been a decade since the Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation
Council (2009) recommended that programs and resources be developed that take advantage
of the sensitive periods for developing skills, preparing young children for formal education.
More recently, a Grattan Institute report called for policy reforms recommending that: all
teachers be provided with practical tools as well as evidence-based techniques and strategies
to create a learning climate and to identify triggers for student disengagement, so they can
adapt and improve their approaches (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017). ‘Student engagement’ has
also recently been positioned as an important outcome in the newly developed Australian
school performance framework (Commonwealth of Australia, 2018, p. 4.12). Engagement
matters because when students are engaged in class, they learn more (Goss & Sonnemann,
2017). In response to these recommendations, this study explored student engagement and
curiosity, the indicators of interest, by designing an enrichment program for the early years.
The enrichment program was based on an educational, biological and psychological
rationale. Montessori's Philosophy of Education and Vygotsky's Social Development Theory
provided a constructivist educational perspective on learning and a framework for
developing the enrichment program. From the biological perspective it focussed on the early
years when young brains are primed for learning with synaptic formation in the prefrontal
cortex at its highest and young children in the sensitive period for language development.
From a psychological perspective, the multiple-intelligences model (Gardner, 1983/2011)
provided a holistic view of the enrichment response and the program curriculum. A broad-
based, content-rich curriculum was delivered via an intentional–constructivist teaching
approach.
Over a period of three years, four-and five-year old children in a pre-preparatory classroom
undertook the enrichment program. The outcomes of this research were derived from three
types of data: questionnaires and tests; observations made from video recordings and photos;
and teacher talk. After three comprehensive cycles of the design-based research process the
enrichment program was designed, evaluated, refined and redesigned. Factors impacting
interest as indicated by engagement (behavioural, emotional and cognitive) and curiosity
were identified and the process of interest development within the program was explored. It
was evident that a range of factors had an impact on engagement and curiosity, providing
III
strategies and evidence-based techniques, most of which could be leveraged to enhance
interest. Exploring the process of interest development in the program revealed that interest
was integral to learning and a key factor in creating a learning culture.
The strength of this research lies in identifying and consolidating the many factors impacting
interest, and incorporating insights into an enrichment program, a practical manifestation of
the research. The research was also able to conceptualise the process of interest development
in an enrichment program addressing an identified gap in early childhood education.
Recommendations associated with practice, policy as well as recommendations regarding
future research initiatives emerged from the findings. This research provides a foundational
step to enhancing early childhood teaching practices that aim to take advantage of the
learning potential of young children.
IV
Certification
I hereby certify this work is original and has not previously been submitted for a degree or
diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no
material previously published or written by any other person except where due reference is
made in the thesis itself.
Signed:
Ellie Christoffina van Aswegen
Date: 1 June 2019
V
Acknowledgements
This thesis was completed by me, PhD candidate, Christa van Aswegen, with the assistance
of my supervisors, Prof. Donna Pendergast, Prof. Peter Grootenboer, and Dr. Suzanne
Garvis, in their supervisory roles as per the Griffith University Code of Practice for
Supervision of Higher Degree Research Students.
I would like to acknowledge the support and participation of many people involved in
making this project possible, in particular Professor Donna Pendergast, my principal
supervisor over the last 7 years of this project. Donna’s input into my research development
over this time has been invaluable. I’d like to also acknowledge the valuable contribution
made by Dr. Suzanne Garvis, my associate supervisor for the first 3 years of the doctoral
journey. Thank you also to Professor Peter Grootenboer who took on the role of principal
supervisor in the last 3 years of the project. His insights into the research project have been
crucial.
I would like to also acknowledge the contribution and support for the project from the
central governing body of Creche and Kindergarten Association Limited (C&K) and the
continued support of the staff at the research site; the directors, in particular Ms Debbie
Nortje, and teachers at the C & K pre-school, in particular Ms Christina Pond, over the 3
years of the research. Staff members were very supportive and offered their opinions on this
topic, informing the development of the research. I would also like to thank all the learners
who took part in the enrichment programs and the parents who participated in the research
process through at-home activities and questionnaires.
Editorial assistance in the form of proofreading was obtained from Elizabeth Stevens.
Finally, thank you to my entire family for their love and support, particularly my husband
Daniel and my three girls, Susanna, Anja, and Christina.
VI
Research output completed during candidature: Journal Articles
Van Aswegen, C., & Pendergast, D. (2015). Evaluating an enrichment program in early
childhood: A multi-methods approach. International Research in Early Childhood Education,
6(1), 38-60.
Van Aswegen, C., Pendergast, D., & Garvis, S. (2014). The implementation of elements of
the Brain Filing Enrichment Program in early childhood: A case study. TalentEd, 28(1/2), 52-
64.
VII
Table of Contents
Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................... II
Certification ............................................................................................................................ IV
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. V
Research output completed during candidature: Journal Articles .......................................... VI
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. VII
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ XII
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... XIV
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Context to the research ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3. Research objective and aim .................................................................................................................... 7
1.4. Research questions ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5. Significance and contribution of this research ............................................................................... 8
1.6. Thesis outline ................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................................. 11
2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2. Interest ............................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3. Educational rationale .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1. The Montessori approach ................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2. Vygotsky's social development theory ......................................................................................... 18
2.3.3. Areas of difference between Montessori and Vygotsky ......................................................... 21
2.4. Biological rationale ......................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1. Early intervention .................................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Attention and engagement .................................................................................................................. 26
2.4.3. Curiosity and interest ........................................................................................................................... 27
2.4.4. Motivation ................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.4.5. Active processing ................................................................................................................................... 28
2.4.6. Mirror neurons ....................................................................................................................................... 29
2.4.7. Existing knowledge base ..................................................................................................................... 29
2.4.8. Making sense of the world ................................................................................................................. 29
2.4.9. Repeated exposure ................................................................................................................................ 31
VIII
2.4.10. Optimal level of challenge ................................................................................................................ 31
2.4.11. Optimum learning times .................................................................................................................. 32
2.5. Psychological rationale................................................................................................................................... 36
2.6. Curriculum ........................................................................................................................................................ 41
2.6.1. Broad-based curriculum ..................................................................................................................... 41
2.6.2 Content-rich curriculum ...................................................................................................................... 43
2.6.3. Arts-based curriculum ......................................................................................................................... 44
2.6.4. Integrated curriculum .......................................................................................................................... 44
2.6.5. Inquiry-based curriculum .................................................................................................................. 45
2.7. Teaching approach ........................................................................................................................................ 45
2.7.1. Constructivist approach ...................................................................................................................... 45
2.7.2. Intentional teaching .............................................................................................................................. 49
2.7.3. Intentional-constructivist teaching approach ........................................................................... 50
2.8. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 3: The Enrichment Program ...................................................................................... 55
3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.2. Teaching approach within the enrichment program ...................................................................... 56
3.3. Curriculum and topics of inquiry ............................................................................................................. 56
3.4. Key components of the enrichment program ..................................................................................... 60
3.4.1. Component 1: Introduction to the topic ....................................................................................... 61
3.4.2. Component 2: Images ........................................................................................................................... 62
3.4.3. Component 3: Objects .......................................................................................................................... 64
3.4.4. Component 4: Audio-visual documentaries ............................................................................... 64
3.4.5. Component 5: Audio-visual stories ................................................................................................ 65
3.4.6. Component 6: Music ............................................................................................................................. 65
3.4.7. Component 7: Drama ........................................................................................................................... 67
3.4.8. Component 8: Books ............................................................................................................................. 68
3.4.9. Component 9: Art-based activities ................................................................................................. 69
3.4.10. Component 10: Play ........................................................................................................................... 70
3.4.11. Component 11: Parental participation ....................................................................................... 72
3.5. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 4: Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 80
4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 80
4.2. Design-based research ................................................................................................................................. 80
4.3. Critical perspective ........................................................................................................................................ 83
4.4. Data collection method ................................................................................................................................ 87
4.5. Four phases of the design-based research ........................................................................................... 87
IX
4.5.1. Phase 1: Statement of the problem and research question .................................................. 89
4.5.2. Phase 2: Framework of the enrichment program .................................................................... 93
4.5.3. Phase 3: Iterative cycles ...................................................................................................................... 94
4.5.4. Phase 4: Exploring interest .............................................................................................................. 115
4.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 116
Chapter 5: Research Findings ............................................................................................... 118
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 118
5.2. Behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement ...................................................................... 119
5.2.1. Cycle 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 119
5.2.2. Cycle 2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 145
5.2.3. Cycle 3 ....................................................................................................................................................... 165
5.3. Exploring curiosity ...................................................................................................................................... 181
5.3.1. Cycle 1A .................................................................................................................................................... 182
5.3.2. Cycle 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 193
5.3.3. Cycle 3 ....................................................................................................................................................... 204
5.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 211
Chapter 6: Discussion ........................................................................................................... 213
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 213
6.2. Behavioural engagement .......................................................................................................................... 214
6.2.1. The ability of teacher and teaching material to harness attention ................................. 214
6.2.2. Structure and expectations .............................................................................................................. 215
6.2.3. The duration of the session ............................................................................................................. 215
6.2.4. Number of key components ............................................................................................................ 215
6.2.5. Optimal engagement time per component ................................................................................ 216
6.2.6. Momentum of the session ................................................................................................................ 217
6.2.7. Addressing disengagement .............................................................................................................. 217
6.3. Emotional engagement .............................................................................................................................. 218
6.3.1 Emotional connection ......................................................................................................................... 219
6.3.2. Humour .................................................................................................................................................... 220
6.3.3. Responsive teaching style ................................................................................................................ 220
6.4. Cognitive engagement ................................................................................................................................ 221
6.4.1. The sensitive period of language and vocabulary development ............................... 222
6.4.2. Cognitively challenging curriculum ...................................................................................... 223
6.4.3. Vocabulary and terminology.................................................................................................... 225
6.4.4. Program content ........................................................................................................................... 226
6.4.5. Learning made explicit and concepts clearly defined ................................................... 226
6.4.6. Categorisation of information ................................................................................................. 227
X
6.4.7. Repetition versus novelty ......................................................................................................... 227
6.4.8. Multisensorial active learning ................................................................................................. 228
6.4.9. Dynamic curriculum .................................................................................................................... 229
6.5. Curiosity ..................................................................................................................................................... 229
6.5.1. Sparking curiosity with information .................................................................................... 230
6.5.2. Providing play provocations in a play-rich environment ............................................ 231
6.5.3. Nurturing curiosity through parental participation ...................................................... 233
6.5.4. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 236
6.6. The process of interest development ............................................................................................ 239
6.6.1. Social interaction .......................................................................................................................... 241
6.6.3. Enrichment program ................................................................................................................... 242
6.6.4. From extrinsic to intrinsic motivation ................................................................................. 243
6.6.5. Cognitive-emotive conceptual category .............................................................................. 245
6.6.6. Awareness, exploration, and learning.................................................................................. 247
6.6.7. Cycle of learning ............................................................................................................................ 248
6.6.8. Worldview ....................................................................................................................................... 250
6.7: Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 251
Chapter 7: Conclusion and Recommendations .................................................................... 253
7.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 253
7.2. The four phases of design-based research......................................................................................... 253
7.3. Summary of research findings ................................................................................................................ 257
7.3.1. Factors impacting engagement and curiosity .......................................................................... 258
7.3.2. Process of interest development ................................................................................................... 259
7.4. Limitations ...................................................................................................................................................... 262
7.5. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................... 263
7.5.1. Practice recommendations .............................................................................................................. 263
7.5.2. Policy recommendations .................................................................................................................. 264
7.5.3. Recommendations regarding research initiatives ................................................................. 264
7.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 265
References ............................................................................................................................ 266
Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 282
Appendix A: Introduction component ......................................................................................................... 282
Appendix B: Images component ..................................................................................................................... 283
Appendix C: Object component ....................................................................................................................... 284
Appendix D: Audio-visual documentary component ............................................................................. 285
Appendix E: Audio-visual story component .............................................................................................. 286
Appendix F: Music component ........................................................................................................................ 287
XI
Appendix G: Drama actions component ...................................................................................................... 288
Appendix H: Drama role play component .................................................................................................. 289
Appendix I: Drama puppetry component ................................................................................................... 290
Appendix J: Books component ........................................................................................................................ 291
Appendix K: Art-based activities component ........................................................................................... 292
Appendix L: Play component ........................................................................................................................... 294
Appendix M: Parental involvement component ...................................................................................... 296
Appendix N: Permission to conduct research letter .............................................................................. 298
Appendix O: Program consent form ............................................................................................................. 300
Appendix P: Photographic and video information sheet .................................................................... 302
Appendix Q: Information letter to parents ................................................................................................ 305
Appendix R: Pre- and post-test ...................................................................................................................... 308
Appendix S: I can spot a flower! activity booklet ..................................................................................... 314
Appendix T: Questionnaire for parents ....................................................................................................... 320
XII
List of Tables
Table 2. 1. The Interrelationship of Educational, Biological, and Psychological Perspectives
................................................................................................................................................ 40
Table 3.1. Topics of Inquiry in the Enrichment Program ...................................................... 57
Table 3.2. Key Components of the Curiosity Learning program ........................................... 60
Table 3.3. Curiosity Learning and the Pedagogical Play Framework .................................... 76
Table 4.1. Research Participants and Data Collection Method .............................................. 95
Table 4.2. Data Collection and Data Analysis Method ………………………………….. 97
Table 4.3. ‘Curiosity Learning’ Programs ............................................................................ 103
Table 4.4. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Arachnids, Scorpions ............................... 104
Table 4.5. The Engagement Continuum - Schlechty ............................................................ 106
Table 4.6. Evaluating Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Arachnids .......... 106
Table 4.7. Evaluating engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Arachnids . 108
Table 4.8. Elements of Emotional Engagement ................................................................... 109
Table 4.9. Elements of Cognitive Engagement .................................................................... 110
Table 4.10. Analysis of Five sessions Curious about Arachnids ......................................... 111
Table 4.11. Analysing Play in Curious about Arachnids ..................................................... 112
Table 4.12. Play in the Curious about Arachnids Program .................................................. 112
Table 4.13. Curious about Arachnids Activity Booklet Questionnaire ................................ 115
Table 5.1. Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 118
Table 5.2. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Countries, South Africa ............................ 122
Table 5.3. Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Countries, South Africa ....... 124
Table 5.4. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Countries ................... 124
Table 5.5. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Countries Program .............................. 126
Table 5.6. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree .............................. 130
Table 5.7. Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree ......... 131
Table 5.8. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree132
Table 5.9. Pre- and Post-Test Knowledge Curious about Trees .......................................... 134
Table 5.10. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Trees Program .................................. 135
Table 5.11. Analysis of Session 4 of Curious about Space, Planets .................................... 138
Table 5.12. Evaluating Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 4, Curious about Space, Planets
.............................................................................................................................................. 139
Table 5.13. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Session 4, Curious about Space, Planets .... 140
Table 5.14. Frequency of Repetition of Concepts ................................................................ 142
Table 5.15. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Space Program .................................. 143
Table 5.16. Analysis of Session 1, Curious about Insects, Butterfly and Moth ................... 147
Table 5.17. Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 1, Curious about Insects, Butterfly and Moth
.............................................................................................................................................. 148
Table 5.18. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Session 1, Curious about Insects ................ 149
Table 5.19. Analysis of 5 sessions of the Curious about Insects Program ........................... 151
Table 5.20. Pre-and Post-Test Knowledge of Types of Flowers .......................................... 155
Table 5.21. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow ........................................... 158
Table 5.22. Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow .................. 160
Table 5.23. Engagement (Gibbs & Proskitt) in Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow ....... 161
XIII
Table 5.24. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Birds Program .................................. 163
Table 5.25. Analysis of Session 1, Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex ............. 166
Table 5.26. Engagement (Schlechty) in Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex ..... 167
Table 5.27. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex
.............................................................................................................................................. 168
Table 5.28. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Dinosaurs Program ........................... 170
Table 5.29. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower ........................ 172
Table 5.30. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower ........................ 173
Table 5.31. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower ...... 174
Table 5.32. Analysis of 5 sessions of Curious about Structures Program ............................ 176
Table 5.33. Play in the Curious about Countries Program ................................................... 182
Table 5.34. Curious about Countries Activity Booklet Questionnaire ................................. 185
Table 5.35. Play in the Curious about Trees Program .......................................................... 186
Table 5.36. Curious about Trees Indicators of Curiosity ..................................................... 187
Table 5.37. Curious about Trees Activity Booklet Questionnaire ....................................... 188
Table 5.38. Play Themes in the Curious about Space Program ........................................... 190
Table 5.39. Curious about Space Activity Booklet Questionnaire ....................................... 191
Table 5.40. Play Themes in the Curious about Insects Program .......................................... 194
Table 5.41. Curious about Insects Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire ............................ 195
Table 5.42. Curious about Insects Activity Booklet Questionnaire ..................................... 196
Table 5.43. Play Themes in the Curious about Flowers Program ........................................ 197
Table 5.44. Curious about Flowers Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire .......................... 198
Table 5.45. Curious about Flowers Activity Booklet Questionnaire ................................... 199
Table 5.46. Play in the Curious about Birds Program .......................................................... 201
Table 5.47. Curious about Birds Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire .............................. 202
Table 5.48. Curious about Birds Activity Booklet Questionnaire ....................................... 203
Table 5.49. Play in the Curious about Dinosaurs Program .................................................. 205
Table 5.50. Curious about Dinosaurs Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire ...................... 206
Table 5.51. Play in the Curious about Structures Program .................................................. 208
Table 5.52. Curious about Structures Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire ...................... 209
Table 5.53. Curious about Structures Activity Booklet Questionnaire ................................ 210
Table 6.1. Optimum Engagement Time per Component ..................................................... 216
Table 6.2. Types of Play in Topics of Inquiry ...................................................................... 233
Table 6.3. Factors Impacting Behavioural Engagement ...................................................... 236
Table 6.4. Factors Impacting Emotional Engagement ......................................................... 237
Table 6.5. Factors Impacting Cognitive Engagement .......................................................... 238
Table 6.6. Factors Impacting Curiosity ................................................................................ 239
Table 6.7. Process of Interest Development ......................................................................... 251
XIV
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. The various components of interest and their derivation from curiosity...……..11
Figure 2.2. MBE Science as the overlap of neuroscience, education and psychology. ......... 24
Figure 2.3. Synapse formation in the prefrontal cortex as a function of age. ........................ 33
Figure 2.4. Sensitive period in language development. ......................................................... 34
Figure 3.1. Sequential model of key components in the Curiosity Learning program. ......... 75
Figure 4.1. Research phases and cycles ………………………………………………….…88
Figure 4.2. Engagement and curiosity as indicators of interest. ............................................. 91
Figure 4.3. Phase 1 in design-based research. ........................................................................ 92
Figure 4.4. Phase 2 in design-based research. ........................................................................ 93
Figure 4.5. Phase 3 in design-based research. ........................................................................ 94
Figure 4.6. Phase 4 in design-based research. ...................................................................... 116
Figure 5.1. Child diagnosed as ASD showing interest in the program. ............................... 121
Figure 5.2. Child diagnosed as ASD demonstrating attentiveness....................................... 129
Figure 5.3. Pre-test and post-test Curious about Trees. ....................................................... 133
Figure 5.4. Pre-test and post–test drawing results for Curious about Insects. ..................... 151
Figure 5.5. A flower as the Object component. .................................................................... 154
Figure 5.6. Pre-test and post-test drawings in Curious about Flowers. ............................... 155
Figure 5.7. Puppet show as the Drama component. ............................................................. 170
Figure 6.1 The connectivity of factors impacting interest. ................................................... 213
Figure 6.2. Meditating child ...…………………………………………………………….225
Figure 6.3. Play-rich environment as the product of a stimulus and provocation ………...231
Figure 6.4. Process of interest development. ........................................................................ 240
Figure 6.5. Object and image components sparking interest. .............................................. 242
Figure 6.6. Cognitive-emotive conceptual category. ........................................................... 245
Figure 6.7. Cycle of learning………………………………………………………............249
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Introduction
At the outset of this research some interesting questions were raised: Are educators making
the most of the early years when children are in the sensitive periods for learning? Are
young children being underestimated in terms of their ability to develop interest in topics not
usually associated with this age group? Will it be of value to young children to have interest
in a range of topics? What role does interest play in learning? How will an early learning
enrichment program promoting interest in a wide range of topics look? All these questions
were reflected upon when the research project was considered. This project originated at a
time when there was significant community discussion and governmental inquiry on how to
improve Australia’s educational performance (Pascoe & Brennan, 2017). This chapter
provided the context for the project and highlighted the impetus for this research. The
research objective and aim and the research questions were stated. Finally, the significance
and contribution of this project were presented, and a thesis outline given.
1.2. Context to the research
For more than a decade there has been a sense of urgency regarding the transformation of
learning in Australia. This was evidenced by interest at the highest political level in the
country with the report from Prime Minister’s Science Engineering and Innovation Council
(PMSEIC, 2009) advocating for proactive responses to the significant advances made in the
understanding of the psychology of learning, as well as the neuroscience underpinning the
mechanisms for learning. The Council indicated that there was no time like the present to
utilise these advances (PMSEIC, 2009). The PMSEIC report documented emerging
knowledge from the science of learning and how this might enhance the learning potential of
individuals in the future. Furthermore, it recommended that programs and resources be
developed that recognise the important role that parents play in the education of young
children, that assist parents to take a proactive approach to their children’s early learning,
and that take advantage of the sensitive periods for developing skills (PMSEIC, 2009). The
PMSEIC (2009) report was a key reference as it provided the impetus for this study. In
direct response to these recommendations, an early learning enrichment program promoting
interest was designed, evaluated, and refined through design-based research, thereby
allowing interest development to be explored.
2
Ten years later the issue was yet to be addressed, despite the fact that other researchers had
been working in this space and that the literature had moved on. In the time that the research
was ongoing, projects had started to emerge, affirming this research, such as the Conceptual
Playworld (Fleer, 2011), a model of intentional teaching where young children are invited to
go on imaginary journeys, meet and solve challenges, and learn STEM concepts.
Other projects and programs have been working in this field for decades, such as Project
Zero, a research centre at Harvard Graduate School of Education founded in 1967 that
explored topics in education such as deep thinking, understanding, intelligence, creativity,
and ethics (Alvarado, 2017), the Reggio Emilia approach, a student-centred and
constructivist educational philosophy beginning in the 1970’s, that uses self-directed,
experiential learning (Katz, 1993) and the International Baccalaureate Primary Years
Programme, founded in 1968, where students are asked to look at look at six related themes
and to consider the links between them. The themes include: ‘who we are’; ‘where we are in
place and time’; ‘how the world works’; ‘how we express ourselves’; ‘how we organise
ourselves’; and ‘sharing the planet’. Each theme is addressed each year by all students and
students aged 3 to 5 engage with four of the themes each year.
These approaches and research findings from the past decade are in agreement that the first
years of life are a critical period of intense learning for children, providing the foundation
for later academic and social success (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015). If
Australia is to live up to its aspirations of being innovative, it also needs to pay serious
attention to the learning that occurs before children enter primary school (Krieg, 2015).
Fortunately, the recommendation by the PMSEIC has not come too soon. It has been 40
years since the completion of the 13-year Harvard University Preschool Project (1965-78), a
study of early development looking at how experiences during the early years influenced the
development of language, curiosity, social skills, and cognitive intelligence. The American
researchers concluded that high-quality educational experience, during the first years of life,
is required if children are to develop to their full potential (White, Kaban, & Attanucci,
1979). The Head Start project was developed in response to the research conducted by the
Harvard University Preschool Project and twenty-five years into the Head Start project, a
review showed promising results as the children who had been through the program were
more likely to academically outperform children in the control group (Bruner, 1996). More
recently, the Abecedarian Project, a long-term controlled study, was undertaken by the
University of North Carolina. Young children from low-income families received early
3
intervention in a high-quality childcare setting (Jensen, 2006). The study showed that the
enrichment response continued over a long period of time with the experimental group
achieving higher mental test scores through to age 21, enhanced language skills, consistently
higher achievement scores, moderately higher mathematics achievement scores, greater
likelihood to be in school at age 21, greater likelihood to attend a 4-year college, and less
likelihood to have trouble with the legal system. A broader picture emerged of a long-term
enrichment response, making a long-term impact on the subjects and on society. Pascoe and
Brennan (2017) also referred to the broader impacts of high-quality early childhood
education, linking it to higher levels of employment, income and financial security,
improved health outcomes, and reduced crime.
A high-quality preschool program also produces long-term economic payoff. The value of
investing to ensure that all children get the best start in life is increasingly evident to
governments around the world. Key to this focus has been the acknowledgement that
investment in the early years, in both time and money, has been shown to be far more cost
effective than investments made at any other time (Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare, 2015). According to a cost-benefit analysis conducted by the U.S. National
Institutes of Health, an early education program for children from low-income families is
estimated to generate $4 to $11 of economic benefits over a child's lifetime for every dollar
spent initially on the program. The analysis revealed that the greatest benefits were realised
among those who joined the program earliest. When projected over a lifetime, economic
benefits of the program amount to nearly $11 for every dollar spent, which corresponds to an
18% annual rate of return on the original investment. This implies considerable potential
financial savings, both to the individual and to society (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human
Services, 2011). High-quality early education programs are a good investment in society and
the economy. Quality early childhood education should be considered as an investment, not
a cost (Pascoe & Brennan, 2017). The Australian National Curriculum persuasively argued
that investing in high-quality early education programs brings far greater returns to society
and the economy than interventions later in life (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and
Reporting Authority, 2012). This confirmed that providing children with a firm foundation
of quality early childhood education is an economically sound investment. According to
Gunn (2016), the road to college attainment, higher wages, and social mobility starts at birth.
The greatest barrier to college education is not high tuition fees or the risk of student debt; it
4
is in the lack of skills children have when they first enter kindergarten. High-quality early
childhood education has the potential to change all of that.
Regardless of these studies, Bruner (1996) stated that even with the new knowledge gained,
a comprehensive approach to early education had not yet been formulated. Halfon, Russ,
Oberklaid, Bertrand, and Eisenstadt (2009) made an international comparison of early
childhood initiatives and found that, despite evidence of how much the early years
contribute to educational attainment, there was still no clearly articulated U.S. policy on this
most important period of life.
According to Halfon et al. (2009), the US is not the only country to struggle with early
childhood policy directions. In England, the government launched Sure Start in 1999, which
eventually established more than 500 local programs in some of England’s poorest areas to
deliver integrated family support, early learning, and play experiences for children under the
age of 4 years. British family policy had changed over the last decade, which indicated that
the British government accepted the evidence on the importance of the early years for future
health and prosperity. The strength of Britain's commitment to this route is evident by
considerable budget provision for Sure Start (Halfon et al., 2009).
In Australia, the Government committed to providing all children with access to an early
childhood education program from 2013. These programs were delivered for 15 hours a
week, 40 weeks a year, in the year before full-time schooling (Australian Government,
2012). The National Early Childhood Development Strategy is a policy that provides, for the
first time, a shared vision for the development of young children in Australia: that by 2020,
all children have the best start in life. This vision is based on the acceptance of clear
evidence that the early years of a child’s life are very important for their future development
(Council of Australian Governments, 2009).
All three countries, the USA, England, and Australia, were no longer ignoring the value of
the formative years. They were recognising the importance of the early years and were
trying to find solutions that address the issues. Halfon et al. (2009) stated that each of these
countries was in the process of creating and developing systems that are likely to evolve and
improve over time. The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians
(Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2008) outlined
a commitment to strengthening early childhood education. The need to establish foundation
learning – socially, physically, emotionally, and cognitively – as well as to support a
5
successful transition to school, is reinforced by the consequent likelihood of students who
access quality early childhood education staying in school, engaging in further education,
and participating in work and community life as adults. The Australian National Curriculum
also stated that it is very important that the significant ways in which education in the early
years lays the foundation for young children’s current and future learning success be
established. The Australian Government announced a “productivity agenda” in 2007 to
strengthen the economy through increased investment in social and human capital. An
“education revolution”, seen as central to increasing national productivity and improving the
quality of early childhood education and care, was recognised as a core strategy to achieve
these aims (ACARA, 2012, p. 8). UNICEF’s World Bank Group (2016) also urged greater
investment in early childhood development, stating that advances in neuroscience and recent
economic studies showed that early childhood experiences have a profound impact on brain
development and on subsequent learning, health, and adult earnings. UNICEF and the World
Bank Group viewed early childhood development programs as a critical foundation for
equitable development and economic growth and they were inviting governments to make
early childhood development a global and national development priority. It was an exciting
time to be involved in early childhood education and to be a part of the Australian
Government's vision of an education revolution. As Jensen, (2006, p. 275) argued, "We have
the research; it's time for action". The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) marked this
time as a point in Australia’s history when supporting young children’s learning had become
a national priority (ACARA, 2012).
Despite these good intentions, key findings from Victoria University Mitchell Institute
(Lamb, Jackson, Walstab, & Huo, 2015) were not promising. It reported that a quarter of all
Australians missed out on key education milestones: they were not prepared for school and
they did not meet minimum literacy and numeracy levels in Year 7. The Commonwealth
Orange Book stated that, compared to similar OECD countries, Australia spent slightly less
on education and did slightly worse (Daley, Duckett, Goss, Norten, Terrill, Wood, & Coates,
2019). According to a report of the Review to Achieve Educational Excellence in Australian
Schools through Early Childhood Interventions (Pascoe and Brennan, 2017), Australian
school students’ performance in national and international assessments had declined, despite
funding increases. The latest research made it clear that the most critical learning capacities
develop before children even start school and if they do not get appropriate learning at that
time, they are behind for the rest of their lives. The report stated that language is the
6
foundation for learning, but many Australian children were not receiving adequate language
stimulation in their early childhood. A report by The Mitchell Institute on educational
opportunity in Australia (Lamb et al., 2015) found that over a fifth of all Australian children,
at the time they enter school, were not meeting the milestone at entry to school and were not
yet ready to take full advantage of the opportunities to learn. They were not getting the
critical learning capacities such as language which is the foundation for learning. The
Mitchell Institute made it clear that our education system needed to recognise and include
early childhood development as essential and take the professional development of teachers,
at all levels, much more seriously. To achieve this, the critical importance of high-quality
early childhood development had to be recognised (Lamb et al., 2015). High-quality, early
childhood education needed to be guaranteed for all children, as ensuring that all children
have access to high-quality preschool learning opportunities played an important role in
reducing socioeconomic inequalities that exist when children start school (UNICEF Office
of Research, 2018).
Supporting young children's learning was not only a good investment in Australia's future: it
was also a priority (AIHW, 2015). If Australian society believed in developing the learning
potential of children, it would have to cultivate that potential, recognising that the inquiring
minds of young learners constitute an asset. The development of programs that can engage
young learners and promote interest had the potential to make a unique contribution in this
new and challenging field. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
(2015), education programs of high-quality curriculum content can predict children’s
performance in cognitive and social assessments with universal consequences for the child’s
development. Quality education is vital for a prosperous Australia and educators must seek
out every avenue to provide children with the best quality education. A Grattan Institute
report called for policy reforms recommending that all teachers be provided with practical
tools and evidence-based techniques and strategies to create the learning climate and to
identify triggers for student disengagement, so they can adapt and improve their approaches
(Goss & Sonnemann, 2017). Student engagement had also recently been positioned as an
important outcome in the newly developed Australian school performance framework
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2018). Engagement matters because when students are
engaged in class, they learn more (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017).
It is in this context that is was decided to explore interest in the early years by developing an
enrichment program that promotes interest. An education enrichment program is defined as
7
a program with a range of strategies designed to broaden or deepen learning and may
involve exposure to new subjects that are not usually associated with an age group (Bentley,
2000). Introduction to new topics through an enrichment program would allow interest
development in the early years to be explored.
1.3. Research objective and aim
The objective of this research was to respond to the challenges put forward by the PMSEIC,
the Grattan Institute, and the Commonwealth of Australia. By exploring interest in an
enrichment program, the factors that impact engagement and curiosity in the enrichment
program could be identified, providing evidence-based techniques and strategies for
cognitive, behavioural, and emotional engagement as well curiosity.
The aim of the research was therefore the design, evaluation, and refinement of the
enrichment program through multiple cycles of design-based research, to promote interest in
a range of topics, allowing interest to be explored. Exploring interest in the enrichment
program would provide a response to the two key research questions that shaped the study,
namely what factors have an impact on student interest and how student interest develops?
They were important questions as there had been renewed focus on the role of interest in
students’ motivation and engagement (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Interest in this
research would be evaluated by viewing two indicators of interest, namely: cognitive,
behavioural, and emotional engagement; and curiosity. Insight into the process of interest
development and where it is positioned within the enrichment program as well as an
understanding of what factors impact engagement would potentially provide evidence-based
techniques and strategies for educators.
1.4. Research questions
From the research objectives an overarching research question emerged: How does
participation in an enrichment program impact student interest? The research question was
explored by considering two sub-questions:
What factors have an impact on student interest in the early years?
How does student interest in the enrichment program develop in the early years?
The indicators of interest are engagement and curiosity; therefore, interest would be
explored in terms of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement, as well as in terms
of curiosity, to determine the factors that have an impact on engagement and curiosity. The
8
process of interest development and where interest is positioned within the enrichment
program would be explored. These factors guided the design of the enrichment program.
1.5. Significance and contribution of this research
This research had the potential to contribute to the Australian education revolution where
improving the quality of early childhood education was recognised as a core strategy to
achieve increased national productivity (ACARA, 2012) and where there was an acceptance
of clear evidence that the early years of a child’s life are very important for their future
development (COAG, 2009). By exploring interest, this research addressed an identified gap
in early childhood education: a lack of evidence-based data consolidating the factors
impacting interest development in the early years and the process of interest development in
the early years, indicating where interest is positioned in the learning process. This research
provided a foundational step to enhancing teaching practices where generating interest is
viewed as key to learning.
The outcomes of this research could benefit educators, as the many factors impacting
interest had been identified and consolidated. By incorporating insights into an enrichment
program, the enrichment program was refined though design-based research, providing a
practical manifestation of the research. Evidence-based data were provided on how young
children could be cognitively, behaviourally, and emotionally engaged and how their
curiosity could be sparked, encouraging them to develop interest in a range of topics.
The research conceptualised the process of interest development and where it is positioned
in the learning process. By understanding the process of developing interest, teachers can
leverage interest to effectively enhance teaching and learning practices with young children.
1.6. Thesis outline
Chapter 2, Literature Review, provided an educational, biological, and psychological
rationale for the design of an enrichment program that promotes interest. Montessori's
philosophy of education and Vygotsky's social development theory provided a constructivist
educational perspective on learning and a framework for developing an enrichment program
that promotes interest. From the biological perspective it wass evident that young brains are
primed for learning, with synaptic formation in the prefrontal cortex at its highest in the
early years and with young children being in the sensitive period for language development
(Nagel & Scholes, 2016). A biological rationale, including understandings from the science
of learning and the neuroscience underpinning the mechanisms for learning, was described.
9
From a psychological perspective, the multiple-intelligences model (Gardner, 1983/2011)
provided a reference for types of enrichment that could occur. The educational, biological,
and psychological rationale informed the conceptual framework for the design of the
program: a broad-based, content-rich curriculum delivered via an intentional–constructivist
teaching approach.
Chapter 3, Enrichment Program, described the teaching approach, the topics of inquiry
within the curriculum, and the key components of the program. The curriculum proposed for
the enrichment program, a broad-based, content-rich curriculum, provided children with a
“big picture” of the world, enhancing their sense of connectedness and enabling them to
make sense of the world. A sequential model of the key components was utilised in the
program.
Chapter 4, Research Methodology, outlined the methodological design of this research,
design-based research, which was critically reviewed. Design-based research was ideally
suited for conducting design experiments in education with the goal of solving an authentic
problem situated in education today. The four phases of the design-based research were
discussed, including three iterative cycles of testing, during which the enrichment program
was evaluated and refined. The participants and the data collection methods applied in this
research were described. The outcomes of this research were derived from three sets of data:
questionnaires provided to parents; pre-and post-tests undertaken by students; and
observations made via video material and photos, field notes and teacher talk.
Chapter 5 detailed the research findings. Interest in this research was evaluated by viewing
the following two indicators of interest: engagement (behavioural, emotional, and
cognitive); and curiosity. The research was separated into three cycles. In each cycle five
topics were delivered, with each topic being presented over five sessions conducted over a
2-week period. Findings made in each cycle allowed the program to be refined to optimise
engagement and curiosity in the following cycle.
Chapter 6, Research Discussion, crystallised the research findings. The research provided
evidence that interest in the enrichment program was impacted by a range of factors. These
factors were discussed in terms of how they influenced engagement (behavioural,
emotional, and cognitive), as well as curiosity. As behavioural, cognitive, and emotional
engagement are intrinsically linked, the factors influencing them are also connected. The
10
process of how interest developed within the enrichment program was discussed, providing
insight into where interest is positioned within the learning process.
Chapter 7, Conclusion and Recommendations completed the research thesis and provided
recommendations associated with practice and policy well as recommendations regarding
future research initiatives that emerged from the findings.
1.7. Conclusion
This research project has tried to address some of the questions related to interest
development in the early years that were asked at the outset of the research. Engagement and
curiosity, the indicators of interest, were specifically explored and interest development was
described in the exploration of interest in the enrichment program. This introductory chapter
provided a background to the research and identified the research objective and aim and
research questions that guided the project. The significance and contribution of this research
were discussed, and the remaining thesis chapters outlined. Chapter 2, Literature Review,
offered a review of the literature surrounding learning and interest in the early years.
11
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1. Introduction
To provide a foundation of understanding from the literature in order to frame this study, the
fields of interest and learning in the early years were examined. The literature review
considered what interest is and how it is positioned within early learning. Two widely
accepted educational approaches, Vygotsky's social development theory and the Montessori
approach, were explored, including the areas of difference between the two approaches and
whether they can form a conceptual framework to support the design of an enrichment
program promoting interest. Current biological perspectives on learning were examined with
the intention of drawing on neuro-science principles in the design of an enrichment program
that promotes interest. From a psychological perspective, Gardner’s multiple-intelligences
model as a reference for the types of enrichment that could occur was explored.
2.2. Interest
Current research and insight into interest development had been mounting. Research on the
science of interest, how it can be cultivated, and how it is beneficial to learning was growing
(Paul, 2013). Being interested, absorbed and involved in something was described by Paul as
a cognitive and an affective state of engagement consisting of both knowledge and emotion.
It implies a predisposition to engage repeatedly with the particular topic; therefore, it also
has a behavioural aspect as demonstrated by the tendency to engage. Interest, therefore, has
a behavioural, a cognitive, as well as an emotive component.
It was widely accepted that interest contributes to success in learning (Holinger, 2016;
Nagel, 2012b). Interest was also linked to a range of factors such as attention, engagement
and curiosity (PMSEIC, 2009). The Science of Learning which describes advances in
understanding of the psychology of learning, as well as the neuroscience underpinning the
mechanisms for learning, identified curiosity and interest as one of eleven factors that
contribute to learning (PMSEIC, 2009). This is discussed later in this chapter.
“Being curious” and “taking an interest” are similar, with the difference being that interest
encompasses curiosity. Curiosity tries to answer a specific question whereas interest is
searching for lots of information (Hidi, 2016). This relationship is represented in Figure 2.1.
12
Figure 2.1. The various components of interest and their derivation from curiosity.
Curiosity and interest are both important factors contributing to the success of early learning.
Nagel (2012a) described the human species as innately curious with a desire to learn, but
most curious in the earliest stages of life as they work on making sense of the world. He
likened children to scientists, for they tend to be goal oriented, inquisitive, exploratory,
experimental, and driven. As they approach their fourth birthday, children become
increasingly independent, inquisitive, and engaging, and they ask many questions about
everything around them. According to Robinson (2013), curiosity is a key principle that
drives human life.
Montessori and Vygotsky both made valuable contributions to how interest can be viewed
(Bodrova, 2003). Montessori referred to the “natural” interest that children have in learning,
while Vygotsky viewed interest as being shaped by the people and cultural artefacts that
makes up the child’s environment. Their views on interest and learning will be discussed
further in this chapter.
From the literature it was concluded that interest is directly linked to curiosity, with interest
encompassing curiosity. Interest has a behavioural aspect as demonstrated by the
predisposition to engage with the topic; a cognitive aspect, meaning it is accompanied by
some form of knowledge about the topic of interest; and an emotive aspect, as the interested
individual experiences emotion (Paul, 2013). Whether interest is helped to flourish or is
constricted has an impact on the child’s learning; therefore, interest can be viewed as key to
learning. Although the literature defined what interest is, it was not clear what factors impact
interest, how interest develops and where it is positioned in the learning process. As interest
was explored via an enrichment program in this research, an educational rationale for the
program was discussed. An enrichment program is defined as an educational program that is
Curiosity
- asking specific
questions
Behavioural Component
Cognitive Component
Emotive Component
Interest
- searching
for lots of
information
13
used to broaden potential (Pam, 2013). It complements and enriches the existing curriculum,
expanding topics or looking at them in more depth. Enrichment is often used in association
with gifted children, children who have the potential to perform at levels significantly
beyond what is expected for their age (Gross, 2004) but this research was not aimed at gifted
children, but at all children. Enrichment is defined as the act of enhancing the quality of
something and making it more meaningful or valuable, a desirable educational aim
according to the National Survey Report (1996). In education it means enhancing learning
and it describes learning activities that expand and add depth to a child’s knowledge.
2.3. Educational rationale
The researcher had a background in studying Montessori’s philosophy of education,
providing a starting point to finding an educational rationale for the enrichment program.
Montessori's (1870-1952) philosophy of education was considered to be “progressive
education” in Australia (Duchesne & Mc Maugh, 2016). Another widely accepted
educational rationale which has withstood the test of time was Vygotsky's social
development theory. These two pedagogical approaches have areas of differences as well as
similarities which informed a conceptual framework supporting the design of an enrichment
program that promotes engagement. This literature review first discussed the pedagogical
principles of the Montessori approach.
2.3.1. The Montessori approach
The Montessori approach in Australia is part of the experienced-based, constructivist, child-
orientated progressive education movement (Duchesne & Mc Maugh, 2016). Montessori’s
insights about the way children learn and develop are confirmed by scientific research which
provides astounding support for her major insights (Lillard, 2016). Principles of the
Montessori approach that have contributed to the conceptual framework supporting the
design of an enrichment program are: the absorbent mind; the importance of the early years;
the prepared environment; sensitive periods; multi-sensory learning; repetition; the role of
the educators; and a cosmic vision of human life (Montessori, 2007; Seldin, 2007).
The absorbent mind: Gettman (1987) claimed that the most basic principle in Montessori's
theory of education is that the learning capacity of a young child is fundamentally different
from that of an adult. Montessori (2007) believed that children have an inborn motivation to
learn and have “absorbent minds”, the ability to unconsciously soak up information from
their environment and learn at a rapid rate. According to Montessori, children have a natural
14
desire to learn and work and they have remarkable learning systems; preferring to learn than
simply be entertained or amused. They do not think of work as unpleasant and are constantly
looking for new things to do that are harder and more challenging. Montessori investigated a
young child's ability to acquire its mother tongue and used this as an example of the
absorbent mind in action. She observed that a young child is able to absorb not only words
and their meanings, but also sentences. She compared the child's ability to “absorb”
language with the way in which an adult learns a new language, saying that adults do not
have the same ability as children do. Children learn without even realising that they are
learning, and the learning occurs without effort or strain, no matter how complex it might
appear to us (Montessori, 2007).
Importance of the early years: According to Montessori (2007) the most important period
is not the period of tertiary education but the period from birth to the age of 6. She viewed
the early years as the richest years important in the development of intelligence. Montessori
believed that these years should be utilized by education in every possible and conceivable
way. She saw it as the duty of educators to cultivate the early years with the upmost care,
arguing that wasting this period can never be compensated.
The prepared environment: The prepared environment, according to Montessori (2007),
makes learning materials and experiences available to children, thus encouraging
independent active learning. Children are free to explore materials of their own choosing
within the prepared environment. The function of the school, according to Montessori
(1988), is to supply the child with interesting information and motives for action. The
Montessori method capitalises on student interest by designing materials in which children
are naturally interested and allowing them to pursue activities that they find interesting
(Lillard, 2016).
Sensitive periods: Montessori recognised that children go through sensitive periods in
which they are primed to learn. These sensitive periods are stages of intellectual interest and
curiosity in which children become intrigued and absorbed by aspects of their environment.
Each stage represents a learning opportunity which, if taken advantage of, can influence the
child's development. Seldin (2007) described a sensitive period as a period during which
children learn new things, master new skills, or develop aspects of their brain's abilities
painlessly and almost subconsciously. He referred to the importance of these periods and
says that if children are not exposed to the right experience at the right time, the opportunity
15
to learn will pass. The skills can still be learnt, but now require hard work and drill.
Therefore, learning languages is relatively easy for young children, but more difficult for
adults. According to Montessori the second sensitive period is for language acquisition and
lasts from 3 months of age to about age 5 and a half (Gettman, 1987).
Multisensory learning: According to Montessori, children learn best when they can utilise
all their senses. Babies interact with the world around them through their senses from the
moment of birth. Montessori believed that educators can build on this and encourage young
children to focus their attention on the physical world, exploring with each of their senses.
Developing sensory awareness by drawing attention to aspects of everyday life or through
specific sensorial activities is especially valuable in the early years when the nervous system
is developing. O’Connor (2012) pointed out that play integrating the senses is vital at this
age. Children’s cognitive development and brain activity is mostly sensually stimulated by
engaging the senses of smell, touch, taste, sound and sight. Activity experienced through the
senses internalises the learning within the child so that it is remembered on a deep level
throughout the body as well as the brain. Children form neural pathways in the brain which
“hard-wires” them to learn later in life (Seldin, 2007). Montessori (2007) believed that the
mind of the child cannot be reached by verbal instruction alone. She valued the real-life
experiences in learning and found that activity was the one factor which stimulated and
produced development in children. Seldin (2007) confirmed that although books are
wonderful, the best way for children to learn is by doing things as no book can replace the
value of spending time closely studying the real thing. Books and other cultural materials
help children to pull these powerful impressions and experiences together in their minds, but
the foundation needs to be laid in direct observations and hands-on experience.
Repetition: Young children enjoy repetition and will seek repetition of the same stimuli
many times over, according to Montessori (2007). Gettman (1987) explained that each
impression slightly alters the child's perspective, so that even the same stimulus appears
slightly different each time. In contrast, the adult whose perception remains essentially
unchanged finds the repetition of previously assessed stimuli to be tedious.
Role of educators: Montessori believed that it was role of all educators, parents and
teachers, to spark interest. Seldin (2007) stated that Montessori was convinced that the
human potential with which all children are born can only develop if adults provide them
with the right stimulation during the first few years of life. Montessori (1988) viewed
16
teachers as custodians of the school environment, ensuring that school is a place of comfort
and peace where all resources are kept in perfect condition. The teacher’s presence is also of
importance to Montessori as she saw it as the first step to gaining the child’s confidence and
respect. The teacher must entice the children to be curious by being amusing, lively, and
cheerful, ultimately helping them to become independent learners.
Cosmic vision of human life: A key Montessori idea is that children are stewards of the
earth and must learn to care for places near and distant, such as rainforests and ice caps, and
to preserve them for the future. They should have a cosmic vision of human life and be
orientated to the world and the universe. Seldin (2007) stressed the importance of teaching
children a reverence for life, of seeing themselves as part of the web of life, dependent on
the delicate balance within the natural world for their existence and needing to treat every
living thing with care. Fostering a sense of compassion and connectivity connects with the
views of Russell (1925) who said that knowledge is necessary but not enough, as children
should be guided by knowledge and inspired by love. Armstrong (2010), too, argued for
practical compassion, saying compassionate thinking should be taught. UNESCO
recommended that an early childhood education should include context-sensitive and
culturally relevant content; content that fosters caring attitudes and empathy towards the
natural environment and people living in other parts of the world; and learning about respect
for diversity (Pramling Samuelsson & Kaga, 2008). According to Kienbaun (2014), teaching
compassion and empathy towards people means connecting to other cultures and
appreciating people who are different from their own. Teaching compassion is integral to
healthy socialisation, as the ability to sympathise with another person’s pain or distress as
well as to react to positive emotions like joy may be the most important bases for
interpersonal relationships.
Within the Montessori method of education, according to Seldin (2007), children are also
encouraged to see humanity as part of a global family. This is undertaken by introducing
them to different places in the world and to different cultures. Children learn to live in peace
and harmony with all people at an age when they have yet to encounter attitudes that breed
fear and prejudice. They see that all people share the same needs and have more things in
common than divide them. The differences among people stem from different cultural ways
of meeting these same needs. Rather than fearing those differences, children can come to
understand and appreciate the cultural richness and diversity that defines people. The
17
Montessori curriculum provides children with a global perspective on the world and children
see that all subjects are interrelated and that everything in the world in connected.
Within Montessori's theory of learning, learning is described as occurring in three basic
stages, namely, absorbing, acting out connections, and application (Gettman, 1987):
● The first stage is absorbing, via the absorbent mind. Absorbing can occur naturally
over many months, or it can be intentionally provided in a few minutes. For full
absorption to take place concentration is required as it will not work if the child is
distracted. This absorption creates a motivation for further learning.
● The second stage of learning consists of repeatedly acting out connections between
the absorbed phenomena, which for the young child usually involves physical
activity. This stage binds, through repeated and controlled activity, the previously
absorbed phenomena into a unified concept.
● The third stage of learning is the conscious application of the concept to tasks and
situation. The object of this stage is to make the concept meaningful for the child by
giving it a purpose in the child's daily life.
Gettman (1987) describes learning within the Montessori approach as the connecting of
existing knowledge within in a larger system of knowledge so that new knowledge can be
placed within that system.
The Montessori educational method has existed for over 100 years, but evaluations of its
effectiveness are scarce (Marshall, 2017). According to Flavin (2017) the Montessori
approach is not without its shortcomings, the less structured ‘child-led’ curriculum creates
room for some children to miss out on key learnings and the focus on self-direction and
independence, collaboration is not a student practice that is addressed well in the Montessori
curriculum. It may therefore be better suited to independent, self-motivated children.
Despite possible shortcomings, the principles of the Montessori method – the absorbent
mind; the importance of the early years; sensitive periods; the prepared environment;
multisensory learning; repetition; the role of the parents; role of the teacher; and a cosmic
vision of human life; as well as Montessori’s theory of learning, provided a starting point in
finding an educational rationale for an enrichment program. The question that arises is how
this educational rationale compares to another widely accepted constructivist educational
rationale, Vygotsky's social development theory.
18
2.3.2. Vygotsky's social development theory
Vygotsky is a social constructivist whose social development theory stated that the child's
social and cultural environment affects cognitive development and that learning occurs
through the interaction of skilled adults and through social interaction with peers (Vygotsky,
1978). According to Schunk (2008), Vygotsky stressed the interaction of social, cultural-
historical, and individual factors as key to human development.
Vygotsky's principles of pedagogy with the social development theory are now discussed.
Smidt (2009) described five principles of pedagogy, namely: all learning is social; cultural
values and cultural tools are vital to successful learning; learning takes place through
experience; many modes of learning should be considered; and the zone of proximal
development.
Learning is social: The first principle of pedagogy is that all learning is social (Vygotsky,
1978). He believed that although children can learn new skills and knowledge individually
or on their own, it is through their interaction with others that they learn much more. “Every
function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). Within this theoretical framework,
knowledge and understanding are socially constructed between the child and others.
Teachers and parents have an interactive role and help to scaffold the child's learning. While
the term “scaffolding” is often attributed to Vygotsky, it was Bruner (1996) who coined the
term in the mid-1970s. He described how adults interact with children to help them solve
problems and master tasks beyond their immediate capability; therefore, relationships are
very important because it is through the interaction between the child and educators and the
use of cultural tools such as language, symbols, music, and art that learning takes place.
Educators need to ensure that opportunities for interaction between children and between
children and adults are planned for and exploited (Smidt, 2009). Schunk (2008) pointed out
that interactions with persons in the environment stimulate developmental processes and
foster cognitive growth.
Vygotsky also placed great importance on the value of imitation, considering imitation as
one of the basic paths of cultural development of the child. He pointed out that it is not
mechanical, automatic, thoughtless imitation, but the imitative performance of some
intellectual operation that is reasoned and based on understanding (Zaretskii, 2009).
Through imitation the child can achieve intellectual actions far beyond what he or she is
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capable of independently. A culture of learning is created through these social interactions.
Building a culture of learning within the class or setting is important as this will develop an
ethos that values sustained shared attention, respect for one another, and the use of cultural
tools, in an environment in which questioning, seeking answers, and making things are
embedded (Smidt, 2009).
Cultural values and tools: The second principle of pedagogy is that knowledge of and
respect for cultural values and cultural tools is vital to successful learning. Cultural tools
refer to objects, signs, and systems within communities that assist thinking such as language,
symbols, music, and art. Language is the most powerful of all cultural tools and is an
important way in which ideas and thoughts are shared and meaning negotiated. Children
should also be offered opportunities to explore and represent things in ways other than
words. Giving children access to these cultural tools allows them to make sense of their
world (Smidt, 2009). Vygotsky (1987) referred to the “mature concepts” that children
acquire as everyday events and the scientific merge, that help children to understand the
world. Johnston and Nahmad-Williams (2009) stated that there is a strong interrelationship
between language and thought and that speech is a tool developed in a social context which
becomes a vehicle for thought. According to Schunk (2008), a critical component of
psychological development is mastering cultural tools such as language, counting, and
writing, thinking through them and ultimately using them to self-regulate thoughts and
actions; therefore, language is a mental tool that can control intellectual activity. Initially its
function is social, but it is gradually internalised as inner speech used for self-regulation
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016).
Experience: The third principle of pedagogy states that learning takes place through
experience. Vygotsky (2004) stated that that the richer the child’s world and experiences, the
richer their imagination will be because experience provides the material from which
imagination is constructed. This suggested, according to Edwards (2017), that the educator
should create a culture-rich environment for children by providing materials for open-ended
exploratory play as well as providing modelled and purposefully framed opportunities.
Content knowledge should be viewed as part of the rich reality provided for children and
opportunities for discussing and connecting existing and new information and ideas should
be made available. For younger children, the activities should offer first-hand and direct
experience to allow for the development of an understanding of everyday concepts. Children
should also have opportunities to create and use symbols which enable them to think
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abstractly. All experiences are valuable, and children can learn from all their experiences
(Smidt, 2009). According to Schunk (2008), the way learners interact with their worlds and
the people, objects, and institutions in it transforms their thinking. The meanings of concepts
change as they are actively linked with the world. Bruner (1996) described children as active
learners who are actively creating their own knowledge.
Many modes of learning: The fourth principle of pedagogy is that many modes of learning
should be considered. Although play may be the dominant mode of learning for young
children, other modes of learning are to be considered. The search is to find something
which will motivate children, offer them a cognitive challenge, and allow them to get deeply
involved in what they are doing. Playing, appreciating (hearing stories, listening to music,
watching moving images, examining still images), and representing (painting, drawing,
modelling, making music, writing, dancing, role playing) are all powerful ways of learning
(Smidt, 2009).
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): The ZPD, the fifth principle of pedagogy, is the
“distance” between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development
under adult guidance (Vygotsky, 1978). It refers to the gap between what the child can do
unaided and what the child might do with help. Potential refers to what the child might be
able to do with help. According to Chaiklin (2003), the notion of a learner's potential
inspires the idea or expectation that it will be possible to accelerate or facilitate a child's
learning, if the zone can be identified properly. The child is challenged within proximity to,
yet slightly above, their current level of development. Learning activities need to generate
cognitive stimulation and challenge rather than being comfortably within the reach of the
learner’s current processing capability (Adey, Csapo, Demetriou, Hautamaki & Shayer,
2007). Schunk (2008) described the interaction occurring between child and educator rather
as reciprocal teaching than scaffolding. Where scaffolding is more one-sided, reciprocal
teaching is a dynamic, multidirectional interaction.
Bodrova (2003) claimed a child's ability to function at a certain level might be limited not
only by this child's innate intellectual abilities but also by the lack of appropriate educational
experiences. Without proper instructional assistance, a child might be functioning at a level
lower than he/she can perform. Bodrova argued that it is the role of the parents to help the
child move from the performance level to the potential level. The role of the educator is to
provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and
21
advancing their individual learning. This can be undertaken through many modes of
teaching, such as listening, making and sharing meaning, observing, giving feedback,
modelling, answering, and offering resources. By experiencing the successful completion of
challenging tasks, the child gains confidence and motivation to embark on more complex
challenges. Vygotsky (1987) stated that teaching is only of benefit to the learner when it
moves ahead of development and when it does, it impels or awakens a whole series of
functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in development. According to Chaiklin
(2003) one attraction of the idea of the ZPF in relation to educational practices is that it
provides a distinctive perspective for conceptualizing the relation between human learning
and development. The ZPD is a supported zone where we move students from where they
are comfortable but not increasing their development, to the space where it's a bit beyond
them but with guidance, they can be challenged into development. Schunk (2008) stated that
it is more than simply accelerating processes that would have developed anyway. The ZPD
refers to new forms of awareness that occur as children interact with people and culture.
Another interpretation concerning the ZPD is that it illustrates how children can enact
situations within their play that they cannot sustain outside of their play (Chaiklin, 2003).
For example, a child can pretend to save a whale entangled in a fishing net, while this may
not be possible outside their play.
Vygotsky's social development theory connects with Montessori’s theory of learning as
Vygotsky contributed to the development of constructivist theory (Jaramillo, 1996); the
Montessori theory of learning is also constructivist to the extent that she regards the child as
constructing and transforming the environment through his or her own activity (Elkind,
2003). Areas of difference between Vygotsky and Montessori were discussed next.
2.3.3. Areas of difference between Montessori and Vygotsky
Bodrova (2003) described both Montessori and Vygotsky as constructivists as they both
believed that children construct their own knowledge and do not simply mirror what is being
taught to them. Whether Vygotsky was a constructivist was questioned by Fleer (2011).
Vygotsky’s view of learning is considered to be constructivist because of his view that
knowledge is constructed by the individual. However, Vygotsky emphasis of roles the
mediator or the able persons (for example teachers, parents, and the society) on the
development of knowledge through scaffolding such as corrections, feedbacks, supports and
guidelines, and the use of tools such as language and symbols. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the
22
role of mediator in his theory, makes this theory not a constructivist but rather
constructionist, as learning through others has a constructionist flavour.
Bodrova (2003) identified key areas of difference where Montessori and Vygotsky did not
share the same viewpoint.
Natural interest vs. shaped interest: For Montessori, construction primarily takes place
within a child as this child "unfolds" his or her natural interest in learning. This view of
learning determined her approach to instruction: she considered the preschool years to be the
period of discovery, where children engage in the projects they choose and discover things
in the areas of their own interest. The adult role, according to Montessori, is to direct the
process by making sure that when each child displays both readiness and interest, he/she is
given an opportunity for discovery (Bodrova, 2003). In contrast, for Vygotsky, other people
and cultural artefacts that make up the child's environment do more than simply modifying
what is coming from within the child: they shape both the content and the nature of this
child's emergent mental functions. Vygotsky proposed a different type of learning, better
described as assisted discovery, where the child integrates the results of his/her independent
discoveries with the new knowledge taught in a systematic and structured way (Bodrova,
2003).
Language building vs. language expressing higher functions: Vygotsky attributed great
importance to language and its role in child development. For Vygotsky, language is both
the most important cultural tool and the medium that makes the acquisition of other cultural
tools possible. His approach to language development is different from the views of
Montessori (2007), who viewed language as a way to express higher mental functions rather
than the way to build them. Unlike Montessori, who believed that children should be
introduced to the verbal labels for specific perceptual attributes (colours, sizes, etc.) only
after they acquire differential perception of these attributes, Vygotskians argued that early
association between the perceptions and their names makes this differentiation possible
(Bodrova, 2003).
Play vs. exploration of objects: Montessori and Vygotsky also had different views on the
role of make-believe play. Montessori did not consider play as important as other learning
experiences. In contrast, Vygotsky did not see exercises in practical life or exploration of
objects as having nearly the same value for the development of young children as make-
23
believe play. For Vygotsky, play is one of the most critical learning experiences (Bodrova,
2003).
Although differences exist between the two approaches, Vygotsky's social development
theory and the Montessori approach, both make valuable contributions to an understanding
of learning in the early years. The viewpoints of Montessori and Vygotsky regarding the
development of interest are not mutually exclusive. Both viewpoints, natural interest and
shaped interest, are compatible and can be integrated to form a broader understanding of the
development of interest. Similarly, their perspectives on language and play, although
different, each make a valuable contribution to understanding the role of language and play
in childhood development.
As child-orientated constructivist education movements are considered in Australia to be
progressive (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016), it was worthwhile to explore how they fit in
with new information about the brain and cognitive processing. This provided a different
perspective and a biological rationale regarding learning.
2.4. Biological rationale To truly understand how the brain maintains the human intellect and learning is a daunting
challenge. Epstein (2016) stated that it is not merely the current state of all 86 billion
neurons and their 100 trillion interconnections that must be considered, but also the
uniqueness of each brain and the impact of strong emotions. Despite limited knowledge,
neuroscience techniques are accelerating understanding of how the brain works, with
imaging technologies that identify brain areas and the relationships among them underlying
psychological processes central to education, including learning, memory, attention, and
reasoning (Nagel & Scholes, 2016).
Slowly improved technology and research advances were providing new knowledge about
the brain, cognitive processing, and human motivation that were driving current
transformational changes in teaching and learning (PMSEIC, 2009). Examples of research
advances in these areas were neuro-imaging techniques showing brain development; new
knowledge indicating that learning can be enhanced by better adaption and understanding of
sensitive learning periods; and existing technology assisting us to understand how
effectiveness of information processing is strengthened by appropriate early experience
(PMSEIC, 2009). The discoveries in neuroscience had brought education and psychology
24
together in a multidisciplinary field known as mind, brain, and education (MBE) science,
educational neuroscience, or neuro-education, where educators were using neuroscientific
research to improve teaching and learning (Churchill et al., 2016). Neuro-education, or
educational neuroscience, is the study that links understanding of how the brain functions,
motivation, and the practice of teaching with the goal of grounding education more solidly
in research on learning and teaching (Fischer, Goswami, & Geake, 2010). Tokuhama-
Espinosa (2010) described the multidisciplinary field of MBE science as the coming
together of three disciplines – psychology, neuroscience, and education – in educational
neuroscience (see Figure 2.2) with all three fields contributing to the new discipline’s
research, practice, and policies.
Figure 2.2. MBE Science as the overlap of neuroscience, education and psychology.
Source developed from PMSEIC (2009).
Educational neuroscience offered evidence-based solutions to problems in education; for
example, synapse formation in the prefrontal cortex being at its highest between the age of
12 months and 6 years supporting the view in education that the early years are the most
important learning years, while continued synapse formation throughout a person’s lifetime
supports the theory of neural plasticity, overthrowing the notion that the adult human brain
is fixed and unchanging (Doidge, 2010). Understanding of how the brain works and what
enhances and hinders learning were offering educators important insights (Churchill et al.,
2016) allowing teachers to use information from neuroscience and psychology to improve
the teaching and learning processes (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2010). Educational
25
neuroscientists defined learning on a neurological and on an information-processing level.
On a neurological level, learning is defined as a process of strengthening and weakening
connections between sets of neurons within the brain (PMSEIC, 2009). The connections
become stronger when they are used and weaker when they are not used. Begley (2011)
stated that the more one practises, the better one will get. On an information-processing
level, learning is defined as a process of encoding incoming information, storing encoded
information in long-term memory, and retrieval of stored information to generate a
representation or to produce a learned behaviour (PMSEIC, 2009). According to Epstein
(2017), the information-processing metaphor of learning should not be viewed literally but
seen to describe the learning. Learning, according to both definitions, is dependent on
environmental stimuli.
Advances in understanding of the psychology of learning, as well as the neuroscience
underpinning the mechanisms for learning, have identified 11 factors contributing to
learning: early intervention; attention and engagement; curiosity and interest; motivation;
active processing; mirror neurons; existing knowledge base; making sense of the world;
repeated exposure; optimal level of challenge; and optimum learning times. These are
discussed in the light of compatibility with Montessori and Vygotsky’s theories of
education.
2.4.1. Early intervention
The importance of early childhood intervention was now being accepted, as the correlation
between educational outcomes and influences in early childhood were recognised. The early
childhood environment is a major predictor of cognitive ability (PMSEIC, 2009). According
to Nagel (2012a), early experiences have a decisive impact on the architecture of the brain,
with interaction between the child and the environment being an integral requirement of
brain development. Sensory experiences in the early years of life determine brain
development and function which, in turn, influences intelligence, literacy, behaviour, and
mental and physical health. Stamm (2007) also pointed out that the connections in the brain
which are ultimately retained are initially shaped by early experiences. According to
Montessori (2007), the most important period in the development of intelligence is the
period from birth to the age of 6.
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2.4.2 Attention and engagement
Paying attention to new information, focussing upon it, and sustaining engagement with it
for a period is critical for effective learning (PMSEIC, 2009). Jensen (2006) stated that it is
essential to pay fixed attention to the task as the less attention that is paid to the stimulus, the
less learning occurs. The problem with engagement is the quantity of competing stimuli.
When the number and range of stimuli exceed the amount that can be processed, students
must select the stimulus to which they will pay attention (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016).
The cognitive information-processing theory pointed out the important role of sustained
attention or engagement in memory. This theory identifies three memory stages: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Driscoll, 2005). Sensory memory
holds information associated with the senses, such as vision and hearing, just long enough
for the information to be processed further. It usually lasts mere seconds. As the sensory
memory is limited in capacity and time, attention determines which stimuli are processed in
working memory and which are encoded into long-term memory (Duchesne & McMaugh,
2016). Short-term memory or working memory is where further processing is carried out to
make information ready for long-term memory. Long-term memory is a permanent
storehouse of information, capable of retaining an unlimited amount and variety of
information. To move information from sensory memory to working memory, attention
must be payed to it. Sustaining attention can be challenging for young children (Duchesne &
McMaugh, 2016).
Driscoll (2005) identified several factors influencing ‘attention’ and ‘engagement’, such as
the meaning that the task or information holds for the individual and whether it is
significant, competing stimuli that divide attention, the complexity or difficulty of the task,
and the ability of the individual to control attention which differs with age, hyperactivity,
intelligence, and learning disabilities.
The PMSEIC report (2009) identified a crucial gap in knowledge and recommended that
further research be undertaken in the designing of learning tools and techniques able to gain
and sustain the attention of children. Knowledge from neuroscience and cognitive
psychology studies of attention can be used to design techniques and tools for the
development of selective and sustained attention skills in children, and to study their effects
on learning (PMSEIC, 2009).
27
2.4.3. Curiosity and interest
The curiosity and interest of young children are important factors contributing to the success
of early learning. Learning appears to occur most readily when motivated by curiosity and a
desire to understand (PMSEIC, 2009). According to Robinson (2013), curiosity is a key
principle that drives human life. New experiences and novelty have a direct impact on
curiosity. Stamm (2007) described curiosity as the brain's need to make sense of every new
experience. On a primal level the brain is making an initial "friend or foe" assessment. Once
the brain assesses that the stimulus is safe and that it will not cause personal harm, the
biological process of habituation begins. The neurons reduce the number of sensory
branches sprouted and "relax" the need to explore the input further. Once the image/object
has been categorised in the mind, attention quickly moves on to the next novel thing.
Montessori and Vygotsky both placed value on the importance of interest. Montessori
referred to the natural interest that young children have that will “unfold” in a prepared
environment where they are “enticed” and given the opportunity to discover (Bodrova,
2003). In contrast, Vygotsky placed more value on the importance of people and cultural
artefacts that make up the child's environment to shape interest (Bodrova, 2003).
2.4.4. Motivation
A key factor that shapes learning is the motivation of the individual to learn. Fortunately,
young children are spontaneous, active learners, driven by the desire to solve problems and
reach new goals (Jensen, 2006). Robinson (2013) described children as natural learners.
Most children begin school with positive attitudes to learning that act as a powerful internal
motivation to learn. Young children are constantly applying and extending their knowledge
in a way that is meaningful for them in the process of negotiating their environment.
Although young children have a natural curiosity and drive to learn, they are also motivated
by success and mastery of skills (PMSEIC, 2009).
Porter (2005) described the following motivating factors in learning:
● Appropriate levels of challenge: Children will be motivated when they believe that
they are likely to be successful at a task and when they can attribute success to their
own efforts rather than to external factors such as luck. This is an affirmation of
Vygotsky’s ZPD where the child is challenged within proximity to, yet slightly
above, their current level of development (Chaiklin, 2003).
28
● Belief that the content of learning is worthwhile: Children are more motivated to
do a task if it is self-fulfilling and if they believe that achieving it will contribute to
competence and benefit them in some way in the future.
● Interest: Interest is motivational. Children will be more motivated to do a task if
they are interested in it and if it is fun for them. A blend of excitement and calm
("serious fun") is regarded as motivating.
● Caring learning environment: Parents, family, and social support have a major
influence on how children perceive learning and what their attitude is towards
learning. Emotionally supportive learning environments where educators give
authentic and informative feedback about efforts facilitate learning and develop a
learning culture where learning is valued and supported. The emotional climate is a
motivating factor as children are more likely to take emotional risks within a caring
learning environment where parents and educators are supportive. Montessori also
indicated that it was the role of all educators, parents and teachers, to develop interest
and that the responsibility to teach does not lie only with the teachers (Seldin, 2007).
2.4.5. Active processing
A key aspect of encoding learning is the active processing of information, with active
processing in working memory being a prerequisite for storage into long-term memory
(PMSEIC, 2009). Jensen (2006) stated that enrichment from doing rather than observing
others produces greater results. Students who watch an interesting and engaging activity, but
who are not actively participating, are not likely to show as great an enrichment response as
the human brain is highly experience dependent. Free play is one way to actively process
information as it allows children to experience the pleasures associated with movement,
creativity, and relationships, a neurobiological feature, according to Winter (2010). Wolfe
(2001) confirmed that a concrete experience is one of the best ways to make strong, long-
term neural connections. Real-life, authentic experiences engage more of the senses and use
multiple pathways to store and therefore more ways to recall information. Therefore, what is
experienced is better than what is heard or read. Active processing through authentic
experiences implies multisensory learning. Learning will be enhanced if information is
presented via different senses (Medina, 2008). This connected with Vygotsky’s (2004) view
that learning takes place through experience and with Montessori’s (1988) belief that the
mind of the child cannot be reached by verbal instruction alone; she held the view that
children learn best when they can utilise all their senses. She valued the real-life experiences
29
in learning and found that activity was the one factor which stimulated and produced
development in children (Seldin, 2007).
2.4.6. Mirror neurons
By merely observing the actions or behaviour of other people children are already learning.
When observing the actions of another, an ensemble of neurons is activated in the observer.
The ensemble includes the same population of neurons that would be used if the observer
were to carry out the observed action, and are called mirror neurons (PMSEIC, 2009).
Thomson (2011) stated that these neurons act in the same way whether an action is
performed or whether someone else is performing the same action. The implication of this
finding is that demonstration and modelling of actions or behaviour is a valuable learning
tool. The same population of neurons is activated when a child observes an action and when
the child carries out the action. Vygotsky was not familiar with the modern concept of
mirror neurons, but he placed great value on imitation and considered imitation as one of the
basic paths of cultural development of the child. Through imitation, the child can achieve
intellectual actions far beyond what he or she is capable of independently (Zaretskii, 2009).
2.4.7. Existing knowledge base
An important factor that shapes learning is the knowledge base of the individual. Existing
knowledge provides the basis on which new learning builds and helps determine where to
focus attention when encountering new information. This underlines the importance not only
of developing a wide knowledge base, but also of developing deep understandings of
concepts, principles, and key ideas that assist learners to structure knowledge and to make
sense of new information (PMSEIC, 2009). Hardiman (2003) noted that the degree of
familiarity with the information presented affects learning as children are more likely to
remember information that connects with pre-existing knowledge. Curricula are designed to
build on existing knowledge with the presumption that children have a solid base of existing
knowledge from which to work, unfortunately, many children do not have a broad
knowledge base as what the learner already knows varies greatly from child to child
(PMSEIC, 2009).
2.4.8. Making sense of the world
Ormrod (2011) pointed out that people continuously strive to make sense of what is
observed, heard, and experienced in their immediate environment. They are predisposed to
make sense of the world and of their place within it. This predisposition is a powerful
driving force. Pre-schoolers ask a lot of “why” and “how” questions that reflect their desire
30
to make sense of their world and expand on their understandings of what causes what and
why things are the way they are. Pieces of information obtained from the environment are
used to construct a general understanding of what is happening.
One way to make sense of information is through categorisation, or “patterning” and
“chunking” information together into a single meaningful unit. Hardiman (2003) described
the brain as constantly searching for meaning to make sense of the mountains of sensory
input it continually processes. This process of searching for meaning is known as patterning
where the brain categorizes stimuli into concepts that are either familiar or novel and then
combines these concepts to create new patterns of thinking about and understanding the
world. When children are presented with new information, the brain uses prior knowledge as
a filter to establish meaning and relevance. According to Duchesne and McMaugh (2016),
chunking leads to the development of schemas or units of knowledge within which
knowledge is stored that forms a linked network of knowledge and ideas. Modern schema
theory (Anderson, 1984; Rumelhart, 1980) stated that all knowledge is organised into units
or schemata. A schema is a cognitive framework or a concept that helps organise and
interpret the vast amount of information in the world. Schemata represent all our knowledge:
knowledge about concepts, situations, events, actions, and experiences. Everyone’s schema
is unique, influencing attention and the absorption of new knowledge as people are more
likely to notice things that fit into their schema. New information that falls within an
individual's schema is easily remembered and incorporated into their worldview, while new
information that does not fit into a schema may not be comprehended or comprehended
correctly and is often ignored or forgotten. However, when the new information cannot be
ignored, existing schemata must be changed, or new schemata must be created. Schemata
tend to remain unchanged, even in the face of contradictory information. Meaningful
clusters of words and concepts create a self-teaching device that supports independent
learning (Neuman & Wright, 2013).
As the children’s understanding of a topic develops, one phrase might bring up a network of
associated ideas from long-term memory. According to Medina (2008), the brain pays a
great deal of attention to the question, “Have I seen it before?” as things that have been seen
before are better remembered. He described people as natural pattern matchers, constantly
assessing the environment for similarities. Deep learning therefore occurs when children can
recognise patterns in information and grasp underlying big ideas with strategies such as
chunking information or linking several items of information with knowledge already stored
31
in long-term memory, thus enhancing the efficiency of working memory (PMSEIC, 2009).
Cognitive processing theory points out that working memory capacity may be increased
through the process of chunking and learning tasks should be organised so that they can be
easily chunked by the learner (Driscoll, 2005). Hardiman (2003) stated that brain-targeted
teaching provides children with “big picture” ideas and then breaks the ideas into connected
“concept” chunks that relate prior knowledge to new information. The Montessori
curriculum provides children with a global perspective on the world, a cosmic vision of
human life and an orientation to the world and the universe (Seldin, 2007).
2.4.9. Repeated exposure
The basis for learning is repeated exposure to a variety of experiences. Exposure to similar
objects and events in different contexts allows the concept to be elaborated (PMSEIC,
2009). Cognitive processing theory describes maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
(Driscoll, 2005). Maintenance rehearsal is the repetition of information to maintain it in
short-term memory and elaborative rehearsal allows information to reach long-term memory
(Driscoll, 2005). Also known as encoding, elaborative rehearsal refers to the process of
relating information to concepts and ideas already in memory in such a way that the new
material is more memorable (Driscoll, 2005). Repeated exposure is more effective when it is
spread out or distributed over time (McInerney, 2014). According to Nagel (2012), the brain
will create new connections when there is new learning, but these connections must be
reinforced and strengthened, or they deteriorate. He pointed out that repetition or rehearsal is
important to learning and that children are more likely to repeat pleasurable activities which,
in turn, leads to remembering and learning from these repetitive behaviours. From a
neurological view, repetition strengthens synaptic connections and stronger connections
mean better neural connectivity. This means that the brain can spend more energy on new
learning and the refinement of other synapses. Practise not only makes perfect; it makes
connectivity permanent. Montessori (2008) shared the view that children enjoy repetition
and will seek the repetition of the same stimuli many times over. An important
consideration, however, according to McInerney (2014) is that repetition on its own is not as
effective in terms of retention. It needs the attention of the learner as well as the interest of
the learner to be most useful.
2.4.10. Optimal level of challenge
Learning is most effective when there is an optimal level of challenge (PMSEIC, 2009). It is
most likely to occur when an individual is presented with challenges just beyond their
32
current level of attainment, in what Vygotsky (1978) referred to as the ZPD, the region of
just manageable difficulties where students can succeed, but often only with the support of
others. Jensen (2006) viewed this optimal level of challenge as a coherent complexity
somewhere in the middle between boredom and chaos. The brain does not mind complexity
and thrives on busy environments, but problems arise with unintelligible data or chaos, on
the one hand, or with boredom on the other. Brains do poorly with boredom but generally
thrive on some level of stimulation. Begley (2011) stated that taking up a new, cognitively
demanding activity improves intelligence as it is more likely to boost processing speed,
strengthen synapses, and expand or create functional networks.
2.4.11. Optimum learning times
In addition to the factors for facilitating learning, there are recognised age-related optimum
learning times for young children. These optimum learning times, or “windows of
opportunity”, were originally referred to as “critical periods”. The term is used less
frequently now, because it has since become clear that some recovery of function may be
possible even outside the time window of highest sensitivity. These optimum learning times
are now referred to as “sensitive periods” (Fuhrmann, Knoll, & Blakemore, 2015).
Montessori also recognised that children go through sensitive periods in which they are
primed to learn. These sensitive periods are stages of intellectual interest and curiosity in
which children become intrigued and absorbed by aspects of their environment. Each stage
represents a learning opportunity which, if taken advantage of, can influence the child's
development. Seldin (2007) described a sensitive period as a period during which children
learn new things, master new skills, or develop aspects of their brain's abilities painlessly
and almost subconsciously.
Biological and neurological descriptions of optimal learning times to the production of
myelin, fatty material that insulates the axons of neurons (Nagel, 2012a). Myelin aids in the
transmission of information from one neuron to another and the more 'myelinated' axons
there are, the greater the opportunity for neural information to be passed more efficiently. It
is therefore easier to learn and do a task when regions of the brain are sufficiently
myelinated. These periods of myelination represent prime times for learning and are also
referred to as 'learning windows'. Doidge (2010) described the crucial role of brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which reinforces changes in the brain during the critical period
when BDNF turns on the nucleus basalis, the part of the brain that allows attention to be
focussed and the nucleus basalis is kept on throughout the entire critical period.
33
Jensen (2006) described the receptive brain state, measured in terms of cycles per second
(CPS) of brain wave activity, as characteristic of very young children that makes the brain
especially open to learning at a young age. The slowest brain state is delta as found during
deep sleep and coma, too subdued for learning. Theta is half-awake and half-asleep, alpha is
an alert, but calm state and beta is a state of activity or excitement. Both alpha and beta
support learning, but the brain may be analytical, unable to focus or even critical of the new
learning. Theta is the state in which the brain is most receptive and young children up to the
age of five spend most of their waking hours in this state. Theta is most conductive for
uncritical, undisputed downloading of information. Young children are therefore effectively
downloading their culture and the world they are living in all day. Although Montessori
(2007) did not have a biological understanding of brain activity, she observed this receptive
period, naming it the ‘absorbent mind’ of young children.
Diamond and Hopson (1998) relates optimal learning times to neural sculpting, the natural
pruning process that occurs within the brain. Connections among well-used brain cells are
strengthened while unused cells are weakened and pruned. Therefore, if the brain does not
receive environmental stimulation by a certain age, learning will occur less easily or not at
all. Figure 2.3 provides a visual representation of synapse formation in the brain as a
function of age, based on data taken from a report by the PMSEIC (2009). This diagram
illustrates that synapse formation in the prefrontal cortex is at its highest between the age of
12 months and 6 years. The prefrontal cortex is regarded as the site of higher functions, such
as language, intelligence, and consciousness (Greenfield, 2000).
Figure 2.3. Synapse formation in the prefrontal cortex as a function of age.
Source developed from PMSEIC (2009)
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With even greater specificity related to learning and age, the Council for Early Childhood
Development (2010) noted the sensitive or critical period for language development for
young people aged to 7 years (see Figure 2.4). A sensitive period for language is a period
when young children pick up new sounds and words effortlessly, simply by hearing them.
By the age of 1 year the sensitive period for language has already peaked. It remains on a
high level up till the age of 2 years, when it slowly begins to decline.
Figure 2.4. Sensitive period in language development.
Source developed from CECD (2010).
The concept of window of opportunity, referring to a sensitive period in a child's
development when optimal learning is best achieved, has emerged from brain research
(Hardiman, 2003). Doidge (2010) noted that during a critical period, the cortex is so plastic
that its structure can be changed just by exposing it to new stimuli. Blakemore and Frith
(2005) also stated that the ability to learn is enhanced in this period and that, in the absence
of sensory stimulation, particular forms of learning may never occur adequately. From the
neurobiological evidence the importance of early intervention is evident. Nagel (2012a)
acknowledged that although the learning window for language lasts approximately 10 or 11
years, the most intense and opportune period within this window is the first 6 or 7 years and
pointed out that this timeframe requires plenty of talking, reading, and social interaction.
Fuhrmann et al. (2015) described early childhood as the first period of heightened
malleability. It is notable that while learning windows represent optimum learning times, the
windows never close completely and there do not appear to be any capacities that are
completely lost with age (Nagel, 2012a). Adults can always learn new things, but for
children some of these things come more easily; for example, a child will learn more than
35
one language in a bilingual environment, but the same measure of instruction comes much
more easily to the child than to the adult (Nagel, 2012a). Wolff and Brandt (1998) stated that
adult learners can learn to speak a new language or learn to play an instrument, but the
learning will be slower and more laborious and if the phonology of the new language is not
heard in early life, the adult learner will likely speak with an accent.
The early years are critical in the development of neural pathways in the brain, as the young
brain is super dense and primed for learning. IQ is positively correlated with total cerebral
volume in children and there is little change in total cerebral volume after the age of 5 years
(Reiss, Abrams, Singer, Ross, & Denckla, 1996). A child's brain contains 50% more
synapses than an adult brain. These excess synapses provide the raw material on which
experience can act to shape a child’s mental abilities (Oliver, 2007). Goupil, Romand-
Monnier, and Kouider (2016) found that 20-month-old babies are already capable of
practising metacognition. In trying to understand how young children can learn so quickly
and so much from so little, Schulz (2015) found that they can draw conclusions from very
little information, with even babies capable of making generalisations. Four-year-olds can
figure out the entire world and hold a conversation about almost anything, an ability
underlying all cultural learning. This information is relevant to parents and to anyone else
interested in early education as parents need to know that their children are capable of
learning and questioning from an extremely young age, and they need to support their
child’s exploration and questioning.
These findings from educational neuroscience support the view that the early years are the
most important for developing interest, because the brain is at its most malleable and
impressionable, providing some justification for the constructivist theories of Montessori
and Vygotsky. This research therefore focussed on exploring interest development in the
early years, specifically aimed at children aged 4 and 5, when they are in the first period of
heightened malleability (Fuhrmann, Knoll, & Blakemore, 2015), when synaptic formation in
the prefrontal cortex is high (PMSEIC, 2009) and they are still in the sensitive period for
language development (Council for Early Childhood Development, 2010), even though it is
on the decline. Fundamentally this research was about trying to make the most of the early
years when children are in the sensitive periods for learning. As this research falls in the
domain of MBE science, a psychological rationale for enrichment and the enrichment
program is also provided.
36
2.5. Psychological rationale
The psychological rationale for enrichment or enhancing learning is based on the model of
multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983/2011). There is no standard definition of what exactly
constitutes intelligence as some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a general
ability, while others believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and
talents. Project Zero from Harvard Graduate School of Education challenged the popular
view that intelligence is fixed, general, and can be measured by standardized linguistic and
logical tests. Project Zero put forward to the field of educational psychology a radical view
that intelligence is a learned ability and a set of multiple intelligences were developed
(Alvarado, 2017). Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences emerged, a theory
describing nine distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities that are valued in
different cultures, providing a reference for types of enrichment that can occur.
Gardner (1983/2011) identified nine distinct domains: logical-mathematical, linguistic,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential
intelligence. Although this model differentiates between various intelligences, Gardner
acknowledged that in most tasks several intelligences are used. Gardner believed that each
child has a unique personal blend of all the intelligences and the capacity to develop them
all.
● Logical-Mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider
propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations
(Gardner, 1983/2011). Young children can think mathematically because they
possess significant, if naïve, mathematical knowledge (Hachey, 2013). Bauer and
Wise (2009) stated that making children "mathematically literate" starts in the
toddler years. Just as young children are read to, helping them to understand that
words on a page carry meaning, they also need to be exposed to mathematical
processes and language continually. As meaningful connections can be made
between real-world experiences and mathematical understandings, they begin to
understand that mathematical symbols carry meaning.
● Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express
and appreciate complex meanings (Gardner, 1983/2011). A language-rich curriculum
introducing children to new terminology and concepts reflects Vygotsky's (1978)
view attributing great importance to language as a cultural tool to build higher
37
functions as well as the view of Montessori (2007) who regarded language as a way
of expressing higher mental functions.
● Visual-Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions (Gardner,
1983/2011). Core capacities such as fine motor skills are developed as children draw,
build puzzles, and construct.
● Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone
(Gardner, 1983/2011). Music can affect the states of the learners as it can increase or
decrease attentional neurotransmitters that can affect learning, and music can be a
carrier where the melody acts as a vehicle for the words and music can prime the
brain's neural pathways (Jensen, 1998). Early experiences help establish later musical
preferences; therefore, different styles of music should be played (Koster, 2012). It is
not just the creation of music, but also the enjoyment of music, that is an acquired
skill (Schwartz, 1982). Prentice, Matthews, Taylor, and Hope (2007) pointed out that
by enabling children to delight in music through listening to and making music, their
musical learning is supported. Bauer and Wise (2009) stated that it is a matter of
getting familiar with the music because, just as mathematics and reading are easier
for children who have heard sums and stories all their lives, so music appreciation
comes more naturally to children who have heard the music before. Howard (2006)
pointed out that background music should only be used when children are engaged in
routine tasks that do not require concentration, as background music can become the
foreground, thereby impairing concentration. According to Prentice et al. (2007),
responding to music comes naturally to very young children as they are responsive to
a wide range of musical styles and genres and have a willingness to accept different
musical styles up to the age of 8 years.
● Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a
variety of physical skills (Gardner, 1983/2011). As children engage in active play,
running, climbing, jumping, and so on, their bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence is
developed.
● Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with
others. It involves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note
distinctions among others, sensitivity to the moods and temperaments of others, and
the ability to entertain multiple perspectives (Gardner, 1983/2011). A young child’s
sense of self is not qualitatively different to that of older children and adults
according to Cimpian, Hammond, Mazza and Cory (2017), as the ability to reason
38
about self-worth develops early in life. However, this level of maturity in reasoning
about the self also means that young children can become dispirited in the face of
failure and therefore young children’s motivation and engagement need to be
supported. Interpersonal intelligence develops as children interact well with each
other, using empathy and cooperating, with conflicts being scaffolded by the
educator.
● Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts
and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and finding direction to one’s
life (Gardner, 1983/2011). Young children are supported to develop their
intrapersonal intelligence by talking to them about their feelings about a topic,
encouraging them to draw or paint to express their emotions, and helping them to set
goals.
● Naturalistic intelligence is the capacity to understand the self, thoughts and feelings,
and to use such knowledge in planning and finding direction (Gardner, 1983/2011).
Young children are supported to develop their intrapersonal intelligence by
discussing feelings about a topic, encouraging creative activities to express emotions.
● Existential intelligence refers to a sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions
about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die, and how we got
here. People who excel in this intelligence typically can see the big picture (Gardner,
1983/2011). This connects to what is being taught in schools in Denmark, where
schools prioritise teaching empathy and consider it as important as teaching
mathematics and literature (Salon, 2016).
It is acknowledged that there is a body of writing critical of the theory about the value and
validity of Gardner's model. A critical review of the topic by Waterhouse (2006) found no
published studies that supported the validity of the theory. The theory has been criticized by
mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical evidence and its dependence on subjective
judgement as the different types of “intelligence” lack precise definitions and measurability
(Waterhouse, 2006).
Armstong (2017) refuted Waterhouse’s claim, saying that the multiple intelligences theory is
supported empirically by several sources. Gardner (1983/2011) established eight criteria that
needed to be met for an intelligence to appear in his theory. Each of the eight criteria
provided a range of empirical data, according to Davis, Christodoulou, Seider, and Gardner
39
(1983/2011) who pointed out that many criticisms of the theory pay scant attention to the
criteria, which are supported by hundreds of empirical studies in several fields. Armstrong
(2017) pointed out that it is interesting to note that most of the criticisms of the theory have
come from academics and not from the teachers and refers to the many examples of
successful implementation of the multiple intelligences theory in educational programs
around the world such as research projects initiated by Harvard Project Zero.
This research however used this model primarily as it pluralizes teaching with important
materials being taught in multiple ways. Children are provided with multiple ways to access
content and with multiple ways to demonstrate their knowledge and interest. The model of
multiple intelligences provided a broad perspective on intelligence and therefore enrichment,
guiding the design of the enrichment program, the learning approach, the curriculum, and
key components of this enrichment program. From the model of multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1983/2011) the following guidelines for the design of an enrichment program
were derived:
Provide children with the big picture (Existential intelligence);
Introduce new vocabulary, terminology, and concepts related to the topic of inquiry
(Linguistic intelligence);
Choose topics of inquiry that promote interest in nature: plants, animals as well as
features of the natural world (Naturalistic intelligence);
Address social issues such as cooperation (Interpersonal intelligence);
Advance knowledge of other cultures and religions thereby promoting understanding
of people (Interpersonal intelligence);
Integrate numeracy enrichment into the enrichment topics (Logical-Mathematical
intelligence);
Give children the opportunity to work and play together, organise themselves,
communicate with each other and resolve conflicts (Interpersonal intelligence);
Provide opportunities for unstructured creative play during which they can build
their sense of self (Intrapersonal intelligence);
Expose children to a wide range of music (Musical intelligence);
Develop fine motor skills with drawing, building puzzles, construction, etc. (Visual-
spatial intelligence); and
40
Provide opportunities for development of large motor skills, dancing, jumping,
balancing, climbing, running, etc. (Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence).
In conclusion, the educational perspective that considers the Montessori approach and
Vygotsky’s social development theory; the biological perspective that takes neuro-education
into consideration; and the model of multiple intelligences is the meeting of three
disciplines, known as MBE Science: psychology; neuroscience; and education. All three
fields contributing to the research, practice, and policies (see Table 2.1).
Table 2. 1. The Interrelationship of Educational, Biological, and Psychological Perspectives
Educational Perspective Biological
Perspective
Psychological Perspective
Learning as
a social
construct
Learning is a social activity as
seen in constructivism (Hein,
1991); include the parents into
the learning process
(Montessori)
Parents can
provide early
experiences
(Stamm, 2007
Address social issues such
as cooperation --
interpersonal intelligence
(Gardner, 1983/2011)
Learning as
an active
construct
Learning takes place through
experiences; provide rich
experiences in a culture-rich
environment (Vygotsky, 2004);
constructivism sees learning as
an active process (Montessori,
2007; Hein, 1991); learning is
constructing meaning (Hein,
1991)
Include active
processing of
information
such as concrete
experiences
(PMSEIC, 2009
Give children the
opportunity to work and
play together, organise
themselves, communicate
with each other, and resolve
conflicts --interpersonal
intelligence (Gardner,
1983/2011); provide
opportunities for
development of large motor
skills -- bodily-kinaesthetic
intelligence (Gardner,
1983)
Learning as
a
multisensory
construct
Utilise all the senses via
multisensory learning and make
real-life experiences integral to
the program (Montessori, 2007);
many modes of learning should
be considered of which play
may be the dominant mode
(Vygotsky)
Use
multisensory
learning
(Medina, 2008)
such as music
(Wolfe, 2001).
Play is a
neurobiological
feature (Winter,
2010)
Expose children to wide
range of music -- Musical
intelligence (Gardner,
1983/2011)
Promote interest in nature:
plants, animals as well as
features of the natural
world -- naturalistic
intelligence (Gardner,
1983/2011)
Learning as
the product
of repetition
Utilise repetition (Montessori);
learning is not instantaneous --
constructivism (Hein, 1991)
Repeated
exposure to a
variety of
experiences
(McInerney,
2014; PMSEIC,
2009)
Develop fine motor skills
with drawing, building
puzzles, construction, etc. -
- Visual-spatial intelligence
(Gardner, 1983/2011)
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The value of
language in
learning
Provide children with the
cultural tools (language,
symbols, music, and art) of
which language is the most
important (Vygotsky); Learning
involves language --
constructivism (Hein, 1991)
The sensitive
period for
language
development
begins to
decline after 2
years of age
(Council for
Early Child
Development,
2010)
Integrate numeracy
enrichment -- logical-
mathematical intelligence
(Gardner, 1983/2011)
Introduce new vocabulary,
terminology, and concepts -
- linguistic intelligence
(Gardner, 1983/2011)
Learning as
the product
of imitation
Include imitation (Vygotsky,
1978)
Include
modelling as a
valuable
learning tool
(Thomson,
2011)
Advance knowledge of
other cultures and religions
thereby promoting
understanding of people (interpersonal intelligence)
The value of
providing a
challenge
Offer children a cognitive
challenge (ZPD), build a culture
of learning (Vygotsky, 1978)
Provide an
optimal level of
challenge
(Jensen, 2006)
Provide children with the
big picture -- existential
intelligence (Gardner,
1983/2011)
The educational, biological, and psychological perspectives provided a holistic view of
learning and the enrichment response and were considered in determining the curriculum of
an enrichment program, which is described below.
2.6. Curriculum
The curriculum is very important, as what is taught and how it is taught is crucial to
engagement (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017) and therefore also to interest development. Brink
(2012) recommended the use of a curriculum in early childhood, pointing out evidence of
effectiveness as well as flexibility. Christakis (2016), however, warned against a curriculum
with shallow one-dimensional outcomes such as colour and shape recognition, calling for a
curriculum based on ideas. Greene (1995) defined the aim of a curriculum as cultural
reproduction and the transmission of knowledge.
As a holistic view was taken of enrichment response, a holistic view was taken of an
enrichment program curriculum. Five kinds of curricula, a system of knowledge providing
young children with a lens to understand the world are considered: broad based; content
rich; arts-based; integrated; and inquiry based.
2.6.1. Broad-based curriculum
The Albert Shanker Institute, the American Federation of Teachers, and the Core
Knowledge Foundation published a collection of essays on policies and practices required to
42
support excellent early childhood education. The overarching theme of the collection was
that literacy will be advanced if domain knowledge is broadened and deepened (Adams,
2015). This may sound like an “unmodern” approach in the era of the Internet, according to
Adams, but knowledge matters as one can only understand and learn if it is built on existing
knowledge. A broad-based curriculum provides young children with a big picture of the
world. Big picture thinking refers to a holistic cognitive style, thinking about a whole system
and how it works. The Big History Project initiated by David Christian and Bill Gates
referred to the problem of a “tsunami of information”, saying that unfortunately many
educators deal with the huge amount of information by fragmenting knowledge, resulting in
a lack of overview and intellectual compass that limits understanding (Christian, 2012). In
the light of this major concern, broad-based topics provide children with a holistic
perspective of the world.
Glauert, Heal, and Cook (2007) called for an education for global citizenship, saying that
children's images of, and attitudes towards other countries and the people living there are of
importance in today's multicultural society. Young children are developing attitudes, beliefs,
and values about other people and places before they reach school age. Some of these may
be positive but stereotyping and expressing negative reactions to other ethnic groups can be
found in children as young as 4 years old. Young children can develop attitudes and values
about people and the environment before they genuinely understand them or know enough
about them. Glauert et al. (2007) argued for an inclusive approach in which very young
children are given opportunities to experience other communities. The Australian National
Curriculum (DET, 2014) also recommended that a world-related learning program is needed
connecting with the Melbourne Declaration statement that there is a need to "nurture an
appreciation of and respect for social, cultural and religious diversity, and a sense of global
citizenship" (MCEETYA, 2008, p. 4). A broad general education helps to foster critical
thinking and creativity and exposure to a variety of fields, and produces cooperation and
cross-fertilisation
Hirsh (2015) referred to this knowledge base as “core” knowledge. The existing knowledge
base of the individual is an important factor that shapes learning as it provides the basis on
which new learning builds and helps determine where to focus attention when encountering
new information, underlining the importance not only of developing a wide knowledge base,
but also of developing deep understandings of concepts, principles, and key ideas that assist
learners to structure knowledge and to make sense of new information (PMSEIC, 2009). It is
43
also a constructivist viewpoint that one needs knowledge to learn; it is not possible to
assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous
knowledge upon which to build (Hein, 1991). Fortunately, the foundations of any subject
can be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992); therefore,
educators can introduce the basic ideas that give life and form to any topic or subject area at
an early age and then revisit and build upon them. A broad curriculum with a wide range of
topics connected with Bruner’s (1996) idea of a spiral curriculum. By making a subject or
area of study age appropriate and moving from the simple to an increasingly deep and
complex treatment of the topic, Bruner’s view is that any subject can be taught to any child
at any age.
According to Maeroff (2006), the whole child should be valued, and learning should not be
restricted to reading or numbers, as young children develop along many dimensions.
Children should be offered fully rounded experiences as the various subjects reinforce each
other with the overlapping and integration of subjects offering many avenues for
inclusiveness. He further emphasised that the early years are ideal to provide children with
an insight into the world of knowledge that awaits them. This view, that children prosper
best with a broad curriculum that celebrates their various talents, was shared by Robinson
(2013) who stated that science and mathematics are necessary but not enough, as equal
weight should be given to the arts, the humanities, and physical education.
A broad-based curriculum provides the opportunity for big picture thinking (Duchesne &
McMaugh, 2016). Broad-based content provide solid foundations for learning and
understanding in the vital early years (MCEETYA, 2008) and unless children have a
knowledge base, they will not know what questions to ask (Adams, 2015).
2.6.2 Content-rich curriculum
Hirsch (2015) stated the most harmful idea is that children do not need a knowledge-rich
curriculum; a curriculum that is anything less, will be letting young children down.
According to Hirsch, the anti-intellectualist Romantic movement disparaging factual
knowledge has dominated American thought. Instead of a respect for the importance of
knowledge, Romanticism, dismissing the acquisition of broad knowledge as “mere facts”,
has put their faith in the half-truth that the most important thing for students to learn is how
to learn, without scientific scrutiny. Reading comprehension is a good example as reading
comprehension depends mainly on knowledge and knowledge-related vocabulary, and
44
strategies alone cannot improve reading comprehension. The Albert Shanker Institute, the
American Federation of Teachers, and the Core Knowledge Foundation called for domain
knowledge in early learning to be broadened and deepened (Adams, 2015) based on the
understanding that knowledge matters, as one can only understand and learn if it is built on
existing knowledge. Australia cannot afford to make the same mistake as the United States
of America, by neglecting content. Hirsch (2015) questioned whether Australian schools are
successful in delivering content in the early years, stating that content is not adequately
addressed in American schools, especially in the early grades, with none of the current
methods attempting to steadily build up children’s knowledge.
2.6.3. Arts-based curriculum
An arts-based curriculum uses the creative, performing, and practical arts as a context
through which school subjects are structured and taught (Churchill et al., 2016). Neufield
(2015) pointed out how creative expression can be effectively used to teach as the benefits
of an arts-based education are that it does not only help to create a positive school climate
but also inspires creativity and teaches critical thinking and analytical skills via artistic
expression. Dinham (2011) stated that authentic arts education has a proven capacity to
develop cultural understanding and a personal sense of connection and empathy for others.
These social capabilities are important for social inclusion in a culturally diverse and
transforming world. Learning through the arts promotes aesthetic sensitivity and helps create
more engaged and experiential learning (Davis & Saunders, 2017).
2.6.4. Integrated curriculum
Within an integrated curriculum, according to Churchill et al. (2016), distinctions between
subjects are minimised as larger issues and problems are explored or investigated, blending
traditionally distinct subject areas, allowing students to develop understandings of the world
and form connections and relationships between ideas, concepts, and phenomena. Lima
(2015) described a new emerging metaphor for conveying information, namely a network.
The tree of knowledge is a powerful visual image as it embodies order, balance, unity, and
symmetry, but a new metaphor, the network, is replacing the tree in visualizing various
systems of knowledge. The network represents human knowledge in a more intricate and
diverse way and embodies notions of interconnectedness and interdependence. A sense of
connection to nature is important, according to Monbiot (2012), if young children are to
become adults who care about nature and living things. According to Zyngier (2006), the
45
concept of connectedness has emerged as a critical pedagogical strategy. An integrated
curriculum connects with the constructivist viewpoint that learning is contextual (Hein,
1991). Learning occurs in relationship to what else is known, underlying the importance of
viewing knowledge as part of an integrated whole (Jenkins, 2006).
An integrated curriculum also connects conceptually with the interconnected nature of
learning and the Australian National Curriculum outlook that: "A discipline-based
curriculum should allow for cross-disciplinary learning that broadens and enriches each
student’s learning" (ACARA, 2012, p. 17). The concept of cross-disciplinary thinking is
supported by the Melbourne Declaration (MCEETYA, 2008).
2.6.5. Inquiry-based curriculum
Churchill et al. (2016) define an inquiry-based curriculum as a curriculum where the
questions of learners about issues, problems, and phenomena form and guide the curriculum.
The questions serve to create links between learners’ prior knowledge and new learning.
Within an emergent curriculum the course of the curriculum is not fully known from the
outset but rather negotiated with the students as learning progresses. Curiosity does not like
rules (Leslie, 2014) as it tends to take the person on different pathways and unplanned
excursions.
Validation for the curriculum of an early learning enrichment program, a system of
knowledge providing young children with a lens to understand the world, to be broad based,
content rich, play and arts based and, to some extent, integrated and inquiry based has been
provided. Exploring an appropriate pedagogical approach for an enrichment program was
the next consideration.
2.7. Teaching approach
The constructivist approach is suited to the enrichment program as it builds on Vygotsky and
Montessori’s ideas about how children learn.
2.7.1. Constructivist approach
Hein (1991) identified key tenets of learning within constructivist thinking. Learning is a
social activity, an active-mental process that involves language and knowledge. It entails the
construction of meaning within a context, does not occur instantaneously and motivation is
key.
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Constructivist thinking views learning as a social activity, with learning associated with the
connection with other people such as teachers, peers, and family (Hein, 1991). The
acquisition of skills and knowledge is a social and interactive experience (Schunk, 2008)
occurring within a social context (Dalgarno, Kennedy, & Lee, 2010). According to Jenkins
(2006), placing children in collaborative groups facilitates the sharing of ideas, perspectives,
and concepts as people are usually better thinkers in the presence of others (Davis, Sumara,
& Luce-Kapler, 2000), particularly others whose competencies are more developed,
providing an opportunity for them to view things from a different perspective. Vygotsky
(1978) also viewed all learning as being social. He believed that although children can learn
new skills and knowledge individually or on their own, it is through their interaction with
others that they learn much more.
Learning is regarded an active process as it involves the learners engaging with the world
and not passively accepting knowledge (Hein, 1991). Social constructivism emphasises that
learning takes place through active exploration (Davis et al., 2000). According to Schunk
(2008), it is a constructivist assumption that teachers should not teach in the traditional sense
of delivering instruction to a group of students, but that the situation is structured so that
learners become actively involved with the content through manipulation of materials,
observing phenomena, collecting data, working collaboratively with others, and class visits
outside the classroom (Dalgarno et al., 2010). Play-based learning is integral to the
constructivist approach (Edwards, 2017) as play provides opportunities for young children to
explore ideas, experiment with materials, and express new understandings. According to
Davis et al. (2000), the main concern for teaching is thus the provision of rich activities that
can be interpreted.
When learners encounter something new, they reconcile it with previous ideas and
experience, maybe changing what they believe, or maybe discarding the new information as
irrelevant. To do this they have to explore, determine what they know, and ask questions,
becoming active constructors of their own knowledge. Children learn best when they
actively construct their own understanding (Pritchard, 2005). According to Johnston and
Nahmad-Williams (2009), learning is not just about adding to and extending existing
concepts; it may necessitate radical reorganisation of existing thinking. Remodification of
these misconceptions and new learning occurs when individual children can construct their
own meaning through experience with the physical environment and through social
interaction. Learning within the Montessori approach is the connecting of existing
47
knowledge within a larger system of knowledge so that new knowledge can be placed within
that system (Gettman, 1987).
Learning is not only an active process, but it is also mental with the crucial action of
constructing meaning is mental. Physical actions providing hands-on experience may be
necessary for learning, but according to Hein (1991) it is not enough; children need to be
provided with cognitively stimulating activities which engage the mind as well, as
constructivists view learning as the result of mental construction. Johnston and Nahmad-
Williams (2009) stated that within constructivist theories learning is viewed as a continuous
process, whereby children construct links with their prior knowledge, generating new ideas,
and checking and restructuring old ideas or hypotheses.
Learning requires language and knowledge which influences learning. Language, building
vocabulary, and providing the terminology is therefore integral to learning, correlating with
Vygotsky’s view that language and learning are inextricably intertwined (Hein, 1991). For
Vygotsky, language is the most important cultural tool, an important way in which ideas and
thoughts are shared and meaning negotiated (Bodrova, 2003). Learning requires knowledge
as it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed
from previous knowledge on which to build. The more we know, the more we can learn
(Hein, 1991). Learners construct meaning by comparing new information with existing
information (Jenkins, 2006). Constructivism holds that people construct knowledge by
reconciling it with prior knowledge and experiences (Jenkins, 2006). Learning consists both
of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. Each meaning learners
construct makes them better able to give meaning to other meanings which can fit a similar
pattern; therefore, the more you know the more you can know.
Learning is therefore constructing personal meaning. Constructivist learning theory is
fundamentally underpinned by the key tenets that each student forms his/her own
representation of knowledge (Dalgarno et al., 2010). Constructivism can be defined as the
theory that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world from
learning and through experiences (Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009). These
constructions are true to that person but not necessarily to anyone else because people
produce knowledge based on their beliefs and experiences which differ from person to
person (Schunk, 2008). Jenkins (2006) claimed that the constructivist views learning as an
individual matter where each child has a preferred way of learning and knowing. The learner
48
connects new knowledge to existing knowledge and experiences and no two learners will
perceive it in the same way. Learning is contextual as facts and theories are not learnt in
isolation, but in relationship to what is known and believed (Hein, 1991). This underlies the
importance of viewing knowledge as part of an integrated whole (Jenkins, 2006). Authentic
learning contexts teach learners to identify appropriate uses for information and concepts
(Grabinger, 2001) and are meaningful to learners since they can relate what they learn to
everyday experiences.
Learning is not instantaneous as it takes time to learn (Hein, 1991). For significant learning,
ideas need to be revisited, pondered, played with and used. It is also the constructivist
viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some
form (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). Montessori (2008) held the viewpoint that children enjoy
repetition and will seek the repetition of the same stimuli many times over. As learning takes
time, motivation is a key component in learning. According to Hein (1991), motivation not
only motivation helps learning, but it is essential for learning.
Limitations of the constructivist approach: Constructivism has its place in the learning
system, but as an absolute learning system it has some flaws. Although social learning
affects knowledge construction, Schunk (2008) held the viewpoint that the constructivist
claim that all learning derives from the social environment, is overstated. Vygotsky's view
that all learning is social appears to be too strong. Young children mentally figure out much
knowledge about the way the world operates on their own and are biologically predisposed
to acquire certain concepts which do not depend on the environment. It may be an
overstatement but, according to Jonassen (2000), there is an advantage in children pursuing
their own activities and goals in that the activities are more meaningful to them. Whether or
not all learning is social not, student-centred inquiry-based learning still requires a prepared
environment, implying some form of social input. Student-centred learning requires students
to set their own goals for learning and to determine resources and activities that will help
them meet those goals (Dalgarno et al., 2010). Allowing students to construct their own
learning takes a long time, requires much preparation, and may be complicated to set up
(Bevevino, Dengal, & Adams, 1999). Independent discovery learning may also not be
suitable to all learners. According to Duchesne and McMaugh (2016), discovery may work
well for self-motivated students, but it can be very frustrating for those who do not feel
confident or who have not had enough experience at discovering information for themselves.
The uncertainty of this type of learning environment, where a planned curriculum is lacking
49
and in which the teacher does not supply the answers, may frustrate and discourage some
learners; therefore, some scaffolding will be required. A key limitation of the constructivist
approach is that it implies prior knowledge. Pritchard (2005) stated that certain aspects of
constructivism within teaching, such as inquiry-based learning and the lack of structure in
the curriculum, raise concerns, especially when working with young children who have little
prior knowledge. Prior knowledge plays a crucial part in constructivist learning as children
need something to “construct”. How can children be expected to reconcile new ideas with
previous ideas and experience, when they have no previous ideas or experience?
To address the limitations of the constructivist approach, the lack of prior knowledge, the
lack of structure, and the lack of a planned curriculum, intentional teaching, based on an
information-processing approach that incorporates contemporary insights into learning, was
considered.
2.7.2. Intentional teaching
Intentional teaching was one of the eight pedagogical practices identified in the Early Years
Learning Framework (EYLF) as essential to promote children’s learning (DEEWR, 2009). It
is based on the information-processing approach which attempts to explain thinking and how
the mind encodes, stores, and retrieves information, facilitating study and analysis of
cognitive processes, supporting educators who seek to understand how best to assist students
to learn and recall important information (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). The intentional
teaching approach, which includes explicit learning and organised and structured teacher-
directed teaching, draws attention to important principles of cognitive processing. With the
explicit method of teaching, the instructor is in control of all decisions related to the learning
process, what material is to be learned, and the way the material is learned (Biehler &
Snowman, 2003).
It is not merely teacher talk, but incorporates new knowledge from neuro-education from
which eleven factors contributing to learning are identified: early intervention; attention and
engagement; curiosity and interest; motivation; active processing; mirror neurons; existing
knowledge base; making sense of the world; repeated exposure; optimal level of challenge;
and optimum learning times. In Australia, the Early Years Learning Framework (DEEWR,
2009) makes explicit reference to intentional teaching as it engages educators and children
in shared thinking and problem solving to build the learning outcomes of young children.
The EYLF acknowledges that teachers should provide play as well as intentional teaching.
50
The pedagogical relationship between play-based learning and intentional teaching remains
difficult to conceptualise, according to Edwards (2017), because the value placed on the
exploratory potential of play-based learning can appear to be at odds with the role of
intentional teaching in promoting knowledge development.
2.7.3. Intentional-constructivist teaching approach
An integrated approach that combines elements of constructivist learning and explicit
teaching allows for effective teaching practices as a combination of practices can maximize
the advantages of both theories while minimizing their disadvantages (Tetslaff, 2009).
The suitability of the intentional-constructivist teaching approach was explored by
comparing it to the Pedagogical Play framework (Edwards, 2017) and the Age-appropriate
Pedagogies (DET, 2017).
Pedagogical Play framework: The Pedagogical Play framework (Edwards, 2017)
supported an integrated approach as it too does not make play oppositional to teaching, but
views it as equally valuable. The Pedagogical Play framework described three types of play:
purposefully framed play, modelled play, and open-ended play. Purposefully framed play
introduces new ideas using a variety of materials such as books, posters, songs, and videos.
In modelled play, teachers directly illustrate concepts to children and open-ended play gives
children opportunities to explore materials and to understand the possibilities and properties
of the materials with which they are working. The play types in the Pedagogical Play
framework are viewed as equally valuable and are used in multiple combinations to support
learning.
Age-appropriate Pedagogies: The Age-appropriate Pedagogies (DET, 2017) rejected the
notion that play and explicit instruction are mutually exclusive, offering instead the view
that they can co-exist and that both are beneficial, dependent upon the participants, context,
purpose, and duration of the learning experience.
An intentional-constructivist teaching approach was supported by the Pedagogical Play
framework (Edwards, 2017) and the Age-appropriate Pedagogies (DET, 2017) and was
therefore be suitable for application to an educational enrichment program.
An education enrichment program is defined as a program with a range of strategies designed
to broaden or deepen learning and may involve exposure to new subjects that are not usually
associated with an age group (Bentley, 2000). Jensen (2006) defines enrichment as a response,
51
a resulting effect of what happens in the brain and body of someone who enters, explores, and
grows in an environment substantially richer in opportunities than his or her accustomed one.
It requires the provision of stimuli that are over, above, and beyond what would be typical and
characteristic for each individual child; learning in ways that are contrasting, challenging, and
novel. This definition implies that the purpose is to maximize the individual's potential, that
actions are taken to enhance the environment and that the result is the “enrichment response”.
2.8. Conclusion
To provide a foundation of understanding from the literature in order to frame this study, the
fields of interest and learning in the early years were examined from a biological,
educational, and psychological perspective. It placed this study within the multidisciplinary
field of MBE science, the coming together of three disciplines – psychology, neuroscience,
and education – in educational neuroscience with all three fields contributing to the new
discipline’s research, practice, and policies (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2010).
Current biological perspectives on learning were examined with the intention of drawing on
neuro-science principles in the design of an enrichment program that promotes interest.
From the biological perspective it was evident that the young brain is primed for learning
with recognised age-related optimum learning times for young children (Diamond and
Hopson, 1998; Doidge, 2010; Nagel, 2012a). These optimum learning times are now
referred to as “sensitive periods” (Fuhrmann, Knoll, & Blakemore, 2015). Synaptic
formation in the prefrontal cortex is at its highest in the early years when young children are
in the sensitive period for language development (CECD, 2010). Synapse formation in the
prefrontal cortex is at its highest between the age of 12 months and 6 years (PMSEIC, 2009).
In terms of neuroscience, distributed neural connection in the frontal and parietal lobes are
related to higher intelligence (Nagel & Scholes, 2016). Jensen (2006) pointed out that
learning and enrichment lead to changes in blood flow, baseline chemical levels, and
metabolic functioning; anatomical structures such as neurons become larger and cell
structures more developed; and there is increased connectivity leading to increased circuitry
and branching from one neuron to another. Advances in understanding of the psychology of
learning, as well as the neuroscience underpinning the mechanisms for learning, have
identified 11 factors contributing to learning: early intervention (Nagel, 2012a; PMSEIC,
2009; Stamm, 2007); attention and engagement (Driscoll, 2005; Duchesne & McMaugh,
52
2016; PMSEIC, 2009); curiosity and interest (PMSEIC, 2009; Stamm, 2007; Wolfe, 2001);
motivation (PMSEIC, 2009; Porter, 2005); active processing (Jensen, 2006; PMSEIC,
2009); mirror neurons (PMSEIC, 2009; Thomson, 2011); existing knowledge base
(PMSEIC, 2009; Thomson, 2011); making sense of the world (Hardiman, 2003; Neuman &
Wright, 2013; Ormrod, 2011); repeated exposure (Driscoll, 2005; McInerney, 2014;
PMSEIC, 2009); optimal level of challenge (Begley, 2011; Jensen, 2006; PMSEIC, 2009)
and optimum learning times (COCD, 2010; Fuhrmann et al., 2015; Hardiman, 2003;
PMSEIC, 2009).
From an educational viewpoint, the Montessori approach which is part of Australia’s
experienced-based, constructivist, child-orientated progressive education movement
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016) was chosen. Although this is a century old approach,
Montessori’s insights about the way children learn and develop were confirmed by scientific
research which provides astounding support for her major insights (Lillard, 2016).
According to Montesssori (2007), young children have remarkable learning systems: an
inborn motivation to learn and absorbent minds with the ability to unconsciously soak up
information from their environment and learn at a rapid rate. Montessori's philosophy of
education, supported by Vygotsky's social development theory (Vygotsky, 1978), provided a
constructivist educational perspective on learning and a framework for developing an
enrichment program that promotes interest. Principles of the Montessori approach: the
absorbent mind (Getttman, 1987; Montessori, 2007); the importance of the early years
(Montessori, 2007); the prepared environment (Lillard, 2016; Montessori, 2007); sensitive
periods (Gettman, 1987; Seldin, 2007); multisensory learning (Montessori, 2007; Seldin,
2007); repetition (Gettman, 1987; Montessori, 2007); the role of educators (Montessori,
1988; Seldin, 2007); and a cosmic vision of human life (Armstrong, 2010; Kienbaun, 2014;
Pramling Samuelsson & Kaga, 2008) are considered valuable in their contribution to
understanding early learning. Six principles of Vygotsky's Social Development Theory also
made a contribution to understanding learning (Smidt, 2009): learning is viewed as social
(Schunk. 2008; Zaretskii, 2009); cultural values and cultural tools are vital to successful
learning (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016; Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009; Vygotsky,
1987); learning occurs through experiences (Edwards, 2017; Vygotsky, 2004); many modes
of learning should be considered (Smidt, 2009); and the ZPD (Bodrova, 2003; Chaiklin,
2003; Schunk, 2008; Vygotsky, 1978). Although differences exist between the two
approaches (Bodrova, 2003), they both made valuable contributions to an understanding of
53
learning in the early years. The viewpoints of Montessori and Vygotsky regarding the
development of interest are not mutually exclusive but were integrated to form a broader
understanding of the development of interest within an enrichment program.
A holistic MBE science (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2010) view of enrichment considered the
enrichment response from a biological perspective, from an educational perspective, and
from a psychological perspective. All the responses are connected in a way that makes up
the whole person. According to Nagel (2012) the brain is a dynamic mechanism. Children
learn by doing, they learn through relationships (social intelligence), through emotions
(emotional intelligence), and by making sense of their world (cognitive intelligence). Jensen
(2006) stated that individuals are made up of a synchrony of multiple systems with change
in one usually leading to change in others. If we learn to play music, it may also affect our
self-confidence and social life. Changes typically become widespread, which is the essence
of the enrichment.
From a psychological perspective, the multiple-intelligences model (Gardner, 1983/2011)
provided a reference for types of enrichment that can occur. A holistic view of the
enrichment response implies that a holistic view of the enrichment program curriculum was
taken. Gardner believed that each child has a unique personal blend of all the intelligences
and the capacity to develop them all. Enrichment can be logical-mathematical, linguistic,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. This
research used this model primarily as it pluralized teaching with important materials being
taught in multiple ways. Children are provided with multiple ways to access content and
with multiple ways to demonstrate their knowledge and interest.
A broad-based (Adams, 2015; Christian, 2012; Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016; Glauert, Heal
& Cook, 2007; Hirsh, 2015; MCEETYA, 2008) content-rich (Adams, 2015; Hirsh, 2015),
arts-based (Davis & Saunders, 2017; Dinham, 2011; Neufield, 2015), integrated (Jenkins,
2006; Lima, 2015; Monbiot, 2012; Zyngier, 2006) and inquiry-based (Leslie, 2014)
curriculum was therefore suited to a holistic enrichment program. The curriculum is very
important, as what is taught and how it is taught is crucial to engagement (Goss &
Sonnemann, 2017). An intentional–constructivist teaching approach addressed the
limitations of the constructivist learning approach: the lack of structure; the lack of a
planned curriculum; and the fact that young children lack prior knowledge, by incorporating
intentional teaching (Tetslaff, 2009). An intentional-constructivist teaching approach was
54
supported by the Pedagogical Play framework (Edwards, 2017) and the Age-appropriate
Pedagogies (DET, 2017) and therefore be suitable for application to an educational
enrichment program.
A gap in the literature became apparent because although the literature described learning
and enrichment in the early years, and identified the importance of developing interest and
curiosity, it was not clear how student interest developed and where exactly interest was
positioned in the learning process. The following questions were also raised. Why are young
children, despite having a natural curiosity and being in a sensitive period for learning, not
being provided with a broad knowledge base and interest in a range of topics? What topics
of inquiry should be included in the broad-based curriculum? Can young children develop
an interest in topics not usually associated with this age group? What factors will impact
interest development in the enrichment program? How does student interest in the early
years develop? All of these questions culminated in the larger research question, How does
participation in an enrichment program impact interest in the early years?
In order to explore interest in the enrichment program, the teaching approach, topics of
inquiry and the key components of the enrichment program were discussed in Chapter 3.
55
Chapter 3: The Enrichment Program
3.1. Introduction
Designing an enrichment program for this research was timely as the Australian Curriculum
(DET, 2014) had called for new knowledge regarding curriculum development, saying that
new knowledge and skills around subject matter, and a diverse repertoire of teaching
strategies to enable all students to fully engage with it, should be brought to the table.
Providing solid foundations for learning and understanding in the vital early years would
greatly benefit the Australian Curriculum, as the Melbourne Declaration stated that a
curriculum was needed that provides "a solid foundation in knowledge, understanding, skills
and values on which further learning and adult life can be built" (MCEETYA, 2008, p. 13).
Not only is a curriculum that provides a strong foundation needed, but the Australian
Curriculum recognised the entitlement of each student to knowledge, understanding, and
skills that provide a foundation for successful and lifelong learning and participation in the
Australian community. The EYLF stated that young children were entitled to opportunities
to develop their sensory, cognitive, and affective appreciation of the world around them
through exploratory and creative learning (ACARA, 2012). The Melbourne Declaration also
stated that schools should provide, "challenging, and stimulating learning experiences and
opportunities that enable all students to explore and build on their gifts and talents"
(MCEETYA, 2008, p. 7).
When it came to the implementation of an enrichment program, Jensen (2006) referred to
three approaches: the top-down approach, where the program is supported or mandated by a
policymaker; the bottom-up approach, where parents and teachers act regardless of “official”
policy; and the combination approach, where both approaches are taken simultaneously. The
Prime Minister's report (PMSEIC, 2009) had already recommended that programs and
resources be developed that recognise the important role that parents play in the education of
young children, and that take advantage of the sensitive periods for developing particular
kinds of skills, indicating a top-down approach being implemented. In terms of the bottom-
up approach, parents themselves could take a proactive approach to their children’s early
learning. According to Jensen, the combination approach, where educators’ active
enrichment of students’ education is supported by policymakers, is the most effective way to
make change happen. This enrichment program was not aimed at only a select few “gifted”
children, but at all young children, regardless of their abilities, taking a combination top-
down/bottom-up approach to implementation. This enrichment program would be referred to
56
as the Curiosity Learning enrichment program. Starting from the intentional-constructivist
epistemology, the topics of inquiry and key components of the enrichment program were
determined.
3.2. Teaching approach within the enrichment program
This enrichment program utilised an intentional-constructivist teaching approach. To find a
balance between intentional and constructivist teaching, the enrichment program consisted
of two parts, Part A and Part B. Part A of the enrichment program, a short session delivered
via intentional teaching, was adult initiated, well planned, and structured, taking into
consideration new knowledge from educational neuro-science. By functioning under the
guidance of a curriculum framework, it could be said with confidence that the students
would learn something. Although Part A was intentional and adult initiated, it was not
without active student participation in the form of play-based actions, singing, or art-based
activities. Part B was based on a constructivist teaching approach which is child initiated,
spontaneous, and less structured. Although Part B was child initiated, it was not without
active adult participation as teachers set out play provocations and scaffold play and
learning.
3.3. Curriculum and topics of inquiry
The educational, biological, and psychological perspectives on learning and enrichment
informed the topics of inquiry in which interest was promoted. Broad topics were chosen to
reflect big picture thinking about the world (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016), consistent with
the literature encouraging this approach. Hirsch (2015) referred to “core” knowledge, a body
of knowledge that ought to be part of education. Even though young children may have no
existing knowledge of the topics, teachers can encourage children to develop interests
through the introduction of experiences, topics and information outside their experiences,
according to Hedges (2007). These broad-based topics related to planet Earth, people and
cultures, the animal kingdom, and the plant kingdom, providing a core body of knowledge.
Fifteen topics of inquiry were divided into plant-related topics that connect children with
nature, animal-related topics that enhance their connectedness to animals, people-related
topics that develop their knowledge about people and cultures, and Earth-related topics that
provided them with a fuller understanding of the world (see Table 3.1). Interest in the
following diverse topics was explored: flowers, trees, birds, arachnids, reptiles, amphibians,
mammals, continents, countries, my body, art, structures, religions, dinosaurs, and space.
57
Table 3. 1. Topics of Inquiry in the Enrichment Program
Plant topics Animal topics People topics Planet topics
Curious about flowers Curious about birds Curious about what’s
inside my body
Curious about continents
Curious about trees Curious about arachnids Curious about art Curious about space
Curious about reptiles Curious about structures
Curious about
amphibians
Curious about religions
Curious about mammals Curious about countries
Curious about dinosaurs
By providing topics, information was chunked or categorised into meaningful units.
According to Duchesne and McMaugh (2016), chunking leads to the development of
schemas or linked network of ideas, helping children make sense of everything. Potentially,
many other topics of inquiry could have been explored, but for research purposes the topics
selected were considered representative of a core body of knowledge on which to build later
learning. The wide range of chosen topics provided insight into interest development over a
broad spectrum. Using topics of inquiry is not new to education and connects with recent
curriculum reform in Finland where a phenomenon-based approach to learning is not
dismissing subjects altogether, but setting time aside for topics (Symeonidis & Schwarz,
2016). These topics of inquiry enrich all the key learning areas and the seven general
capabilities as provided by the Australian Curriculum guidelines (DET, 2014).
Interest in the various topics was promoted by providing the young children with a basic
concept and knowledge of the topics. Apart from a few, these are topics not usually
undertaken with this age group. It is, however, the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy &
Jonassen, 1992); therefore, educators could introduce the basic ideas that give life and form
to any topic or subject area at an early age and then revisit and build upon these. Having
knowledge of and an interest in a topic provided a child with a starting point for learning and
the building blocks for later learning. Constructivist thinking proposes that one needs
knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some
58
structure developed from previous knowledge to build on (Pritchard, 2005). The more
children know, the more they can learn (Hein, 1991); therefore, the more knowledge
children have, the more they will be able to make sense of, assimilate, and learn from new
information.
Learning according to Glauert et al. (2007), involves the development of concepts, such as
words associated with a subject; skills, for example using equipment; processes, for example
questioning, observing, predicting, communicating; and attitudes, such as curiosity or
sensitivity towards living things and the environment. In selecting content and activities a
key consideration is the opportunities they might offer for the different areas of learning
listed above. Historically, practice has tended to focus on skills, processes, and attitudes, but
concepts embedded in vocabulary are very important as well. What is important is that there
is a balance of opportunities for the development of skills, processes, attitudes, and concepts.
The content of the topics was discussed in more detail, including terminology and
vocabulary, concepts and ideas (the cognitive aspect), and a central message of kindness and
compassion (the emotive aspect).
As interest has a cognitive component as well as an emotive component, the content shared
in each topic of the curriculum has these components also. On a cognitive level, terminology
and smalls bits of interesting information, facts, were shared. These simple facts helped the
children to develop a basic understanding of the topic. On an emotive level, the facts,
images, and stories shared in the curriculum inspired feelings of compassion. A golden
thread running through the curriculum content was a message of kindness and compassion,
nurturing a sense of connectivity. The Curiosity Learning program integrated the message of
compassion, respect, and value into each topic. The central message reflected the emotive
component of the curriculum. Although the topics vary, the central message of the
curriculum, compassion and a sense of wonder and awe, promoted connectedness.
According to Zakrzewski (2012), awe is a powerful positive emotion that helps children
focus less on themselves and more on the world around them. He described awe as
something that occurs when children see something beautiful in nature; they often feel a
sense of vastness that gives them a new perspective on the world and their place in it. In the
presence of something greater than themselves they may feel very small. They may also lose
awareness of “self” and feel more connected to the world around them. Teachers can create
awe-inspiring experiences for their students.
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A sense of connectedness relates well to Montessori's cosmic vision of life where children
are taught reverence for life, of seeing themselves as part of the web of life, dependent on
the delicate balance within the natural world for their existence and needing to treat every
living thing with care (Seldin, 2007). Fostering a sense of compassion and connectivity
connected with Russell’s (1925) stance that knowledge is necessary but not enough and that
although we should be guided by knowledge, we should be inspired by love. Armstrong
(2010), too, argued for practical compassion, saying we should educate compassionate
thinking.
Despite being young, children can internalise the important message of kindness and
compassion. Empathy can be taught to even the very youngest students as the capacity for
feeling empathy starts very early in life (Kalantri, 2016). UNESCO recommended that an
early childhood education curriculum include context-sensitive and culturally relevant
content: content that fosters caring attitudes and empathy towards the natural environment
and people living in other parts of the world; and learning about respect for diversity
(Pramling Samuelsson & Kaga, 2008).
A sense of connection to nature is important because, according to Monbiot (2012), the great
majority of people would like to see the living planet protected, but few are prepared to act.
Those who fight for nature are people who spent their childhoods immersed in it. Without a
feel for the texture and function of the natural world, without an intensity of engagement
almost impossible in the absence of early experience, people will not devote their lives to its
protection. There is a basic psychological need to feel emotionally connected and close to
others (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The emotive component in the Curiosity Learning curriculum
instilled an appreciation for the world as well as a “sense of humility”, as Black (2014)
described it, in understanding human connectivity to nature. By instilling a humble
appreciation and a sense of awe, young children may be inspired to become protectors and
advocate for nature and living creatures.
The curriculum content therefore had a cognitive and an emotive component. The cognitive
component included the terminology that enabled children to talk about the topic and
interesting facts that spark curiosity and enabled children to form a basic understanding of
the topic. The emotive component inspired kindness and compassion, instilled a sense of
wonder and awe towards the world and all living things, and promoted a sense of
connectedness.
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To summarise, the aims of this broad-based, content-rich curriculum were: to enrich existing
curricula; to promote interest in a wide range of topics by providing children with a basic
concept and the vocabulary to communicate about the topics; to give children many starting
points for learning, a network of knowledge to which new knowledge can be added; and to
provide young children with a big picture of the world, promoting kindness, enhancing their
sense of connectedness, and enabling them to make sense of the world. The key components
of how the program was presented are discussed in turn.
3.4. Key components of the enrichment program
The key components promoting interest in the enrichment program were derived from
biological, educational, and psychological perspectives. Each key component has the
potential to promote interest by sparking curiosity and engaging the children behaviourally,
cognitively, and emotionally. The eleven key components: introduction to the topic;
authentic images; objects; audio-visual documentaries; audio-visual stories; music; drama;
art-based activities; opportunities for unstructured play; books; and parental involvement are
presented in Table 3.2.
The intentional-constructivist teaching approach provided a balanced teaching approach.
The program is divided into two parts: intentional teaching which is explicit, adult initiated,
and planned; and constructivist play-based learning, which is child initiated, spontaneous,
and less structured. The first part of the program, intentional teaching, included the orienting
and absorbing phases and the second part of the program, play-based learning, included the
acting-out phase and the application phase. The key components are discussed in more
detail.
Table 3.2. Key Components of the Curiosity Learning program
Part 1: Intentional Teaching
A. Orienting phase
No. Key components Description
1. Introduction of the
topic
Display; pre-existing concepts; defining the topic
B. Absorbing phase
2 Authentic images Large, clear, authentic images with no distracting background;
images are identified, and an interesting bit of information is
shared
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3. Objects Natural and cultural materials
4. Audio-visual
documentaries
Short, authentic clips
5. Audio-visual
stories
Mostly animated stories
6. Music A variety of music styles, preferably original works. Often
linked to movement.
7 Drama Actions; role play; puppetry
8 Books Fiction and non-fiction
9. Art-based activity Simple activity to consolidate knowledge
Part 2: Play-based learning
C. Acting-out phase
10 Play Free play with play provocations set out
D. Application phase
11 Parental
participation
Real-life experiences at home; activity booklets
3.4.1. Component 1: Introduction to the topic
Before teaching a lesson, the children were familiarised with the material. This included not
only providing an overview of what would be taught, but also placing the lesson in a context
that children could relate to so that they could appreciate why the information was useful
(Dell'Olio & Donk, 2007). This component also consisted of creating a display that
introduced the topic to everyone, students and parents, determining pre-existing
understanding that students may have of the topic, defining the topic, and letting students
know what they will be learning (see Appendix A).
Display: A display representing the topic was placed at a designated display area. This
introduced the parents and the children to the topic, sparking curiosity and inviting
conversation and questions. From a neuro-education perspective, learning occurs more
readily when motivated curiosity and the desire to understand are present (PMSEIC, 2009).
The Reggio Emilia approach (Wurm, 2005) refers to a display table as a provocation table,
provoking thoughts, discussion, questions, interests, creativity, and ideas. Provocations are
displayed attractively to provoke interest.
Pre-existing concepts: The existing concepts that children has of the topics were
determined by asking them what they already know about the topic. For example, before the
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Curious about Arachnids program, during a brainstorming session the children were asked
what they know about spiders, ticks, and scorpions. This informed the teacher about the
existing knowledge base, a factor identified within educational neuroscience as contributing
to learning (PMSEIC, 2009). Building on children’s prior knowledge is one of the Early
Years Curriculum Guidelines (QSA, 2006).
Defining the topic: The topic was introduced by providing the terminology related to the
topic and a visual image. For example, a clear definition of the topic is given, “An arachnid
is an animal with eight legs”, and an image of a spider is shown while the eight legs are
counted. To clarify the definition, the children were provided with information and images
on what is excluded by the definition, for example, “An arachnid does not have many legs
like a centipede, six legs like an insect, four legs like a cow, two legs like a human, or no
legs like a snake”. This example also shows how numeracy enrichment, developing logical-
mathematical intelligence, is integrated into enrichment topics. By counting the legs,
meaningful connections could be made between real-world experiences and mathematical
understandings.
Clearly defining the topic was important as the children did not have to figure out what the
images were about. If they still had to discern this, they might be distracted as, according to
Medina (2008), it is impossible to pay attention to any two things at once. He stated that if a
concept is presented without telling where that concept fits, the learner is forced to do two
things simultaneously: listen to what the presenter is saying and attempt to define where it
fits into her or his understanding of the world. Therefore, defining the topic included
outlining what the student would be learning in the program, promoting understanding and
cognitive engagement, key aspects of interest development.
The absorbing phase as described by Montessori (Gettman, 1987) is comprised of key
components: images, objects, audio-visual documentaries, audio-visual stories, drama, and
music. During this phase the teacher communicated well-planned and prepared information
with the intention of generating interest in the topic.
3.4.2. Component 2: Images
Large, clear authentic images with no distracting background were shown on an electronic
screen. Each true-to-life image provided a clear visual representation of the topic, as seen in
Appendix B. Images with a distracting background, cartoon versions or images with writing
on them were avoided. Christakis (2016) referred to the importance of educational
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experiences that are not visually cluttered. Stamm (2007) concluded that size matters to
young children as the brain takes note of very large things and very small things more than
things in the middle. Using images connected with the ideas of Bruner (1996) who stated
that children aged between 1 and 6 years use iconic representation as they store information
as images. This iconic representation moved to symbolic representation as the images are
connected to language. The teaching strategy used, was to show each image quickly while
naming it. Each image was also accompanied by an interesting fact.
The large authentic images harnessed attention and engaged the children. Montessori (2007)
pointed out that attractive materials will attract a child just as in nature coloured blossoms
attract insects to drink the nectar. According to Medina (2008), visual input is more likely to
be recognised and recalled than text and oral presentations, as pictures harness attention
because more attention is paid to colour and size. Wolfe (2001) stated that humans are
intensely visual beings and take in more information visually than through any of the other
senses. Not only are visual images powerful retention aids, but they also serve to increase
understanding.
Only a small number of images, 10 to 20, depending on the topic, were chosen for each topic
of inquiry. According to Medina (2008), one of the most common communication mistakes
made is relating too much information. Jensen (2006) stated that the young brain cannot take
in an unlimited amount of learning per day as it may overload cognitive networks.
Overwhelming input may also be stressful. Engagement was carefully scrutinised, taking
into consideration the age of the children, concentration ability, and the existing knowledge
base so as not to give too much information when showing the images. The presenter was
sensitive to the needs of the group and stopped before the children lost focus. Rather than
giving too much information, this program would rather give not enough information.
Doman, Doman, and Aisen (1994) used the principle of always stopping before the child
wants to, leading to great success with their programs at The Institutes for the Achievement
of Human Potential in Philadelphia. A consequence of there not being “enough” images is
that the child always wants more, and this dynamic acted as a powerful motivating factor in
their programs.
The images were displayed quickly. Doman et al. (1994) found that speed and enjoyment are
inextricably linked in the learning process and in alignment with these benefits, in this
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program the images were also be shown quickly. Questions were addressed without getting
into a lengthy discussion.
Each image was named by the presenter, thereby extending vocabulary and providing them
with the terminology to communicate about the topic For example: This insect is a butterfly,
this insect is a dragonfly... By repeating the name of the class that the animal belongs to, the
different images are categorised together in a single cognitive category, namely, Insects.
Categorising information is one of the identified factors that contribute to learning
(Hardiman, 2003) and help children to make sense of their world. An interesting bit of age-
appropriate information was also be shared, for example, Butterflies fly at night. Moths fly in
the daytime. Interesting information and concepts are presented in an age-appropriate way.
Providing interesting information cognitively engages children (Hein, 1991) and the ability
to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings, develops
linguistic intelligence (Gardner, 1983/2011).
3.4.3. Component 3: Objects
Objects were incorporated into the program to further promote interest by invoking a sense
of wonder and discovery. Montessori (2008) saw value in the exploration of objects and
children were taught as much as possible with concrete materials. Concrete materials are
sensory rich and three dimensional and allow children to make observations as well as
providing them with the opportunity to physically discover and explore them, developing
sensory intelligence (Lombard, 2007). According to Catling (2006), children have capacities
to represent and symbolise geographic information using “representational surrogates” (toys
and artefacts) to indicate places and environmental features. Appendix C provides a
snapshot of natural and cultural objects used in different programs and the cognitive and
emotive connection made.
3.4.4. Component 4: Audio-visual documentaries
By including audio-video documentaries, another sensorial dimension was added to the
program. According to the Prime Minister’s Council (PMSEIC, 2009), technology such as
audio-visual material should be considered a valuable tool that can enhance learning
outcomes when used appropriately, as it can support dynamic and multiple representations
of information and serve to personalise learning. Glauert et al. (2007) pointed out that as
real-life experiences are not always possible or practical, second-hand sources of
information such as videos are valuable. Short, authentic audio-visual documentaries share
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knowledge and promote interest, for example, a space shuttle launching in the Curious about
Space program. Not all audio-visual clips elicit positive emotions; for example, a clip of a
whale caught in a net may evoke feelings of sadness and concern and empathy, allowing
children to develop their social and emotional capabilities by demonstrating empathy and
compassion. Appendix D provides examples of audio-visual clips that were incorporated in
the programs, the cognitive connection made as determined by knowledge gained, and the
emotional connection made as demonstrated by emotions such as wonder and awe,
excitement, concern, and the like.
3.4.5. Component 5: Audio-visual stories
Audio-visual stories, mostly animated stories that are sometimes in motion and involve
music, were included in the programs. Medina (2008) claimed that people pay special
attention if objects are in motion. Animation can be very effective as it captures the
importance not only of colour and placement but also of motion and simple, two-
dimensional animations can be quite adequate. Medina stated that if the drawings are too
complex or lifelike, they can distract from the transfer of information. The themes in the
stories also provided opportunities to talk about feelings and emotional issues. Appendix E
provides a snapshot of some of the audio-visual stories used in the programs and the
cognitive and emotional connection made with the topic.
3.4.6. Component 6: Music
Music was included as a key component of the program, incorporating multisensory
learning, one of the 11 identified factors improving learning based on the science of learning
(PMSEIC, 2009). Music is an example of a multisensory activity as it entails complex neural
activity (Wolfe, 2001). Contrary to the misconception that music is the property of the right
hemisphere, new imaging techniques show that music is distributed across regions in both
brain hemispheres (Wolfe, 2001). Many musical experiences can activate the cognitive,
visual, auditory, affective, and motor systems. The mental mechanisms that process music
are entwined with the brain's other basic functions, including emotion, memory, and
language. Jensen (1998) stated that music can affect the states of the learners: it can increase
or decrease attentional neurotransmitters that can in turn affect learning; music can be a
carrier where the melody acts as a vehicle for the words and music can prime the brain's
neural pathways. Music can enhance both the classroom environment and student learning
as sensory intelligence (Lombard, 2007) and musical intelligence, the capacity to discern
pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone (Gardner, 1983/2011), are developed. Rhythm and rhyme
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provide great mechanisms for storing information that may otherwise be difficult to retain,
as in “piggyback” songs, or “learning songs” where the words or concepts are set to a
familiar melody.
Bauer and Wise (2009) stated that it is a matter of becoming familiar with the music, for just
as mathematics and reading are easier for children who have heard sums and stories all their
lives, so music appreciation comes more naturally to children who have heard the music
before. It is not just the creation of music, but also the enjoyment of music, that is an
acquired skill (Schwartz, 1982). Shore and Strasser (2006) pointed out that children can
listen to and appreciate a variety of music styles and genres from an early age. This expands
their music horizons and develops their music literacy and aesthetic sensibilities. Shore and
Strasser (2006) declared that it is a mistake to think that children are only interested in
simple musical experiences, as early exposure to complex music contributes to musical
aptitude and cognitive development. Montessori (1988) pointed out that later interest in
music will be enhanced by the fact that children have already developed within themselves a
sense of rhythm.
Koster (2012) stated that it is important to play many different styles of music as these early
experiences help establish later musical preferences. Children can enjoy and appreciate more
complex styles such as classical and jazz pieces. Wherever possible, original works were
played, not simplified “children's versions”. A varied repertoire of music, including complex
music, was chosen to complement each topic. The children were introduced to a range of
songs and music styles from different cultural contexts, and they moved and danced to the
music using transitional cultural objects such as scarves and ribbons on sticks, as seen in
Appendix F. According to Prentice, et al. (2007), responding to music and enthusiastically
joining in comes naturally to very young children as they are responsive to a wide range of
musical styles and genres and have a willingness to accept different musical styles. By
enabling children to delight in music through listening to and making music, their musical
learning was supported. Music and movement are closely linked and responding to music is
a whole-body experience for young children (Dinham, 2011). Through movement and
performance activities children learn to respond to beat and tempo and learn to discriminate
between sounds and silence and loud and soft. Recognition of pitch and rhythm can be
developed through actions like clapping. Rabinowitch, Cross, and Burnard (2012) further
pointed out that musical group interaction elicits a shared psychological state which may be
important for emotional empathy, the ability to experience another person’s emotional state.
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Music produced by nature was also be incorporated in programs, for example, birdsong or
whale song, and voice capabilities were explored, for example, “laughing like a
kookaburra”. Howard (2006) pointed out that background music is more suited for routine
tasks as their concentration may be impaired by the music if they are doing are tasks that
require concentration. Music was played in the background to complement or to set a
musical mood for an activity. Music links seamlessly across the whole curriculum in rich
and exciting ways (Dinham, 2011). The inclusion of music as a key element connected with
the Australian Curriculum: The Arts Foundation band (DET, 2014) which builds on music
skills developed within the Early Years Learning Framework.
3.4.7. Component 7: Drama
Drama, including actions, role-playing, and puppetry, is a key component of the enrichment
program as considerable research demonstrates the positive relationships between dramatic
play and oral language development (Johnson, Christie & Wardle, 2005). Vygotsky
observed that dramatic play allows children to practise social behaviours in safe settings
(Bodrova, 2003). Dinham (2011) claimed that children have an instinct for drama as
observed in their earliest forms of imaginary play. When children enter the imaginative
world of make-believe, they enter the world of dramatic play. By building on these instincts,
rich learning experiences could be created.
Actions: Children were encouraged to take on explicit roles and do simple actions, for
example, pointing to where space is, or making “spider hands” or the three horns of the
triceratops, as seen in Appendix G. These actions link to new vocabulary, helping children
to assimilate the knowledge.
Role play: Role-playing games were incorporated into the program, for example, pretending
to be a tree growing from a seed in the Curious about Trees program. The children were also
encouraged to inhabit characters and pretend, for example, to walk like a willie wagtail in
the Curious about Birds program. According to Davis and Saunders (2017), children forget
they are learning when they do drama. As they are busy enjoying themselves, they are
increasing their ability to visualise and comprehend; it also impacts on so-called “soft skills”
or “non-academic” areas such as empathy building, confidence, motivation, and
engagement. The benefits of role play or pretend play are well established. According to
Lillard et al. (2013), pretend play produces many cognitive, social, and emotional benefits. It
enables problem solving, assists reasoning, leads to conversation, improves social skills,
contributes to language development, assists in narrative development and comprehension,
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improves executive functions, and assists in regulating emotions. Allowing opportunities for
children to engage in pretend play allows them to practise and explore roles (Duchesne &
McMaugh, 2016). Appendix H provides a snapshot of how cognitive and emotive
connections were made through role play. Face painting and masks are used as part of the
role playing as they can spark imaginations and transform the children into a fantasy world.
Masks have a transformative quality and give children some distance from the dramatic
experience, benefitting shy children (Dinham, 2011).
Puppetry: Puppetry used props and toys in a symbolic way and was in the form of
presenting a puppet show for the children or letting them present their own puppet show (see
Appendix I). Dinham (2011) pointed out that by using puppets, children can practise
adopting different voices and mannerisms for different characters. Puppets also give children
some distance from the dramatic experience and allow them to work with material that they
may otherwise find too confronting, providing a crucial avenue for self-expression and self-
validation.
Drama is a natural and important way in which the children can explore, express themselves,
and make sense of their world. During the Foundation Years the learning builds on the
drama education gained within the EYLF (ACARA, 2012). Actions, role play, and puppetry
are opportunities to develop well-being and a sense of belonging through the experience of
roles and situations. Drama is an active, social, and experiential form of learning that
engages children’s emotions, intellect, imagination, spirit, and body (Dinham, 2011). In the
enrichment program, drama (actions, role play, and puppetry) was a vehicle for developing
interest and social outcomes as it focuses on active learning and experience.
3.4.8. Component 8: Books
Books, fiction and non-fiction, chosen to complement the topic, were a key component in
developing interest. The topics were revisited through stories that were read to the children
and age-appropriate informative books that were set out as provocations, as seen in
Appendix J. Neuman and Wright (2013) urged educators to enrich topics with several
different texts, fiction and non-fiction, and to complement read-aloud with lively discussion.
Fiction: The value of stories is widely recognised. Nagel and Scholes (2016) pointed out
that reading to children provides more opportunities for building word banks and extending
comprehension. According to Riley and Reedy (2007), books offer children access to a
wider and fascinating world. Narrative plays an important role in the intellectual and
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emotional development of young children. Imaginations are sparked by the colour, humour,
and intrigue held within the covers of a picture book. The stories stimulate interaction with
meaningful discussion about the stories, possible outcomes, the characters, and illustrations.
Not only do children gain new vocabulary and syntax, extending their existing literacy
skills, but stories also stimulate cognitive development.
As the children cannot yet read themselves, stories that relate to the topic were read to the
group. Some stories were informative, some were amusing, some had a strong emotional or
social message that led to discussions; all facilitated the making of cognitive and emotional
connections with the topics.
Non-fiction: Informative non-fiction books with clear images were placed out as
provocations for the children to carry out their own investigations and research, allowing
them to revisit the topic of inquiry independently.
3.4.9. Component 9: Art-based activities
Art-based activities were included in the enrichment program as these robust activities
consolidate learning and develop capabilities (Prentice et al. (2007). This connected with
Vygotsky’s (2004) view that young children should be provided with activities that offer
first-hand and direct experience to allow for the development of an understanding of
concepts. The activities have a strong sensorial and visual-spatial component as children can
experiment with different materials and processes to construct, building fine-motor skills
and developing visual-spatial intelligence (Gardner, 1983/2011). By encouraging all the
children to participate in this activity, core capacities such as fine-motor skills could be
determined.
According to Prentice et al. (2007), through the process of making, children give form to
experience. The motivation to make something in the early years comes from a desire to
physically handle materials and tools. Although the art-based activities are part of
intentional teaching, they are delivered through guided participation. Rogoff (1990)
described this guided participation as an application of Vygotsky’s ideas where tasks are
structured by breaking them into manageable parts, instructions are repeated, the number of
components presented at one time is limited, and appropriate resources are provided. Each
activity was structured by first showing children a completed version as this provided
understanding, then by breaking it into manageable parts, repeating instructions and
providing appropriate resources. Plenty of scaffolding was needed in this component,
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especially with the more challenging tasks. Scaffolding, a cognitive learning principle,
means temporarily supporting difficult tasks by offering prompts or hints and providing
models for doing a task (Rosenshine, 2010). Providing children with a completed model of
the tasks leading toward more expert practice is an application of Vygotskian ideas in the
classroom, as imitation is one of the basic paths of cultural development of the child
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). It is not thoughtless, but rather an intellectual operation that
is reasoned and based on understanding (Zaretskii, 2009). Through imitation the child can
achieve intellectual actions far beyond what he or she is capable of independently. Teacher
modelling, according to Rosenshine (2010), helps reduce cognitive load and guides students’
thinking.
Dinham (2011) pointed out that young children are fully primed for learning though the arts
as they explore their sensory and social world through their innate expressions in art-
making. Many of these art-based activities invite the children to think about what they have
learnt and allow them to explore what they feel or value. The activities are also an
opportunity to consolidate learning as they are constructing meaning in a concrete visual
form. Art activities, according to Dinham, transport children into the world of imaginative
experience that allows them to feel connected to the world and open to new ways of seeing
and experiencing. Art-based activities were key to the enrichment program as children could
engage behaviourally, emotionally, and cognitively with the topic via an activity where their
capabilities were developed, and knowledge consolidated. Appendix K provides examples of
some art-based activities that were included in the programs, the knowledge consolidated by
the activity, and capabilities that were developed by the activity.
3.4.10. Component 10: Play
Play introduced Part B of the program as the children developed or constructed their
understanding of the information through play. Free play is one way to actively process
information as it allows children to experience the pleasures associated with movement,
creativity, and relationships (Jensen, 2006). The play component represents Montessori’s
acting-out phase as described by Gettman (1987), as students incorporated their outside
experiences and perspectives as well as those of other students to develop their own
understanding of concepts. A transfer of control of learning to the learner took place,
reflecting the role of the teacher in Vygotsky’s theory, to assist children to develop
understandings and to regulate their own learning, rather than to tell them or demonstrate to
them what they are required to know. The children had more space to be autonomous and to
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learn on their own. Black (2014) found that children do not like to be scrutinised and
measured all the time, nor do they want to be praised or encouraged all the time. They have
a sense of autonomy and dignity and they need to be given the opportunity to learn on their
own. According to O’Conner (2012) children must be both free to make choices within their
play and be supported in these choices by the teacher, the environment and the ethos. The
program moved from sharing knowledge and demonstrating to the children, to assisting
them to develop understandings and regulate their own learning. There may be a shifting
between the teacher taking the lead in instruction and the learner being given more control,
but the goal should be for the learner to have control of the learning as it develops
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016).
All learning, according to Winter (2010), emotional, social, motor, and cognitive, is
accelerated by play. Driven by natural curiosity, a neurobiological feature, play is usually an
enjoyable activity encouraging engagement and repetition. After curiosity was generated in
the Orienting and Enhancing phases, the children could express their new knowledge and
emotions through individualised play. Starling and Nelson-Zlupo (2011) pointed out that
outdoor unstructured play may be essential to core mastery in children as it has been linked
to improvements in cognitive, behavioural, and even physical functioning. According to
Dinham (2011), young children have great capacity for exploring and expressing themselves
through play and related arts activities. They are on a path of discovery through sensory
explorations and play. Making personal discoveries through investigations, sensory
explorations, and play is the natural way children like to learn, construct meaning, and make
sense of their world. Riley and Reedy (2007) stated that play offers many opportunities for
children to acquire knowledge and understanding across the entire curriculum and it
stimulates emotional, social, and intellectual growth. The goal was to provide children with
play opportunities that reinforce the learning and new insights that occur, to learn more
complex skills such as symbolic thinking and causal inference, and to further nurture their
curiosity and creativity. Individualised learning took place as children consolidated their
learning in different ways through play. Smidt (2009) described Vygotsky’s principles of
pedagogy and said that the educator must plan and resource activities. Although play
provocations were set out, the children could take the initiative in their play. Dinham (2011)
stated that during unstructured, spontaneous, child-directed play, the children take the
initiative, taking ownership of their play or project. Frameworks such as “let’s play we are
spiders” established common understandings. Dramatic play has an open structure and the
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story evolved as children improvised and responded to each other’s contributions. Children
who find themselves in new situations, for example, determining what to do after finding a
dead insect, were scaffolded and provided with a cognitive sequence to follow: observe,
question, explore, and reflect (Christakis, 2016).
As the children played, explored, and investigated together, many learning opportunities
presented themselves and they gained cognitive, social, and emotional skills by interacting
with each other. Vygotsky (1978) believed that although children can learn new skills and
knowledge individually, it is through their interaction with others, sharing knowledge and
solving problems that they learn much more. Interpersonal intelligence (Gardner,
1983/2011) is developed as children work and play together, organising themselves,
communicating with each other, and resolving conflicts, and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
develop as they jump, balance, climb, and run.
Appendix L presents snapshots of the play that occurred in the various programs and the
provocations that had been made available to children. A play-rich environment, the
combination of providing a stimulus via intentional teaching program and setting out a range
of provocations, was provided. The connections that the children have with artefacts and the
material environment are important considerations of pedagogical play, according to
Ridgway, Quinones and Li (2015). The educator should create a culture-rich environment
for children by providing materials for open-ended exploratory play as well as providing
modelled and purposefully framed opportunities (Edwards, 2017).
3.4.11. Component 11: Parental participation
Parental participation was a key component of the enrichment program. Engaging parents as
a notion and a strategy is based on the assumption that parenting matters (MCEETYA,
2008). UNESCO recommended that the strength of parental and community involvement as
an early childhood pedagogy needs to be recognised and exploited fully in work with young
children (Pramling Samuelsson & Kaga, 2008). According to Zyngier (2006), the concept of
connectedness has emerged as a critical pedagogical strategy and connectedness implies a
relationship between the parents, school, and community, as well as between the curriculum
and students’ real-life situations. Parents are also a vital component to the Reggio Emilia
philosophy; they are viewed as partners, collaborators, and advocates for their children
(Katz, 1993). Porter (2005) stated that parents, family, and social support have a major
influence on how children perceive learning and what their attitude is towards learning.
Emotionally supportive learning environments where educators give authentic and
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informative feedback about efforts made, facilitate learning and develop a learning culture
where learning is valued and supported. In the enrichment program parents were encouraged
to contribute where they could and to connect the content of the program with authentic
experiences at home and in everyday life. This represents Montessori’s Application Phase as
described by Gettman (1987). With the aid of an activity booklet for each topic, parents and
children were encouraged to do activities such as spotting flowers, birds, and so on, that
reinforced the learning that occurred during the day at school and further invigorated
curiosity and interest. Real-life experiences such as viewing animals in their natural
environment are valuable concrete experiences that utilise all the senses. Montessori valued
the real-life experiences in learning and wanted parents to encourage their children to be in
contact with nature, as a love of nature came from spending time in nature and not merely
from talking about it. According to her, the responsibility to teach does not lie only with the
teachers (Montessori, 2007). Appendix M provides a snapshot of parental involvement via
activity booklets, special at-home projects, and classroom involvement.
These authentic experiences involved the active processing of information, one of the 11
learning factors identified (PMSEIC, 2009). The age-appropriate pedagogies foundation
paper stated a clear preference for educators to adopt a connected and authentic curriculum
approach that responds to children’s interests and supports meaning-making through
engagement in real-life contexts (DET, 2017). Real-life experiences connected well with
Vygotsky's (1978) view that learning takes place through experience. In terms of the types
of stimulation the brain depends on for development, these are best described as the day-to-
day learning experiences a child encounters (Nagel & Scholes, 2016). Positive relationships
with parents, exploring and playing and interacting with other human beings in real life is
the ultimate learning experience (Nagel, 2012b). Nagel stated that the best opportunities
children have for learning and preparing for school occur through the everyday experiences
they have with their parents or caregivers.
In summary, the 11 components key to promoting interest in the enrichment program were:
introduction, images, objects, audio-visual documentaries, audio-visual stories, music,
drama, books, art-based activities, play, and parental participation. The key components
connected directly with active processing which is identified among the 11 learning factors
(PMSEIC, 2009) and with social constructivism that emphasises the importance of the
learner being actively involved in the learning process. Each key component of the program
had the potential to raise the child's level of interest. It is quite possible that the educator
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may be able to raise interest by only doing play-based activities or only letting the child
experience the subject in real life, but it is in combination that these components are most
effective. Each key component utilised different modes of learning. This linked with
Vygotsky's (1978) view that many modes of learning need to be considered. The
components Images and Audio-visual documentaries and stories incorporated a visual
learning style while Music incorporated an auditory, Drama a kinaesthetic, and Books an
auditory and visual learning style. Art-based activities and Play encompassed various
learning styles. Multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983/2011) were developed through the key
components. The key components correlated to the three stages of learning – absorbing,
acting out, and application – within the Montessori approach as described by Gettman
(1987). The Absorbing Phase took place primarily within the following components:
Images, Objects, Audio-visual documentaries and stories, Music, Drama, and Books, as new
knowledge was introduced and absorbed. The Acting-out Phase took place during Play.
During the Application Phase, authentic experiences built on the curiosity generated
consolidated new knowledge. Learning within the enrichment program was essentially
connecting a set of related perceptions, that is, the new knowledge from the images, objects,
audio-visual material, music, drama, and stories; perceptions gained from the play-based
activities; and authentic experiences gained in real life. This connective activity was
motivating, building interest and that is in turn given further application.
Visiting and revisiting the key components was integral to cognitive engagement. This
connected with constructivism where learning is viewed as a continuous process whereby
children construct links with their prior knowledge, generating new ideas and checking and
restructuring old ideas or hypotheses (Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009), and where
formal learning is a matter of interpreting and re-interpreting the primal body experience; as
a result, the main concern for teaching is provision of rich activities that can be interpreted
(Davis et al., 2000). Within this enrichment program, children were assisted to construct
knowledge and concepts though a range of experiences. The topics were revisited via the
key components, allowing connections to be made between new knowledge learnt and
experiences in play and real life. According to Ormrod (2011), mindless repetition can be an
effective way of keeping information in working memory, but it is not a good way to get
information into long-term memory. Information can best be saved into long-term memory
if it can be related to existing knowledge. Connecting new information with old information
gives the new information better meaning. Glauert et al. (2007) stated that it is important to
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ensure that children encounter ideas in a variety of contexts, providing different
opportunities to develop and utilise skills and processes and helping children to make
connections between one situation and another. By reactivating information regularly, by
revisiting it, children have the best chance of anchoring it in long-term memory (McDonald,
2012).
Figure 3.1 provides a sequential model of the components that were used in the enrichment
program. Part A of the program, intentional teaching, began with an introduction to the
topic, followed by multiple possible combinations of key components delivered explicitly
during a 20-minute session and ending with an art-based activity. Part B of the program,
play-based learning, included play, a reading session later in the day, and parental
participation where they are encouraged to become involved in the program via activity
booklets.
Figure 3.1. Sequential model of key components in the Curiosity Learning program.
Introduction
Drama Images Objects Audio-
visual
docs.
Audio-
visual
stories
Music
Play Books
Parental
Involvement
Art-based activity
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This sequential model connected well with the Pedagogical Play framework (Edwards,
2017) as seen in Table 3.3, describing three types of play: purposefully framed play,
modelled play, and open-ended play. Purposefully framed play introduced new ideas using a
variety of materials such as books, posters, songs, and videos and connects with the
intentional teaching, Part A of the Curiosity Learning program. In modelled play, teachers
directly illustrate concepts to children, connecting with the art-based activity in the
enrichment program. Open-ended play gives children opportunities to explore materials and
to understand the possibilities and properties of the materials with which they are working.
This connects with play and parental participation in the enrichment program.
Table 3.3. Curiosity Learning and the Pedagogical Play Framework
Curiosity Learning Pedagogical Play framework
Intentional
teaching
Introduction, images,
objects, audio-visual
documentaries, audio-
visual stories, music,
drama, books
Purposefully framed
play
Art-based activity Modelled play
Play-based
learning
Play, parental
participation
Open-ended play
Each key component in the Curiosity Learning program was regarded as valuable and able
to promote interest, but the strength of the enrichment program lies in using the key
components in combination. The play types in the Pedagogical Play framework are also
considered to be equally valuable (Edwards, 2017), the play types used in combination to
offer qualitatively different opportunities for learning and teaching.
A point of difference is that while the play types can be used in multiple combinations to
support learning according to Edwards (2017), the Curiosity Learning program recommends
a sequential process, with intentional teaching preceding play-based learning. Within
intentional teaching, key components can be used in multiple combinations to spark
curiosity and interest. However, without interest being sparked and knowledge being shared
about the topic, play related to the topic is not likely to occur and without a shared language
or terminology of the topic, children cannot talk or interact about the topic.
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Curiosity Learning also stressed parental participation in the program where knowledge is
applied in real-life experiences alongside parents. Both Curiosity Learning and the
Pedagogical Play framework do not make play oppositional to teaching.
In considering the enrichment program, it is worthwhile to refer to the Age-appropriate
Pedagogies (DET, 2017) to determine what age-appropriate characteristics – active, agentic,
collaborative, creative, explicit, language rich and dialogic, learner focused, narrative,
playful, responsive, and scaffolded – are being applied in the Curiosity Learning enrichment
program. The age-appropriate pedagogies identify a set of 11 characteristics to guide the
selection and development of these learning experiences, with the point made that the age-
appropriate pedagogies cannot be prescribed, and that no recipe exists for their application
within early years’ classrooms. They identified three critical elements that need to be
incorporated: effective pedagogies need to be learner centred, involve the scaffolding of
learning, and actively engage children in learning. The Curiosity Learning enrichment
program included the following age-appropriate pedagogies:
● Active: The program included this critical element as it required physical and
embodied engagement occurring during the intentional teaching session in the form
of planned experiences such as handling cultural objects, dancing to music, doing
actions, role play, and taking part in an act-based activity. The play-based learning
included spontaneous dramatic, exploratory, manipulative, creative, and active play.
Parents participating were provide opportunities for active learning in real-life
experiences.
● Agentic: The program was built on a well-designed curriculum. The children had no
voice in the choice of the topic of inquiry, but after the topic was introduced and
interest is generated, the curriculum took on an agentic character, allowing the
questions and interests of the children to extend learning possibilities.
● Collaborative: The program included sustained and shared thinking between children
and educators. The educator was vital in promoting engagement, fostering curiosity,
and developing self-motivated interest that leads to awareness and learning.
● Creative: Play was a highly creative component of program. During the acting-out
phase, investigations and artistry were actively encouraged by setting challenges and
placing provocations in the play environment.
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● Explicit: The key component, Introduction, made the learning purpose explicit. This
component consisted of a display, the identification of pre-existing concepts, and a
clear definition of the topic.
● Language rich and dialogic: The terminology of the topic that supports thinking and
communication was intentionally taught to the children via repetition and modelled
in the play-rich environment.
● Learner focused: The program recognised that learning is highly individual.
Multisensorial intentional teaching ensured that the different modes of learning were
covered. Differences in children’s physical, intellectual, cultural, social, and personal
experiences and perspectives were acknowledged and the activity booklets were
optional.
● Narrative: Narrative could be found in different parts of the program. Stories were
told within key components Audio-visual stories, Drama (in the form of puppetry),
and Books. Children produced personal narratives during Play.
● Playful: Playfulness and humour pervaded learning and teaching interactions.
Children were free to imagine, to create, to innovate, and to enact new possibilities
during the component Play which dominates the day. The intentional teaching
session was only 20 minutes in duration.
● Responsive: The program was well balanced. The first part of the program was
planned and adult initiated, while the second part of the program was child initiated
and spontaneous.
● Scaffolded: Scaffolding in considered a critical element and adult leadership and
scaffolding, including such actions as modelling, encouraging, questioning, adding
challenges, and giving feedback, provided support to extend children’s existing
capabilities as it is a cognitively challenging program.
The Curiosity Learning program included the full range of age-appropriate pedagogies that
were necessary in the early years of schooling to engage young learners, achieve effective
learning outcomes such as intrinsic interest.
3.5. Conclusion
A constructivist approach perspective was well suited to design an enrichment program
where interest could be explored, building on Vygotsky’s and Montessori’s ideas about how
children’s thinking develops. To address the limitations of the constructivist approach – the
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lack of structure, the lack of a planned curriculum, and the fact that young children lack
prior knowledge – intentional teaching, based on an information-processing approach that
incorporates contemporary insights into learning, was included into the conceptual
framework of the program. This provided a well-balanced, intentional-constructivist
teaching approach for an enrichment program promoting interest. An intentional-
constructivist teaching approach was supported by the Pedagogical Play framework
(Edwards, 2017) as well as the Age-appropriate Pedagogies (DET, 2017).
As a holistic view of the enrichment response was taken, a holistic view of the enrichment
program curriculum was also taken. The chosen curriculum was broad-based and content-
rich. It was not integrated in itself but laid the foundations for integrated learning. The
curriculum included arts-based components as well as inquiry-based components.
Fifteen topics of inquiry, with the goal of enriching existing curricula, promoting interest in
a wide range of topics, and providing children with many starting points for learning, gave
young children a big picture of the world, enhanced their sense of connectedness and
enabled them to make sense of the world.
As interest has a cognitive component as well as an emotive component, the content shared
in each topic also had a cognitive and an emotive component. On a cognitive level, small
pieces of interesting information, facts, were shared that provided a basic understanding of
the topic. On an emotive level, the facts, images, and stories shared in the curriculum
inspired feelings of compassion, a central message.
The educational perspective that considers the Montessori approach and Vygotsky’s social
development theory; the biological perspective that takes neuro-education into
consideration; the intentional-constructivist teaching approach and the psychological
perspective (Gardner, 1983/2011), guided the formulation of the key components of the
program fundamental to the development of interest. A sequential model of the components
was used in the project.
With the enrichment program curriculum and key components established, interest
development within this enrichment program could be explored, allowing the program to be
further refined and developed. The research methodology employed is discussed in Chapter
4.
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Chapter 4: Research Methodology
4.1. Introduction
As this research lies within the emerging field of learning sciences that is interdisciplinary,
drawing on multiple theoretical perspectives to build understanding of the factors impacting
interest and the process of interest development within the program, a design-based
methodology was chosen. The research study employed data collected from: questionnaires
provided to parents; pre- and post-tests done with children in the form of researcher-child
interviews; and observations obtained from video recordings, photographs, and field notes,
to explore interest development in an enrichment program. Design-based research is an
emerging approach in education research, focusing on the development and review of
pedagogical approaches (The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). Design-based
research was chosen as the methodology for this study because of its distinct focus on
determining how a learning environment design affects learning. Collins (1992) defined
design-based research as a systematic methodology for conducting design experiments in
education to determine how different learning-environment designs affect dependent
variables in teaching and learning.
4.2. Design-based research
A design-based research approach is suited to this project because it focuses on an
intervention in response to a recognised authentic problem situated in education today;
namely, that educators are not taking full advantage of young children’s sensitive period for
learning. Young children, despite having a natural curiosity and being in a sensitive period
for learning, are not being provided with a broad knowledge base and interest in a range of
topics. According to The Design-Based Research Collective (2003), an approach blending
empirical educational research with the theory-driven design of learning environments is an
important methodology for understanding how, when, and why educational innovations
work in practice. Design-based research is grounded in both theory and the real-world
context, as a theory of interest development within the program is generated from a real-
world environment. It is an interactive research approach that is contextualised, considering
multiple variables that characterise a complex situation. Iterative evaluation of the research
works towards further improvement or enhancement of the pedagogy (Anderson & Shattuck,
2012). It also involves the systematic documentation of the design process as the researcher
takes on the role of both researcher and designer of the theory and the intervention.
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Design-based research is pragmatic because its goal is to solve current real-world problems
by designing and enacting interventions as well as by extending theories and refining design
principles (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). The Australian Prime Minister’s report has identified
that programs and resources for the early years need to be developed (PMSEIC, 2009). In
direct response to this recommendation, this study was undertaken by designing an
enrichment program that promotes interest in a range of topics with the aim of exploring the
factors impacting interest and interest development. Insight gained from the research would
be of value to early years’ educators. The research moved beyond simply observing and
involved systematically engineering these contexts in ways that improve practice and
increase engagement, thereby generating evidence-based claims about interest. The goal of
this research was not merely to understand and document the educational practice but rather
to change and improve educational practice and to present the findings in a way that is
useful to practitioners. According to The Design-Based Research Collective (2003), design
is central in efforts to foster learning, create usable knowledge, and advance theories of
learning and teaching in complex settings. The outcomes of the educational intervention are
then used to formulate new theories of learning and teaching, as appropriate to the area
(Kennedy-Clark, 2013). By designing and enacting the enrichment program, evidence-based
claims about interest could evolve. The program design was used to enact and to
continuously refine the theory.
Barab (2004) pointed out that design-based research involves producing demonstrable
changes at the local level. Changes in a local context provide the necessary evidence for the
viability of a theory. Design-based research that advances theory but does not demonstrate
the value of the design in creating an impact on learning in the local context of study has not
adequately justified the value of the theory. As such, a pragmatic philosophical
underpinning, one in which the value of a theory lies in its ability to produce change, is
recommended. The philosophical underpinning of this design–based research is an
educational perspective that considers the Montessori approach and Vygotsky’s social
development theory; a biological perspective that takes neuro-education into consideration;
and a psychological perspective that incorporates the theory of multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1983/2011). Various aspects of the designed context were systematically adjusted
so that each adjustment served as a type of experimentation that allowed the researcher to
test and generate new theory in an authentic context. Interest and interest development
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within the enrichment program was explored evaluated according to its ability to work in a
dynamic, rich, complex, real-life, constantly changing setting.
Design-based research usually taking a long time because theories and interventions are
continuously refined. The repetitive nature of the design process goes from analysis to
design to evaluation and redesign (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). This research was conducted
over a period of 3 years, during which a practical educational intervention promoting interest
was designed, the factors impacting interest identified and the process of interest
development described. The program and intervention was implemented and evaluated and
modified, during three cycles over a 3-year period.
Design-based research requires interactive collaboration among researchers and practitioners
(Wang & Hannafin, 2005). This research required collaboration with the teachers who
observed and sometimes presented the programs. Reis, Joan, and Terry (2000) stated that
gathering multiple viewpoints on a phenomenon enables greater accuracy of interpretation
than any of the data sources considered individually. The teacher had a different expertise
and perspective and the sharing of ideas impacted the decisions made in the different phases
of the research process as well as the learning theory and program design.
Design-based research is contextualised, because research results are “connected with both
the design process through which results are generated and the setting where the research is
conducted” (Wang & Hannafin, 2005, p. 11). Research results that take social context into
consideration have better potential for influencing educational practice, tangible products,
and programs that can be adopted elsewhere (Barab & Squire, 2004). This research focused
on understanding educational practice; it viewed context as being a core part of the story
and, as such, teaching and learning could not be treated as isolated processes. As the
research was contextualised, detailed records were kept of which interventions were more
effective than others, what factors impacted engagement, how the program application was
improved, and what kind of changes were implemented. Through this documentation, other
researchers and designers who are interested in those findings can examine them in relation
to their own context and needs, thereby increasing the generalisation of the findings to other
contexts. The aim of this research was to explore interest by identifying factors that impact
interest in the enrichment program and by describing how interest in the early years
developed through the enrichment program in a naturalistic setting. The research results
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were validated through the consequences of their use, providing consequential evidence or
validity (Messick, 1992).
Design-based research involves flexible design revision, multiple dependent variables, and
the capturing of social interaction (Barab, 2004). This research included multiple variables
such as environmental variables (e.g., complex dynamic classroom situations such as
disruptions, varying teaching topics, number of key components incorporated, time spent on
each key component, and teaching method) and outcome variables (e.g., cognitive
engagement, emotional engagement, behavioural engagement, and curiosity) as indicators of
interest. The focus of the research was not on identifying the variables and holding them
constant but rather on characterizing the situation in all its complexity and looking at
multiple aspects of the design and describing the factors impacting interest and the process
of interest development in practice. Design-based research systematically documents the
design process. According to Barab (2004), the goal of design-based research is to lay open
the completed design and resultant implementation in a way that provides insight into the
local dynamics. This involved providing rich descriptions of context through narrative,
guiding the emerging knowledge, designing features of the intervention, and evaluating the
impact of these features on engagement, participation, and learning. The comprehensive and
cumulative documentation that was utilised throughout this research, especially the video
documentation, tests and questionnaires helped data analysis and retrospective analysis.
4.3. Critical perspective
Some of the possible shortcomings of using a design-based research approach needed to be
addressed. These include a lack of a theoretical framework (Dede, 2004); absence of the
standards for identifying when a design should be abandoned or when it is promising enough
to warrant future exploration; problems in respect to the time-consuming nature of the
research and the excess data and data analysis (Brown, 1992); difficulty in generalizing
across participants (O’Donnell, 2004); the joint role of the researcher as designer (The
Design-Based Research Collective, 2003); research lacking a strong theoretical foundation
with no attempt to generate findings important for the refinement and evolution of theory;
and the ability to demonstrate the research’s usefulness or consequentiality (Barab, 2004).
Barab pointed out that design-based researchers need to be clearer about the limitations of
their findings. The following possible shortcomings of the program were addressed in order.
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Lack of a theoretical framework: Design-based research could lack a strong theoretical
foundation with no attempt to generate findings important for the refinement and evolution
of theory. According to Dede (2004), part of this shortfall may be that rigorous scholars do
not have the skills of creative designers of educational programs and vice versa. This
research was based on a strong theoretical foundation, the educational perspective of
Vygotsky’s social development theory, the Montessori approach, the biological perspective
which includes understandings from neuroscience, and the psychological perspective which
considers Gardner’s (1983/2011) model of multiple intelligences, as described in Chapter 2.
Absence of standards: The issue of determining standards for identifying what aspects of
the design should be abandoned or that warrant future exploration was addressed by finding
a way to measure the indicators of interest, namely, engagement and curiosity. Engagement
is complicated and not easy to measure (Schlechty, 2002). The Australian Government
developed a school performance framework in which “student engagement” was positioned
as an outcome. Student engagement is defined as the engagement of students with schooling
across three dimensions: behavioural, emotional, and cognitive (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, &
Paris, 2004). Criteria for identifying behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement and
for identifying curiosity were determined.
Time-consuming: Design-based research uses multiple iterations to adapt and reflect on the
pedagogical interventions used in the research; however, one of the challenges is
incorporating the multiple iterations of the research cycle because of limitations on resources
(Anderson & Shattuck, 2012). Due to its iterative nature, the research was time-consuming
and costly, extending over a period of 7 years from conception to completion. Consequently,
one of the limitations of utilising this methodology is that it was dependent on the continued
support of the staff at the research site. The support for this project was favourable, with
overall support for research coming from within the Creche and Kindergarten Association
Limited (C&K) central governing body.
Excess data: The Design-Based Research Collective (2003) points out that complications
arise from sustained intervention in messy settings. A single, complex intervention (e.g., a 4-
week curriculum sequence) might involve hundreds, if not thousands, of discrete designer,
researcher, and teacher decisions to promote innovative practice. In these situations,
causality can be difficult to decipher and disambiguate; all possible factors cannot
logistically be equally pursued; precise replication of an intervention is largely impossible;
85
and emergent phenomena regularly lead to new lines of inquiry informed by current theories
or models of the phenomena. Design-based research could become over methodological,
suffering from problems in respect to excess data and data analysis (Brown, 1992). Due to
the repetitive nature of this research project, it involved 15 complex interventions that may
involve thousands of researcher decisions. As the intervention was complex, data collection
had to be meticulous: every program was preceded by a pre-test questionnaire, all sessions
were videotaped and photographed, notes were taken after each session, and every program
was followed by a post-test questionnaire and a questionnaire provided to the parents,
contributing to the large data set. This was not regarded a problem as each session
contributed to gaining an understanding of interest development. Due to time constraints and
data saturation, in-depth analysis was undertaken of only three of the five sessions in each
phase.
Difficulty to generalise: Design-based research could make it difficult to generalise across
participants (O’Donnell, 2004). According to Barab (2004), a challenging component of
conducting educational research on design-based interventions is characterizing the
complexity, and eventual solidity, of the design and doing so in a way that will be valuable
to others, as it requires showing the relevance of the findings derived from the context of
intervention to other contexts. There were limitations to the generality of this research as this
was only one research design applied to this particular study. Interest development was
explored within this specific enrichment program only, with findings regarding cognitive,
emotional, and behavioural engagement relating specifically to the research. Barab however,
stated that the focus of design-based research is on generating theory grounded in
naturalistic contexts, not simply on showing the value of a curriculum. This research was
focussed on identifying the factors impacting interest within an enrichment program and
exploring interest development in the early years within the program thereby generating a
theory on interest development which could have generalisability value. Further research on
a theory of interest development may be needed to substantiate the theory.
Joint role of the researcher as designer: The design-based researcher takes on the joint
role of the researcher as designer and researcher, but being intimately involved in the
conceptualisation, design, development, implementation, and researching of a pedagogical
approach also produces challenges for the researcher. According to The Design-Based
Research Collective (2003), in trying to promote objectivity while attempting to facilitate
the intervention, design-based researchers regularly find themselves in the dual intellectual
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roles of advocate and critic. The question asked is whether a researcher, so closely
associated with the process, can make credible and trustworthy assertions. Cobb, Stephan,
McClain, and Gravemeijer (2001) answered this question by pointing to the value of the
researcher as designer and researcher, stating that researchers should not be detached from
the research content as it is through deep understanding that knowledge is produced. It is
through interventions that effective instructional models can develop. Although there are no
simple solutions to the tension arising from the coupling of empirical research to design,
according to The Design-Based Research Collective (2003), it is possible to employ specific
research methods to question the designer researcher’s tacitly held assumptions. Design-
based research typically triangulates multiple sources and kinds of data to connect intended
and unintended outcomes to processes of enactment. In this research specific qualitative and
quantitative research methods that documented the processes of enactment provided critical
evidence. Reliability of findings and measures were promoted through triangulation from
multiple data sources and repetition of analyses across three cycles of enactment.
Consequentiality: Barab (2004) pointed out that being able to demonstrate that learning
gains have been achieved is not the same as being able to demonstrate the usefulness or
consequentiality of the work. Barab describes consequentiality as the essential criterion for
determining the significance of a study in design-based research. Design scientists,
according to Barab, must also make connections to theoretical assertions and claims that
transcend the local context. Design platforms are contexts through which theory may be
advanced. The goal is to directly impact practice while advancing theory that will be of use
to others. Therefore, the validation of a design framework is not intended simply to show the
value of a curriculum but results in the advancement of a particular set of theoretical
constructs.
Although design-based research is not without shortcomings, this method of research is
ideally suited for conducting design experiments in education with the goal of addressing an
authentic problem. Grounded in both theory and a real-world context, this interactive,
iterative, contextualised research method took multiple variables into account, characterising
a complex situation to determine how the application of a design, an enrichment program,
will affect dependent variables: engagement (cognitive, emotional, behavioural) and
curiosity as indicators of interest, thereby allowing the factors impacting interest and the
process of interest development within the program to be explored, generating new
knowledge which can guide the design of future enrichment programs.
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4.4. Data collection method
The commitment to examining learning interventions in naturalistic contexts, many of which
are designed and systematically changed by the researcher, necessitates the development of
a methodological toolkit for deriving evidence-based claims from these contexts (Barab &
Squire, 2004). As interest is a complex concept, the method by which data on interest would
be collected, the methodological toolkit, had to be carefully planned. Reimann (2010)
characterised design-based research as an interdisciplinary mixed-method research approach
conducted “in the field” that serves applied and theory-building purposes.
In this research, a mixed methods approach was employed as both quantitative and
qualitative data were utilised. Wang and Hannafin (2005, p. 10) suggested “using a
combination of methods, data from multiple sources increase the objectivity, validity, and
applicability of the ongoing research”. The mixed methods approach consisted of not merely
collecting quantitative and qualitative data but also of merging, mixing, and linking the data,
building on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative data. This enabled the
researcher to obtain information about the outcomes as well as an in-depth understanding of
how the intervention worked (Creswell, 2008). It involved quantitative data gathered
through closed questions in questionnaires and tests and qualitative data collected from
open-ended questions in questionnaires, field notes made during classroom observations,
video recordings, and photographs. This type of research design builds on the strengths of
both quantitative and qualitative data as using both types of data provides a better
understanding of the research problem than either type by itself (Creswell, 2008).
4.5. Four phases of the design-based research
Reeves (2006) identified four phases of design-based research.
Phase 1, analysis of practical problem by researcher: this phase includes a statement
of the problem, consultation with teachers, research questions, and literature review.
Phase 2, development of solutions informed by existing design principles and
technological innovations: in this phase the theoretical framework for the research,
the development of draft principles to guide the design of the intervention, and the
methodology or description of the proposed intervention are determined.
Phase 3, iterative cycles of testing and refinement of solutions in practice: the
elements included in this phase are the implementation of the intervention, the
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participants, data collection, data analysis and re-implementation of the intervention,
participants, data collection, and data analysis.
Phase 4: reflection to produce design principles and enhance solution
implementation: included elements are design principles, artefacts, and professional
development.
The four phases provide a conceptual framework for the research and were employed as
the research progressed (see Figure 4.1). Each phase will be discussed in turn.
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 1
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Figure 4.1. Research phases and cycles.
4.5.1. Phase 1: Statement of the problem and research question
The practical problem identified by the researcher was that educators were not taking full
advantage of young children’s sensitive period for learning. Young children, despite having
a natural curiosity and being in a sensitive period for learning, were not being provided with
a broad knowledge base and interest in a range of topics. This was considered important to
the researcher as having an interest in and knowledge of a broad range of topics may provide
young children with a big picture of the world and many starting points for learning (Adams,
2015). This concern was echoed by the Prime Minister’s report (PMSEIC, 2009) that
pointed out the lack of programs and resources taking advantage of the sensitive periods for
developing skills, as discussed in Chapter 1.
In consultation with early learning teachers at the pre-school, and in response to the question
of whether there was value in sparking interest in topics such as insects, arachnids, flowers,
trees, the continents, religions, and so on, the teachers indicated that they were eager to
spark interest and that they saw the value of sparking interest in a range of topics, but that
they experienced a particular educational dilemma regarding the design of suitable programs
for their students. The following main points were raised related to the challenges they face:
time, knowledge and parental engagement. Teachers indicated in an interview that they
struggled to find the time to plan programs that would engage their young students and that
would promote interest in a range of topics, that they did not always have a clear
understanding of what factors impacted interest development, and that they do not know
how to effectively encourage parental participation.
The undertaking of the research was therefore the development of the enrichment program
that would promote interest in a range of topics, allowing the factors impacting interest and
Phase 4
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interest development in the enrichment program to be explored. The aim of the research
project was to explore student interest in the enrichment program and providing a response
to key research questions that shaped the study:
What factors have an impact on student interest in the early years?
How does student interest in the enrichment program develop in the early years?
These are important questions as there has been renewed focus on the role of interest in
students’ motivation and engagement (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Paul (2013) defined
interest as a psychological state of engagement and a predisposition to engage repeatedly
with ideas, events, or objects. Warden (2007) agreed that interest is a motivational force in
learning, driving children’s learning forward. Paul explained that interest pulls us towards
the new, providing new experiences but also focussing our experiences. Interest energises,
invigorates, captivates, and boosts thinking. Viewing interest and curiosity as motivational
factors in learning connects with the constructivist view that motivation is a key component
in learning (Hein, 1991). Not only does motivation help learning, but it is essential for
learning.
Montessori referred to natural interest unfolding within a child while Vygotsky viewed
interest as being shaped by people and cultural artefacts (Bodrova, 2003). This enrichment
program did not view Montessori and Vygotsky's perspectives as mutually exclusive,
choosing rather to integrate aspects of both natural interest and shaped interest in what can
be referred to as shaped interest developing naturally.
Interest, which is both a cognitive and an affective state, is characterised by focused
attention and/or engagement with certain objects or events (Renninger & Hidi, 2011).
Interest in this research was evaluated by viewing the two indicators of interest, engagement
and curiosity (see Figure 4.2).
Ratner (2002) stated that hypothetical concepts within design-based research must be well
defined so that they can be identified unambiguously to provide evidence of the
effectiveness of programs. Engagement and disengagement are complex and broad terms.
Goss and Sonnemann (2017) described “disengagement” as an umbrella term that can refer
to a range of behaviours: passively disengaged behaviours where a student is compliant but
quietly disengaged from learning; low-level disruptive behaviours where a student is noisy,
restless, or interrupting others and disengaged in learning; and aggressive and antisocial
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behaviours where a student is very uncooperative and fails to comply with classroom rules.
They also point out that the goal is not necessarily a quiet classroom, but a genuinely
productive class. According to a 2018 report by the Australian Government, high or
increasing levels of student engagement are desirable, but data are not yet available for
reporting against this indicator (Commonwealth of Australia, 2018). This lack of data on
engagement points to the challenges in effectively analysing engagement.
Figure 4.2. Engagement and curiosity as indicators of interest.
Behavioural and emotional engagement related to the first part of the program that is
delivered in a short session, and was examined by using the overlaid models of Gibbs and
Poskitt (2010) and Schechty (2002) as a framework. “Passively disengaged” behaviours
correlate with retreatism (Schlechty, 2002) and “low-level disruptive behaviours” and
“aggressive and anti-social behaviours” correlate to rebellion (Schlechty, 2002). Schlechty’s
work demonstrates how complicated engagement is. He suggested that a teacher may feel
that the students are engaged when they are merely being compliant and that seemingly
disengaged students can be high achievers.
Behavioural Engagement Play
Emotional Engagement
Parental Participation
Interest
Cognitive Engagement
Engagement Curiosity
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Pre-and post-tests taken by the children to determine knowledge gained was used as an
indicator of cognitive engagement. Curiosity was examined in the second part of the
program as expressed in play via play themes, statements made, and questions asked.
Parental involvement was encouraged to promote curiosity, and this was also be examined
via questionnaires given to the parents.
Phase 1 of the research, illustrated by Figure 4.3, consists of identifying the problem,
consultation, the research question and the literature review.
Figure 4.3. Phase 1 in design-based research.
Phase 1 was initiated by identifying the practical problem: that educators were not taking
full advantage of the sensitive period for learning that young children are in as they are not
being provided with a broad knowledge base and interest in a range of topics. In consultation
with teachers it was found that they also had challenges such as time constraints, which
made it difficult for them to plan programs that promote interest, and that they did not have a
clear understanding of what factors impacted interest development. From this practical
standpoint a research question was drafted: How does participation in an enrichment
program impact interest? The measure of the effectiveness of the enrichment program would
be evidenced by an increased interest in the topic. Interest development within the program
could also be explored as this would provide insight into where interest is positioned in the
learning process as seen in the program. The last step in this phase was the literature review,
providing an educational, a biological, and a psychological perspective on learning and
interest. The educational perspective considered the Montessori approach and Vygotsky’s
social development theory; the biological perspective took neuro-education into
Consultation
Identify problem Research question
Literature review
93
consideration; and the psychological perspective incorporated Gardner’s (1983/2011)
multiple intelligences, providing a holistic view of the enrichment response.
4.5.2. Phase 2: Framework of the enrichment program
In Phase 2, as illustrated by Figure 4.4, a framework for the enrichment program was
established: the curriculum, the teaching approach, and key components of the program as
discussed in Chapter 3, and the methodology of the intervention as discussed in Chapter 4.
Figure 4.4. Phase 2 in design-based research.
Curriculum: The broad-based, content-rich curriculum laid the foundations for integrated
learning. The curriculum included arts-based components as well as inquiry-based
components. Informed by the guidelines, 15 topics of inquiry were utilised in the research.
Each topic of the curriculum had a cognitive and an emotional component.
Teaching approach: A well-balanced, intentional-constructivist teaching approach was
followed.
Key components: The educational, biological, and psychological perspectives informed the
formulation of the key components of the program: introduction, images, objects, audio-
visual documentaries, audio-visual stories, music, drama, books, art-based activities, play,
and parental participation.
Methodology: Design-based research was chosen as the methodology for this study because
of its distinct focus on determining how a learning environment design affects learning and
interest.
Teaching approach
Curriculum
Key components of
the program
Methodology
94
With the enrichment program curriculum, teaching approach, and key components
identified, interest development within this enrichment program was explored via design-
based research in Phase 3.
4.5.3. Phase 3: Iterative cycles
Phase 3, as represented in Figure 4.5, involves three iterative cycles of testing, reflection,
and refinement of solutions in practice, in order to optimise learning outcomes.
Figure 4.5. Phase 3 in design-based research.
Design-based research uses multiple iterations to adapt and reflect on the pedagogical
interventions used in the research (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012). This research was
conducted over a period of 3 years during which, the program was implemented during the
research process, data were collected, the program was evaluated in terms of interest
development, and the program was refined. This was repeated and insight was gained into
factors that influence interest. Exploring interest during this period allowed for a theory of
interest development within the program to be generated. The advantages of using multiple
iterations for research into this area include the development, testing, and refinement of
principles in an evolving area (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). Included in this phase were a
discussion of the site, the participants, ethical considerations, data collection, and data
analysis.
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3
Program
implemented
Data
collected
Program
evaluated
Program
refined
95
Site: The site for the research was a pre-school in a low-socioeconomic (SES) area in South-
East Queensland. It was chosen for convenience reasons as the researcher had access to the
staff before the start of the project and, due to its proximity to the researcher’s home, it did
not entail a great deal of daily commuting over the course of 3 years.
Participants: The participants in this study (see Table 4.1.) consisted of three groups of 4
and 5 year old children who attended a pre-preparatory class over a period of 3 years. Other
participants included parents, the teacher (TT1), the teacher aide (TT2), and the researcher.
The director of the school, TT1, took on a new position at another school and was replaced
in the third year of the research by a new director (TT3). The groups were similar in size
with the ratio of boys to girls being similar as well, as seen in Table 4.1. Group sizes varied
from day to day depending on attendance but there was an average of 18 child participants in
the project in the first cycle, an average of 19 child participants in the second year, and an
average of 20 child participants in the third cycle.
Table 4.1. Research Participants and Data Collection Method
Cycle 1 (Year 1) Cycle 2 (Year
2)
Cycle 3 (Year 3) Data collection method
Child participants Pre- and post-tests in the form
of researcher-child interviews
Observations (video
recordings, photographs and
field notes)
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
10 8 9 10 10 10
Total n = 18 Total n = 19 Total n = 20
Parent participants Questionnaires
Total n=18 Total n=19 Total n=20
Researcher and teacher participants Field notes made by
researcher from conversations
with the teacher participants
based on their observations of
the session and the children’s
play after the session.
Researcher Teacher
(TT1 & TT3)
Teacher aide (TT2)
Total n=1 Total n=2 Total n=1
The children were introduced to the enrichment program in the second semester of each
year. As they attended 5 days of school every 2 weeks, five sessions of the enrichment
program were implemented with the whole class over a 2-week period.
96
In each of the groups there were children diagnosed with special needs such as autism,
hearing impairment, intellectual impairment, and psychological problems such as elective
mutism. Although all the children were included in the program, this research did not
specifically examine strategies for developing interest by promoting engagement and
curiosity for these particular students. These cases warrant specific approaches beyond the
scope of this research.
Parents and guardians attended a group session with the aim of understanding the basic
principles of the program. They were given information about the program and encouraged
to become involved in the process. In negotiation with the parents it was decided that their
role was to support their children’s developing understanding of, and interest in, the various
topics by building on existing knowledge and experiences. They were informed that they
would be provided with an activity booklet for each topic which they were encouraged to
complete with their children at home. They were, however, under no obligation to do so.
The researcher comes from a position of professional practice in psychology and education,
well suited to research in the field of MBE Science which lies within education, psychology
and neuroscience. Her interest in early learning and an enrichment program developed over
a period of twenty years driven by her epistemological stance that young children have great
learning potential and that we must make the most of the sensitive period for learning. Her
appreciation of the value of long-term research has guided this design-based research which
was conducted over a period of 8 years. Within design-based research the researcher takes
on the joint role of designer and researcher. Design-based researchers are not simply
observing interactions but are actually “causing” the very same interactions about which
they are making claims (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). In this study the researcher took on the
role of teacher and researcher as well as designer of a practical educational intervention that
can potentially impact student interest in a naturalistic setting. The researcher as participant
observer also takes on the role of an observer who engages in activities at the study site
(Creswell, 2008). This implies that the researcher recorded information at the same time as
teaching. The limitation of this role is that it is difficult to take notes while participating.
This difficulty was addressed by writing down observations directly after the session. As
sessions were also video recorded and photographed by an assistant, they provided a
valuable source of information for triangulation and participant observation.
97
Ethical considerations: The Ethics Committee at Griffith University approved the research.
The identity and confidentiality of the children participating in the study were protected.
Pseudonyms were used for privacy and anonymity. Consent was obtained from the
governing body of the school to conduct the research (see Appendix N). Parental consent
was obtained via program consent forms (see Appendix O) for each child to participate and
permission was obtained for each child to be photographed and video recorded with the
understanding that these photos may form part of publications such as journal articles or
books (see Appendix P). Parental signatures were obtained for these consent forms.
Data collection: As interest in this research was evaluated by viewing two indicators of
interest, engagement and curiosity, data were collected on engagement (behavioural,
cognitive, and emotional) and curiosity.
The outcomes of this research were derived from three types of data: questionnaires
provided to parents; pre- and post-tests done with children in the form of researcher-child
interviews; and observations obtained from video recordings, photographs, and field notes.
Table 4.2 provides an overview of the data collection and analysis for each indicator of
engagement.
Table 4.2. Data Collection and Data Analysis Method
Indicator of
Engagement
Data Collection Method Data Analysis
Behavioural
engagement
Observations obtained from video recordings,
photographs taken during the session and field
notes made by researcher and taken from
conversations with teachers after the session.
Each session is described in detail: the duration
of each component, a short description of the
activity, the name of the key component of the
activity and the number of children that were
showing signs of disengagement
Each session was analysed it in
terms of Schlechty’s (2002)
engagement continuum (see
Table 4.5), where engagement
is viewed on a continuum from
Rebellion, Retreatism, Ritual,
Routine, to Engaged.
The models of Schlechty
(2002) is then overlaid with
the model of Gibbs and Poskitt
(2010), allowing engagement
within each session to be
Emotional
engagement
Observations obtained from video recordings,
photographs taken during the session and field
notes made by researcher and taken from
98
conversations with teachers after the session.
Each session is described in detail as above. A
‘face-test’ question in the post-test where they
were asked to point to a face indicating how
much they liked learning about the topic.
examined further by
distinguishing between
behavioural and emotional
engagement.
Face-test results was
considered.
Behavioural and emotional
engagement was divided into
low, medium and high
engagement for each session
based on a self-designed
protocol (Table 4.8).
Cognitive
engagement
Pre- and post-tests which included open-ended
and close-ended questions (developed by
researcher) done with children in the form of
researcher-child interviews before the first
session and after the last session of each
program.
The pre- and post-tests were
compared to show what
learning had taken place, an
indication of cognitive
engagement. Cognitive
engagement was divided into
low, medium and high
engagement for the program
overall based on a self-
designed protocol (Table 4.9)
Curiosity Observations obtained from video recordings
and photographs of the children playing and
field notes taken as the children were playing.
Questionnaires which included open-ended and
close-ended questions (developed by researcher)
provided to parents at the completion of each
program.
Play during each program was
observed and recorded. Types
of play and themes in play
were analysed.
Parents were asked whether
they saw any indicators of
interest in their child’s
behaviour, e.g. talking more
about the topic. The results
were described.
99
Behavioural and emotional engagement were evaluated via: observations made from video
recordings of the session, photos taken during the session, conversations with teachers who
observed the sessions, and researcher notes taken directly after the session. According to
Fleer and Ridgway (2015), visual technology increased the researcher’s awareness of the
research content. Video recordings and photographs supported the researcher’s memory and
allowed the researcher to document each child’s engagement with the program as minor
actions and interactions are recorded. Cognitive engagement was determined by tests
undertaken with the children pre and post the program in the form of a researcher-child
interview, to determine knowledge gained. Curiosity was evaluated via questionnaires given
to the parents, observations made via video material and photos taken after the session while
the students were engaging in play, and notes taken from teacher talk as they were observing
and scaffolding the play. The multimodal sources of data together provided an insight into
engagement and curiosity in the various program topics.
By systematically documenting the design process, insight was gained into the dynamics of
interest development. Through collaboration with all the participants of the programs – the
researcher, teachers, parents, and the children – the situation was characterised in all its
complexity. The viewpoints of other educators involved can all be incorporated into
advancing design principles through design-based research (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). This
involved providing rich descriptions of context through narrative, meaningfully capturing
the dynamic unfolding of the phenomena, guiding the emerging theory, designing features of
the intervention, and evaluating the impact of these features on participation and learning.
Comprehensive and cumulative documentation utilised throughout this research, especially
the video documentation, photography, teacher talk and questionnaires with the parents,
helped retrospective data analysis.
The primary data collection instruments, the tests, and questionnaires were developed by the
researcher. Some questions were closed while some were open ended. Creswell (2008)
stated that the advantage of this type of questioning is that predetermined closed responses
can net useful information to support theories and concepts in the literature. The open-ended
responses permit the researcher to explore reasons for the closed responses and identify
comments that respondents might have that are beyond the responses to the closed questions.
Some of the data were qualitative and some were quantitative. The qualitative results from
observational monitoring and anecdotal notes made during sessions, photos, and video
100
material, as well as the quantitative data from tests and questionnaires, were gathered and
analysed. The quantitative and qualitative data were converged and compared. Themes
generated by qualitative data were compared to themes identified within the quantitative
data. The type of mixed methods design used in this research is a triangulation design.
Creswell (2008) stated that the purpose of a triangulation mixed methods design is to
simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the data, and use the
results to understand a research problem.
Pre- and post-tests were undertaken in the form of researcher–child interviews by the
researcher directly with the children, as a direct indicator of each child's knowledge and
understanding of concepts and terminology before the onset of the program and after
completion of the program, 2 weeks later. Appendix R provides an example of a pre- and
post-test in the Curious about Flowers program. First, the child was asked to identify the
flower from the tree, grass, and a fern plant, as it was necessary to find out if they
understood the meaning of the topic, “flowers”. Secondly, the child was asked to draw a
stem, leaves, and roots on a picture of a flower. This provided insight into their
understanding of the concepts. Thirdly, the child was shown pictures of five flowers and
asked to point to the rose, tulip, and a bird of paradise; a second page also had five flowers
and the child was asked to point to the daffodil, the sunflower, and the orchid; a third page
had six flowers and the child was asked to point to the carnation, the poppy, the protea, and
the gerbera. After the program had been completed, the children were again tested and the
results were compared. The last page of the post-test had a “face test”. It was explained that
the sad face was saying “I did not like looking at them at all,” the neutral-looking face was
saying, “It was ok. I liked looking at them a little bit,” and the happy face was saying, “I
liked looking at them a lot”. The child was then asked to show how they liked looking at
these pictures of flowers by pointing to a face. This gave an indication of whether the
subject liked or had an emotional engagement with the topic or not.
These pre- and post-tests provided interesting and valuable information regarding the
learning that had taken place. For example, in the Curious about Flowers program, of the 18
children who took part, all of them knew what a flower was, but only three could draw a
stem, leaves, or roots on the flower, indicating that very few of the children had any
understanding of these concepts before the start of the program. Almost none of them knew
any flower names. After the program, 17 children could draw a stem, 14 could draw leaves,
and 10 could draw roots, with one saying that he was not going to draw it because it was
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under the ground. Significant knowledge had been gained, a testament to the learning ability
of young children. What was even more notable was that most children now knew most of
the flower names. Knowledge gained is considered an indication of cognitive engagement,
one of the indicators of interest. An in-depth analysis of the results brought further questions
regarding cognitive engagement to the fore, for example, why could most of the children
identify a bird of paradise flower, while only 10 children could identify a daffodil?
Addressing these questions allowed the program to be refined. The face test provided
compelling evidence that most of children enjoyed the flower topic. In the pre-test, 13
children pointed to the happy face while in the post-test, 17 pointed to it. Pre- and post-tests
were conducted for each topic.
Qualitative methodology recognises the subjectivity of the researcher intimately involved in
scientific research (Ratner, 2002). Researcher subjectivity was therefore acknowledged.
According to Ratner, subjectivity can facilitate objective comprehension. Researcher bias is
possible to a certain degree, hence the interpretivist approach. During the collection and
interpretation of data the issue of subjectivity had to be addressed. The researcher had to
ensure that all aspects of the children’s reactions and behaviour, both the positive and
negative, were recorded. Video recordings of pre- and post –tests were of value as the
researcher could refer to them and question the possibility of researcher bias.
A questionnaire, as seen in Appendix T, was completed by the parents/guardians after
completion of each topic, providing insight into how they experienced and viewed their
child’s interest in the topic. Even though the focus of the investigation was on the children’s
curiosity and interest, parents were provided the opportunity to provide their perspective on
their child’s interest. Parents were more likely than anyone else, to be aware of any change
in the child’s behaviour. They were asked if the Curious about Flowers program increased
their child’s interest in flowers. If they answered yes, then they were asked to indicate what
behaviour they had noticed: was their child more aware of the flower in the environment;
did their child talk more about flowers; want to look at books about flowers; ask questions
about flowers or want to pick flowers; or did they notice anything else that pointed to an
interest in flowers? They were also asked what they thought of the activity booklet: Did their
child enjoy doing the booklet; did they enjoy doing the booklet with their child; did they not
have the time to do the booklet with their child; was the activity too difficult for their child
to; did they think the activity is a waste of time; and did they think it is not their job to teach
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their children at home? They were also asked if they themselves had become more interested
in the topic.
As social desirability bias is a major limitation in parent questionnaires, the pre- and post-
tests and interviews provided a more direct indicator of each child's level of interest and
knowledge of the topic. Social desirability bias reflects the basic human desire to present
oneself in a positive manner to others (Neeley & Cronley, 2004). Parents could possibly
claim that their children knew more than they did, to give a good impression of their
knowledge. It was therefore more reliable for the researcher to evaluate the knowledge of the
children. To overcome weakness in the research, triangulation was achieved by using
quantitative and qualitative methods, and by using multiple data sources. As Sagor (2000)
stated, more sources allow for more triangulation and a better understanding of the problem.
The goal of this research was not merely to understand and document the educational
practice but rather to change and improve educational practice and to present the findings in
a way that is useful to practitioners. By refining the enrichment program, evidence-based
claims about engagement and curiosity (indicators of interest) were generated and improved
and the process of interest development within the enrichment program described.
Data collection went through three distinct stages: a pre-test stage, an application stage, and
a post-test stage.
Pre-test stage: Before the commencement of the program, the parents were given
information about the program, as seen in Appendix O. They were provided with basic
information on why the research was being conducted; how the program would be
implemented; what was expected of them; what risks there were; whether their
confidentiality was protected; whether their participation was voluntary; whether the
research was ethical; and whether they would receive feedback. A pre-test undertaken with
each child determined what knowledge and understanding the children had of the topic (see
Appendix R).
Application stage: The research was divided into three cycles. In each cycle five topics were
delivered, and each topic was presented over five sessions within a 2-week period. Each
session, approximately 20 minutes in duration, included a new area of focus and revision of
the key concept of previous sessions. Fifteen programs, five per year, were conducted over a
3-year period in the second half of the year, as seen in Table 4.3. The various topics were
103
chosen, from the various plant-, animal-, people- or planet-related topics. Although each
program provided valuable insights, due to a saturation of data, only three programs per
cycle (indicated by an asterisk), randomly chosen, were analysed in detail.
Table 4.3. ‘Curiosity Learning’ Programs
Cycle 1: Curious about… Cycle 2: Curious about… Cycle 3: Curious about…
Reptiles Mammals Religions
Continents What’s Inside My Body Amphibians
* Countries * Insects * Dinosaurs
* Trees * Flowers * Structures
* Space * Birds * Arachnids
Each session was video-recorded, and photos were taken. A camera was placed on a tripod
at the back of the group, allowing the children watching the interactive screen and the
teacher to be filmed. The camera was left recording in the background so the children were
not very aware of it. The children were more aware of the small hand-held camera as a
teacher aide was taking photos from different angles. They were introduced to the camera
and informed why the photos were being taken. The video and camera footage provided data
on when children were engaging or disengaging with the program. Data regarding initial
attention, how much time was spent on each component of the program, how many changes
between components occurred, and how many children were engaging or disengaging with
each component, were recorded. The ability of the children to pay initial attention was
considered as it is viewed as the first step to engagement. According to Medina (2008),
attention is the first step to encoding information as the more attention the brain pays to a
given stimulus, the more elaborately the information will be encoded and retained. The
indicators of overt attention that were considered included alertness/focussing, eye
contact/looking at the educator, and listening.
After each session the researcher took notes and consulted with the teachers who had
observed the session. Pictures were taken of play during the day and further notes taken of
the play themes, statements made by the children, and questions asked.
Table 4.4 is an example of how data of one session, session 3 in the Curious about
Arachnids program, were recorded. The data recording provided an overview of the session
showing the duration of each component in minutes and seconds, a short description of the
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activity, the name of the key component that the activity represents and the number of
children that were showing signs of disengagement during that component, on a Level 1 or
Level 2 on Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum. It also included comments made by
the researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for disengagement (in italics). The art-based
activity is not included in the calculation of session time as it was conducted after the
session. The instructions given about the art-based activity however, form part of the
session.
Table 4.4. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Arachnids, Scorpions
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1 & 2
1 0-2.30 Discussion about arachnids Introduction 0
2 2.40-
3.27
Images of arachnids Images 0
3 3.28-
4.00
Making ‘arachnid hands’
Drama 0
4 4.01-
5.15
Images of arachnids
Images 0
5 5.16-
8.10
Video of spider spinning a web. (Cally and
Scarlett losing interest)
Audio-visual
documentary
2
6 8.41-
9.18
Images Images 0
7 9.19-
10.50
Sesame Street: What is an arachnid?
Funny.
Audio-visual
documentary
0
8 10.51-
11.53
Images (Chloe distracting the group) Images 5
105
9 11.54-
13.15
Video of a scorpion with babies on her
back. Henry and his baby brother arrived
late. Scarlett (front left) looking away
Audio-visual
documentary
3
10 13.16-
13.32
Images Images 0
11 13.33-
16.00
Video of meerkats hunting scorpions Audio-visual
documentary
1
12 16.10-
20.35
Video ‘Spider, spider, try again’. Parents
talking to teacher as well as Henry’s baby
brother is distracting
Audio-visual
story
2
13 20.36-
21.16
Images Images 1
14 21.17-
22.08
Art-based activity instructions
Art-based
activity
instructions
0
Total
session
time:
22 min
Reasons for disengagement: Distractions
related to disruptive behaviour, parents
talking to teacher, baby brother joining the
group
No of components: 5
No of times components were
used:14
This data collection set provided a snapshot of engagement during the session. A short
summary was made of the session after viewing all the data. Session 3 focussing on
‘scorpions’ started with a short discussion about arachnids. Behavioural and emotional
engagement was maintained within this session as the discussion was kept short (2.30 mins).
Engagement was sustained by frequent changes between components. During the video (3
mins) of a spider spinning a web, two children were losing interest. Both children had
special needs as one was diagnosed as ASD and the other with cognitive impairment.
Returning to the images re-engaged the children and they remained engaged during the
Sesame Street clip: ‘What is an Arachnid?’ Choosing an age-appropriate material and
regular changes between components kept the children engaged. Distractions such as a late-
comer and a younger sibling that joined the group caused temporary disengagement within
the group. The session was 22 mins long with 6 key components and 14 changes between
components.
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The activity booklet that encouraged parental involvement was also part of the Application
Stage, for example the “I can spot a flower” booklet as seen in Appendix S encouraged
parents to spot flowers in their environment with their children and to provide children with
real-life experiences. Parents sometimes gave spontaneous verbal feedback to the researcher
on how the activity booklets were going.
Post-module phase: After completion of the 2-week program, a post-test was undertaken
with the children and a post-test questionnaire was sent to the parents (see Appendix T). To
clarify answers, it was sometimes necessary to follow up with the parents at school to seek
further information or detail.
Data Analysis: Data analysis was initiated by overviewing each session and analysing it in
terms of Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum, where engagement is viewed on a
continuum from Rebellion, Retreatism, Ritual, Routine, to Engaged (see Table 4.5).
Table 4.5. The Engagement Continuum - Schlechty
Level 1 Rebellion Refusal to complete work and/or acting in a disruptive manner
which affects other students. Learning nothing from task.
Level 2 Retreatism Not paying attention but not disruptive. Doesn’t display an overtly
negative attitude. Learning little or nothing from task.
Level 3 Ritual Exerting very little effort, compliant. Low-level learning.
Level 4 Routine Puts in more effort but not persisting when the tasks get difficult.
Not able to transfer the skills to different contexts.
Level 5 Engaged High attention and high commitment to the task. See the work as
valuable to them. Often move beyond the set task. Retain what
they have learnt and able to transfer the skills to different contexts.
The data from Table 4.4. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Arachnids were analysed and
transferred onto Table 4.6. Evaluating Engagement (Schlechty): Session 3, Curious about
Arachnids, providing a picture of engagement according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement
continuum.
Table 4.6. Evaluating Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Arachnids
Component
(n=20) Level 1
Rebellion
Level 2
Retreatism
Level 3
Ritual
Level 4
Routine
Level 5
Engaged
1 Introduction 20
2 Images 20
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3 Drama 20
4 Images 20
5 Audio-visual
documentary
2 18
6 Images 20
7 Audio-visual
documentary
20
8 Images 1 3 16
9 Audio-visual
documentary
3 17
10 Images 1 19
11 Audio-visual
documentary
1 19
12 Audio-visual
story
2 18
13 Images 1 1 18
14 Art-based
activity
instructions
20
Student engagement is a complex and multifaceted construct that can be considered in terms
of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt, 2010). The
Australian Government developed a school performance framework in which student
engagement is positioned as an outcome. It is defined as the engagement of students with
schooling across three dimensions:
● Behavioural engagement, which can be measured by identifiable factors;
● Emotional engagement, which may be analysed by seeking students’ attitudes to
learning and school; and
● Cognitive engagement, which is less frequently measured in a classroom setting, but
research studies have used measures such as students’ perception of intellectual
challenge, effort or interest and motivation (Commonwealth of Australia, 2018).
Behavioural and emotional engagement in this research was determined by identifiable
factors such as the extent to which the children were engaging with and reacting to key
components of the program: teacher talk, large visual images, the audio-visual documentary
clips, the audio-visual stories, the authentic objects, the musical activity, the drama activity,
and the arts-based activity. This was observed by the way children were contributing to the
program by asking and answering questions, reacting such as smiling, laughing, pointing,
shouting, gesturing, showing signs of emotion. According to Fredericks, Blumenfield, and
Paris (2004) and Gibbs and Poskitt (2010), behavioural engagement is indicated by paying
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attention, participating, and following instructions; emotional engagement is indicated by
showing interest, enjoyment, and happiness, and reacting to the teacher; and cognitive
engagement is indicated by volition learning and actively thinking about the information.
While the signs of behavioural engagement such as paying attention, looking, and
participating are visible, the signs of emotional engagement such as reacting by showing
excitement, enthusiasm, concern, and so forth are subtler. Black (2014) talked about the
eyes, saying that learning does not lie within dull and dead eyes but within eyes that are
bright, quick, and that glow with light. Although subtle, emotional engagement is visible to
the teacher. Emotional engagement also indicates changed brain activity. Immordino-Yang
(2015) said that a teacher knows what an emotionally engaged child looks like on the
outside, but that it is also possible to show changed brain function on a MRI. The brain of an
emotionally engaged student has activations all around the cortex, in regions involved in
cognition, memory, and meaning making, and even all the way down into the brain stem.
By overlaying the models of Schlechty (2002) and Gibbs and Poskitt (2010), engagement
within each session was examined further by distinguishing between behavioural and
emotional engagement. Table 4.7 gives an overview of how behavioural and emotional
engagement was maintained during the session, with disengagement occurring when
technical problems were encountered.
Table 4.7. Evaluating engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Arachnids
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Introduction x x
2 Images x x
3 Drama x x
4 Images x x
5 Audio-
visual
documentary
x x
6 Images x x
7 Audio-
visual doc
x x
8 Images x x
9 Audio-
visual doc
x x
10 Images x x
109
11 Audio-
visual doc
x x
12 Audio-
visual story
x x
13 Images x x
14 Art-based
activity
instructions
x x
Total 0 1 13 0 1 13
Emotional engagement with each component was further divided into low, medium, and
high emotional engagement. It is difficult to determine emotional engagement as some
emotions, such as disgust, are not easily recognised, while others such as surprise and joy
are easily confused (Coulson, 2004). To address the challenge of assessing emotional
engagement, the table was used to provide a general indication of whether overall emotional
engagement for each component was low, medium, or high. It was based on the emotional
reactions of the children to each component such as laughing, pointing, shouting out; facial
expressions such as raised eyebrows and widening of eyes showing surprise; and body
language such as drooping of the body showing sadness. Creswell (2008) stated that
qualitative data should be recorded on self-designed protocols that will help to organise
information. Information was organised in terms of how it related to engagement, curiosity,
and parental involvement.
Assessments of low, medium, or high emotional engagement were recorded using a self-
designed protocol as seen in Table 4.8, showing the expressive elements of emotion.
Table 4.8. Elements of Emotional Engagement
Low emotional
engagement
Medium emotional
engagement
High emotional
engagement
Reactions Very little reaction to
stimuli. Less than 25%
of the children reacting.
Most not showing any
reactions
A few reactions to
stimuli. 25% - 50% of
the children reacting:
laughing, pointing,
questioning
Many reactions to
stimuli. More than
50% of the children
reacting: shouting out,
laughing, pointing
Facial
expressions
Facial expressions
showing very little
emotion. Some showing
boredom, looking into
Some facial expression
showing emotion such
as concern, sadness,
Many facial
expressions showing
emotion such as
trembling lip,
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the distance, vacant
expression, looking tired
and sleepy
wonder, excitement,
surprise, happiness
widening of the eyes,
raised eyebrows, open
mouth
Body
language
Body language showing
very little emotion. Some
showing boredom:
collapsed posture, head
backwards, not facing
teacher
Some children’s body
language showing
emotion such as
gasping and holding
breath, drooping of the
body
Many children with
body language
showing emotion such
as sudden backward
movement of surprise,
open body language
Cognitive engagement was indicated pre- and post-test and showed knowledge gained and
basic understanding of the topic. The following self-designed protocol (see Table 4.9)
provided a guideline for determining whether overall cognitive engagement for a program
was low, medium, or high.
Table 4.9. Elements of Cognitive Engagement
Low cognitive
engagement
Medium cognitive
engagement
High cognitive
engagement
Topic Less than 50% of the
children understand the
topic
50-80% of the children
understand the topic
80% of the children
understand the topic
Basic
concepts
Less than 50% of the
children know the
basic concepts
50-80% of the children
know the basic
concepts
80% of the children
know the basic
concepts
Terminology Less than 50% of the
children have learned
new terminology
50-80% of the children
have learned new
terminology
80% of the children
have learned new
terminology
Cognitive engagement was indicated by knowledge gained regarding arachnids, according to
pre-and post-test results. None of the children in the pre-test evaluation had a concept of
arachnids whereas in the post-test evaluation, 16 out of 20 children recognised arachnids by
identifying their number of legs as eight. There was a significant increase in the number of
children (from 4 to 16) who understood that spiders could have more than two eyes, and in
the number of children (from 11 to 17) who understood that spiders lay eggs. The comments
parents made about the knowledge their children gained during the Curious about Arachnids
program was also considered:
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Ashanti astounded me with this. She is aware of arachnids and can identify and
remember all the arachnids mentioned. Even I was not aware that a tick was an
arachnid. – Ashanti’s father
Ellie always makes sure there are 8 legs when she draws spiders. – Ellie’s mother
It was evident that the instruction received through the Curious about Arachnids program
curriculum increased students’ knowledge and basic understanding of arachnids, indicating
high cognitive engagement. Although the program was cognitively challenging, it was well
within the capability of the children.
By analysing each session, data from the five sessions provided an insight into how many
components were used overall, how long each session was, how many changes were made
between components, as well as the behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement with
the program. For example, Table 4.10 is a summary of the five sessions of the program,
showing that the average length of sessions was approximately 18 minutes, the average
amount of key components was five to six, with a change of key component averaging
approximately every 2 minutes. By considering engagement and disengagement during all
five sessions, factors contributing to disengagement and engagement could be identified and
an insight could be gained into interest development.
Table 4.10. Analysis of Five sessions Curious about Arachnids
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 17 mins 25 mins 22 mins 17 mins 11 mins
Number of key
components
5 5 5 6 5
Number of changes
between components
7 9 14 15 6
Behavioural engagement per component
- low 0 0 0 0 0
- medium 0 2 0 1 1
- high 7 7 14 14 5
Emotional engagement per component
- low 0 0 0 0 1
- medium 0 3 0 1 0
- low 7 6 14 14 5
Cognitive engagement
- High (more than 80% of the children understand the topic, know the basic topics
and have gained new vocabulary)
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Curiosity was indicated by themes in play as revealed by observations (video-recordings,
photos) and teacher talk and in questionnaires given to parents. Play provocations using
natural and cultural materials were set out. Play during each program was observed and
recorded and themes of play were analysed. Types of play were identified: dramatic,
exploratory, manipulative, creative, or active and whether they showed a connection to the
topics (see Table 4.11).
Table 4.11. Analysing Play in Curious about Arachnids
Types of
Play
Dramatic Exploratory Manipulative Creative Active
Play
observed
yes yes no yes yes
Examples Cooking
flies; spider
and fly
game
Searching for
spiders and
webs
- Making
glue webs,
drawing
webs
Play frame
– hanging
upside
down like
spiders
Themes in the dramatic, exploratory, creative, and active play during the Curious about
Arachnids program indicated heightened interest in the topic.
For example, during the Curious about Arachnids program, provocations such as a giant
yarn web in the garden, toy spiders and scorpions and glue to make glue webs were set out.
The consolidation of learning and heightened curiosity was reflected in the children’s play,
as presented in Table 4.12 where some children were actively looking for arachnids in the
garden and shed, some were playing a “spider and fly” game, and others were wearing their
spider eye masks and pretending to be spiders.
Table 4.12. Play in the Curious about Arachnids Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
The school garden and the
garden shed
Exploratory play: looking for and
investigating spiders and spider webs
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Cultural
(art)
materials
Writing and painting
materials, playdough, sticks,
paper plates, yarn
Creative play: drawing, painting and
making arachnids, making webs, making
spider
masks
Cultural
(general)
materials
Plastic toy arachnids; spider-
eye masks; giant yarn ‘web’
Dramatic play: children provided the
framework, “Let’s pretend we are
spiders with spider eyes”; “Let’s play
spider and fly”
Teacher notes in the Curious about Arachnids program also reflected the diversity and
individual nature of play:
Jordan and Abbey spotted some Daddy Long Legs spiders in the corner of the
school garden shed. Chrissy, Kelce and Henry went searching for webs in the
garden, while Kaylee and Sasha drew a great web “for catching flies” and a few
others made webs with glue. Some children wanted to do handprint spiders. Some
were on the play frame wearing their spider eyes and pretending to be spiders while
others were playing a game called “spider and fly” in the giant spider yarn web.
Ashanti was making mud cakes in the sandpit, ’I’m a spider cooking the flies I
caught in my web,’ she said. Jordan asked the teacher to show him how to write
word, ‘Arachnid’ and then he wrote it himself.
During play the teacher could address questions, interests, and issues. A situation where a
child showed aggression towards a spider was addressed by helping the child see the
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situation from the perspective of the spider. Knowledge gained from the Curious about
Arachnids program was consolidated through play as indicated by the way they represented
their new knowledge in drawings, paintings, and play dough creations. Heightened curiosity
was indicated by questions asked about webs, excitement related to spotting webs, spiders
and webs in the garden, activities such drawing or making arachnids, or play themes such as
“spider and fly” in the giant web. The value of interacting with friends to build cognitive
skills was observed by a teacher who commented on how they were helping each other to
grasp new concepts:
The children are teaching each other! Abbie explained to Fay how to count to eight
legs. – TT2
In the questionnaire, the parents were asked whether they thought that the Curious about
Arachnids program increased their child’s interest in arachnids. According to the parents, 16
of the children were showing “quite a lot” of increased interest, three were showing only a
little interest, and one was not showing any interest in arachnids.
Josie loves spotting spiders in our backyard. We have a lot of St. Andrews Cross
spiders. She is very interested in their web designs – Josie’s mother
According to the teacher, this program had been very successful in sparking curiosity and
interest:
This program got them interested the most. Immediately after the first session they
started spotting spiders – in the shed, in the veggie patch and even on the other side
of the fence surrounding the school! – TT3
Comments made by the children themselves also pointed to heightened interest in arachnids:
My mum took me to the barber to cut my hair and she gave me spikes, but she didn’t
give me spider webs. I wanted spider webs on the side of my head. – Jordan (age 5)
The take-home activity booklet consisted of activities aimed to consolidate knowledge about
various arachnids, spiders, scorpions, and ticks. Parents were asked what they thought of the
activity booklets (see Table 4.13).
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Table 4.13. Curious about Arachnids Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the “I know what Arachnids are!” activity booklet? (n=20)
1 My child enjoyed doing the booklet 12
2 I enjoyed helping my child complete the booklet 13
3 I like that the booklet showed me what my child was learning about 14
4 My child did not enjoy doing the booklet 2
5 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 4
6 I think this booklet is too difficult for my child to do 0
7 I think that learning about arachnids is a waste of time 0
8 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
Despite the activity booklets being optional, most of the parents said that their child enjoyed
completing the booklets and that they enjoyed completing the activities with them. Parents
also valued the fact that the booklets were showing them what their children were learning
in the program. Four parents said that they did not have the time to do the activity booklet
and two said that their child, one being a child diagnosed as ASD, did not want to do the
booklet as he does not like spiders.
Grace is scared of spiders, so this was her least favourite program. – Grace’s mother
Comments from parents regarding the activity booklet were generally positive.
Great booklet (Arachnids) and learning experience for child and parents. –
Ashanti’s father
In summary, the Curious about Arachnids program was effective in developing curiosity
about the topic as indicated by play themes, questions asked, comments made by the
children and their parents, as well as questionnaires. The children interacted with the range
of provocations, thereby consolidating their learning in an individualised way. Exploratory,
creative, and dramatic play dominated. The questionnaire indicated that the children enjoyed
doing the activity booklet as it revisited concepts learnt in a creative and fun way.
4.5.4. Phase 4: Exploring interest
Phase 4 (see Figure 4.6) reflected on the research findings to identify factors that impacted
interest (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement and curiosity) in the enrichment
program, and to describe interest development in the program, outlined in Chapter 6:
Research Discussion. Phase 4 also put forward recommendations regarding educational
116
practice, educational policy, and future research initiatives in Chapter 7: Conclusion and
Recommendations.
Figure 4.6. Phase 4 in design-based research.
4.6. Conclusion
A design-based research approach has been employed in this project because it focuses on a
pragmatic intervention in response to a recognised authentic problem situated in education
today, which is that educators are not taking full advantage of the sensitive period for
learning that young children are in as they are not being provided with a broad knowledge
base and interest in a range of topics. In consultation with teachers it was found they also
had challenges such as time constraints which made it difficult for them to plan programs
that promote interest and that they did not have a clear understanding of what factors
impacted interest development and how to encourage parental participation. The Australian
Prime Minister’s report had also identified that programs and resources for the early years
needed to be developed (PMSEIC, 2009). In direct response to this recommendation this
study was undertaken by designing an enrichment program that promotes interest in a range
of topics with the aim of exploring the factors impacting interest and interest development.
By designing and refining the enrichment program, evidence-based claims about interest
development and interest development could evolve. The program design was used to enact
and to continuously refine the program with insights gained from the research being of value
to early year educators.
Design-based research is an interactive research approach that is contextualised, considering
multiple variables that characterise a complex situation, therefore it involved the systematic
Factors impacting
curiosity
Factors impacting
engagement Process of interest
development
Recommendations
117
documentation of the design process as the researcher took on the role of both researcher
and designer of the theory and the intervention. As design-based research is iterative, the
research was conducted over a period of 3 years during which factors impacting engagement
(behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) and curiosity within the enrichment program, were
identified and a theory of the process of interest development was generated.
This research approach involves flexible design revision, multiple dependent variables, and
the capturing of social interaction (Barab & Squire, 2004), therefore the research included
multiple variables such as environmental variables (e.g., complex dynamic classroom
situations such as disruptive children, varying teaching topics, number of key components
incorporated, time spent on each key components, and teaching method) and outcome
variables (e.g., holistic engagement, and curiosity) as indicators of interest. The focus of the
research was not on identifying the variables and holding them constant but rather on
characterizing the situation in all its complexity and looking at multiple aspects of the design
and developing a theory that characterises the design in practice. Design-based research
systematically documents the design process. According to Barab and Squire (2004), the
goal of design-based research is to lay open the completed design and resultant
implementation in a way that provides insight into the local dynamics. This involves
providing rich descriptions of the context guiding the emerging theory, designing features of
the intervention, and evaluating the impact of these features on participation and learning.
The comprehensive and cumulative documentation that was utilised throughout this
research, especially the video documentation, helped data analysis and retrospective
analysis.
The next chapter, Chapter 5: Research Findings, looks at the research findings as
engagement and curiosity in the enrichment program, the indicators of interest, are explored.
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Chapter 5: Research Findings
5.1. Introduction
To address the research question, how participation in an enrichment program impacts
interest, a design-based research method, as described in Chapter 4, was utilised.
Engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) within each topic as well as curiosity
was determined. This is an important question as there has been renewed focus on the role of
interest in students’ motivation and engagement (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). The
research project involved three iterative cycles of testing over 3 years during which the
enrichment program was refined to promote engagement and curiosity. In each cycle, five
topics were delivered, with each topic being presented over five sessions conducted over a
2-week period. Due to saturation of data only three of the five programs per cycle were
analysed in terms of engagement and curiosity. In Cycle 1, the topics Countries, Trees, and
Space were analysed; in cycle two, Insects, Flowers, and Birds; and in cycle three,
Dinosaurs, Structures, and Arachnids. Interest was explored by considering engagement and
curiosity in these topics (see Table 5.1).
Table 5.1. Data Analysis
Interest Engage-
ment
Behavioural
engagement
Analysis of
sessions based
on video-
recordings,
photos and notes
taken
Transferred to
Schlechty’s
engagement
continuum
Overlaid onto
Gibbs &
Poskitt’s
model of
behavioural,
emotional, and
cognitive
engagement
Analysis
of five
sessions in
terms of
engage-
ment
Emotional
engagement
Cognitive
engagement
Pre-and post-tests determining knowledge gained
Curiosity Statements and questions; themes observed in play;
questionnaires given to the parents
The data was analysed by including the detailed analysis of one randomly chosen session in
each program. For example, in the Curious about Countries program, data analysis of
Session 3 provided an overview of the session showing the duration of each component,
what the activity was, and how many students were disengaged during that component.
Analysis also included comments made by researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for
disengagement. The data were then transferred to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum
and overlaid onto Gibbs and Poskitt’s (2010) model of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive
engagement.
119
Cognitive engagement with each of the nine programs was determined by doing pre- and
post-tests before onset and after completion of each program. Knowledge gained is viewed
as an indicator of engagement. The data of all the sessions in each program are summarised
in a table that shows the duration of each session, the number of key components
incorporated, and the number of times key components were used, indicating the number of
times key components were changed. This also gives a snapshot of the analysis of
behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement during each key component of every
program.
Curiosity was explored by considering statements made and questions asked by the children,
themes observed in play, as well as the questionnaires given to the parents.
Behavioural and emotional engagement in Part A of the program will be discussed first,
followed by a discussion of cognitive engagement, reflecting knowledge gained during the
program, and lastly, curiosity in Part B of the program will be discussed. Behavioural and
emotional engagement are before cognitive engagement, as they were evaluated first during
the presentation session while cognitive engagement was evaluated only after completion of
the program. Curiosity is discussed last as it was evaluated after the program presentation by
identifying themes in play and via parental questionnaires which were completed after
completion of the program.
5.2. Behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement
Behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement in each session of Cycles 1, 2, and 3
were explored. The process is systematically documented, and rich descriptions are provided
to characterise the situation in all its complexity (Barab & Squire, 2004).
5.2.1. Cycle 1
Three programs were evaluated as part of the first cycle, Curious about Countries, Curious
about Trees, and Curious about Space. These topics reflect the integrated character (Lima,
2015) of the program curriculum, intentionally enabling children to form a worldview and
develop a broad understanding of a world that is interconnected and interdependent. This
understanding was designed to develop a holistic view of the world (Zakaria, 2015) and
broad starting points to better understand natural relationships. Detailed descriptions of three
of the programs and the complexity of interventions are provided.
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Each session is discussed to determine how key components of the program can be
effectively implemented to contribute to holistic engagement and what factors have an
impact on engagement.
Cycle 1A: Engagement with Curious about Countries
The Curious about Countries program linked to the Australian Curriculum (ACARA, 2012)
as it gives children a knowledge of both Australia and of the world and helps them to make
sense of their own world and appreciate the diversity, complexity, and interdependence of
places and their peoples, skills that will be useful in their future life. According to ACARA
(2011), a geographical imagination will enable students to relate to other places and people,
and to appreciate the cultures and perspectives of others. Glauert et al. (2007) stated that
connections to other places help children to understand both themselves and those places in
meaningful ways and to imagine the kind of world they might want to construct. The key
focus of the Curious about Countries program was to increase vocabulary, knowledge, and
basic understanding of what a country is by focussing on one country from each continent.
The country was chosen for no reason other than it being an interesting country with a rich
culture. Any other country from the same continent would also have been suitable. The
program introduced cultural material such as places, food, clothing, and music (QSA, 2006),
giving the children an insight and an understanding of other people (cognitive component)
and thereby developing their sense of connectedness to other cultures (emotive component).
Developing appreciation of music from various cultures connects to Gardner’s (1983/2011)
musical intelligence.
Engagement during each of the five sessions in the Curious about Countries program was
analysed. The data of only Session 3 is shown as an example (see Table 5.2 and Table 5.3)
and the data from all five sessions were then compiled in Table 5.4: Table: Analysis of 5
sessions, Curious about Countries.
Session 1, with Mexico as the focus area, was initiated with an introduction to the topic
which included a graphics interchange format (GIF) of planet Earth revolving. According to
the indicators of attention, this component effectively gained the attention of the students.
They were attentive as they tried to spot Australia. The large colourful wall map of the
world (Object component) was an effective teaching tool as the children pinpointed the
country. The children paid attention to the large realistic images (Images component)
showing the clothes, food, and cultural tools of Mexico. The images were shown at a
relatively quick pace, keeping the momentum. They sang along to the La Cucaracha song
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(Music component) and danced around the Mexican sombrero (Object and Drama
components), tasted Mexican tortilla chips (Object component), greeted each other in
Spanish (Drama component), and watched a humorous clip of ‘Speedy Gonzales’ (Audio-
visual story component). Moving, eating, laughing, and singing along represented
multisensory learning that engaged all the senses. Session 1 was a relatively short session (9
mins 50 s) with seven key components (not counting the art-based activity) and 11 changes
between components. In general, the children were at Level 5 on the engagement continuum
(Schlechty, 2002).
Session 2, focussing on Brazil, was 18 mins 30 s with seven key components and 16
component changes. The change between the first component (Object), a large blow-up
globe, and the second component, an audio-visual song, was interrupted by a short
discussion. During this discussion six children became distracted. This placed some children
on Level 2, Retreatism, of Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum as they were not
paying attention but were not disruptive. A quick change between components may have
been more effective in keeping their attention. The assessment of the indicators of
engagement revealed that for the rest of the session, behavioural and emotional engagement
was high as indicated by the level of attentiveness, participation, reactions, facial
expressions, and body language. This is likely due to the range of components incorporated
and the regular changes between components. The amount of time spent on each component
was approximately 90 seconds. The children focussed on the colourful and humorous
animated audio-visual song, Rio (Music) as well as greeting each other in Portuguese
(Drama). The child diagnosed as ASD (see Figure 5.1) who rarely takes part in classroom
activities was watching the program with interest from the back of the class, indicating
behavioural engagement with the topic.
Figure 5.1. Child diagnosed as ASD showing interest in the program.
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Session 3 on South Africa (see Table 5.2) was preceded by a discussion not related to the
topic which lasted for 2 mins 50 s. The discussion was clearly not effective in gaining the
attention of the whole group as six of the children were not engaging behaviourally and
emotionally. As soon as the GIF of a revolving planet came on the screen, most of the
children regained focus. This session was 21 min 15 s in duration, with five key components
and 13 component changes. Although the children were talkative during Session 3, they
were still engaging as indicated by their participation, facial expressions, and body language.
They became very distracted toward the middle of the program when a child diagnosed as
ASD came into the classroom crying loudly. Behavioural and emotional engagement
remained low while the teachers were talking with each other and with the parent. As the
adult discussion receded, the children re-engaged with the program. An audio-visual song
was too long at 4.30 mins as some of the children did not maintain focus. Behavioural and
emotional engagement was high overall. Table 5.2 provides an overview of the session
showing the duration of each component, what the activity was, and how many students
were disengaged during that component. It also includes comments made by researcher and
thoughts on possible reasons for disengagement.
Table 5.2. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Countries, South Africa
Time Activity Key
Component
No of
children
Level 1&2
(n=18)
1 - 2.50 Discussion unrelated to program 6
2 2.50-
3.51
GIF of orbiting globe
and investigation of
large blow-up globe
of earth.
In awe of the large
globe
Object 2
3 3.52-
6.56
Images of people and continents – the
message being we all look different, but
we are all the same
Images 0
4 6.57-
9.30
Music - Speedy Gonzales
Laughing, singing along
Music 0
5 9.31-
10.35
Revision of images Images 0
123
6 10.36
-
11.05
World map
Object 0
7 11.16
-
11.59
New images Images 0
8 12-
12.50
Ostrich egg Everyone wants to hold it –
gets passed around
Object 0
9 12.55
-
14.30
Video of Bushmen speaking the click-
language
Autistic boy enters, crying. Teachers
talking
Audio-visual
documentary
6
10 14.31
-
14.50
Speaking the click-language
Autistic boy still crying
Drama-action 3
11 15.00
-
15.25
Images, Autistic boy still crying Images 3
12 15.26
-
20.06
‘Perpetuum Jazzile’ choir singing Africa
Song 4.30 mins too long
Music 2
13 20.07
-
21.15
Art-based activity explained Art-based
activity
0
Total
sessio
n
time:
18.25
Reasons for disengagement: Special needs
boy crying; teachers talking in
background; music component too long (4
min 30 s); session too long?
No of components: 5
No of times components
were used: 13
The data from the table above were analysed and transferred into Table 5.3, providing a
picture of engagement according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
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Table 5. 3. Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Countries, South Africa
Component Level 1
Rebellion
Level 2
Retreatism
Level 3
Ritual
Level 4
Routine
Level 5
Engaged
1 Unrelated
discussion
6 12
2 Object 2 16
3 Images 18
4 Music 18
5 Images 18
6 Object 18
7 Images 18
8 Object 18
9 Audio-visual
doc
6 12
10 Drama 3 15
11 Images 3 15
12 Music 2 16
13 Art-based
activity
instructions
18
By overlaying the models of Schlechty (2002) and Gibbs and Poskitt (2010), behavioural
and cognitive engagement within each session was further examined as seen in Table 5.4.
Schlechty distinguishes between behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement, but
cognitive engagement was indicated by knowledge gained and this was assessed after
completion of the program.
Table 5.4. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Countries
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Unrelated
discussion
x x
2 Object x x
3 Images x x
4 Music x x
5 Images x x
6 Object x x
7 Images x x
8 Object x x
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9 Audio-
visual doc
x x
10 Drama x x
11 Images x x
12 Music x x
13 Art-based
activity
x x
Total 1 1 11 3 2 8
Behavioural engagement often aligned with emotional engagement, but high behavioural
engagement did not necessarily indicate high emotional engagement.
Session 4, focussing on Japan, also commenced with the component Introduction, a
discussion. Initially the children were paying attention but after 3 minutes, a few started
disengaging (yawning, looking around) and by 4 min 30 s most of the children were no
longer paying attention. As soon as the component was changed to the visually appealing
Images, the children regained focus. Session 4 was 19 in duration with seven components
and 25 changes between components. The group was excited and talkative, but engagement
was good. Small distractions occurred when a baby brother who had joined the group began
to cry and when a child diagnosed as ASD left the session.
Session 5, on the topic of Italy, began with a GIF of the revolving Earth and everyone
except a child who had been diagnosed with ASD was paying attention. The session was 21
mins, with five key components and 25 changes between components, equating to more than
one change per minute. The indicators of engagement revealed that most of the children
were engaging well with the various activities, for example, looking at the large images,
singing the “pasta song”, and watching audio-visual documentaries. The quick changes
between components kept the children engaged with the program. Behavioural engagement
during the session was high except toward the end when a child diagnosed with special
needs entered the classroom late, crying. When he settled down the group regained focus.
Emotional engagement was generally high, with some medium engagement indicated by
their reactions, facial expressions, and body language.
Cognitive engagement: Knowledge and basic understanding of the topic is viewed as an
indicator of cognitive engagement in this research. The children’s basic understanding of the
concept “country” was determined by evaluating understanding of what a country is and the
ability to recognise various countries by associating iconic images with them. Out of the 18
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children evaluated using a pre- and a post-test, the data revealed an increase in the number
of children (from 0 to 11) who understood that their planet is named Earth and that that their
country was called Australia (from 7 to 12). These data were collected by the following
process: children were shown five sets of pictures, each with four iconic pictures
representing a country. The number of children able to associate the pictures with the
countries increased: Mexico (from 1 to 12), Brazil (from 0 to 8), South Africa (from 1 to
10), Japan (from 1 to 11), and Italy (from 0 to 13). There was an increase in the knowledge
gained by more than half of the children, indicating medium cognitive engagement.
Cognitive engagement examined: There was a medium level of increase in cognitive
engagement with between 50% and 80% of the children showing an understanding the topic,
knowledge of the basic concepts and increased vocabulary. This was a large curriculum for a
program consisting of only five sessions, each of 15 minutes in duration, allowing very little
time for repetition and revision. Repeated exposure in different contexts and spread out over
time is one of the factors identified that contribute to learning (McInerney, 2014; PMSEIC,
2009). Although the instruction received through the enrichment program increased the
students’ knowledge and basic understanding of countries, a smaller curriculum, or more
sessions allocated to the program, for example five sessions per country, may have provided
more opportunity for revision of content and retention of knowledge may have been better.
Huttenlocher (2002) suggested that overly ambitious agendas related to enrichment
programs for children may lead to “neurological crowding”, where too much information
leads to a sensory overload. The next program would therefore have a smaller curriculum
with less content with the intention of increasing cognitive engagement.
Table 5.5 consolidates information gained from the five sessions: the duration of each
session, the number of key components incorporated, the number of times key components
were used, indicating the number of changes between components. It also gives a snapshot
of the analysis of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement during each key
component of every program.
Table 5.5. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Countries Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 9 min 50 s 18 min 30
s
21.15 min 19 min 21 min
Number of key
components
7 7 5 7 5
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Number of times key
components were used
11 16 13 25 25
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 0 0 1 0 0
- medium 0 1 1 0 1
- high 11 15 11 25 24
Emotional engagement per key component
- low 0 1 3 0 0
- medium 1 0 2 0 9
- high 10 15 8 25 15
Cognitive engagement for 5 sessions
- Medium with 50-80% of the children showing an understanding the topic,
knowledge of the basic concepts and increased vocabulary.
Table 5.5 shows that on average, the duration of sessions was 18 minutes with six key
components, changing to a different component approximately every 2 minutes, providing
insight into how long children were able to remain engaged in the session. In general,
behavioural and emotional engagement was high while cognitive engagement was medium.
Factors contributing to holistic engagement and disengagement were identified. Factors
contributing to engagement in the Curious about Countries program were:
● Large realistic images and GIFs (Images) that captured the attention of the
children;
● Interesting bits of information promoted cognitive and emotional engagement as
indicated by body language and facial expressions
● The inclusion of objects such as a large colourful wall map (Object), an effective
teaching tool;
● Age-appropriate audio-visual documentary clips (Audio-visual documentary) and
stories (Audio-visual story);
● Incorporating Music and Drama components;
● Incorporation of at least five of the key components;
● Changes between components, averaging to one change approximately every
minute; and
● Inclusion of humorous images and stories relating to the countries.
Factors contributing to disengagement in the Curious about Countries program were:
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● Distractions caused by disruptive students; noisy classroom environment due to
teachers and parents conversing in the background;
● Too much time spent with one component, for example the audio-visual song was
too long (4 mins 30 s) and the discussion (6 mins) was too long. The children
gradually began to lose focus at approximately 3 minutes into the discussion.
● Curriculum too large. Less content may have allowed for more revision and a better
grasp of the content
Key findings from Cycle 1A:
The large visually appealing images were found to be effective in gaining the
attention of the children
Small bits of interesting information promoted cognitive and emotional engagement.
A component that included a visual stimulus was more engaging than a component
without a visual stimulus such as a discussion.
Incorporating several key components in a session allowed for multi-sensory
learning facilitating engagement.
Changing a key component facilitated engagement.
Distractions such as disruptive children of adults conversing had a negative impact
on engagement.
As the large content of the curriculum in relation to the time allocated for each session did
not allow for repeated exposure, it was decided that the next program, Curious about Trees,
would have a smaller curriculum with less content, allowing more time to revisit concepts;
furthermore, teacher talk and disruptions would be limited as far as possible.
Cycle 1B: Engagement with Curious about Trees
According to Warden (2007), plants offer many learning opportunities as children are
naturally fascinated with all aspects of a plant, every nodule, pattern, or texture. By learning
about trees and plants, they are given the opportunity to connect with nature. Warden
pointed out that it is the role of the educators to create opportunities for children to connect
with nature. Plant-related topics develop naturalistic intelligence, the ability to discriminate
among plants (Gardner, 1983/2011). These programs introduced the children to concepts
and terminology, skills and processes, while developing their sense of wonder regarding
trees and helping them become aware of the value of trees and the needs of a tree,
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developing the emotive component. Concepts such as seeds, seedlings, roots, stem,
branches, leaves, petals, as well as the names of certain trees – the golden wattle, gum tree,
pine tree, paper bark tree, and banksia – were introduced, as were skills such as planting a
seedling and caring for it and processes such as becoming aware of seasonal changes.
Session 1: The assessment of the indicators of engagement revealed that behavioural and
emotional engagement during the first Curious about Trees program varied. The first
session, focussing on the golden wattle, was 13 minutes long with five key components and
eight changes between components. The component Music, an audio-visual song called
“Parts of a Tree,” gained the attention of almost all the children. Colourful animations and
music were very effective in maintaining the attention of the children for the duration of the
song. A child diagnosed with ASD was unable to focus on the screen and was looking
around. Another child also diagnosed with ASD, who rarely interacts in classroom activities,
was paying full attention to the song on the screen, as seen in Figure 5.2 wearing a green
top. A technical sound problem during the audio-visual song (Music component) diminished
the overall musical experience and resulted in a few children becoming distracted.
Figure 5.2. Child diagnosed as ASD demonstrating attentiveness.
Session 2: The second session, focussing on the gum tree, commenced with an action
(Drama). The children pretended to be trees and the full-body action was effective in getting
everyone’s attention. This session was 16 minutes in duration, with six key components and
10 changes between components. Engagement was disrupted during the component Images
when questions from the children led to a discussion which disrupted the momentum of the
session. Five children became distracted, showing Level 2 (Schlechty, 2002) engagement.
They regained focus when the program moved onto the next component, Audio-visual
documentary.
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Session 3 on the Paperbark Tree was 12 min 30 s in length; there were six key components
and eight changes between components. The session began with an action (Drama). Two of
the children were losing attention, as indicated by their body language, but not being
disruptive (Retreatism), while the rest of the group remained committed to the drama
activity. Engagement was good with two to three children becoming distracted when a
problem with sound affected the audio-visual song (Music) and during a class conversation
in the Images component. The duration of the component Images was 2 min 20 s which
appeared to be too long as two children started showing sign of disengagement. It is possible
that the high number of new images, with little repetition, affected engagement in a negative
way. Table 5.6 provides a summary of the session showing the duration of each component,
what the activity was, and how many students were disengaged during that component. It
also includes comments made by the researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for
disengagement.
Table 5.6. Analysis of Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1 & 2
1 0-2.23 Pretending to be a tree
May have been too long
Drama 2
2 2.50-
4.07
Audio-visual song
Teachers trying to fix a sound problem
Music 2
3 4.12-
5.30
Video of seed sprouting Audio-visual
documentary
0
4 5.37-
7.56
Images and conversation
Conversation slowed down the tempo of
delivery
Images 3
5 7.56-
8.16
Authentic paperbark Objects 0
6 8.16-
8.59
Images and conversation Images 3
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Possibly too many images shown – more
than 3 min in total
7 8.59-
10.15
Richard Scary animated clip on what
happens after trees are chopped
Highly engaging
Audio-visual
story
0
8 10.20 –
12.30
Art-based activity explained – making a
tree with paperbark
Art-based
activity
instructions
0
Total
session
time: 12
min 30 s
Reasons for disengagement: Technical
sound problems; conversation slowing
down the tempo of delivery; spending too
much time on the drama activity (more
than 2 min) and on images (more than 3
min)
No of components: 6
No of times components
were used: 8
The data from Table 5.6 were analysed and transferred into Table 5.7, providing a picture of
engagement according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
Table 5.7. Engagement (Schlechty) Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree
Component
(n = 18)
Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4:
Routine
Level 5:
Engaged
1 Drama 2 16
2 Music 2 16
3 Audio-visual
documentary
18
4 Authentic images 3 2 13
5 Object 18
6 Authentic images 3 3 12
7 Audio-visual story 18
8 Art-based activity 18
By overlaying the Schlechty (2002) model with the Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) model, as
presented in Table 5.8, behavioural and emotional engagement within each session was
examined further.
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Table 5.8. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) Session 3 Curious about Trees, Paperbark Tree
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Component Low Med High Low Med High
1 Drama x x
2 Music x x
3 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
4 Authentic images x x
5 Object x x
6 Authentic images x x
7 Audio-visual story x x
8 Art-based activity x x
Total 0 2 6 0 3 5
Session 4: The fourth session, with the banksia as the focus area, commenced with a
discussion on the value of trees (Introduction component) of more than 2 minutes in
duration. This was too long as behavioural disengagement was observed with three of the
children becoming distracted, looking around, or becoming restless. As soon as the
following component, a song (Music component) commenced, they regained focus, as
indicated by their reactions and body language. Further data on the session are lacking as
recording stopped due to a technical problem with the video camera.
Session 5: This session focussing on the pine tree commenced with the teacher explaining
the activity booklets, which continued for 7 minutes. Approximately 10 of the children
became behaviourally and emotionally disengaged as demonstrated by their restless
behaviour, looking around, and talking. It became clear that sessions need to commence
immediately as valuable focus time is lost when lengthy discussions precede them. The
children regained focus when the visually appealing Images were introduced. Half-way
through the 6 min 30 s Audio-visual documentary component, six to eight children were
beginning to lose focus, possibly due to the length of the clip as well as its advanced
informational level. They re-engaged with the Images component. Later disengagement
occurred during the Images component as two of the children diagnosed as ASD were
distracting the group. Session 5 was 16 min 30 s in duration with five components and 10
changes between components. Although the actual session was only 16 min and 30 s in
duration, the discussion beforehand made the total sitting time 24 minutes long.
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Cognitive engagement: Knowledge and basic understanding of the topic is an indicator of
cognitive engagement. The children’s basic understanding of the concept “tree” was
determined by evaluating knowledge of the parts of a tree, their understanding of the needs
of a tree, why we need trees, and the ability to recognise various types of trees when shown
pictures of them. In the pre-test, many of the children had knowledge of branches and leaves
being parts of a tree, but only a few had a concept of roots. In the post-test, most of the
children could draw the parts of a tree, indicating knowledge of this aspect. Figure 5.3
represents one child’s improvement in knowledge.
Figure 5.3. Pre-test and post-test Curious about Trees.
Regarding the question, “What do trees need to grow?” only a few of the children knew
what the needs of a tree were; however, in the post-test phase all the children, apart from
two, could give at least one relevant answer, indicating improved understanding. The aim of
the third question put to the children, “Why do we need trees?” was to determine whether
the children understood the importance and value of trees. The number of relevant answers
more than tripled in number, from eight in the pre-test phase to 27 in the post-test phase.
Researcher notes refer to a post-test evaluation:
I asked five-year old Jordan, “Why do we need trees? Surprisingly his answer was,
“To make the world a more beautiful place and they give us oxygen”. I asked his
mother if she had every used the word oxygen in her communication with Jordan,
and she said no. Jordan had therefore picked up the word, oxygen after I had only
used it once. It reminded me again not to underestimate young children. - Researcher
notes
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The children were also shown pictures of 10 types of trees and asked to point out the
different types: golden wattle, gum tree, banksia, pine tree, and the paper bark tree (see
Table 5.9).
Table 5.9. Pre- and Post-Test Knowledge Curious about Trees
(n = 18) Golden wattle Gum tree Banksia tree Pine tree Paperbark tree
Pre-test 1 1 1 3 0
Post-test 15 14 13 16 15
Knowledge of types of trees improved, for example, in the pre-test only one child correctly
identified the Golden wattle, while in the post-test 15 of the 18 children were able to identify
it. Most of the children did not have any knowledge of the types of trees in the pre-test
phase, while in the post-test more than 80% of the children successfully answered the
questions, indicating high cognitive engagement. Comments made by parents contributed to
the view that the children as well as the parents gained knowledge about trees:
He taught us about the Golden Wattle! That’s his favourite tree as he keeps talking
about it when he sees them. –Jay’s mother
The understanding that children have of the parts of a tree, the needs of a tree, and the value
and importance of trees as well as their ability to identify various types of trees increased
after taking part in the Curious about Trees program.
Table 5.10 provides a summary of the five sessions of the Curious about Trees program: the
duration of each session, the number of key components incorporated, and the number of
times key components were used, indicating the number of changes between components. It
also gives a snapshot of the analysis of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement
during each key component of every program. Cognitive engagement was determined via
pre- and post-tests before and after completion of the program. The average duration of
sessions was approximately 14 minutes, the average number of key components varied
between five and six, and approximately every minute and a half, a change of component
occurred.
135
Table 5. 10. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Trees Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 13 min 16 min 12 min 30 s - 16 min 30 s
Number of key
components
5 6 6 - 5
Number of times key
components were used
8 10 8 - 10
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 0 0 0 - 0
- medium 1 2 2 - 2
- high 7 8 6 - 8
Emotional engagement per key component
- low 0 0 0 - 0
- medium 1 2 3 - 3
- high 7 8
5 - 7
Cognitive engagement
High - more than 80% of the children successfully answered the questions
Factors that had a negative effect on engagement were:
● Introduction component exceeding 3 minutes;
● Images being too advanced and not age appropriate;
● Presenter sharing “too much” information about an image;
● Audio-visual documentary component being too long and too advanced;
● A class discussion breaking the momentum of the session;
● Spending too much time on a component; and
● Distractions, e.g., children or parents.
Factors encouraging engagement were:
● Incorporation of at least five key components;
● Many changes between components, approximately every minute and a half; and
● Session lasting 14 minutes on average (excluding the Arts-based activity).
In summary: Behavioural, emotional and cognitive engagement with the program was
generally high, with episodes of medium engagement due to the program not commencing
immediately, a discussion breaking the momentum of the session, too much information
being given, content not age-appropriate, not changing quickly enough to a new component,
136
and distractions caused by a child. The Music component, an audio-visual song with
colourful animation and music, as well as the Drama component, an action where the
children pretended to be trees, were more effective in maintaining the attention of the
children than the discussion (Introduction). This is likely since drama and music are
multisensory activities as opposed to a conversation. Factors encouraging engagement were
the incorporation of at least five key components, many changes between components
(averaging to one every minute and a half), and sessions lasting 14 minutes on average. The
children fared better in terms of cognitive engagement than in the previous program as
indicated by pre- and post-tests evaluating knowledge gained. Keeping the volume of the
curriculum small allowed more time for revision and repetition of central concepts. One
child remembered the concept “oxygen” after it had only been mentioned once in the
program, indicating that young children should not be underestimated in their ability to
grasp concepts not usually introduced to this age group.
Key findings of Cycle 1B:
Not commencing with the program immediately had a negative impact on
engagement.
Lengthy teacher talk or lengthy class discussions broke the flow of the session
leading to disengagement.
Program content (images) not being age-appropriate had a negative impact on
engagement.
Keeping curriculum content small enabled the repetition of concepts promoting
cognitive engagement.
The key findings from Cycle 1A and 1B were incorporated into Cycle 1C.
Cycle 1C: Engagement with Curious about Space
The Curious about Space program is one of the planet-related topics, providing children
with a broader understanding of the world and its position in space. According to Glauert et
al. (2007), the central purpose of a geographical education is to give children a more
rounded, structured opportunity to view and understand the world. The Curious about Space
program enhances children’s understanding of the planet with concepts such as space,
atmosphere, orbit, and planetary names being introduced. This knowledge contributes to
their network of knowledge: an intricate and diverse knowledge network that embodies the
notions of interconnectedness and interdependence (Lima, 2015). As content size of a
137
program was still under consideration, the content of the Curious about Space program was
intentionally larger than the previous program to see how much information the children
would retain in the limited time.
Session 1: Engagement during the first session, focussing on the moon, was predominantly
on Level 5 of the engagement continuum as described by Schlechty (2002), indicated by
reactions, facial expressions, body language, and participation. The 12-minute session with
five key components and seven changes between the components provided a compact
program with a range of multisensory activities. Children engaged well with visually
appealing animations such as the moon orbiting the Earth, mimicking the orbiting action
with their hands.
Session 2, with the sun as focus area, had a high level of engagement despite it being 20
minutes long. Six key components and 13 changes between components meant that the
program changed to a new component every minute and a half, thereby keeping the
momentum of the session flowing. A short period of disengagement occurred during the
component Images when questions from the children lead to a discussion breaking the
momentum, resulting in four children losing focus, demonstrating Level 2 (Schlechty, 2002)
engagement. A learning-disabled child was on a Level 2 to 3 engagement throughout the
program, looking around, not paying attention. All the children regained focus when the
program moved onto the next component, an audio-visual animated song, indicating that a
change of component is an effective way to regain attention.
Data on Session 3 focussing on space shuttles and astronauts are lacking due to a technical
problem with the video camera.
Session 4, focussing on planets, was 27 mins in duration with six key components and 15
changes between components. It took the children a while to settle down and pay attention at
the start of the session. This may be related to the fact that the session was preceded by a 7
minute class discussion. The Action component, where the children were asked to point to
space, enabled them to regain focus, indicating again how effective a change of component
can be. Engagement during the rest of the session was predominantly at Level 5 (Schlechty,
2002) with some children, including a child diagnosed as ASD and a child with an
intellectual impairment, showing Level 2 (Retreatism), Level 3 (Ritual), and Level 4
(Routine) engagement. Table 5.11 provides an overview of the session showing the duration
of each component, what the activity was, and how many students were distracted during
138
that component. It also includes comments made by the researcher and thoughts on possible
reasons for disengagement.
Table 5.11. Analysis of Session 4 of Curious about Space, Planets
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1&2
1 0-6:50 Discussion before session Introduction 5
2 7 -7:49 Image & discussion.
Too long considering discussion
before the session
Introduction
& Image
4
3 7.50- 8:03 Where is space? Point to space
Drama 0
4 8:04-10:29 Images
Excited to see pictures of themselves
Images 1
5 10:30 – 10:55 Video of sun revolving Audio-visual
documentary
0
6 10:57-12.30 Balls to represent Earth, moon, and
sun spinning and orbiting
Object 3
7 12.50 – 14.35 Singing the ‘Sun Song’ Music 1
8 14.36 -15.27 Video of planets orbiting Audio-visual
documentary
0
9 15.28 – 15.38 Images.
Humorous images effective
Images 1
10 15.40 – 17.10 Animated video of sun Audio-visual
documentary
1
11 17.12 – 18.04 Images Images 1
12 18.05-21.43 Video of space shuttle lift-off
Audio-visual
documentary
0
139
13 21.50- 23.20 Images Humorous images Images 2
14 23.21-25.58 Video of the ISS Audio-visual
documentary
0
15 26.00-27.00 Art-based activity instructions, make
our solar system with playdough
Art-based
activity
1
Total session
time:
(excluding art-
based activity)
27 min
Reasons for disengagement: Lengthy
discussion before session. ASD child
and a child with an intellectual
impairment were periodically
disengaged. They engaged better with
the audio-visual activities
No of components: 6
No of times components
were used: 15
The students engaged well with the Images component, as indicated by the way they were
paying attention, but when the images were humorous emotional engagement increased even
more as indicated by their reactions. They also engaged well with the drama activity and the
audio-visual documentaries. Engagement during the demonstration of the earth orbiting the
sun and the moon orbiting the earth was lower, indicating a possible lack of understanding
and cognitive engagement. The data were analysed and transferred into Table 5.12 providing
a picture of engagement according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
Table 5.12. Evaluating Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 4, Curious about Space, Planets
Component
(n = 18)
Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4:
Routine
Level 5:
Engaged
1 Discussion 5 13
2 Introduction 2 2 14
3 Drama 18
4 Authentic images 1 17
5 Audio-visual doc 18
6 Object 3 5 10
7 Music 1 17
8 Audio-visual doc 18
9 Images 1 17
10 Audio-visual doc 1 17
11 Images 1 17
12 Audio-visual doc 18
13 Images 2 16
14 Audio-visual doc 18
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15 Art-based activity
instructions
1 17
By overlaying the Schlechty model (2002) onto the Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) model,
behavioural and emotional engagement within Session 4 was examined further (see Table
5.13).
Table 5.13. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Session 4, Curious about Space, Planets
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Component Low Medium High Low Medium High
1
Unrelated
discussion
x x
2 Introduction x x
3 Drama x x
4 Authentic images x x
5 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
6 Object x x
7 Music x x
8 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
9 Images x x
10 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
11 Images x x
12 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
13 Images x x
14 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
15 Art-based activity
Instructions
x x
Total 1 2 12 1 3 11
Session 5, focussing on galaxies, was 25 minutes in duration with five components and 14
changes between components. Although the engagement was at a Level 5 overall, the
children diagnosed with ASD and cognitive impairment were engaging at lower levels.
Despite the high level of behavioural engagement, there was agreement amongst the
researcher and the teachers that too much time spent showing images (7 min in total) and on
141
songs (3 songs) had a negative impact on emotional engagement. Emotional engagement
was increased, as indicated by reactions and facial expressions, by including photos taken of
the children during previous sessions in the presentation.
Cognitive engagement. Knowledge and basic understanding of the topic is an indicator of
cognitive engagement. The children’s understanding of the concept “space” was determined
by evaluating whether they knew where space was, what could be found in space, and how
one would travel to space. Of the 18 children taking part however, seven already had a
concept of where space was and 13 had a concept of planet Earth before the onset of the
program, probably because they had previously completed the Curious about Continents
program which addressed the concept. Before the onset of the program, 10 children already
had a concept of the moon, 11 of the sun, 12 of the stars; 14 understood space shuttles or
rockets as a way of travelling to space. After completing the program, most children
understood the following concepts: planet Earth, space, moon, sun, stars, craters, orbit, and
space shuttle/rocket. Cognitive engagement was high for these concepts with more than 80%
of the children being able to identify them. Knowledge of related concepts such as the
atmosphere, names of planets, galaxy, astronaut, and telescope was limited. Cognitive
engagement was low for these concepts with less than 50% of the children being able to
identify them. The related concepts were mentioned but not revised as frequently as the
central concepts, which were revisited during each session.
Comments made by parents are an indication that the children had gained knowledge about
space through the program:
Ashanti identifies the sun, moon and the Milky Way in pictures and documentaries. It
is good that this program gives them the basic information about space. – Ashanti’s
father
She is fascinated by the moon. She explained to us why there are craters on the
moon. She told us that the Earth spins but that we can’t feel it spinning. – Chrissy’s
mum
A study by Pinkham, Neuman, and Lillard (2011) found that children are likely to learn the
words they hear the most as the majority (80%) of 4-year-old children successfully
remembered a new word only after 24 repetitions. Not all words need 24 repetitions, but
Pinkham et al.s’ research suggested that children need more encounters with new words than
previously suspected. Table 5.14 shows the number of times a word/concept was repeated
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during five sessions, and the number of children who remembered the concept during the
post-test.
Table 5.14. Frequency of Repetition of Concepts
Concept/Term (n = 18) Pre-test Times
repeated
Post-
test
Planet Earth - What is our planet called? (Picture of
planet Earth)
13 30 17
Space - Can you point to space? 7 25 17
Atmosphere – Can you point to the atmosphere? (Picture
of planet Earth surrounded by blue atmosphere)
0 10 3
Moon - What do we call this thing we see in the night
sky? (Picture of night sky with moon and stars)
10 43 17
Star – What do we call these things we see in the night
sky? (Picture of night sky with moon and stars)
12 15 18
Craters - Show me the craters (Picture of moon) 2 13 16
Orbit - Can you make this planet Earth orbit around the
sun? (cut-out of earth and sun)
3 17 15
Sun - What is this thing in the sky called? (Picture of sky
with sun)
11 29 16
Space shuttle/ rocket – How can we get to space? 14 12 17
Names of planets – Can you name some planets? 4 3 4
Astronaut – What do we call someone who goes to
space? (Picture of an astronaut)
5 6 6
Galaxy – Point to the picture of our galaxy (6 pictures of
planets, meteorites and a galaxy)
0 5 3
More repetition of a concept led to better retention, whereas less repetition led to less
retention. For example, the names of the planets were only repeated three times during the
program and there was no increase in the number of children who could remember the
names of some planets, whereas the concept “moon” was repeated 43 times and all the
children could identify the moon after the program. It is notable that although the children
heard the word “crater” only 13 times, 16 children remembered it. This strong retention of
the word could relate to the fact that the children did an art-based activity where they made
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craters in a play dough “lunar surface”. The same goes for the word “orbit”, which was
repeated only 17 times but the doing the action of “orbiting” may have enhanced retention.
This connects with the report from the PMSEIC (2009) that exposure to concepts in different
contexts allows for the concept to be better encoded.
Table 5.15 is a summary of the five sessions of the Curious about Space program, showing
that the average length of sessions was 21 minutes, the average number of key components
varied between five and six, with a change of key component approximately every minute
and a half to two minutes. Behavioural and emotional engagement was high except for in
Session 4 where factors such the length of the session had a negative impact on emotional
engagement.
Table 5. 15. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Space Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 12 min 20 min - 27 min 25 min
Number of key
components
5 6 - 6 5
Number of times key
components were used
7 13 - 15 14
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 0 0 - 1 1
- medium 0 2 - 2 2
- high 7 11 - 12 13
Emotional engagement per key component
- low 0 0 - 1 1
- medium 0 2 - 3 3
- high 7 11 - 11 12
Cognitive engagement
- High for revised concepts with more than 80% of the children being able to
correctly identify them
- Low for concepts not revised with less than 50% of the children being able to
identify them.
Factors that had a negative effect on engagement were:
● Lengthy class discussion before onset of program;
● Momentum of the session broken by a class discussion;
● Too much time spent one component , e.g. 7 min in total spent on Images; 3 audio-
visual songs;
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● Not changing to another component soon enough, not being sensitive to the signs of
disengagement; and
● Distractions, e.g. children or parents conversing.
Factors encouraging engagement were:
Repetition of a concept led to better retention.
● When the images were humorous emotional engagement increased as indicated by
their reactions.
● Incorporation of at least five key components;
● Many changes between components, approximately every 3 minutes; and
● Personalising content, for example the inclusion of photos of the children themselves
into the presentation.
Key Findings from Cycle 1C:
More repetition of a concept led to better retention
Including humour, e.g. funny images, increased engagement.
Personalising content, e.g. including photos of the children, increased engagement.
Summary of Cycle 1
Engagement within this program was achieved for up to 20 minutes. Variations in level of
behavioural and emotional engagement were related to certain factors. Commencing with
the session immediately led to improved engagement as having lengthy discussions
beforehand was challenging to young children with short attention spans. The key
components of the program were integral to the programs as instruction could be
differentiated by utilising a range of activities in each session, and information could be
processed through multiple senses, facilitating multisensory learning. The content of key
components was also vital. Images that were too “busy” or audio-visual documentaries or
stories that were too advanced led to disengagement. Only small amounts of interesting bits
of information were given to the children, as sharing larger amounts of information led to
disengagement. Spending a lengthy period on one key component led to disengagement as
observed when the Introduction component and the Images component continued for more
than 3 minutes. By changing to another component, especially when signs of behavioural
and emotional disengagement such as looking away, yawning, or not reacting were visible,
engagement was regained. Regular changing of components, approximately every one and a
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half to two minutes, was found to be effective. Maintaining the flow of a session was
effective in sustaining engagement as lengthy classroom discussions or the presenter sharing
too much information could break the momentum. Distractions such as disruptive children
or parents conversing also led to disengagement. Humour was found to be a valuable
inclusion in each session, promoting engagement, and the children reacted with excitement
at the inclusion of personal pictures of themselves in the presentation. The children
embraced the cognitive challenge of the program, as demonstrated by their enthusiasm and
eagerness to learn, but mixed results were obtained from the tests. Findings in Cycle 1
indicated that the cognitive challenge of the programs was realistic if the content was not too
large, allowing for the revisiting of concepts, ideally 24 repetitions per concept (Pinkham et
al., 2011).
5.2.2. Cycle 2
Based on the findings of Cycle 1, it was decided that aspects of the designed enrichment
program would be refined:
The program would commence immediately and not be had a negative impact on
engagement;
As the large visually appealing images with no distracting background were found to
be effective in gaining the attention of the children,;
Only small bits of interesting information would be provided;
Program content would be age-appropriate;
Each session would consist of several (4 to 5) key components allowing multi-
sensory learning;
A key component would be changed if disengagement was observed;
The momentum of the session would be maintained by avoiding lengthy discussions
or teacher talk;
Curriculum content would be kept small to enable the repetition of concepts;
As more repetition of a concept led to better retention, each central concept would be
revisited and revised during every session;
Humour, e.g. funny images, would be included as it improved emotional
engagement;
As personalising content, e.g. including photos of the children, increased
engagement, they would be included in Cycle 2 if available.
The length of each session would remain flexible, allowing further evaluation;
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The length of each component would also be evaluated further to determine the
optimum length of each component;
As it is impossible to control distracting behaviour by students, especially children
with special needs, the impact of this would be monitored.
Due to data saturation only three of the five Cycle 2 programs – Curious about Insects,
Curious about Flowers, and Curious about Birds – were analysed. As Cycle 1 had
promising results in terms of engagement, it was decided that the Curious about Insects
program in Cycle 2 would be presented by the teacher and not by the researcher. The teacher
was familiar with the program and had observed previous sessions. The teacher was not
involved in the data gathering, but merely presenting the program with the researcher
observing. This allowed the researcher to gain some insight into the impact of a teaching
style on engagement.
Cycle 2A. Engagement with Curious about Insects
The Curious about Insects program is one of the six animal-related topics. Children have a
unique connectedness to animals and a fascination and joy at seeing an animal or an insect
(Curtis & Carter, 2003). The program introduces concepts and terminology, skills, and
processes, while developing an appreciation of animals. Concepts such as what an insect is,
and new terminology such as “antennae” are taught and children learn the names of a small
number of insects, namely: bee, wasp, butterfly, moth, ant, dragonfly, damselfly, stick
insect, and praying mantis. Skills such as using binoculars or magnifying glasses are taught
and processes such as life cycles are explored.
Engagement during Session 1, focussing on butterflies and moths, varied. The session
commenced with a discussion on insects in the environment, the Introduction component,
during which four children were on Level 2 (Retreatism) of the engagement continuum
(Schlechty, 2002), not paying attention but not being disruptive. The teacher had not
presented this program before and was unsure how to maintain the flow and momentum of
the session. The component changed to an Audio-visual documentary, a short humorous
animation, which immediately caught everyone’s attention, including a child who had been
diagnosed with ASD. Their reactions, such as laughter, indicated emotional engagement
with the topic and the audio-visual activity was clearly more engaging than the discussion.
This also indicated that by changing the component, attention was regained. Large realistic
colourful images of insects were shown to the children. A child diagnosed with ASD was
making a running commentary which was a big distraction to the other children, with more
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than six children paying more attention to him than to the images. Although he was
distracting the group, his comments were an indication that he was engaging with the
pictures. As the component changed to an action, making insect wings with their arms, the
group re-engaged. This time the autistic child was making buzzing sounds and running
around, indicating again that he was engaging with the topic. This did not affect the attention
of the rest of the group. More images were shown but the tempo was too slow, as indicated
by the children becoming talkative with more than six children disengaging. The ASD boy,
however, was very excited by an image of a cicada. To further negatively impact the already
disengaged group, a problem occurred with the technology and the session stalled, resulting
in complete disengagement. The component Audio-visual story, a humorous animation about
insects, re-engaged the group. The duration of the session was 14 min 30 s with five key
components and six changes between components, with changes between components
approximately every 2 minutes. The slow tempo of the session and distractions from other
children clearly impacted the ability of the rest of the group to pay attention to the program.
Table 5.16 provides a summary of the session showing the duration of each component,
what the activity was, and how many students were distracted during that component. It also
includes comments made by the researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for
disengagement.
Table 5.16. Analysis of Session 1, Curious about Insects, Butterfly and Moth
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1&2
1 0-1:24 Discussion
Talkative, looking around
Introduction 4
2 1.25-3.21 Video: What’s an insect?
Laughing. ‘I liked that!’
Audio-visual
doc
0
3 3.22-6.15 Images
Autistic child giving loud
running commentary,
distracting students
Authentic
images
6+
4 6.16-6.46 Action – making wing
Autistic boy making ‘buzzing’ sounds and
proceeds to run around the classroom
Drama 1
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5 6.47-
10.30
Images
Tempo too slow. Autistic
boy very excited by the
cicada
Authentic
images
6+
10:32-
10.48
Problem with technology
6 10.49-
14.30
Animation ‘Miniscule’
Humour engages
Audio-visual
story
0
Total
session
time:
14 min
30 s
Reasons for disengagement: more than
150 s between changes; the tempo of the
session was too slow; teacher not trained in
this method of delivery; the special needs
child affected the rest of the group’s ability
to pay attention
No of components: 5.
No of times components
were used: 6
The data from Table 5.16 were transferred onto Table 5.17 representing the engagement of
the 18 children in Session 1 on five levels according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement
continuum.
Table 5. 17. Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 1, Curious about Insects, Butterfly and Moth
Component
(n = 18)
Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4:
Routine
Level 5:
Engagement
1 Introduction 4 14
2 Audio-visual
documentary
18
3 Images 1 5 12
4 Drama 1 17
5 Images 6 12
6 Audio-visual
story
18
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By overlaying the Schlechty (2002) model of engagement onto the model of Gibbs and
Poskitt (2010), behavioural and emotional engagement within each session was examined
further (see Table 5.18). Behavioural engagement in this session varied from medium to
high and emotional engagement varied from low to high.
Table 5.18. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Session 1, Curious about Insects
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Component Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Introduction x x
2 Audio-
visual doc.
x x
3 Images x x
4 Drama x x
5 Images x x
6 Audio-
visual story
x x
Total 0 3 3 1 2 3
Session 2, focussing on bees and wasps, again presented by the teacher, was not an
improvement on the first session in terms of behavioural and emotional engagement. It was
14 min 10 s in duration, with four key components and seven changes between components.
The session was initiated with a discussion on insects and the activity booklets (Introduction
component) during which two children were being inattentive. The component changed to
large images of insects on the screen, but again the child diagnosed with ASD was
distracting the group with loud verbalisations, making it difficult for the rest of the group to
remain focussed. Disengagement also occurred when the tempo of presentation of the
images became slow. The children were engaging well during the components Audio-visual
documentary and Drama, where they acted out dragonfly and damselfly wings, praying “like
a praying mantis” and making their waists small “like a wasp”. Images were shown but class
discussions about the images broke the momentum of the session and again disengagement
was observed, with six children not paying attention to the discussion. The teacher noted in
this session:
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The children are very keen on sharing knowledge as we started the session. They
were calling out and had to be reminded to put their hands up and to take turns. I
must limit their input as it drags out the session – the session becomes too long.
Sessions 3, focussing on ants, was an improvement from the previous sessions, the biggest
factor contributing to better engagement being the absence of the child who had disrupted
the previous sessions. The session was 28 minutes in duration, with five key components
and 10 changes between components. Behavioural and emotional engagement varied from
medium to high. During the first component, Introduction, the teacher allowed the children
to ask questions and to contribute which led to a discussion about spiders, breaking the flow
of the session and making it longer than necessary. Two children became distracted during
the off-topic discussion. The group were more engaged by the Drama, Audio-visual story
and Music components of the session than by discussions.
There were no distractions in Session 4 with the dragonfly and the damselfly as focus, as the
disruptive child was absent, enabling engagement. The teacher was also becoming more
adept at maintaining session flow. Session 4 was 17 min 30 s long with five key components
and nine changes between components, thereby a change of components occurred
approximately every 2 minutes. Behavioural and emotional engagement was high.
Session 5, with the praying mantis and stick insect as focus area, was 12 minutes in duration
with four key components and five changes between components, therefore one change
approximately every 2 minutes. Factors contributing to engagement were these: no
distraction from disruptive children; the teacher used her voice and facial expression to show
enthusiasm for the topic; the momentum of the session was maintained; the inclusion of
humour; and making an emotional connection with the topic, for example, feelings of
concern and admiration for the hardworking ants and bees.
Cognitive engagement was indicated by pre-and post-test results. The first step during the
pre-test phase was determining whether the children understood the concept of an insect.
The data pointed to a significant increase in the number of children who could identify the
fly as an insect (from 5 to 13), however, when confronted with amphibians, arachnids, and
reptiles, topics they had not yet encountered, six of the children became confused as they
may have known what an insect was but not what animals were not insects. If they had a
clearer understanding of the definition of insects as animals with six legs, they may have
understood that a spider cannot be an insect because it does not have six legs. The next
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question required the children to draw legs on a ladybird, as seen in Figure 5.4. The purpose
of this question was to determine whether the children have an understanding that insects
have six legs.
Figure 5.4. Pre-test and post–test drawing results for Curious about Insects.
The data pointed to a marked increase in the number of children, from two to 12, who
understood that insects have six legs. After participating in the program, the children’s
knowledge of the various types of insects was noticeably enhanced. Even though more than
half of all the 4-year-old students could identify some insects in the pre-test evaluation, the
children were able to recognise almost all the 10 insects after doing the program. Some
parents also commented on the knowledge gained by their children:
Zara is proud of herself that she knows the names of different insects. – Zara’s
mother
Table 5.19 consolidates information gained from the five sessions: the duration of each
session, the number of key components incorporated, and the number of times key
components were changed. It also gives a summary of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive
engagement during each key component of every session.
Table 5.19. Analysis of 5 sessions of the Curious about Insects Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 14 min 30 s 15 min 28 min 17 min 30 s 12 min
Number of key
components
5 4 5 5 4
Number of times key
components were used
6 7 10 9 5
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 0 0 0 0 0
- medium 3 3 1 0 0
- high 3 4 9 9 5
Emotional engagement per key component
- low 1 0 0 0 0
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- medium 2 3 3 0 0
- high 3 4 7 9 5
Cognitive engagement – high, with more than 80% of the children having a concept of
what an insect is and being able to identify 10 different insects.
The duration of sessions was 17 minutes on average; four or five different key components
were used, and approximately every 2 minutes a key component was changed. Behavioural
engagement was medium in the first two sessions but increased in the following three.
Emotional engagement also showed improvement from the first three to the last two
sessions. Improved engagement in later sessions was an indication of the presence of more
factors contributing to engagement.
Factors contributing to disengagement in the Curious about Insects program were:
● Distractions: constant verbalisations of a child diagnosed with ASD and parents
conversing made it difficult for the rest of the group to remain focussed;
● The slow tempo of the session: the tempo of the session was slowed down by
lengthy class discussions and off-topic discussions;
● Teaching style not very responsive and the teacher not maintaining flow.
Factors contributing to engagement were:
● The incorporation of a minimum of five key components utilising different learning
styles;
● Changing the component to maintain or regain attention;
● No distractions;
● Good momentum in terms of delivery with no lengthy class discussions to break the
momentum;
● Responsive teaching style – teacher engaging the class by using her voice and facial
expression to show enthusiasm for the topic;
● Humour being effectively utilised to engage, e.g., humorous images;
● Making an emotional connection with the topic;
● Limiting program content.
In summary: Medium behavioural and emotional engagement can be related to a disruptive
child as the engagement of the rest of the group improved when this child was absent. Other
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factors contributing to disengagement were the tempo of the session being too slow, the
momentum of the session broken by lengthy off-topic class discussions, and teaching style.
Components Images and Audio-visual stories were more effective in gaining the attention of
the children than a discussion without a visual provocation. The children were able to
maintain behavioural engagement for up to 28 minutes, although such a lengthy session is
not necessary. Engagement for a period of 17 minutes was achievable if the session had four
to five different components that are changed approximately every 2 minutes, if the
momentum of the session was maintained with distractions kept to a minimum. Engagement
was further enhanced when the teacher had a responsive teaching style, if humour was
included, and if the children were able to make an emotional connection with the topic.
Insights gained from the data will be implemented in the next program, Curious about
Flowers.
Key Findings of Cycle 2A:
The tempo of the session impacted engagement with faster tempo improving overall
engagement.
Engagement was maintained for 15 to 20 minutes within the enrichment program.
A responsive teaching style had a positive impact on engagement.
Engagement improved when an emotional connection with the topic was facilitated.
Based on these key findings, the tempo of the program delivery in the Cycle 2B would be
increased, an emotional connection with the topic, flowers, would be facilitated and the
teaching style would be responsive.
Cycle 2B: Engagement with Curious about Flowers
Curious about Flowers is a plant-related topic that develops naturalistic intelligence
(Gardner, 1983/2011) and introduces the children to concepts and terminology, skills, and
processes, while developing their sense of wonder and appreciation. Concepts such as seeds,
seedlings, roots, stem, branches, leaves, petals as well as the names of certain flowers (rose,
tulip, bird of paradise, sunflower, poppy, daffodil, orchid, carnation, protea, gerbera) were
introduced, as were skills such as planting a seedling and caring for it and processes such as
becoming aware of seasonal changes. Children were made aware of the value of flowers and
the needs of a flower.
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An assessment of the indicators of engagement revealed that most of the children were
behaviourally and emotionally engaged with the program. Initially all the children were
focussing on the screen, alert, sitting quietly, and looking at the images. The large colourful
authentic images on the screen helped to focus the attention of the children. It was noted that
the quicker the images were shown; the more attention was given to them by the children.
When children started losing attention, it was possible to regain their attention by changing
to another component of the program, for example, changing from viewing images to an
audio-visual clip or to an object such as a real flower, as seen in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5. A flower as the Object component.
They were listening, asking questions about flowers, contributing by telling about their own
experiences with flowers, participating enthusiastically in the various play-based activities,
and reacting to the program by laughing, smiling, pointing, and getting excited. There were
two children with low levels of engagement. One child participated in everything, but his
level of reaction was very low, at Level 3, Ritual level (Schlechty, 2002), and he showed
resistance to using a crayon or a pencil. His behaviour could be related to a lack of
confidence regarding fine-motor control. Another child observed everything but participated
in very little, showed little reaction, and was selectively mute at times. According to the
teacher his behaviour is related to emotional problems. It is promising, however, that at the
last session he brought a flower in to class and presented it to his teacher, indicating that
although he did not participate in much, his interest in flowers had been sparked.
Cognitive engagement was indicated by the knowledge and understanding that the children
had of flowers. Even though all the students knew what a flower was in the pre-test phase,
many did not have a basic understanding of the basic parts: the stem, leaves, and roots.
There was, however, a marked increase in the number of children who, after completing the
enrichment program, were able to draw a stem (from 3 to 17), draw leaves (from 4 to 14)
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and draw roots (from 1 to 11). Some children were not able to draw leaves in the correct
position on the stem, indicating a possible confusion between leaves and petals. It may be
necessary to point out to the children not only what a leaf is, but also what a leaf is not. By
clarifying the difference between a petal and a leaf, the children are likely to perform better.
Figure 5.6 is the pre-test and post-test drawings of a child who was asked to draw the stem,
leaves and roots on a flower.
Figure 5.6. Pre-test and post-test drawings in Curious about Flowers.
In the image on the left the child could draw a stem but was unsure of where to position the
leaf and unable to draw roots. The post-test image on the right, shows that the child drew a
stem, leaves in the appropriate position, and roots.
The children’s knowledge of types of flowers was minimal, with only three children
knowing the names of some flowers. After participating in the program their knowledge of
the various types of flowers had improved significantly, as presented in Table 5.20,
indicating that cognitive engagement with the program was high.
Table 5.20. Pre-and Post-Test Knowledge of Types of Flowers
Flower
(n = 19)
Pre-test Post-test
Rose 2 16
Tulip 0 17
Bird of Paradise 1 18
Daffodil 0 10
Orchid 0 12
Sunflower 1 17
Carnation 0 6
Protea 0 12
Poppy 0 13
Gerbera 0 8
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Engagement with the flower program was promoted by:
● Keeping each session short, no longer than 20 minutes in total;
● Many key components incorporating various learning styles (auditory, visual,
kinaesthetic) within each;
● Giving small bits of interesting information;
● Being sensitive to the cues indicating that children are beginning to lose focus;
● Combining “old” and “new” knowledge, by continuously adding new bits of
interesting information to each session;
● Including audio-visual music clips into the program. (Video clips containing music
were found to be especially effective in engaging the children. When the clips were
longer than 3 minutes, some became distracted);
● Keeping the content of the program small;
● Repetition of concepts;
● Clear definitions of concepts.
Factors contributing to disengagement included:
● Distractions, e.g., latecomers, parents talking, an emotional or disruptive child;
● Children sitting too close to each other, without personal space, distracting each
other;
● The technology not working immediately;
● Giving too much information;
● Lengthy discussions;
● Not changing to a new component soon enough.
In summary: Seen holistically, engagement in the Curious about Flowers program was
generally high. As the program was delivered there was evidence that the large colourful
images (Images component) gained the attention of the children and the quicker the images
were shown the more attention was given to them, correlating with Medina (2008) who
states that stimuli that are distinctive can harness attention. Other factors that had a positive
impact on engagement were the interesting bits of information and the teacher being
sensitive to the cues that the children were beginning to lose focus, as the component could
then be changed. The children also seemed to engage well when new pieces of interesting
information were added to their existing knowledge. The various key components
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encompassed the different styles of learning. Factors that had a negative impact on
engagement were distractions, sitting too close to each other, problems with the technology,
staying too long on a component, lengthy teacher talk, or sharing too much information.
The content of the program did not appear to be too large as the results showed that most of
the children gained significant knowledge and a basic understanding of the topic. There was
confusion regarding certain concepts, for example, a petal and a leaf, pointing to the
importance of defining the concepts very well. Repetition had a positive impact on learning.
By adding new pieces of information to “old” knowledge, children’s knowledge was
extended. This combination of old and new information kept the program exciting and
stimulating. It was concluded that clear definitions of concepts were vital to ensure good
knowledge.
Key Findings from Cycle 2B:
Keeping the program content interesting and novel by adding new bits of information
to “old” knowledge had a positive impact on engagement.
Providing clear definitions of concepts improved cognitive engagement.
Based on the key findings, all previous findings would be incorporated in Cycle 2C as well
as the provision of clear definitions and adding new information to old knowledge.
Cycle 2C. Engagement with Curious about Birds
The key focus areas of this program are a basic understanding of birds, their needs, concepts
such as feather, nests, and eggs, and the extension of children’s vocabulary by introducing
them to local garden birds, namely, a willie wagtail, kookaburra, rainbow lorikeet, magpie,
and a crow.
Session 1 on the laughing kookaburra was 11 minutes in duration with four key components
and six changes between components. It was introduced with a discussion on birds in the
environment (Introduction). The children were generally talkative throughout the session.
This was not disruptive, as it was regarded as indicative of excitement. Two of the children
diagnosed with ASD were not paying attention playing noisily with blocks on the side and
distracting the group. Despite the distractions, behavioural and emotional engagement was
high, likely due to it being a short session.
Session 2 focussing on the crow was 14 minutes in duration with five key components and
twelve component changes. Table 5.21 provides a snapshot of the session showing the
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duration of each component, what the activity was, and how many children were disengaged
during that component. It also includes comments made by the researcher and thoughts on
possible reasons for disengagement.
Table 5.21. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1&2
1. 1.14-2.00 Actions: laughing like a kookaburra,
flapping wings
Smiling showing enjoyment
Drama 0
2. 2.01-3.00 Video of a laughing kookaburra
Children smiling, laughing
Audio-visual
documentary
0
3. 3.01-4.18 Activity booklet instructions
Cally (ASD), Scarlett (intellectually
challenged), Luke (ASD) not paying
attention
Discussion 3
4. 4.19-4.34 Images of birds Authentic
images
0
5. 4.35-5.30 Video of crow calling
Streaming slowly
Audio-visual
documentary
2
6. 5.31-6.06 Images of birds, nests, and eggs
Luke kicking boxes being noisy
Authentic
images
0
7. 6.07 – 6.40 Discussion about the video Discussion 0
8. 6.41-8.46 Video of clever crows
Audio-visual
documentary
0
9. 8.47-9.41 Discussion about why some birds have
rings around their legs
Luke playing with blocks, while
watching the screen from a distance–
distracting the group
Discussion 8
10. 9.42-12.18 Second video of a clever crow
Audio-visual
documentary
3
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Luke’s mother talking to teacher
11. 12.20-
12.50
Mystery bag: ostrich egg
Object 0
12. 12.50-
13.59
Instructions for art-based activity,
painting crows black
Art-based
activity
instructions
2
Total
session
time:
14 min
Reasons for disengagement: Technical
difficulties; distractions related to
children with ASD; too many
discussions that broke the momentum of
the session
No of components: 5
No of times components
were used: 12
The session commenced with an action (Drama), where the children pretended to be
kookaburras, a component that was highly effective in engaging the students behaviourally
and emotionally as they were using their whole bodies in the learning process. The Audio-
visual documentary component, a short clip showing a kookaburra laughing, was also able
to engage the whole group on a behavioural and emotional level. This was followed by a
short discussion on the activity booklets during which three children were not paying
attention, specifically two children diagnosed as ASD and an intellectually impaired child.
The discussion was short enough to keep the rest of the group engaged on a behavioural
level. The Images component, of birds and their nests, attracted the attention and engaged
the whole group. Technical difficulties broke the momentum of the session and had a
negative effect on behavioural and emotional engagement. More images were shown, a short
discussion and another video clip about smart crows followed, and the group remained
focussed on the screen despite an ASD child playing noisily. A discussion about why some
birds have rings around their legs led to eight of the children showing sign of
disengagement. Only the few children who were asking and answering questions were
engaging, while the rest of the group were not. The discussion broke the flow of the session
and was compounded by distractions as the boy with ASD was playing noisily and parents
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were conversing with the principal, making it difficult for the rest of the group to remain
focussed on a second video. It is interesting to note, however, that the autistic child chose to
play with blocks where he had a good view of the screen, most likely an intentional decision.
A sense of anticipation was observed as the surprise object, an ostrich egg, was presented,
engaging the children behaviourally and emotionally.
Behavioural and emotional engagement within this session was medium to high.
Distractions and discussions had a negative impact on engagement. The ASD child took part
in the art-based activity, painting the cut-outs of a crow black, an indication that learning
had taken place.
The data were analysed and transferred into Table 5.22, providing a picture of engagement
in the session according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
Table 5.22. Engagement (Schlechty) in Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow
Component
(n = 18)
Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4
Routine
Level 5
Engaged
1 Drama 19
2 Audio-visual
documentary
19
3 Discussion 3 7 9
4 Images 19
5 Audio-visual
documentary
2 17
6 Images 3 16
7 Discussion 19
8 Audio-visual
documentary
19
9 Discussion 8 4 7
10 Audio-visual
documentary
3 16
11 Object
(Mystery bag)
19
12 Art- based
activity
instructions
2 3 14
By overlaying Schlechty’s model (2002) with the Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) model (see Table
5.23), behavioural and emotional engagement within the session was examined further.
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Table 5.23. Engagement (Gibbs & Proskitt) in Session 2, Curious about Birds, Crow
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Component Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Drama x x
2 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
3 Discussion x x
4 Authentic images x x
5 Audio-visual
documentary
x x
6 Authentic images x x
7 Discussion x x
8 Audio-visual
documentary
x
9 Discussion x x
10 Audio-visual doc x x
11 Object (Mystery
bag)
x x
12 Art-based activity
instructions
x x
Total 0 3 9 1 4 7
Session 3, focussing on the willie wagtail, was 18 minutes in duration with five components
and 13 changes between components. The session was preceded by a 9-minute class
discussion on birds. From the video recording it is evident that 10 of the children were not
engaging behaviourally or emotionally with the discussion, as indicated by body language
such as yawning and looking around. As the session commenced with an audio-visual song,
a Music component, all the children re-engaged. They remained engaged through the
components Images, Audio-visual documentary, Audio-visual story, and Drama, where they
walked like willie wagtails. There was a period during the session when six of the children
were losing focus. This is likely due to it being the fifth audio-visual documentary clip, an
indication that too much time (7 min) was spent on this component. Engagement may have
been better if less audio-visual documentary clips were shown. A child who had been
162
diagnosed with ASD engaged for about 15 minutes with the program before leaving the
group: excellent engagement on her part, as she seldom pays attention to classroom
activities, according to her teacher (TT2).
Session 4, on the Australian magpie, was 18 minutes in duration with five components and
seven changes between components. Despite the group being slightly distracted by a child
with ASD rolling around on the carpet and who left the group and returned multiple times,
behavioural and emotional engagement in this session was high as indicated by participation
and body language. The children were amused by an animated story, revealing again that
humour engages. They engaged behaviourally and emotionally with the art-based activity,
working with playdough and making bird nests with eggs, even though some children found
this activity challenging and needed some scaffolding.
Session 5 on the rainbow lorikeet was 19 minutes in duration with five components and 11
component changes. The session commenced with a short discussion (Introduction) as the
children were eager to share their personal experiences of the birds they had seen. Some of
the children, about three, were not paying attention during the discussion but the following
component, a humorous audio-visual story, gained everyone’s attention. For the rest of the
session the group were engaging behaviourally and emotionally with the topic.
Cognitive engagement was indicated by knowledge gained on the topic of birds, as
determined by pre-and post-test results. At the onset of the program, all the children had a
basic understanding that birds have two wings and two legs. Of the 19 children, 16 knew
that birds have feathers, 14 knew that birds did not have teeth, and 18 knew that birds laid
eggs. Fourteen children said that they did not think birds liked to be kept in cages and 16
said that some birds are smart. In the post-test evaluation, the knowledge and understanding
of birds increased significantly. All the children recognised that birds have feathers and lay
eggs. Eighteen of the 19 children also knew that birds do not have teeth. All the children
were also of the opinion that birds would rather be free than kept in captivity and that some
birds are smart. The children had many questions related to birds, their eggs, and nests.
To determine their knowledge of specific types of garden birds, children were shown
pictures of 10 Australian garden birds and asked to point to the kookaburra, the crow, the
rainbow lorikeet, the magpie, and the willie wagtail. The results of pre- and post-tests
revealed an increase in knowledge of the kookaburra (from 7 to 19 children), the crow (from
5 to 15), rainbow lorikeet (from 9 to 19), magpie (5 to 15), and willie wagtail (from 1 to 19),
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indicating high cognitive engagement with the enrichment program. Three children confused
the crow and the magpie, similar looking birds.
Instruction received through the Curious about Birds program curriculum significantly
increased basic understanding of birds and extended vocabulary, indicating that cognitive
engagement was high. Comments made by parents also point to new knowledge gained:
When in the car Chrissy points to different birds and can name them and makes the
sound they make – Chrissy’s mother
The content of the program was specific, the concept of a bird was clearly defined, and birds
were identified using a basic classification method, where they were shown how groups of
animals with similar characteristics can be grouped together, clearly categorising them.
Questions from children gave new direction to the content of the program, as indicated by
comments made by the teacher:
When we were exploring and discovering birds, our learning took many directions.
Our ’Wonderful World of Birds’ has multiplied with owls and ostriches. What did we
discover today? Owls can fly without making a sound and ostrich eggs are so strong,
you can stand on them, they won’t break! - TT1
After doing the enrichment program children were asking more questions regarding eggs
and nests and how chicks are hatched and fed and how they learn to fly. Addressing their
questions not only facilitated individualised learning but formed the groundwork for an
inquiry-based curriculum.
Table 5.24 is a summary of the five session of the Curious about Birds program, showing
that the average length of sessions was approximately 16 minutes; five key components
were used on average with a change of component approximately every 2 minutes. Holistic
engagement was medium to high, mostly due to distractions from a disruptive child and
parents conversing. Cognitive engagement with the program overall was high, as indicated
by pre- and post-test results.
Table 5.24. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Birds Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 11 min 14 min 18 min 18 min 19 min
Number of key
components
4 5 5 5 5
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Number of times a
component was changed
6 12 13 7 8
Behavioural engagement per component
- low 0 0 0 0 0
- medium 1 3 1 1 0
- high 5 9 12 6 9
Emotional engagement per component
- low 0 1 0 0 0
- medium 1 4 1 1 1
- high 5 7
12 6 10
Cognitive engagement
- High, with more than 80% of the children understanding the concepts and correctly
identifying the birds.
Factors contributing to disengagement in the Curious about Birds program were:
● Lengthy class discussions before the onset on the program;
● Distractions that occurred in the first four sessions:
● Spending too much time on one component; and
● A class discussion in the middle of the session which led to disengagement and broke
the momentum of delivery.
Factors contributing to engagement were:
● The incorporation of a minimum of four or five key components allowed for
multisensory teaching and learning; The teacher commented:
I like that the program incorporates many components: visuals, movement,
activities, music and parents. – TT3
● Regular changes between components;
● The incorporation of humour;
● An increase in intrinsic motivation to learn as seen in their eagerness to share their
personal experiences of the birds they had seen.
Key Findings from Cycle 2C:
Addressing the children’s questions facilitated individualised learning and
provided the groundwork for an inquiry-based curriculum
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Summary of Cycle 2
Data derived from the analysis of Cycle 2 indicated that behavioural, emotional, and
cognitive engagement with the topics had been achieved. Behavioural and emotional
engagement was mostly high. Behavioural and emotional engagement was maintained for 15
to 20 minutes within the enrichment program. Although cognitive engagement during the
program was high, for learning to be optimised the curriculum needed to address the
questions and interests of the children. Addressing children’s questions facilitate
individualised learning and provide the groundwork for an inquiry-based curriculum.
Based on the data obtained from Cycle 2, the enrichment program was further refined:
Sessions would between 15 and 20 minutes in duration, promoting engagement.
The teaching style would be responsive.
The optimum length of key components would be evaluated further.
Concepts would be clearly defined
New information would be added to the program to keep the content interesting and
to promote cognitive engagement’
The program would aim to facilitate an emotional connection between each child and
the topic to promote emotional engagement.
The curriculum would be viewed as dynamic, with extension topics that could take a
new direction if needed, promoting individualised learning.
5.2.3. Cycle 3
In the final cycle, three of five programs were evaluated, Curious about Dinosaurs, Curious
about Structures, and Curious about Arachnids.
Cycle 3A. Engagement with Curious about Dinosaurs
The key focus areas of this program were a basic concept of dinosaurs and extension of
vocabulary to types of dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex, Diplodocus, Triceratops,
Stegosaurus, and Pterosaur.
Session 1, on the Tyrannosaurus rex, was 17 minutes in duration with five key components
and 13 changes between components, including the distractions. Table 5.25 provides an
overview of the session showing the duration of each component, what the activity was, and
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how many students were disengaged during each component. It also includes comments
made by the researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for disengagement.
Table 5.25. Analysis of Session 1, Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex
Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1&2
1 0-40 Gif of a T-rex
Restless, excited, not settling down
Images 6
2 40-50 Making T-rex arms Drama 0
3 51-1.29 Talking about T-rex
Enthusiastic – shouting out
Introduction 0
4 1.30-1-56 Images of dinosaurs
Great reaction to the funny Stegosaur
Images 2
5 2.30-4.39 ‘Dinosaur train’ animated video
Talkative but engaged; Adam
crawled away from the group
Audio-visual
documentary
1
6 4.40-5.00 Adam being noisy and distracting the
group
distraction 6
7 5.01-6.29 Mystery bag: T-rex teeth, T-rex poo,
T-rex puppet
Objects 0
8 6.30-7.20 Images of dinosaurs Images 0
9 7.21-8.45 Actions: 3 horns of Stegosaurus,
Diplodocus neck, Pterosaur wings
A noisy, distracting
Drama 2
10 8.46-10.29 Problem with technology distraction 8
11 10.30-13.30 ‘Dinosaur Song’ audio-visual song
Austen is a distraction
Music 2
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12 13.30-16.29 Walking like a T-rex Drama 0
13 16.30-17.00 Blow-up T-rex
Object 2
Total
session
time:
17 min
Reasons for disengagement:
Distractions related to special needs
child. Technical difficulty broke the
momentum of the session
No of components: 5
No of times components were
used including distractions: 13
The session commenced with a GIF showing a dinosaur walking. Some of the children took
a while to settle down as they appeared to be excited about the new topic; some had
indicated that were already interested in dinosaurs after watching films and TV shows about
dinosaurs. The next component, Drama, where they pretended to have short T-rex arms, was
effective in getting everyone’s attention. A short discussion followed, where the children
enthusiastically contributed. Two of the children were not engaging with images of
dinosaurs but when a humorous picture was shown, they all paid attention to the screen.
During the Audio-visual story component, the child diagnosed with ASD crawled away and
distracted the rest of the group by playing noisily. The “mystery bag”, Object component,
containing interesting dinosaur-related objects, engaged the whole group as indicated by
their reactions and facial expressions. During the drama activity where they were making
actions, the ASD child distracted two children. A problem with the technology lasting 30
seconds led to further disengagement, but they re-engaged with the Music component, a
song. The Drama component where the whole class followed the T-rex footprints was
effective in engaging the whole group. The data from Table 5.25 were analysed and
transferred onto Table 5.26, providing a summary of engagement in the program according
to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
Table 5.26. Engagement (Schlechty) in Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex
Component
(n = 20) Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4:
Routine
Level 5:
Engaged
1 Authentic
images
6 14
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2 Drama 20
3 Introduction 20
4 Authentic
images
2 18
5 Audio-visual
documentary
1 1 18
6 distractions 1 6 13
7 Objects 20
8 Authentic
images
20
9 Drama 2 18
10 problem with
technology
8 12
11 Music 2 18
12 Drama 20
13 Object 2 18
By overlaying Schlechty’s model (2002) with the Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) model,
behavioural and emotional engagement within the session was examined further. Table 5.27
shows that although behavioural and emotional engagement was generally high, engagement
with the first component, Images, was medium, as the children were settling down and
distractions and problems with technology led to a breakdown in engagement.
Table 5.27. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Curious about Dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Rex
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Component Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Authentic images x x
2 Drama x x
3 Introduction x x
4 Authentic images x x
5 Audio-visual doc x x
6 distractions x x
7 Objects x x
8 Authentic images x x
9 Drama x x
10 problem with
technology
x x
11 Music x x
12 Drama x x
13 Object x x
Total 2 1 10 2 2 9
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Session 2, focussing on the Triceratops, was 11 minutes in duration with five key
components and more than one change between components every minute. Behavioural and
emotional engagement was high during this session. Frequent component changes were
clearly an effective way to keep the children engaged. Engagement was further improved as
the child that had been the source of much distraction in the previous session was absent.
Small bits of interesting information accompanied with the Drama component, for example,
“A triceratops has three horns on its head” while the children made three “horns” with their
finger on their foreheads, was effective in engaging the children.
Session 3, focussing on the Stegosaurus, was 16 minutes in duration with six key
components and 16 changes between components. Once again, making many changes,
averaging one per minute, was effective in terms of engagement. Although there was a new
focus area, previous focus areas were revisited. Images such as a dog dressed like a
Stegosaurus amused and engaged the children. The child diagnosed with ASD, who seemed
disinterested at times, took part in the art-based activity, drawing plates and spikes on the
Stegosaurus.
Session 4, focussing on the Diplodocus, commenced with the component Music, a dinosaur
song, which was effective in getting the children’s attention. This session lasted for 22
minutes with six components and 12 changes between components. It included a 7-minute
animation that engaged the children emotionally. The various actions representing the
various dinosaurs were engaging. Despite the longer length of the session, the children
remained behaviourally and emotionally engaged as indicated by their participation, facial
expressions, and body language.
Session 5, focussing on Pterosaurs, commenced with large realistic images of dinosaurs,
effectively harnessing the children’s attention. The session was 13 minutes long, with five
key components and eight changes between components. Behavioural and emotional
engagement was high but parents and teachers conversing distracted a few of the children. A
dinosaur puppet show, as seen in Figure 5.7, engaged the children behaviourally and
emotionally as indicated by their attentive body language and facial expressions.
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Figure 5.7. Puppet show as the Drama component.
Cognitive engagement was indicated by pre-and post-tests evaluating knowledge of
dinosaurs. All the children could identify the dinosaur amongst other animals in the pre-test
evaluation, indicating that they all have a basic concept of a dinosaur. More than half the
children, in the pre-test evaluation, thought that dinosaurs are still alive today, while in the
post-test, only three children believed that dinosaurs are still alive today. The ability of
children to identify various types of dinosaurs also improved significantly from the pre-test
to the post-test. Out of a group of 20 children, the number of children correctly identifying a
Tyrannosaurus rex improved from 14 to 19; for a Triceratops, from 7 to 15; for a
Stegosaurus, from 1 to 17; for a Diplodocus, from 2 to 18; and for a Pterosaur, from 3 to 18.
The content of the program was kept relatively small, concepts were well defined and
revisited, and new bits of information were added to old knowledge, extending knowledge.
It is evident that the instruction received through the Curious about Dinosaurs program
curriculum increased students’ basic understanding of dinosaurs and extended their
vocabulary; an indication that cognitive engagement during the program was high.
Table 5.28 is a summary of the five sessions of the Curious about Dinosaurs program,
showing that the average length of sessions was approximately 15 minutes, the average
number of key components was five to six, with a change of key component approximately
every minute and a half on average.
Table 5.28. Analysis of 5 Sessions of Curious about Dinosaurs Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 17 min 11 min 16 min 22 min 13 min
Number of key
components
6 5 6 6 5
Number of times key
components were used.
13 13 16 12 8
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(distractions included)
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 2 0 0 0 0
- medium 1 0 0 0 0
- high 10 13 16 12 8
Emotional engagement
- low 2 0 0 0 0
- medium 2 0 0 1 2
- high 9 13 16 11 6
Cognitive engagement per key component
- High, with more than 80% of the children being able to correctly identify the types
of dinosaurs
Factors contributing to disengagement and disengagement in the Curious about Dinosaurs
program were identified. Factors contributing to disengagement were distractions caused by
a disruptive child or adults conversing and the flow of the session halted by problems with
technology.
Factors contributing to engagement in the Curious about Dinosaurs program were:
● At least five key components incorporated in each session;
● Many changes, averaging at least one change every minute and a half between
components;
● Changing to a new component to address disengagement;
● Including humour into the program;
● Providing interesting bits of information; and
● Being able to make an emotional connection with the dinosaurs.
Key Finding from Cycle 3A:
Disengagement can be managed by changing the key component, increasing the
tempo and flow of the session or terminating the session.
This finding as well as previous findings will be incorporated into Cycle 3B.
Cycle 3B. Engagement with Curious about Structures
The Curious about Structures program was chosen as a topic of interest as structures and
architecture are part of the cultural world. In this program, structural concepts and the names
of famous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza, the Statue of Liberty, the Eiffel Tower,
the Great Wall of China, and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are introduced. Skills, for example
172
learning the correct way to build a wall and how to make a 3D pyramid are be taught and an
appreciation of structures is developed. The Curious about Structures program links with the
Curious about Continents program as each structure is in a different continent, thereby
building on existing knowledge of continents. Engagement within each of the five sessions
is described in detail.
Session 1, introducing the Pyramids of Giza, was a 10-minute session with five key
components and seven changes between components. The session commenced with the
Images component, large colourful images of man-made structures which gained the
attention of the children. Identifying the structures from natural objects enabled the children
to form a concept of what a structure is. Two short humorous animated stories about the
pyramids, the Audio-visual story component, were age-appropriate and appealing, engaging
the children behaviourally and emotionally as indicated by their attentiveness and facial
expressions. A large interactive felt world map, the Object component, showing where the
structure was situated in the world, engaged the children behaviourally. In general,
behavioural and emotional engagement was high in this session as indicated by the way
children paid attention and followed instructions.
Session 2, focussing on the Eiffel Tower, was 23 mins long with four key components and
12 component changes, including the distractions caused by technical problems. Table 5.29
provides an overview of the session showing the duration of each component, what the
activity was, and how many students were disengaging during a component. It also includes
comments made by the researcher and thoughts on possible reasons for disengagement.
Table 5.29. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower
n=20 Time Activity Key
component
No of
children
Level 1&2
1 0-53 Introducing the topic with images
What is a structure?
Images 0
2 54-1.04 Placing the Statue of Liberty on the
wall map
Revision
Objects 0
3 1.05-2.49 Technical difficulty Technical
problem
5
4 2.50-3.49 Images of famous structures Images 0
5 3.50-4.05 Pretending to be the Statue of Liberty Drama 1
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6 4.06-4.37 Images
Funny images of structures
Images 0
7 4.38-4.53 Placing the Eiffel Tower on the wall
map
Object 1
8 4.54-5.38 Images Images 0
9 5.39-18.13 Video: Madeleine visits the Eiffel
Tower by Ludwig Bemelmans (12
min 43 s)
Audio-
visual story
1
10 18.13-19.45 Technical difficulty Technical
problem
7
11 19.46-20.19 Mystery Bag: Eiffel Tower statue Object 0
12 20.20-23.00 Art-based activity instructions:
making an Eiffel tower with spaghetti
and marshmallows
Art-based
activity
Total
session
time:
23 min
Reasons for disengagement:
Distractions related to child diagnosed
as ASD, technical difficulty broke the
momentum of the session
No of components: 4
No of times components
were used including
distractions: 12
An animated story, “Madeleine visits the Eiffel Tower”, the Audio-visual story component,
brought a human element to the topic. By incorporating humorous images, drama, and
interesting objects, engagement was promoted. Behavioural and emotional engagement was
high overall, except when technical difficulties had a negative impact on the flow of the
session. The data from the Table 5.29 were analysed and transferred into Table 5.30,
providing a picture of engagement according to Schlechty’s (2002) engagement continuum.
Table 5.30. Analysis of Session 2, Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower
Component Level 1:
Rebellion
Level 2:
Retreatism
Level 3:
Ritual
Level 4:
Routine
Level 5:
Engaged
1 Images 20
2 Objects 20
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3 Technical difficulty 5 15 0
4 Images 20
5 Drama 1 19
6 Images 1 19
7 Object 2 18
8 Images 20
9 Audio-visual story 1 18
10 Technical difficulty 7 13 0
11 Object 1 19
12 Art-based activity
instructions
20
By overlaying the Schechty (2002) model with the Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) model, as
presented in Table 5.31, behavioural and emotional engagement within each session is
examined further. Behavioural and emotional engagement during this session was high
overall with technical difficulties having a negative impact. Emotional engagement with the
wall map (Object component) was medium, possibly since one only child was involved in
the activity and not the whole group.
Table 5.31. Engagement (Gibbs & Poskitt) in Curious about Structures, Eiffel Tower
Behavioural engagement Emotional engagement
Low Medium High Low Medium High
1 Images x x
2 Objects x x
3 Technical difficulty x x
4 Images x x
5 Drama x x
6 Images x x
7 Object x x
8 Images x x
9 Audio-visual story x x
10 Technical difficulty x x
11 Object x x
12 Art-based activity
instructions
x x
Total 0 2 10 2 1 9
Session 3, with the Statue of Liberty as the focus area, was 31 minutes long with five key
components and 13 changes between components. A total of 22 minutes was spent watching
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animated audio-visual stories. Some children started losing focus towards the end of the
animated story, indicating that too much time was spent on this component. By bringing a
human element to structures, for example a video clip of “Superman and the Statue of
Liberty”, children were better able to make an emotional connection with the structure as
indicated by their reactions.
Session 4, focussing on the Great Wall of China, was initiated with the Music component, an
animated “Humpty Dumpty” song. The children began to giggle and mock the song as the
content was not challenging enough for some of them, leading to disengagement. The
animated story “Mulan” (Audio-visual story), that followed, engaged them and enabled them
to make an emotional connection with the topic. This session was 13 minutes in duration
with six key components and 12 changes between components. Behavioural engagement
was high, with emotional engagement varying between medium and high as indicated by
reactions and body language.
Session 5, focussing on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, was 12 minutes long with five key
components and eight changes between components. The session commenced with the
Images component, which lasted for 4 minutes, possible too long as disengagement was
observed in talking and looking around, after approximately 3 minutes. When the next
component, an audio-visual documentary of fireworks on the bridge, was shown, all the
children regained focus. In general, behavioural and emotional engagement was high as
interesting bits of information were added to existing knowledge. Emotional engagement
decreased during the component Object as only two children were incorporated into the
activity of putting felt structures on the felt world map.
Cognitive engagement: Cognitive engagement was indicated by knowledge gained,
determined by pre-and post-tests. Most of the children in the pre-test as well as in the post-
test evaluation understood that structures, as opposed to animals and plants, are made by
humans. An average of 17 out of 20 children could identify structures – a statue, a pyramid,
a wall, a bridge, and a tower – improved from 17 out of 20 in the pre-test evaluation to 19
out of 20 in the post-test evaluation. There were significant improvements from pre- to post-
test evaluations regarding the number of children who could correctly identify most of the
well-known structures, from an average of seven out of 20, to 18 out of 20 children.
Although the children already had a basic understanding of what structures were, the
program significantly increased their vocabulary and knowledge, as determined by their
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ability to correctly identify well-known structures, indicating high cognitive engagement.
Comments made by parents contributed to the view that the children as well as the parents
gained knowledge about structures:
I was surprised that he knew what each famous structure was. He was happy telling
me about them – Phoenix’s mother
Table 5.32 provides a summary of the five sessions of the program, showing that the average
length of sessions was approximately 18 minutes and 5 key components were used on
average with a key component changing approximately every two minutes.
Table 5.32. Analysis of 5 sessions of Curious about Structures Program
Session 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of session 10 min 23 min 31 min 13 min 12 min
Number of key components 4 5 5 6 5
Number of times key
components were used
(distractions included)
7 12 13 12 8
Behavioural engagement per key component
- low 0 0 0 0 0
- medium 0 2 0 0 1
- high 7 10 13 12 7
Emotional engagement per key component
- low 0 2 0 0 0
- medium 0 1 1 2 2
- high 7 9 12 10 6
Cognitive engagement overall
- High, with more than 80% of the children understanding the concept, structures,
and being able to identify various famous structures.
Factors contributing to disengagement in the Curious about Structures program were:
● Duration of key component Images too long at 4 minutes;
● Duration of key component Audio-visual story too long at 22 minutes;
● Not incorporating all the children into an activity, for example placing felt structures
on the felt wall hanging (Object component); and
● Components that were regarded as childish or not challenging enough by the
children, such as the “Humpty Dumpty” song.
Factors contributing to engagement in the Curious about Structures program were:
177
● The incorporation of at least five key components into a session;
● Changing a component approximately every 2 minutes;
● The inclusion of humour, for example amusing images
● Enabling the children to make an emotional connection with the topic, for example
through the Audio-visual story component which brought a human element to
structures; and
● Adding new bits of interesting information to the knowledge base.
In summary: High behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement was achieved in the
Curious about Structures program. It became evident in this program that the duration of
each key component has an impact on engagement; for example, engagement during the
Images component was optimal for approximately 3 minutes, after which the children began
to lose attention, and engagement with the Audio-visual story was optimal for approximately
20 minutes, after which time some children began to lose interest. Attention could be
regained by changing to a different component.
The value of stories in enabling children to make an emotional connection with a topic also
became evident, for example: “Madeleine visits the Eiffel Tower” by Ludwig Bemelmans
and the Walt Disney animation “Mulan”, brought a human element to the topic. Emotional
engagement was evident in the facial expressions and reactions of the children.
Thirdly, it became clear that a program with minimal content, providing well-defined
concepts that were revisited through the various key components, was effective in
cognitively engaging the students. For example, in this program only five famous structures
were introduced to the children and new bits of interesting information were added to
previous knowledge to keep the program stimulating and to continuously extend learning.
Insights gained from this program would be applied to the Curious about Arachnids
program: the program content would be kept small, children would be encouraged to make
an emotional connection with the topic of arachnids, and the optimum engagement time of
each component would be investigated further.
Key Finding of Cycle 3B:
There are optimum engagement times for the different components of the enrichment
program.
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Findings regarding engagement made in the previous cycles will be incorporated into Cycle
3C and optimum engagement times will be investigated further.
Cycle 3 C. Engagement with Curious about Arachnids
The key focus areas of this program are a basic understanding of arachnids, including being
able to identify features (eight legs, no antennae), and related concepts such as spider webs,
eggs, and multiple eyes. Vocabulary was extended by looking at types of arachnids,
including some often found in the local environment such as daddy long legs spiders,
redback spiders, scorpions, and ticks.
Session 1, focusing on the daddy long legs spider, commenced with the component Images,
large true-to-life images of spiders, ticks, and scorpions which immediately gained the
attention of the children. The children were alert, quiet, and looking with interest at the
images on the screen. They engaged in a well-behaved way with the Audio-visual
documentary component from Sesame Street explaining what an arachnid is. Emotional
engagement was also evident with the audio-visual story. Session 1 was 17 mins in duration,
with five key components and seven changes between components.
Session 2, focussing on the redback spider, was preceded by a 5 min 30 s discussion on
activity booklets during which six children revealed signs of disengagement as indicated by
their body language. They re-engaged with the Music component; a song accompanied by
hand actions (the Drama component). Possible shortcomings identified in this session were
too many audio-visual documentaries and stories, as five children were losing focus during a
video of spiders spinning webs. A sound problem with one of the documentaries and two
children diagnosed as ASD talking loudly also affected engagement. The session was 25
minutes in duration with five key components and nine changes between components. The
indicators of engagement showed that changes between components at approximately every
3 minutes was not often enough. Fewer audio-visual clips may have increased the rate of
change between components. Behavioural and emotional engagement was generally high,
with some components having medium engagement.
Session 3, focussing on scorpions, was 22 minutes in duration with six key components and
14 component changes. Tables 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 in Chapter 4 show how this session was
analysed. The session commenced with a short discussion about arachnids. Behavioural and
emotional engagement was maintained within this session as the discussion was kept to 2.30
minutes and sustained by frequent changes between components. During the 3-minute
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audio-visual documentary video of a spider spinning a web, two children, one child
diagnosed as ASD and the other diagnosed with cognitive impairment, showed signs that
they were losing interest. Returning to the images re-engaged the children and they remained
engaged during the Audio-visual documentary component, an age-appropriate Sesame Street
clip: “What is an Arachnid?” Distractions such as a latecomer and a younger sibling joining
the group caused temporary disengagement. Overall, behavioural and emotional engagement
with the program was high except when the children were distracted by a classmate. The
distraction was temporary, and the children were able to re-engage when a new component
was introduced and when the child left the area.
Session 4, with ticks as the focus area, was preceded by a discussion during which children
shared their activity booklets. During the 4-minute discussion, six children were distracted
but re-engaged as soon as the images of ticks were shown in the Images component. This
session was 17 minutes long with six key components and 15 changes between components;
therefore, a new component approximately every minute. Behavioural and emotional
engagement was high throughout the session.
Session 5, with webs as a focus area, was 11 minutes in duration with five key components
and six changes between components. An unrelated story read to the children preceded the
session, as it was Book Week. Three children were not engaging with the story but as soon
as the session was initiated with the Drama component, the action of making “arachnid
hands,” all the children were behaviourally and emotionally engaging. Behavioural and
emotional engagement was high, except during the audio-visual story, “Diary of a Spider”,
which was too advanced for some children and four children lost interest in the story. Some
distractions also occurred during the session when children diagnosed as ASD were walking
in and out of the session.
As Table 4.6 in Chapter 4 has already provided a summary of the five sessions of the
Curious about Arachnids program, only the factors contributing to disengagement and
engagement in the Curious about Arachnids program were identified. Factors contributing to
disengagement were:
● Audio-visual story too advanced;
● Distractions; and
● Too many audio-visual documentary clips and stories.
Factors contributing to engagement were:
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● Multiple components being incorporated into each session;
● Many changes, averaging to at least one change every 2 minutes, between
components; and
● Engaging through humour.
Key Findings from Cycle 3C:
Disengagement can be managed by changing the key component, increasing the tempo and
flow of the session or terminating the session.
Optimum engagement times for the different components of the enrichment program were
identified, after which engagement begins to decline:
In this enrichment program the optimum duration of teacher talk or a class discussion
promoting holistic engagement was 3 minutes, as indicated by ability to pay
attention, body language, and facial expressions, after which engagement decreased.
When the discussion was accompanied by a visual stimulus, engagement could be
slightly extended.
The optimum period for behavioural and emotional engagement for the Images
component in this enrichment program was approximately 3 minutes, with the
recommended amount of time to be spent on this component not exceeding 5
minutes per session in total.
The optimum period for behavioural and emotional engagement with the Audio-
visual documentary and Audio-visual story components in this enrichment program
depended on the subject material and the emotional connection children made with
the content.
The Music component also had an optimum engagement period of approximately 3
minutes, but when accompanied by movement or dance, the Drama–action
component, a longer period of engagement was possible.
The Drama component also had an optimum engagement period of 3 minutes, as
indicated by ability to participate in the activity.
The optimum engagement period with the Object component depended on the nature
of the object and how much interaction the object warranted.
The optimum engagement period for the component Art-based activity varied from
approximately 5 to 10 minutes in this enrichment program, as indicated by
participation in the activity.
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Summary of Cycle 3
The average length of a session on Cycle 3 was approximately 17 minutes, with six key
components incorporated on average, approximating one change of component every 2
minutes. This guided the recommended session length, the number of key components, and
the number of changes. The inclusion of humour had a positive impact on emotional
engagement and therefore humour was included in all topics of inquiry. As material that was
too advanced as well as material that was too childish had a negative impact on engagement,
the curriculum was careful to select age-appropriate content.
Cognitive engagement in all the programs in Cycle 3 was high. This can be attributed to a
concise curriculum with clearly defined topics that had been categorised clearly. Although
there was a well-planned and well-designed curriculum, it did not address all the questions
of the children, indicating the curriculum needed to be inquiry based, accommodating
children’s questions and interests.
Distractions remained an unresolved issue in the enrichment program. Although parents
could be asked to converse elsewhere, children diagnosed with special needs needed to be
considered and accommodated and unforeseen problems with technology still occurred.
Questions that arose during each cycle were addressed to optimise emotional, behavioural,
and cognitive engagement and to refine the enrichment program. Issues identified in Cycle 1
were addressed in Cycle 2 and further issues identified in Cycle 2 were addressed in Cycle
3. Final insights were discussed in Chapter 6: Research Discussion, as well as the factors
that had an impact on engagement in the enrichment program. At this point curiosity, the
second indicator of interest, was explored.
5.3. Exploring curiosity
Being “curious” and “taking an interest” are similar, the difference being that interest
encompasses curiosity. Curiosity tries to answer a specific question whereas interest is
searching for lots of information (Hidi, 2016). Curiosity was explored in Part 2 of the
program by considering statements made and questions asked by the children, themes
observed in play, as well as the questionnaires given to the parents. Part 2, the active
processing of information where concrete experiences are gained, consists of free play and
at-home activities with parents. Data were obtained from observations, teacher talk, and
questionnaires provided to parents. Curiosity as a component of interest will be explored
within Cycles 1, 2, and 3 in order.
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5.3.1. Cycle 1A
Five programs were presented in Cycle 1, but due to data saturation only three were
investigated in detail. After each of the three programs, Curious about Countries, Curious
about Trees, and Curious about Space were presented to the children, their play themes and
verbalisations were observed as indications of curiosity and interest regarding the topic. The
first program in which curiosity was examined was Curious about Countries.
Cycle 1A: Curiosity in the Curious about Countries program
The aspects of curiosity that were examined in this research were an awareness of countries
and their cultures, talking about countries and their cultures, and asking questions about
countries and their cultures. Curiosity was promoted by providing play provocations in the
form of cultural objects such as food and music relating to the different countries and
cultures in the school environment. Play themes were observed (see Table 5.33) for an
indication that curiosity had been generated by the program.
Table 5.33. Play in the Curious about Countries Program
Focus area Play provocations Play themes
South Africa Cultural objects such as dolls and
blankets to carry on their backs;
containers to carry water on their
heads as is traditional to the
African people; African music
Dramatic play: pretending to be
an African mother
Mexico Cultural objects such as Mexican
hats and ponchos for dressing up;
Mexican food; art materials for
making a piñata; Mexican music
Creative play: making a piñata
Dramatic play – dressing up like
a Mexican, running fast like
‘Speedy Gonzales’
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Japan Cultural objects such as a Japanese
kimono; eating rice with
chopsticks; Japanese music
Dramatic play: learning to use
chopsticks, greeting each other
in Japanese by bowing
Italy Cultural materials such as dried
pasta to make necklaces; cooked
spaghetti to eat; Italian music, e.g.,
The Pasta Song
Manipulative play: making pasta
necklaces
Active play: dancing to Italian
music
Creative play: painting the
Italian flag
Brazil Cultural materials such as masks to
decorate for the Rio Carnival;
Brazilian music
Dramatic play: pretending to be
a ‘Carnival Princess’
Creative play: making masks
Interest generated by the program as well as the play provocations inspired the themes of
play. Children were inspired by seeing African people balance water on their heads and
carry babies on their backs, by seeing how Japanese people use chopsticks and greet each
other by bowing. Dramatic, creative, active, and manipulative play was observed, with
dramatic play dominating in this program. The children were absorbed in high-quality
imaginative play, not only enjoying themselves but also interacting verbally with one
another as they collaborated, planned, and navigated their play. Role-playing and
imagination develop cognition as they invite complex social interactions, including joint
planning, negotiation, problem-solving, and goal-seeking, according to Bergen (2001).
Teacher notes (TT1) indicate that curiosity had been generated for many of the children,
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with each child expressing themselves in a unique way through play. She noted that the
children particularly enjoyed the eating, dressing-up, and face-painting activities:
Jordan was running around shouting, “I’m Speedy Gonzales. I’m faster than Speedy
Gonzales!” Fay put on her carnival mask and said, “Look, I’m a feather princess
from Brazil!” Ruby said, “I am wearing my Brazil dress. It’s my best dress!” A
group of four girls carried their “babies” on their backs for hours. They made bows
and arrows with straws and feathers and went hunting for food with their babies.
Another group got into carrying water in a container on their heads. – TT1
Parents were given a questionnaire to complete. As parents are very aware of their children’s
interests, they were asked in the questionnaire whether they thought that the Curious about
Countries program had increased their child’s interest in countries. All the parents indicated
an increased interest in the topic; 12 indicated their child’s interest had increased
considerably, and six indicated that interest had increased a bit. Comments made by parents
in the questionnaire also indicated heightened curiosity and interest in different countries:
Jo was very interested in the Bushmen and how they carry water on their heads –
Jo’s mother
As interest developed it encouraged more interest, as indicated by children wanting to know
more about the topic, for example, this comment made by a parent:
Ellie can’t wait to see what the next country is that they are going to learn about. –
Ellie’s mother
Parents were given an activity booklet to facilitate meaningful real-life experiences with
their children, but they were under no obligation to do so. Although the activity booklet was
not compulsory, eight children completed them. The parents were not obliged to explain
why they did not complete the booklets, however four of the remaining twelve parents said
that they would have liked to complete them with their children but could not, due to time
constraints. The activity booklet revisited each country and concepts that the children had
learnt about. It included a range of activities such as drawing a person underneath a picture
of a Mexican hat, counting how much pasta they could see, or practising the Japanese
greeting. In the questionnaire parents were asked what they thought of the activity booklets
(see Table 5.34).
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Table 5.34. Curious about Countries Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the activity booklet?
1 My child enjoyed doing the booklet 8
2 I enjoyed helping my child complete the booklet 8
3 I like that it showed me what my child was learning 8
4 My child did not enjoy doing the booklet 0
5 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 4
6 The booklet is too difficult for my child to do 0
7 I think that learning about Arachnids is a waste of time 0
8 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
The parents indicated that they liked the booklets because they were informative and
because they enjoyed doing the activities with their children. Comments from parents
revealed that the children as well as the parents were gaining knowledge:
The booklets (Countries) are really interesting and very helpful for me and for
Chrissy to understand the different parts of the world. – Chrissy’s mother
Jay greets everyone in Japanese! That was very surprising. –Jay’s mother
In summary, themes in play, questions asked, and comments made by the children and their
parents, as well as questionnaires, indicated that all the children were showing signs of
curiosity regarding the topic. The children interacted with the range of provocations, thereby
consolidating their learning as indicated by individualised play and play themes relating to
the topic. Although four parents indicated that they did not complete the activity booklets
due to time constraints, most parents liked them. The activity booklets allowed concepts to
be revisited in a creative way with the parents as learning partners.
Cycle 1B. Curiosity in the Curious about Trees program
Curiosity and an eagerness to know and learn about trees is an indication of interest in trees.
The aspects of curiosity that were utilised in this research are an awareness of trees,
eagerness to spot trees, and talking and asking questions about trees. Curiosity was
promoted by placing provocations: natural tree materials such as pinecones and needles,
banksia tree pods, gumtree leaves and nuts, wattle flowers, and paperbark in the school
environment. This allowed the children to make observations as well as physically discover
and explore. Cultural objects such as a wooden tree puzzle, art products, and music were
also made available to promote curiosity.
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After taking part in the Curious about Trees program, themes in play were observed. The
uniqueness of each child’s personality, specific point of interest, and personal needs were
reflected in their play. The individual nature of play and play themes were noted by the
teachers, who wrote:
Scarlett related the parts of the tree that she had learnt from the puzzle and the song
to a real tree growing in the garden and she drew a tree with a stem, roots, branches
and leaves. Kelce made a tree mask and Levi found a pine cone and painted it,
Jordan made a “big bad banksia man” by gluing eyes on the banksia pod and then
he went around showing everyone and later he tried to climb a tree, Tianah showed
her teacher her three gumnut babies. Henry washed his hands with wattle leaves and
Ellie drew a tree using the paperbark to make the stem. – TT1
Cally loved babies and the story, “Wattle Babies” by May Gibbs has really grabbed
her attention, Kelce was excited to show me the roots he had found in the garden and
Jay built the tree puzzle and painted the pine needles (“just for fun”). Linkoln drew a
large tree with chalk on the pavement and Jo, Sasha, Chase, Abbie and Chrissy all
said that they climbed a tree over the weekend. – TT2
Some play themes were provoked by the natural materials while others were provoked by
the cultural materials, as presented in Table 5.35. The play was directly related to the
Curious about Trees program that the children had undertaken.
Table 5.35. Play in the Curious about Trees Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
Pinecones and needles
Golden wattle flowers, banksia
seeds; gumtree leaves and nut; bark
from the paperbark tree
Exploratory play: Looking for roots;
washing hands with wattle leaf ‘soap’
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Active play: tree climbing
Cultural
materials
Tree puzzle, art products, and music
Creative play: making ‘banksia men’;
drawing and painting trees
Manipulative play: building a tree
puzzle
It was evident that knowledge and interest generated by the program as well as the play
provocations inspired the themes of play, encouraging mostly creative and active play. To
corroborate the play observations made at school, the parents were asked in the
questionnaire whether the Curious about Trees program had increased their child’s interest
in trees. Of the 18 parents who participated, 15 indicated their child’s interest had increased
considerably; four said only a little, and one indicated that there had been no increase in the
child’s interest. The “No, not at all” answer came from the parent of a child who had been
diagnosed as ASD and who had highly focused interests in cars, trucks, movement or
sounds. Parents were further asked what indicators of curiosity they had noticed since their
children had participated in the program (see Table 5.36).
Table 5.36. Curious about Trees Indicators of Curiosity
Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the tree program?
(n = 18)
1 My child is more aware of the trees in his/her environment 16
2 My child keeps on spotting the trees that he/she has learnt about 16
3 My child talks more about trees 15
4 My child asks more questions about trees 9
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The parents reported that 16 of the 18 children were more aware of the trees in their
environment and spotting the trees that they had learnt about. Fifteen children were also
talking more about trees and half of the children were asking questions about trees.
We were taking a walk and she was pointing out birds and trees learnt in the
program. It was lovely to see how interested she was. – Ellie’s mum
Most of the parents indicated in the questionnaire that the program had increased their
child’s interest in trees. They also noticed that the children were more aware of the trees in
their environment and spotting the trees that they had learnt about.
In the questionnaire, parents were asked what they thought of the activity booklet which was
designed to encourage children to spot the five trees that they were learning about: gum tree,
golden wattle, banksia, pine tree, and a paperbark tree. Responses to the question are
summarised in Table 5.37.
Table 5.37. Curious about Trees Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the activity booklet?
1 My child enjoyed looking for trees and collecting parts of a tree 8
2 I enjoyed helping my child look for trees and collecting parts of a tree 6
3 I did not have the time to do the activity booklet with my child 5
4 I think this activity is too difficult for young children to do 0
5 I think that learning about trees is a waste of time 0
6 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
Eight of the parents said that their child enjoyed looking for trees and collecting parts of a
tree, while six parents said that they enjoyed helping their child with the activities. Five
parents said that they did not have the time to do the activity booklet.
Thanks for all you’ve done for Hayden. I did have good intentions of working
through the booklets with – sorry it didn’t happen. – Hayden’s mother
Comments from parents about the activity booklet were overwhelmingly positive. Some
described it as a bonding experience with other family members.
Chrissy did the booklet with her dad and it was really good for them to do it together
– Chrissy’s mother
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I loved helping Jo with her “homework”. She found it enjoyable and we involved the
whole family. Jo has loved completing her activities. It has been wonderful to involve
her family in her learning. – Jo’s mother
In summary, heightened curiosity was indicted by: themes in play; questions asked by the
children; comments made by the children and their parents; and parental questionnaires.
Most of the parents indicated that the Curious about Trees program had increased their
child’s interest in and awareness of trees. The program had sparked curiosity and the cultural
and natural objects and play provocations further encouraged curiosity. The natural tree
materials such as pinecones and needles, banksia tree pods, and gumtree leaves and nuts
allowed the children to make observations as well as physically discover and explore them.
According to the parents, the activity booklets helped to make it a shared positive learning
experience between the children, parents, and other members of the family.
Cycle 1C: Curiosity in the Curious about Space program
The indicators of curiosity in this program were an awareness of space, and talking and
asking questions about the sun, moon, planets, galaxy, and space travel. Various cultural
objects and play provocations were made available; character props encouraged pretend play
while construction material encouraged the children to imagine, explain, and demonstrate
the prop’s use, learning symbolic representation in the process. The children interacted with
the range of provocations, thereby consolidating their learning in an individualised way:
Some children wanted to play outside, but Hadley wanted to make a flag for his
lunar surface, as well as a spaceship and astronauts with toilet rolls; Abbey brought
in a star that she had made with straws and wanted to build a floor puzzle of the
solar system, a group of children decided to jump off a pile of wooden blocks while
counting down, “5,4,3,2,1, lift-off!”, Ellie painted a “space picture” of a rocket and
stars, Henry painted a spaceship, Chrissy started making plaster casts of planets
with Christina (teacher) and Fay asked for music because she wanted to do the
“space dance”. – TT2
Table 5.38 provides a snapshot of play themes, types of play, and the natural and cultural
materials provided in the program.
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Table 5.38. Play Themes in the Curious about Space Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
Fruit: apples, mandarins
Dramatic play: ‘See my Earth
spinning (apple)’; ‘See my moon!’
(mandarin segment)’
Cultural
(construction)
materials
Boxes of all sizes, toilet rolls,
paper, puzzles, large bricks
Active Play: “5, 4, 3, 2, 1 ...lift off!”;
Cultural (art)
materials
Plaster of Paris and casts of
planets; paint, glitter
Creative play: painting, making
planets, spaceships, telescopes,
stars/galaxy; plaster casts of planets
Cultural
(general)
objects
Life-size astronaut cut-out,
cardboard ‘spaceship’ and music
– ‘Planet’ by Vanessa and Karina
Johnston
Dramatic play: ‘I’m going to the
moon in a space shuttle!’
Active play: dancing to the music
Manipulative play: space puzzle
building
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It was evident that the themes in play were inspired by the Curious about Space program.
What was learnt in the program – the Sun, the moon landing, the planets orbiting, and so on
– was reflected in the play themes. The cultural objects and play provocations provided
scaffolding for their play. The play themes in dramatic, creative, and active play and the
verbalisations of the children were an indication of heightened curiosity. Some of the parents
also commented on how their children were showing interest in the topic:
Abbey became very excited when she saw a world map in the library yesterday. She
talked about the Universe! – Abbey’s mother
We have little drawings of rockets everywhere in the house. Space is definitely Jay’s
favourite subject and (he) can talk your pants off when he’s explaining it all. He is
always looking for the moon. –Jay’s mother
Luke is not interested in the activity booklets, but he loves jumping of the trampoline,
going:’4, 3, 2, 1…lift off!’ - Mother of Luke, diagnosed as ASD
To corroborate the play observations made at school, the parents were asked whether the
Curious about Space program increased their child’s interest in space.
Of the 18 parents of children participating, 13 indicated their child’s interest had increased
considerably; three said only a little, and one indicated that there had been no increase in the
child’s interest. Two “No, not at all” answers were from the parents who said that their
children had already been very interested in space and space travel and therefore the
program had not increased their interest.
The activity booklet activities, such as drawing the moon as seen from their home over a
period of 2 weeks, connected with the key concepts learnt in the program and provided some
interesting facts. Parents were asked what they thought of the Space activity booklet, and the
results are presented in Table 5.39.
Table 5.39. Curious about Space Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the “Space” activity booklet?
1 My child enjoyed completing/doing the activities in the booklet 9
2 I enjoyed helping my child do the activities 7
3 I did not have the time to do the activities 6
4 I think these activities are too difficult for young children to do 0
5 I think that learning about space is a waste of time 0
6 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
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Half of the parents indicated that their child enjoyed doing the activities in the booklet. As
the activity booklets were optional, not everyone completed them. Six parents said that they
could not find the time to do the activities. Comments made by the parents indicate that they
enjoyed helping their children with the activities and that they found the booklets helpful as
well as interesting.
The booklet (Space) was really helpful and interesting. – Chrissy’s mum
Excellent suitable activities (Space). I wanted to do more moon drawings with her. –
Jo’s mum
In summary, themes in play and comments made by the children and their parents as well as
their answers to questionnaires were an indication of increased curiosity. Most of the parents
indicated that the Curious about Space program increased their child’s interest in and
awareness of space. The program sparked interest in the topic and the cultural objects and
play provocations provided a play-rich environment that further encouraged exploration and
curiosity. The children engaged mostly in dramatic, creative, and active play during this
program. Although not all parents completed the activity booklets, they received good
reviews, as parents indicated that the activity booklets enabled them to review the program
material with their children, thereby sharing in the learning experience.
Summary of Cycle 1
The data obtained from Cycle 1 regarding curiosity revealed the following: Firstly, the
themes in play reflected the learning that had occurred and the interest that had been
generated by the program. Secondly, the different topics led to different kinds of play in the
program. The Curious about Countries program saw predominantly dramatic play while the
Curious about Trees program saw more exploratory play and creative play and the Curious
about Space program saw manipulative, creative, dramatic, and active play. Thirdly, play
provocations in the form of cultural materials related to the topic encouraged play
contributing to rich play environment.
Key Findings from Cycle 1:
A play-rich environment including cultural and natural objects as well as
provocations contributed to the development of curiosity.
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Activity booklets encouraged parental involvement in the learning process by
informing the parents what the children were learning, providing structured activities
as well as promoting real-life experiences in nature.
Based on these findings it was decided that in Cycle 2, a play-rich environment would be
created by provoking play through cultural and natural objects that connect to each topic,
and by facilitating as many kinds of play as possible. The activity booklets would also be
provided to the children and parents during each topic.
5.3.2. Cycle 2
In Cycle 2, five more programs were delivered. The following programs were analysed in
detail: Curious about Countries, Curious about Trees, and Curious about Space. After each
of the three programs was presented to the children, a play-rich environment was provided
filled with cultural and natural objects relating to the topic and play themes were
documented. The first program explored in this cycle is Curious about Insects.
Cycle 2A: Curiosity in the Curious about Insects program
Curiosity and eagerness to know and learn about insects is an indicator of interest in insects
as evidenced by an increased awareness of insects, an eagerness to catch insects, looking at
books about insects, and talking and asking questions about insects.
Curiosity was promoted by placing provocations related to the topic in the school
environment, such as bug catcher boxes, butterfly nets, a butterfly breeding enclosure, and
plastic insects. Themes in play and what the children were becoming aware of and talking
about gave an indication that the children were curious about and interested in insects. Some
children were pretending to be insects; others were searching for insects; investigations were
going on and drawing or making insects were popular play activities. When an insect was
found, great excitement ensued. Children were connecting what they had learnt with real
life.
We found an actual grasshopper in the garden on the same day as we had learnt
about the grasshopper. We had just sung the grasshopper song. We did lots of
hopping on this day. The bug catcher boxes have been very popular. We just have to
remind ourselves to release the insects. –TT1
One of the clear consequences of establishing curiosity was heightened awareness, as noted
by the teacher:
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Afterwards there was a lot of investigation in the garden with bug catchers and nets.
Matthew found a bee and he showed us it had pollen on its legs and that the bee was
taking the pollen to its hive to make honey. Jordan found a yellow ladybird and
Dimitri found a small fly. Overall the awareness of insects is very high. Much of the
day is spent searching and when found, great excitement. Children share what they
have discovered. – TT2
A few children were afraid of insects. Fear is related to the unknown (Carleton, 2016) and as
the children learnt about insects their fears began to dissipate, making way for interest and
curiosity.
The curiosity generated by the program, as well as the play provocations, including natural
and cultural materials, inspired the themes of play. Learning about insects made children
aware of insects and inspired explorations and investigations of insects in the garden.
Learning that insects have six legs and antennae inspired children to draw and construct
insects with six legs and antennae. Meaningful exploratory and creative play dominated this
program (see Table 5.40).
Table 5.40. Play Themes in the Curious about Insects Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
Butterfly breeding enclosure,
preserved insects
Exploratory play: observing the lifecycle
of the butterfly; investigating real
preserved insects
Cultural
(art)
materials
Play dough; sticks; paint, pipe
cleaners
Creative play: making stick insects
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Cultural
(exploration)
materials
Magnifying glasses; bug
catchers; butterfly net
Exploratory play: exploring and
investigating; looking for ants and
grasshoppers; trying to catch a butterfly
Cultural
(general)
materials
Puzzles; multiple-eye screen;
antennae; plastic toy insects;
books
Dramatic play: ‘I am a butterfly’
Manipulative play: building insect
puzzles
To verify the observations of themes of play made at school, the parents were asked whether
the Curious about Insects program had increased their child’s interest in trees. The parents
all indicated heightened curiosity regarding insects; 16 children showed a lot of interest
while three children showed only slight interest. In the questionnaire, the parents were also
asked what indicators of curiosity they had noticed since their children had participated in
the program. Parents reported the following (see Table 5.41).
Table 5.41. Curious about Insects Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire
Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the Curious about Insects
program? (n = 19)
1 My child is more aware of the insects in his/her environment 18
2 My child talks more about insects 14
3 My child wants to look at books about insects 10
4 My child asks more questions about insects 11
5 My child wants to catch insects 11
The parents reported that almost all the children (18 of 19) were more aware of the insects in
their environment.
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James is showing a greater awareness of insects when he is outside. – James’s
mother
Noah notices them (insects) a lot more. – Noah’s mother
Fourteen of the children were talking more about insects, 10 of the children wanted to look
at books about insects, and 11 were asking questions about insects and wanted to catch
them, as reported by the parents.
He is insect crazy. He is making us all crazy. Mathew is looking for insects and
trying to identify them. – Matthew’s mother
The activity booklet includes images and information about the types of insects – bee, wasp,
butterfly, moth, ant, dragonfly, damselfly, stick insect, and praying mantis – which the
children had been learning about. Parents were asked what they thought of the insect-
spotting activity booklet (see Table 5.42).
Table 5.42. Curious about Insects Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the “I can spot an insect” activity booklet?
1 My child enjoyed spotting insects in the environment 17
2 I enjoyed helping my child spot insects 15
3 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 3
4 I think this activity is too difficult for young children to do 0
5 I think that learning about insects is a waste of time 0
6 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
Most of the children (17) and most of the parents (15) enjoyed the activity of spotting insects
in their environment, a simple activity that connects what the children had learnt to real-life
experiences with their parents. Comments made by the parents also indicate that the real-life
encounter were positive learning experiences:
When Adam sees an insect, he tells us what it is and what makes it an insect, 6 legs
and 2 antennae. The insect program has made the biggest impact on him. – Adam’s
mother
Riley wants to catch insects to keep as pets! – Riley’s mother
Three parents said that they did not have the time to do this activity with their children.
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I didn’t get to that booklet before the baby ripped it up! –Jay’s mum
In summary, themes in play, questions asked, and comments made by the children and by
their parents indicated that all the children were showing increased levels of curiosity and
awareness of insects. Providing cultural objects and insect-related provocations in the school
promoted exploration, investigations, and play as observed via exploratory play, dramatic
play, manipulative play, and creative play. The activity booklet was well received and
provided real-life learning experiences for those who took part.
The second enrichment program in which curiosity is explored in Cycle 2 was the Curious
about Flowers program.
Cycle 2B: Curiosity in the Curious about Flowers program
Curiosity and eagerness to know and learn about flowers is an indicator of interest in
flowers. The indicators of curiosity were an awareness of flowers, talking and asking
questions about flowers, an eagerness to look at pictures/books of flowers, and wanting to
pick flowers. Play provocations such as cultural and natural objects, including authentic
flowers, were provided. The children interacted with the range of provocations, thereby
consolidating their learning in an individualised way. Table 5.43 provides a snapshot of the
cultural and natural objects provided and the play themes observed.
Table 5.43. Play Themes in the Curious about Flowers Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
Flowers, seeds, seedlings
Active play: planting seedlings and
watering plants
Cultural
(exploration)
materials
Watering can; gardening tools;
magnifying glass
Exploratory play: making water
jewels by placing a drop of water in
the middle of the Nasturtium leaf;
deconstructing flowers
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Cultural
(art)
materials
Paint, pastels, felt flowers, paper
cupcake holders
Creative play: drawing and painting
flowers; gluing sunflower seeds onto a
sunflower drawing
It is evident from the data that the curiosity generated by the program as well as the play
provocations inspired the themes of the play. Learning about how flowers grow and what
their needs are inspired meaningful play as the children planted and took care of flowers.
The children engaged primarily with creative play by drawing and painting flowers,
exploratory play such as examining and deconstructing flowers, and active play by planting
and watering flowers. To corroborate the play observations made at school, the parents were
asked whether the Curious about Flowers program had increased their child’s interest in
flowers. Of the 19 parents who participated, 13 indicated their child’s interest had increased
considerably; four said it had increased a bit, and two indicated that there had been no
increase in their child’s interest in flowers. Parental comments also indicated heightened
curiosity:
Sam wants to grow his own sunflower. He has shown a lot of interest in learning new
things. When he comes home, he tells his family all about what he has learnt. It has
blown us away. We are very proud. – Sam’s mother
In the questionnaire, the parents were asked what behaviour they had noticed since their
children had participated in the program (see Table 5.44).
Table 5.44. Curious about Flowers Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire
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Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the Curious about Flowers
program? (n = 19)
1 My child is more aware of the flowers in his/her environment 14
2 My child talks more about flowers 13
3 My child wants to look at books about flowers 4
4 My child asks more questions about flowers 8
5 My child wants to pick flowers 11
The parents noticed that most of the children were more aware and talked more about
flowers in their environment. More than half of the children were eager to pick flowers.
Eight children had asked questions about flowers and four wanted to look at books about
flowers. Comments made by parents indicated heightened interest in flowers.
Whenever Linkoln sees a bird of paradise flower, he shouts out, ‘Paradise’! –
Linkoln’s mother
The activity booklet contained images of the 10 types of flowers the children had learnt
about: rose, tulip, bird of paradise, sunflower, poppy, daffodil, orchid, carnation, protea, and
gerbera. The children were encouraged to spot these flowers in their environment and tick
them off once spotted. Parents were asked in the questionnaire what they thought of the
activity booklet, with the results presented in Table 5.45.
Table 5.45. Curious about Flowers Activity Booklet Questionnaire
1 My child enjoyed spotting the flowers in the activity booklet 12
2 I enjoyed helping my child spot the flowers 12
3 I like that the booklet showed me what my child was learning about 14
4 My child did not enjoy spotting flowers 0
5 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 3
6 I think this booklet is too difficult for my child to do 0
7 I think that learning about flowers is a waste of time 0
8 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
Twelve of the 19 parents indicated that they and their children enjoyed spotting the flowers.
Fourteen parents indicated that they liked knowing what their children were learning about,
commenting on how the activity booklets impacted their children:
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I do not know much about flowers and we do not have a garden, but my mum enjoyed
walking Phoenix through her garden and ticking the flowers off the list. It was great
for bonding. – Phoenix’s mother
Although the parents were overwhelmingly in favour of the activity booklets, three parents
said that they were inhibited by time constraints. One parent commented:
Please know that the only reason the booklet was not completed was because I am a
single mum of four and also work full time. I think this is a great program and Adan
has learnt a lot. – Adan’s mother
In summary, themes in play and comments made by the children and their parents as well as
their answers to questionnaires indicated a heightened curiosity about flowers. Meaningful
play was observed as it most often related to what the children had learned in the program.
Most of parents indicated that the Curious about Flowers program increased their child’s
interest in flowers. Although the activity booklets were not compulsory, 12 children
completed them with the help of their parents. The simple activity of flower spotting
encouraged real-life experiences with parents. The program generated curiosity and the
cultural and natural objects and play provocations encouraged exploratory, creative, and
active play. The third program explored in Cycle 2, Curious about Birds, was discussed
next.
Cycle 2C. Curiosity in the Curious about Birds program
The aspects of curiosity that were considered in this program were an awareness of birds and
talking and asking questions about birds. Various cultural and natural objects and play
provocations were displayed. The children eagerly interacted with the range of provocations,
thereby consolidating their learning in an individualised way. The children quickly showed
curiosity regarding birds. The new teacher commented:
I’m not usually into information sharing but I’m enjoying the program much more
than I expected. After the first session they were so interested in birds – running
around looking for birds. – TT3
The individualised nature of play became visible as different children chose to engage in
different types of play. This is indicated by the teacher notes made during playtime:
Jay and Henry did some bird watching with the binoculars, Ashton wanted to sort
out the plastic birds into their pairs, Jo and Scarlett made birds with paper plates
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and feathers and then turned them into kites, Abby drew a bird and decorated it,
Ellie painted a Rainbow lorikeet, Chrissy painted a black and white magpie and Jo
made herself some paper tail feathers and pranced around. - TT1
Table 5.46. Play in the Curious about Birds Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Natural
materials
Bird nests, feathers; eggs
Exploratory play: examining eggs
Dramatic play: ‘Look at our tail
feathers!’.
Cultural
(general)
materials
Plastic toy birds, wooden eggs
Dramatic play: making a nest
Cultural
(art)
materials
Paint; drawing materials;
playdough
Creative play: painting a bird; drawing
a feather; making a nest
Cultural
(exploratory)
materials
Binoculars Exploratory play: bird watching;
examining eggs and feathers
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Table 5.46 provides a snapshot of the provocations and play themes in the Curious about
Birds program. Play provocations include natural and cultural materials but for the sake of
clarity, cultural materials are divided into general, art, and exploratory materials.
Curiosity was generated by the program as well as by the play provocations that inspired the
themes of play. The play was meaningful as the children represented what they had learnt.
They were also enthused to look out for birds, to draw birds and feathers, and to make nests.
The type of play observed in this program was mostly dramatic, creative, and active. To
corroborate the play theme observations made at school, the parents were asked whether the
Curious about Birds program had increased their child’s interest in birds. Of the parents of
19 children who participated, 14 indicated their child’s interest had increased considerably;
four said it had increased a bit, and two indicated that there had been no increase in their
child’s interest in birds. In the questionnaire, the parents were asked what indicators of
curiosity they had noticed since their children had participated in the program. Parents
reported the following, as presented in Table 5.47.
Table 5.47. Curious about Birds Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire
Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the Curious about Birds
program? (n = 19)
1 My child is more aware of the birds in his/her environment 15
2 My child talks more about birds 8
3 My child wants to look at books about birds 2
4 My child asks more questions about birds 8
5 My child listens to bird calls 4
Most of the parents reported an increased awareness of birds. Eight parents indicated that
they had observed their children talking and asking questions about birds, four said that their
children were listening to bird calls, and two said that their children wanted to look at books
about birds. Comments from parents point to a heightened sense of curiosity:
Henry asked for a bird feeder and he asked for a container of water also. He said
that seeds were good for the birds to eat and put a concoction of rice and popcorn
out for the birds. – Henry’s mother
She found a bird eggshell in our yard and brought it into the house. We had to
Google what bird it may be, which was fun. – Ellie’s mother
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The activity booklet was designed to encourage children to spot the five birds that they were
learning about. An interesting piece of information was shared about each bird. Parental
response to the activity is summarised in Table 5.48.
Table 5.48. Curious about Birds Activity Booklet Questionnaire
1 My child enjoyed spotting birds 19
2 I enjoyed helping my child spot the birds 16
3 I like that the booklet showed me what my child was learning about 19
4 My child did not enjoy spotting birds 1
5 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 1
6 I think this booklet is too difficult for my child to do 0
7 I think that learning about birds is a waste of time 0
8 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
All of the parents (19) indicated that their children enjoyed spotting birds in the activity
booklet and that they liked knowing what their children were learning about, while 16
parents indicated that they enjoyed spotting birds with their children. Parents commented on
how the activity booklets impacted their children:
Jo loves looking for feathers. We have a kookaburra that visits our backyard and we
discussed their diet. Jo has been talking about the Bird Lady. She was very excited to
see birds on the back fence behind her house. She saw some lorikeets, a pigeon and a
Noisy Minor. She also saw some butcher birds on next door’s roof antenna. At her
friend’s house she saw some willie wagtails jumping around the grass. We went to
Cleveland and Josie saw seagulls, ibises and pelicans. Josie enjoys looking out for
birds. – Josie’s mother
I thought the Bird booklet was a great simple activity to reinforce what had been
learnt in class. – Susie’s mum
The themes in play, as well as questions and comments made by the children and their
parents, indicated that many of the children were becoming more curious about birds.
Summary and findings of Cycle 2
The play-rich environment, including play provocations and cultural and natural objects,
were key to promoting curiosity. Despite many cultural objects and play provocations being
available, children were drawn to different kinds of play in the different programs. All three
programs in this phase saw exploratory and creative play, but the Curious about Insects and
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the Curious about Birds program inspired more dramatic play while the Curious about
Flowers program inspired more active (gardening) play. The activity booklets were well
received by the parents who indicated that the booklets helped them to know what the
children were learning about and the activities encouraged real-life learning experiences.
As providing cultural objects and play provocations and encouraging parental participation
was proving to be effective, it made sense to continue with the practice in Cycle 3. By
employing different topics, a determination could be made on whether this method was
effective in nurturing curiosity in other topics as well.
5.3.3. Cycle 3
In Cycle 3, five more programs were delivered of which three programs, Curious about
Dinosaurs, Curious about Structures, and Curious about Arachnids were explored in terms
of curiosity by taking note of questions, statements, and play themes. Based on the findings
made in Cycles 2 and 3, it was decided that once again, a wide range of play provocations
and cultural and natural objects that relate to each topic would be made available to generate
various types of play.
Cycle 3A: Curiosity in the Curious about Dinosaurs program
Curiosity about dinosaurs is an indicator of interest in the topic. A range of cultural
provocations provided the children with a play-rich environment. Table 5.49 provides a
snapshot of play in the Curious about Dinosaurs program where children buried frozen
“dinosaur eggs” in the sandpit to be dug up later. This play was meaningful as they had
learnt that dinosaurs lay eggs and playing with them built on their understanding. Others
made dinosaur footprints in clay, also very meaningful as they had learnt that some
footprints can still be found today. The children actively interacted with the materials (paper
Pterodactyls), made a dinosaur puppet show with dinosaur hand puppets, and came up with
framework for symbolic play, such as “We are T-Rexes. The children connected well with
this topic, as indicated by the play themes.
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Table 5.49. Play in the Curious about Dinosaurs Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Cultural (art)
materials
Writing and painting materials,
play dough
Creative play: making dinosaur
footprints in the play dough; making
dinosaur eggs
Cultural
materials
Dinosaur puzzles
Frozen dinosaur eggs, dinosaur
toys
Large blow-up T-rex and
footprints
Dinosaur books
Manipulative play: building dinosaur
puzzles
Dramatic play: playing with the
dinosaur eggs about to ‘hatch’; walking
like a dinosaur; building a ‘house’ for
the dinosaurs with blocks
Exploratory play: searching for
dinosaur eggs; investigating
dinosaurs in books
Active play: actively engaging with the
material (Pterodactyl); walking in the
footsteps of a dinosaur
Heightened curiosity in the topic was expressed via individualised play. Themes in
unstructured play, as well as questions and comments made by the children, indicate that
overall interest in the topic was high, as commented by the teacher:
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The children are enthusiastic about the topic. Most of them, especially the boys, were
already interested in dinosaurs, even before the program. Lilly and her two friends
made a house for the dinosaurs out of blocks and played with the dinosaur models,
Nathan built a dinosaur puzzle, and some of the boys were throwing their dinosaur
eggs around, while others were searching in the sandpit, looking for dinosaur eggs.
Mina and Lilly drew dinosaurs, Mathew decided to give his own dinosaur puppet
show, Merrick enjoyed making dinosaur footprints in the playdough. Matthew and a
few of the boys were running around with their paper Pterodactyls in the garden. –
TT1
The parents were asked whether they thought that the Curious about Dinosaurs program
increased their child’s interest in dinosaurs. Of the parents of the 20 children who
participated, 17 indicated their child’s interest had increased considerably, three said it had
increased a bit, and none indicated that there had been no increase in the child’s interest in
dinosaurs. Some parents said that their children were already interested in dinosaurs before
doing the program.
Parents were asked what indicators of curiosity – awareness of dinosaurs, talking and/or
asking questions about dinosaurs, an eagerness to look at books about dinosaurs, and an
eagerness to play with toy dinosaurs – they had noticed since their children had participated
in the program. Parents reported the following, as presented in Table 5.50.
Table 5.50. Curious about Dinosaurs Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire
Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the Curious about
Dinosaurs program? (n = 20)
1 My child is more aware of the dinosaurs in his/her environment 17
2 My child talks more about dinosaurs 12
3 My child wants to look at books about dinosaurs 7
4 My child asks more questions about dinosaurs 12
5 My child is keen to play with toy dinosaurs 12
The parents reported that most of the children (17) were more aware of dinosaurs, while 12
children were talking more and asking more questions about dinosaurs. Seven children
wanted to look at books about dinosaurs and more than half (12) were keen to play with toy
dinosaurs. Parental comments also indicated heighted interest in the topic:
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Riley has become very interested in dinosaurs. He talks about dinosaurs all the time. –
Riley’s mother
It was decided not to provide an activity booklet for the Curious about Dinosaurs program
as it would provide an insight into whether the parents would miss them. The parents were
asked in the questionnaire if they would have liked to have had an activity booklet and the
overwhelming response was that they would. Comments made by parents confirmed that
they viewed the booklets as worthwhile as they not only encouraged shared activity, but they
also provided the parents with the information they needed to be able to become learning
partners.
I would have liked a booklet so that I could know what my child is learning in class
and so that we could talk about it at home. – Nadyn’s mother
I am unsure of the names of all the dinosaurs and it would have been nice to be able
to name them. – Skye’s mother
Zara was telling me about the dinosaur with the long neck and she showed me how it
walked, but she didn’t know what it was called. We would have liked to have a
booklet. – Zara’s mother
In summary, play themes, questions, and comments made by the children and their parents,
as well as answers in questionnaires, indicated heightened curiosity regarding the topic.
Their play often reflected what they had learnt in the program. The play provocations,
especially the toy dinosaurs, were a vital part of promoting curiosity. The parents were
disappointed in not receiving an activity booklet for this topic; therefore, it was decided that
activity booklets would be included with each topic. Curious about Structures is the second
program that was explored in Cycle 3.
Cycle 3B: Curiosity in the Curious about Structures program
Curiosity and eagerness to know and learn about structures is an indicator of interest in
structures. The children expressed their interest in an individualised manner through the play
activities in which they chose to take part. Themes in unstructured play, as well as questions
and comments made by the children, gave an indication of what they are curious about and
interested in.
The Curious about Structures program initiated creative and manipulative construction play.
Table 5.51 provides a snapshot of play in the program.
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Table 5.51. Play in the Curious about Structures Program
Play provocations Themes in play
Cultural
(art)
materials
Writing and
painting
material;
playdough;
paddle-pop
sticks
Creative play:
drawing
structures and
making them with
play dough and
paddle-pop sticks
Cultural
(construction)
materials
Construction materials: bricks,
blocks, sand, digging
equipment
Manipulative play: building walls,
towers, bridges and tunnels
Most of the play observed was creative or manipulative with the children inspired to build
walls, towers, pyramids, tunnels, and bridges using blocks, sand, paper, playdough, and
other construction toys. The open-ended materials created many possibilities, allowing
children to use them in multiple ways such as creative expression and solving problems. Ice
pyramids were one of the play provocations set out. While some children preferred to play
and explore on their own or alongside other children, a lot of the construction play occurred
in cooperation with friends, thereby affording them the ability to interact, collaborate, and
improve their social skills such as sharing and taking turns.
Teacher notes indicated that overall, interest in structures was high when observing play:
The children loved playing with the blocks and building bridges. The boys spent
hours in the sandpit making tunnels. Lilly built a wall. “Look what I built, it’s the
Great Wall of China!” she said. Two boys were making identical towers next to each
other, trying to see whose tower would be the tallest. I was very surprised when they
said they were making the Twin Towers. Jasmine said she wants to make a torch
because she wants her mother to be the Statue of Liberty on her birthday – TT1
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Parents were asked whether they thought that the Curious about Structures program
increased their child’s interest in structures. The majority of parents indicated heightened
interest in structures that varied from a lot of interest (13) to some interest (5). Two children
were not interested in the topic, according to the parents. Parents were asked what indicators
of curiosity they had noticed since their children had participated in the program (see Table
5.52): an awareness of structures; talking and/or asking questions about structures; an
eagerness to look at books about dinosaurs; playing more construction games; and a
keenness to draw structures.
Table 5.52. Curious about Structures Indicators of Curiosity Questionnaire
Which of the following have you noticed since undertaking the Curious about
Structures program? (n = 20)
1 My child is more aware of structures 17
2 My child talks and asks more questions about structures 10
3 My child wants to look at books about structures 5
4 My child is keen to play construction games 9
5 My child is keen to draw or make structures 5
Although not all the children were showing a high interest in the topic, the parents reported
that most of the children (17) were more aware of structures. Ten of the children were
talking more and asking more questions about structures; five wanted to look at books about
structures; nine were keen to play construction games; and five wanted to draw pictures of
structures. Comments made by parents also pointed to an increased curiosity regarding
structures:
Rodge is not only interested in structures, he has also become interested in the
history behind them. – Rodge’s father
Leeroy asked me if he could have his birthday on the Sydney Harbour Bridge. He
wants to watch the fireworks. – Leeroy’s father
The activity booklet encouraged children to be on the lookout, in books, on television, on the
internet, and so on, for the five famous structures that they had been learning about:
Pyramids of Giza, Eiffel Tower, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Statue of Liberty, and the Great
Wall of China,. The booklet also gave an interesting fact about each structure, for example:
“The Statue of Liberty stands in New York Harbour on the continent of North America. She
holds a torch in her right hand, a tablet in her left hand and seven spikes on her head, one for
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each continent,” allowing the parents to share information with their children. Parents were
asked in the questionnaire what they thought of the activity booklets (see Table 5.53).
Table 5.53. Curious about Structures Activity Booklet Questionnaire
What did you think of the “I can spot a famous Structure!” activity booklet?
1 My child enjoyed doing the booklet 8
2 I enjoyed helping my child complete the booklet 8
3 I like that the booklet showed me what my child was learning about 10
4 My child did not enjoy doing the booklet 0
5 I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child 5
6 I think this booklet is too difficult for my child to do 0
7 I think that learning about structures is a waste of time 0
8 I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home 0
Although the activity booklet was optional, eight of the children completed it. Five parents
said that they did not have the time to do them:
I think the booklets were great, just in my situation making the time was slack on my
part –Jay’s mother
None of the parents thought that the activity booklets were not age appropriate. Ten of the
parents said that they liked knowing what their children were learning about. Comments
made by parents about the activity booklets were positive.
He is very interested and loved getting the “homework”. He talked about it a lot and
enjoyed doing it. – Jordan’s mother
James built a Statue of Liberty out of play dough and he noticed some of the
structures on TV. – James’s mother
In summary, themes in unstructured play, questions asked, and comments made by the
children as well as their parents, and data collected from questionnaires indicated that most
of the children showed increased curiosity in the topic. The availability of construction toys
such as blocks and media to construct with, including playdough digging equipment in the
sandpit to make tunnels and bridges, helped to further foster curiosity in structures.
Manipulative play (building and constructing) and creative play dominated in this program.
The activity booklets encouraged further investigations at home.
Curious about Arachnids is the last program explored in Cycle 3.
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Cycle 3C: Curiosity in the Curious about Arachnids program
As curiosity in the Curious about Arachnids program had already been discussed in Chapter
4, only the summary and findings of Cycle 3 are provided.
Summary and findings of Cycle 3
Data collected in Cycle 3 confirm Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 findings, namely that:
Heightened curiosity in the topics was indicated by play themes, questions asked,
and statements made by the children and the parental questionnaire.
The play-rich environment contributed to the play and the development of curiosity
as the children interacted with the range of play provocations and cultural and natural
materials provided.
Activity booklets provided information regarding the topics and encouraged parental
involvement in the learning process.
In each cycle it was confirmed that participation in the enrichment program had heightened
curiosity and interest in the various topics, irrespective of what the topic was, indicated by
play themes, questions asked, statements made, as well as feedback from the parents.
Curiosity was nurtured by play provocations in a play-rich school environment that included
cultural and natural materials related to the topic. Parental participation was promoted via
activity booklets that actively encouraged curiosity with real-life experiences.
5.4. Conclusion
The design-based research was conducted over a period of 3 years in three cycles. In Cycle
1, five programs were delivered, but due to data saturation only three of the programs,
Curious about Countries, Curious about Trees, and Curious about Space were evaluated,
taking the complex social context and multiple variables into consideration. Based on
findings made in Cycle 1, the enrichment program was refined to improve engagement and
curiosity. In Cycle 2, three more programs were evaluated, Curious about Insects, Curious
about Flowers, and Curious about Birds, with a second group of children. Based on findings
made in Cycle 2 the enrichment program was further refined to improve engagement and
curiosity. In Cycle 3, three more programs, Curious about Dinosaurs, Curious about
Structures, and Curious about Arachnids were evaluated with a third group of children. This
chapter described how each of the three programs in the three cycles were analysed, firstly
in terms of engagement, and secondly in terms of curiosity. Key findings that emerged at
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each cycle of research guided refinement of the enrichment program. The following chapter,
Chapter 6, provides a discussion of the findings.
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Chapter 6: Discussion
6.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the research findings from three cycles of design-
based research where interest in a range of topics was explored within an enrichment
program. Interest in the topics was indicated by behavioural, emotional, and cognitive
engagement and curiosity.
Behavioural and emotional engagement was examined during the delivery of the first part of
the enrichment program, a 15-minute play-based session followed by a short art-based
activity. Behavioural and emotional engagement during the session was examined by using
the overlaid models of Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) and Schlechty (2002) as a framework. Pre-
and post-tests taken by the children to determine knowledge gained was used as an indicator
of cognitive engagement. Curiosity was examined as expressed in play themes and
verbalisations after the session.
The research provided evidence that interest in the Curiosity Learning enrichment program
was impacted by a range of factors. These factors will be discussed in terms of how they
influence engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive), as well as curiosity. As
behavioural, cognitive, and emotional engagement are intrinsically linked, the factors
influencing them are also connected (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1. The connectivity of factors impacting interest
For example, the inclusion of humour is described as a factor impacting predominantly
emotional engagement, but the humour can also have a positive impact on cognitive or
Emotional
Engagement
Curiosity
Cognitive
Engagement Behavioural
Engagement
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behavioural engagement, or even on curiosity; providing a cognitive challenging program is
described as a factor impacting cognitive engagement but it may impact emotional and
behavioural engagement as well as curiosity. Therefore, the various factors should not be
viewed in isolation, but rather seen as connected, having an impact on each other and on
interest.
The process of how interest developed within the enrichment program is also discussed,
providing insight into where interest is positioned in the learning process. The first indicator
of interest, behavioural engagement, is discussed next.
6.2. Behavioural engagement
The findings indicated that, overall, behavioural engagement during the enrichment program
was high. Behavioural engagement, that is, paying attention, looking, watching, and
participating in the program, was influenced by seven factors during the three cycles of the
research: the ability of the teacher and/or teaching material to harness the attention of the
children; whether children understood the structure and expectations of the program; the
length of the session; the number of key components utilised; optimal time spent on each
key component; the flow or momentum of the session; and whether disengagement was
being effectively addressed. Each of these factors will be explored in the coming sections.
6.2.1. The ability of teacher and teaching material to harness attention
The ability of the teacher and teaching material to harness the attention of the children was
the first step towards achieving holistic engagement. According to Medina (2008), the
ability of students to pay attention is vital as it is the first step to encoding information; the
more attention the brain pays to a given stimulus, the more elaborately the information will
be encoded and retained. All key components of the enrichment program were able to gain
the attention of the children; however, components providing a visual mode of learning,
such as Images, Objects, and Audio-visual documentaries and stories, were more effective
than components with only an auditory mode of learning, such as teacher talk. Hardiman
(2003) described the enormous visual capacity of the brain that is continually scanning the
environment and seeking visual stimuli and novelty. She pointed out that one of the surest
ways to capture attention at any age is to introduce novelty into the learning environment.
The clear and visually appealing images and animations used in the Curiosity Learning
program were novel and visually stimulating.
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6.2.2. Structure and expectations
Structure and expectations were identified as a factor influencing behavioural engagement.
According to Goss and Sonnemann (2017), teachers must be clear and consistent about what
students are expected to do as by explicitly stating the learning goals and explaining the
classroom procedure, learning is improved. When children understood how the program
session worked and what was expected of them, they engaged more fully, as indicated by the
behavioural engagement of a new group of children during the first session who were being
disruptive because they were excited and unsure of what the expectations were. By the
second session they understood the structure of the session and the expectations and they
were able to get into a routine.
6.2.3. The duration of the session
The duration of the session was identified as another factor influencing behavioural
engagement because the attention spans of 4 year old children are limited. According to
Bauer and Wise (2009), most 4 year old children, although they differ widely in maturity
levels, have short attention spans and find it difficult to sit still. To promote engagement,
sessions were generally kept brief, a strategy proving to be effective as indicated by their
paying attention. Renninger and Hidi (2002) described how even very young children can
develop interests and the capacity for surprisingly long periods of sustained attention when
they are engaging in those interests. They can talk for some time about different types of
dinosaurs, reflecting remarkable persistence and independent seeking of knowledge about
the topic of interest. To determine the optimum engagement period for the session,
behavioural engagement was examined. A 15 minute session, followed by a 5-10 minute art-
based activity, was found to be an age-appropriate and realistic goal. Sessions could be
terminated if the children were showing signs of disengagement.
6.2.4. Number of key components
The enrichment program consisted of at least four of the following key components:
Introduction, Authentic Images, Objects, Audio-visual documentaries and Audio-visual
stories, Music, and Drama per session, excluding the art-based activity. The longer the
session was, the more components were incorporated to maintain engagement. By utilising a
range of key components in each session, information could be processed through multiple
senses, differentiating instruction and facilitating multisensory learning. It is well established
that multisensory methods can enhance learning as they incorporate different learning styles.
Montessori could be said to have started the multisensory learning movement as most
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subject areas in a Montessori school use a mixture of visual, auditory, tactile, and
kinaesthetic approaches (Seldin, 2007). Using multiples key components in one session
allowed for changes to be made between components, thereby keeping the students engaged.
After the session, more components, Art-based Activity, Play, Books and Parental
Involvement, were utilised.
6.2.5. Optimal engagement time per component
The time spent on each component influenced behavioural engagement, with the chances of
disengagement increasing as the duration of a component increased. An optimum period of
engagement per component in this enrichment program was determined (see Table 6.1),
based on the indicators of engagement, after which engagement started declining.
Table 6.1. Optimum Engagement Time per Component
Optimum engagement time
Component Introduction (teacher talk, class discussion) 3 min
Images 3 min
Audio-visual documentaries 3-5 min
Audio-visual stories 15 min
Music 3 min
Drama 3 min
Object 3 min
Art-based activity 5-10 min
In this enrichment program the optimum duration of teacher talk or a class discussion
promoting behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement was 3 minutes, as indicated by
ability to pay attention, body language, and facial expressions, after which time engagement
decreased. Christakis (2016) warned against too much teacher-directed talk on banal topics;
in this program when the discussion was accompanied by a visual stimulus, the time could
be slightly extended. The optimum period for behavioural and emotional engagement for the
Images component in this enrichment program was approximately 3 minutes, with the
recommended amount of time to be spent on the Images component in total not exceeding 5
minutes per session. The optimum period for behavioural and emotional engagement with
the Audio-visual documentary and Audio-visual story components in this enrichment
program depended on the subject material and the emotional connection children made with
the content. In general, optimum engagement with the Audio-visual documentary component
was approximately 3-5 minutes, while optimum engagement with the Audio-visual story
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component was 15 minutes. The Music component also had an optimum engagement period
of approximately 3 minutes, but when accompanied by movement or dance, the Drama–
action component, a longer period of engagement was possible. The Drama component also
had an optimum engagement period of 3 minutes, as indicated by ability to participate in the
activity. The optimum engagement period with the Object component depended on what the
object was and how much interaction the object warranted, but optimum engagement was
not observed for more than 3 minutes. The optimum engagement period for the component
Art-based activity varied from approximately 5 minutes to 10 minutes, as indicated by
participation in the activity. Overall, the optimum engagement per component for young
children taking part in this enrichment program was very limited, often not exceeding 3
minutes for most components.
6.2.6. Momentum of the session
The momentum of the session had an impact on behavioural engagement, as indicated by the
disengagement that occurred when the momentum of the session was broken by a
technological problem, by distractions, or by a discussion between the teacher and a child.
Peer misbehaviour can disrupt the entire class leading to disengagement (Goss &
Sonnemann, 2017). Momentum was maintained in this program by refraining from asking
many questions and rather focusing on sharing of interesting information. It was found that
asking questions could easily turn into a discussion, breaking the momentum of the session.
Although the child asking the question was engaging, this had to be weighed up against the
rest of the group not being part of the conversation. There is nothing wrong with class
discussion per se, but as the window of opportunity for engagement in the program is short;
questions were addressed without getting into a long discussion and could be individually
addressed after the session.
6.2.7. Addressing disengagement
Disengagement is used as an umbrella term that refers to passively disengaged behaviours,
low-level disruptive behaviours, and aggressive and antisocial behaviours. Driscoll (2005)
said that the ability to control attention differs with age, hyperactivity, intelligence, and
learning disabilities.
Young children can easily be distracted but telling them to “pay attention” is not an effective
way to engage them, as it is likely to make them more stressed. Brewer (2015) explained
how trying to control behaviour cognitively is not effective but that using curiosity is more
effective. Using cognition to control behaviour is not effective because the prefrontal cortex
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is the first part of the brain that goes offline during a stressful situation. Telling children to
pay attention will therefore not be as effective as engaging their curiosity and emotions.
Despite the program’s aim of promoting curiosity and making an emotional connection with
the topic, distractions could not be avoided. Christakis (2016) referred to needlessly noisy
classrooms as overstimulating, stating that having a plan of action on how to deal with
possible distractions is helpful and advisable. According to Goss and Sonnemann (2017),
teachers get very stressed when students don’t engage in learning and continually re-
engaging students is draining. Three courses of action effectively addressed disengagement
in this research: accelerating the tempo of the session, changing the component, or
suspending the session.
Engagement improved when the tempo of the session increased, for example, by showing
the images at a quicker rate. This corresponded with the findings of Doman et al. (1994)
who said that young children prefer it when images are shown quickly, as speed and
enjoyment are inextricably linked in the learning process. Changing the component was
found to be an effective way to regain attention with one change every 2 minutes on average
found to be effective for maintaining engagement in the enrichment program.
Doman et al. (1994) recommended stopping a session before children become tired and
distracted. A consequence of stopping before the children want to stop is that they are
always eager to learn more. In this study, when engagement was not good due to peer
misbehaviour, discontinuing the session and dealing with the disruptive student was
preferable.
Emotional engagement is the next indicator of interest that was discussed.
6.3. Emotional engagement
The research results indicated that emotional engagement during the enrichment program
was high. Although the indicators of emotional engagement, such as smiling, being amused,
laughing, showing excitement, pointing, animated facial expression, being in awe, showing
concern and compassion, sadness and asking questions, are subtle, they were visible to the
teacher. Emotional engagement in the program was influenced by three key factors:
● the ability of the children to form an emotional connection with the topic;
● the inclusion of humour in the program creating an atmosphere of humour and
playfulness; and
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● a responsive teaching-style.
6.3.1 Emotional connection
In this research the impact of making an emotional connection with the topic through
emotional engagement was indicated by facial expressions, reactions, and body language.
Driscoll (2005) connected engagement to the meaning that the task or information holds for
the individual and whether it has significance for them. Neuroscience is now providing
evidence of the interrelatedness of emotion and cognition. Emotions have motivational
power yet the role of emotion or effect on learning has generally been neglected in
motivational research (Meyer & Turner, 2006). Paul (2013) pointed out that while attention
can be temporarily caught, engagement is about finding deeper meaning and purpose. The
value of making an emotional connection with the topic is clear when observing how
children engage when they feel compassion for the topic. This finding contradicts earlier
notions that emotions interfere with learning, revealing instead that emotion and cognition
are supported by interdependent neural processes. According to Nagel (2013), it is
neurobiologically impossible to build memories, engage complex thoughts, or make
meaningful decisions without emotion. Emotions play a vital role in learning given that we
typically recall things that have the greatest emotional impact, that separating thoughts and
emotions is arguably impossible, and that learning that invokes a strong emotional response
is more likely to be remembered. The enrichment program instilled compassion in topics
that were animal and people related, and a sense of wonder and awe in topics that were
nature and planet related. According to Stanton (2012), there is no greater gift than the
feeling of wonder, a natural reaction that cannot be faked. By providing children with
images and ideas that inspire feelings of wonder and awe, a positive impact was made on
interest development.
The program also included pictures of the children themselves interacting with the material,
making the learning personal and meaningful and helping the children to make an emotional
connection with the topic. According to Hardiman (2003), connecting the learning with the
child's emotions is an effective way to enhance attention, as emotions can have a profound
effect on how information is processed and stored. Stamm (2007) also affirmed that
emotional events are stored to a greater degree in the brain than is random information. The
brain is configured to assess the importance of incoming information and to pay greater
attention to emotional content. Emotion drives attention and attention drives memory;
therefore, emotions have motivational power.
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6.3.2. Humour
Humour was included in all the key components in the form of amusing images, objects and
audio-visual documentaries and stories that engaged the children emotionally, as indicated
by their reactions, facial expressions, and body language. According to Rossi (2015),
humour is a catalyst for children’s classroom learning as it maintains their attention. It is not
only an opportunity for learning but also produces other positive results such as letting
children feel energised and alert. It helps to release tension and is also a bonding experience
for a group. Humour makes the classroom more fun and affectionate. An atmosphere of
being at ease with the learning, of spontaneity, openness to the world, and clear enjoyment
in life and learning, was created, providing the platform for engaging with the topic through
joy. O’Conner (2012) pointed out that fun, pleasure and enjoyment are essential ingredients
in any activity if valuable and positive creative development is to occur, this will also foster
a love of learning.
6.3.3. Responsive teaching style
How children are taught is central to effective teaching, with poor quality teaching being one
of the main reasons why children disengage (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017). A responsive
teaching style impacted emotional and behavioural engagement in the enrichment program,
as indicated by the way children were paying attention, participating, and following
instructions. Christakis (2016) referred to the value of involving a warm, responsive
teaching style in a play-based, language-rich setting where the educator directs the child's
attention to the material and activities with enthusiasm, provides the children with a sense of
safety that will allow them to be curious and to explore, and scaffolds their learning with
encouragement, questioning, setting challenges, and giving feedback.
Jensen (1998) noted how a love of learning can be modelled, as qualities (compassion, joy,
kindness, respect, concern, etc.) of emotional engagement can be demonstrated by the
educator as learning through observation, and imitation is made possible by the mirror
neuron system, a neurophysiological mechanism. Haar (2006) stated that the adults in a
child's life are the most important role models as they serve as visible, influential models to
children. The enthusiasm of the teacher is “contagious” as children mirror the teacher. This
is supported by the biological perspective as according to PMSEIC (2009), by merely
observing the actions or behaviour of other people children are already learning. When
observing the actions of another, an ensemble of neurons is activated in the observer. The
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ensemble includes the same population of neurons that would be used if the observer were to
carry out the observed action, and are called mirror neurons (PMSEIC, 2009). The mirror
neuron system plays a critical role in social learning (Geake, 2009), an important aspect of
which is empathy, the capacity to understand the perspectives and actions, and be affected
by and/or share the emotional state and feelings, of another. Vygotsky (1978) also placed
importance on the value of imitation, considering imitation as one of the basic paths of
cultural development of the child.
The warm, responsive teaching style is embedded in a sense that child and educator are
exploring, discovering, and learning together. Schunk (2008) described the interaction
occurring between child and educator as reciprocal teaching rather than as scaffolding. It is a
dynamic, multidirectional interaction where both child and educator are learning.
The next indicator of interest that was discussed is cognitive engagement.
6.4. Cognitive engagement
The pre- and post-test results that determined knowledge of the topic gained, were utilised as
an indicator of cognitive engagement. The test results affirmed that the children gained
knowledge from the enrichment program, including a basic concept of the topic and
increased vocabulary. Cognitive engagement in the program was impacted by the following
nine factors:
● Children being in the sensitive period for language and vocabulary development;
● A well-designed, cognitively challenging curriculum providing an optimal level of
challenge;
● Children provided with cultural tools, the vocabulary to form a conceptual category,
and to communicate about the topic;
● Program content kept small, with limited amounts of interesting information shared;
● Concepts clearly defined and the learning purpose made explicit;
● Information categorised into a topic to help them make sense of the world;
● Terminology intentionally taught via repetition and modelled, and revision of
information presented as a variety of experiences;
● Multisensorial active learning, allowing students to use multiple learning styles and
recognising that learning is individualistic in character; and
● A dynamic program curriculum allowing the interests of the children to give
direction to the curriculum.
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Each factor was considered in turn.
6.4.1. The sensitive period of language and vocabulary development
The knowledge that the children gained from doing the program, a basic concept of and
terminology related to various topics as indicated by pre- and post-tests results, was an
indication of cognitive engagement. This affirmed Montessori’s (2007) belief that young
children are primed to learn as they have a natural desire to learn and work, constantly
looking for new and challenging things to do. They have remarkable learning systems and
will rather learn than simply be entertained or amused. This is an opportune time to
introduce children to new language as they are in the sensitive or critical period for language
and vocabulary development when they can pick up new words effortlessly simply by
hearing them. The Council for Early Childhood Development (2010) noted the sensitive or
critical period for language development peaks at 1 year and remains on a high level up till
the age of 2 years, when it slowly begins to decline. The effect of language-rich experiences
during this sensitive period will be unusually strong. This favourable time to engage in
learning experiences is known as learning windows. Nagel and Scholes (2016) described
learning windows as optimum times of neural maturation when the brain requires certain
types of stimulation to create or to stabilise long-lasting neural connections but point out that
later learning is still possible; it only becomes more laborious as the child grows older.
There is also no better time to enrich their vocabulary and language as now, in early
childhood. Nagel (2012a) pointed out that early childhood it is in fact a critical time for
children to master language and by their sixth birthday their conversational skills may be as
linguistically sophisticated as those of a 16-year-old.
A highly receptive brain state is also characteristic of very young children. According to
Jensen (2006), up to the age of 5 young children spend most of their waking hours in a theta
state, in which the brain is most receptive. Theta is the most receptive brain state, most
conductive for uncritical, undisputed downloading of information. Young children are
effectively downloading their culture and the world they are living in all day.
From the neurobiological evidence it is evident that young minds are primed for learning
and that this is the best time to teach young children new terminology and the language to
communicate about topics.
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6.4.2. Cognitively challenging curriculum
Despite the enrichment program being cognitively challenging, overall cognitive
engagement was high with more than 80% of all the children gaining knowledge of the
topics, some more than others depending on their abilities, as indicated by pre- and post-test
results. Vygotsky (1978) pointed out that learning is most effective when there is optimal
level of challenge. It is most likely to occur when an individual is presented with challenges
just beyond their current level of attainment, in what he referred to as the ZPD, the region of
just manageable difficulties where students can succeed, but often only with the support of
others (PMSEIC, 2009). Students engage with tasks they find interesting, challenging, and
important (Russell, Ainley, & Frydenberg, 2005). In the Curiosity Learning program, the
children were provided with interesting bits of information that challenged their ideas and
broadened their perspective. Although information was repeated, new pieces of information
were added to keep the program exciting and the children cognitively stimulated. The
children were introduced to material not usually associated with this age group but presented
in an age-appropriate way, in accordance with the definition of an enrichment program as
described by Bentley (2000). According to Jensen (2006), optimum enrichment is achieved
when the learning is new, challenging, and worthwhile. The ZPD was inhabited when the
program was challenging but not too difficult. The boundaries were continuously challenged
to find the tipping point, when it was “too much” information or too difficult. The signs of
behavioural disengagement such as not paying attention, looking away, not participating or
following instructions were easy to detect as the children became distracted when the
information was too difficult for them or not challenging enough. The educator had to be
aware of the signs of disengagement and adjust the program continuously, by changing the
component or accelerating the tempo of delivery.
The data provided evidence that all the children were learning and keen to learn, often
beyond what is expected of them, with high levels of interest in the various topics. It was
evident that young children should not be underestimated, whether in their ability to know,
their ability to experience wonder, or their ability to feel compassion. Christakis (2016)
claimed that the more she observed young children in action, the more trust she had in their
capabilities. She noted that young children are capable and powerful and that our
expectations are mismatched in that too little is asked cognitively. As the post-test results
indicated, the 4- and 5-year-old children were very capable of gaining knowledge and
understanding of the various topics. A culture of learning, where all valued learning, was
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established. This became evident as the children showed excitement about learning with
questions such as, “What are we learning about today?” Many parents were surprised at the
knowledge gained by their children as they did not expect their children to be capable of
learning at this level:
I was surprised that he knew what each structure was. He wants to tell me about
them. – Phoenix’s mother
Parents were also taken by surprise at the passionate interest that some children developed in
certain topics:
I cannot believe that my child is a walking information booklet on insects! –
Maison’s mother
This eagerness to learn connects with the predisposition to learn, one of the factors identified
by the science of learning (PMSEIC, 2009). The predisposition for children to make sense of
the world and of their place within it is a powerful driving force (Ormrod, 2011). Nagel and
Scholes (2016) pointed out that although our understanding of how the brain and the mind
works is limited, the capabilities of all children, regardless of age, can never be
underestimated. The great learning capacity of young children is shared by neuroscience,
pointing out that a 3-year-old has greater neural connectivity and almost twice as many
synaptic connections as an adult (Nagel, 2012a), and by Montessori (2007), who stated that
children have an inborn motivation to learn as well as “absorbent minds”, the ability to
unconsciously soak up information from their environment and learn at a rapid rate. She
believed that children are born to learn, and that they are remarkable learning systems.
Children diagnosed as ASD and cognitively impaired children who took part in the program
did not gain as much knowledge as the rest of the group, but there was evidence that some
learning did take place. One example was of a child diagnosed as ASD who, during the
Curious about Religions program, was spotted sitting in front of a sand construction he had
made with two sticks in the shape of a cross placed on it, “meditating” (see Figure 6.2).
Although it was not possible to evaluate his learning through the pre- and post-tests, it was
evident from his actions that learning had taken place.
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Figure 6.2. Meditating child.
6.4.3. Vocabulary and terminology
Cognitive engagement in this program was indicated by improved vocabulary and
terminology related to the topics, as determined by pre- and post-test results. The enrichment
program deliberately provided the children with cultural tools, new vocabulary, and
concepts, enabling them to talk about the topic, thereby improving cognitive engagement.
Cultural tools refer to objects, signs, and systems within communities that assist thinking
such as language, symbols, music, and art (Vygotsky, 1987), with language being the most
powerful cultural tool and an important way in which ideas and thoughts are shared and
meaning negotiated. The ability to think in words and to use language to express and
appreciate complex meanings developed linguistic intelligence (Gardner, 1983/2011).
Giving children access to these cultural tools allows them to make sense of their world
(Smidt, 2009). Johnston and Nahmad-Williams (2009) stated that there is strong
interrelationship between language and thought and that speech is a tool developed in a
social context which becomes a vehicle for thought. According to Schunk (2008), a critical
component of psychological development is mastering cultural tools such as language,
thinking through them, and ultimately using them to self-regulate thoughts and actions. Each
program introduced the children to the “language” of that topic, the terminology to describe
the topic and concepts within the topic, building word banks and extending comprehension.
Vocabulary was built around a domain of knowledge. Hein (1991) stated that there are no
rules in choosing the words that will be introduced to the children as one word is not more
important than another; context is, however, important where vocabulary is built around a
topic. Hein recommended teaching vocabulary by focussing on a topic or thematic unit as in
the case of the enrichment program as by hearing words in context, children attach deeper
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meaning to them and use them in other contexts. Children learn faster and more
independently when they are taught concepts that are related (Neuman & Wright, 2013).
This view connected very well with Curiosity Learning that builds vocabulary and
knowledge around topics.
Neuman and Wright (2013) proposed that words represent the tip of the iceberg. What
makes each word valuable are the facts, concepts, and the underlying rich network of
knowledge. Therefore, it is meaningful to cluster words and concepts into categories that
represent these knowledge networks. Duchesne and McMaugh (2016) pointed out that
language provides children with conceptual categories that help them to organise
information and make linkages between ideas, and with a means of regulating their thinking,
as Vygotsky (1987) proposed. This knowledge base allows them to remember, elaborate,
and organise new knowledge more readily. The value of providing children with new
vocabulary to facilitate communication, new concepts, and ideas to help them share thoughts
and emotions and engage with and interpret their world, is well documented. Language is
crucial in children’s development as they learn to think and articulate (Nagel & Scholes,
2016).
6.4.4. Program content
Program content had a great impact on cognitive engagement as programs with smaller
content had better cognitive engagement than programs with large content, as indicated by
pre- and post-test results. With larger program content there was less time to revisit the
concepts and consolidate learning. According to Duchesne and McMaugh (2016), teachers
have the capacity to shape students’ motivational experiences and engagement by virtue of
the lessons and tasks they set. The focus of the enrichment program was not on providing
large amounts of information, but rather on presenting small amounts of interesting
information, just enough to spark curiosity. New material should be presented in small steps
to address the limitations of working memory, according to Rosenshine (2010).
6.4.5. Learning made explicit and concepts clearly defined
Making the learning purpose explicit is one of the identified age-appropriate pedagogies
(DET, 2017). Learning was made explicit in the Introduction component of the program
which included a display, the identification of pre-existing concepts, and a clearly defining
topic and new concepts. Cognitive engagement improved when concepts were clearly
defined in terms of what a concept is as well as what it is not, as indicated by pre-and post-
test results.
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6.4.6. Categorisation of information
In this program, categorisation was used to classify concepts together under one topic, for
example, the concepts of spiders, scorpions, and ticks were all chunked under the topic of
arachnids, giving students a clear concept of arachnids. Making sense of the world by
“patterning” and “chunking” information together is identified as an important factor
contributing to learning, as deep learning occurs when children can recognise patterns in
information and grasp underlying big ideas (PMSEIC, 2009). Hardiman (2003)
recommended providing children first with big-picture ideas and then breaking the ideas into
connected concept chunks that relate prior knowledge to new information, helping them to
make sense of their world as the brain makes substantial use of categories. Categorisation
occurs naturally because of the brain’s organisational dynamics (Adams, 2015). Adams
described a category of prior knowledge as “mental Velcro,” giving relevant words places to
stick and helping them to makes sense.
Nagel and Scholes (2016) defined chunking or categorisation as a strategy whereby different
pieces of information are put together into one piece. Ormrod (2011) pointed out that young
children are predisposed to make sense of the world and of their place within it. This
predisposition is a powerful driving force as seen in the way young children ask a lot of
questions that reflect their desire to make sense of their world and expand on their
understandings. Hardiman (2003) described the brain as constantly searching for meaning to
make sense of the mountains of sensory input it continually processes. This process of
searching for meaning is known as patterning where the brain categorises stimuli into
concepts that are either familiar or novel and then combines these concepts to create new
patterns of thinking and understanding the world. When children are presented with new
information, the brain uses prior knowledge as a filter to establish meaning and relevance.
According to Duchesne and McMaugh (2016), chunking leads to the development of
schemas, or linked network of knowledge and ideas.
Having a knowledge based is an important factor that shapes learning (PMSEIC, 2009). The
different topics or categories of information in the enrichment program represented a broad
knowledge base on which future learning and understanding of the world can be built.
6.4.7. Repetition versus novelty
Repetition and revision were found to be key to cognitive engagement as indicted by pre-
and post-test results where concepts that had been repeated more often were recollected
better. A study by Pinkham et al. (2011) found that children are likely to learn the words
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they hear the most. The majority (80%) of 4-year old children successfully remembered a
new word only after 24 repetitions. Not all words need 24 repetitions, but Pinkham et al.s’
research suggested that children need more encounters with new words than previously
suspected. For significant learning to occur, ideas need to be revisited, pondered, tried out,
played with, and used (Hein, 1991). Ideas and concepts in the enrichment program were
revisited repeatedly via the different key components, connecting with the constructivist
view (Hein, 1991) that learning is not instantaneous. Stimulating experiences in the school
and at home activated certain connections and repetition consolidated these connections.
While the focus of the session was on a specific area, other areas were continually revised. A
cognitive principle identified by Rosenshine (2010) is that a lesson should begin with a short
review of the previous learning as this can strengthen it. From a neurological view,
repetition strengthens synaptic connections and stronger connections mean better neural
connectivity (Nagel, 2012a). Young children enjoy repetition and will seek repetition of the
same stimuli many times over (Gettman, 1987; Montessori, 2007). It is evident from the
research that repetition of concepts led to better retention, but too much repetition without
new material can be boring, leading to disengagement. Habituation occurs when something
has been done or seen so often that we don’t notice it anymore (Fadell, 2015). Although
previous sessions were repeated and revised, each session included new and novel material
or a new bit information allowing an image to be seen differently, to combat habituation.
Novelty or new information kept the children engaged. By finding a balance between
repetition of concepts and the inclusion of novel material, cognitive engagement in the
enrichment program was optimised.
6.4.8. Multisensorial active learning
In this enrichment program, cognitive engagement was enhanced by presenting the same
information as a variety of experiences via multisensory learning utilising the key
components. Duchesne and McMaugh (2016) pointed out that information-processing
research on cognitive development applied in the classroom includes providing multiple
experiences with a concept and exploring it from various angles, as this will help students to
remember and to develop deeper understanding. According to Medina (2008), learning will
be enhanced if information is presented via different senses. Active processing in working
memory is a prerequisite for storage into long-term memory and exposure to similar objects
and events in different contexts allows the concept to be elaborated (PMSEIC, 2009). Goss
& Sonnemann (2017) highlighted active learning as a critical part of effective teaching and
learning. Unless students have opportunities to speak, problem solve, and work with others,
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they may disengage. Learning is enhanced if information is presented via different senses
(Medina, 2008). Even though the notion of “learning styles” is popular, there is strong
evidence, according to May (2018), for using different learning strategies rather than
aligning instructional techniques to individual learning styles. She argued that people have a
strong sense of their own learning preferences such as visual, kinaesthetic, and auditory, but
it is less clear that these preferences matter, as most students use multiple learning styles.
Curiosity Learning is a multisensorial program that utilises active learning and different
learning strategies, allowing students to use their personal learning preference.
6.4.9. Dynamic curriculum
The program curriculum was well-planned with the knowledge, terminology, and concepts,
as well as certain skills needed to engage in meaningful activities, providing a “cultural
toolkit” as described by Vygotsky (1978). The curriculum content was kept open and
dynamic, allowing the interests of the children to give direction to the curriculum. The
curriculum was therefore a means to engage the students and to get them interested in a way
that was personally and socially productive as concepts could be elaborated upon and
questions could be answered. Asking the children before the program what they knew about
the topic and asking them after the program what they would like to know about each topic,
helped to determine the direction of the learning, connecting with the Vygotskian concept of
the ZPD implying that the educator needs to know what the children can do or know. The
teacher needs to know two levels of learning for a child: what the child can do now and what
the child can do with support (Nagel & Scholes, 2016).
In conclusion: The factors impacting holistic engagement have been identified: seven factors
that impact behavioural engagement; three factors that impact emotional engagement, and
nine factors that impact cognitive engagement. Although they are individually described,
they are all connected, as behavioural engagement will influence emotional engagement and
cognitive engagement and vice versa. Engagement is also connected to the second indicator
of interest, curiosity, which was discussed next.
6.5. Curiosity
Curiosity is the second indicator of interest, as being curious and taking an interest are
similar, the difference being that interest encompasses curiosity. Curiosity tries to answer a
specific question and is often satisfied when the question has been answered, whereas
interest is broader than a mere curiosity, it entails searching for lots of information
(Hidi,2016). For example, curiosity and questions about the moon can develop into an
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interest in astronomy. The indicators of curiosity are an increased awareness of the topic and
an eagerness to talk and to ask questions about the topic. The research findings indicated that
participation in the Curiosity Learning program had an overwhelmingly positive effect on
the level of curiosity that the children showed towards the various topics. Curiosity is key to
learning because it sparks interest which allows for learning. Being curious and eager to
know is a naturally rewarding feeling (Brewer, 2015) and a person never stops being
curious, according to Hopkins, Craig, and Knight (2016). Curiosity is vital to developing
interest: as Robinson (2013) stated, curiosity is the engine of achievement, driving human
life; if the spark of curiosity can be lighted in a child, they will very often learn without
further assistance. According to Robinson, children will learn when they are in an education
system that engages them and their curiosity. Medina (2008) viewed curiosity that develops
into interest as the most vital part of learning.
Curiosity was influenced by three factors in this enrichment program: it was sparked by
information; it was fostered by play provocations in a play-rich school environment; and
parental involvement nurtured it with real-life experiences.
6.5.1. Sparking curiosity with information
In this research, curiosity was sparked via intentional teaching using an enrichment program
which included several key components providing information that generated curiosity as
indicated by the asking of questions. Although children are viewed as naturally curious,
curiosity needs a spark, as observed in the research when the children became interested in
the topic after being exposed to it. According to Loewenstein (1994), curiosity is aroused by
unexpected information or events that reveal gaps in one's knowledge. Curiosity-inducing
stimuli leads to an information-gap from which curiosity arises spontaneously. The
information-gap implies that awareness of an information gap is a necessary precondition for
experiencing curiosity. Thus the failure to understand what one does not know would
constitute a barrier to curiosity.
Prior knowledge was determined by asking the children what they know about the topic,
allowing connections to new knowledge to be made as effectively as possible. Stamm (2007)
described curiosity as the brain’s need to make sense of every new experience; therefore, the
program offered children new information and experiences which they needed to make sense
of. Engagement with the various components of the Curiosity Learning program was the
first step toward developing curiosity and interest. The 15- minute session, Part A of the
program, provided information and experiences that sparked their curiosity.
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6.5.2. Providing play provocations in a play-rich environment
Curiosity was nurtured by providing the children with a play-rich environment which
included cultural and natural objects and play provocations and by incorporating the parents
in the learning process. According to Jirout and Zimmerman (2015), children have a natural
curiosity about the world around them and are keen to investigate their environments. A
play-rich-environment was provided, that is, the combination of providing a stimulus via
intentional teaching and setting out a range of provocations. Figure 6.3 illustrates how the
combination of a stimulus (Part A of the enrichment program that provides information that
sparks curiosity), as well as provocations in the form of natural and cultural materials made
available (Part B of the enrichment program), provided the groundwork for a play-rich
environment and high-quality play.
Figure 6.3. Play-rich environment as the product of a stimulus and provocations.
Black (2014) pointed out that children do not have to be pressed to play and learn, they only
need to be given the tools. In this study the enrichment program provided the ‘cultural tools’
needed to play. Engagement is dependent on creating a good learning environment (Goss &
Sonnemann, 2017). The educator should create a culture-rich environment for children by
providing materials for open-ended exploratory play as well as providing modelled and
purposefully framed opportunities (Edwards, 2017). Bruner (1996) described how a child’s
environment directly influences how and when they develop skills and recommended setting
up an environment for them to explore and solve problems in an authentic, meaningful
Stimulus
(Information)
Provocations
(Cultural & natural objects)
High-quality play
Play-rich
environment
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context with the adult as guide and facilitator. This idea of a play-rich environment
connected with Vygotsky’s view (2004) that the richer the child’s world and experiences,
the richer their imagination will be, because experience provides the material from which
imagination is constructed.
After the 20-minute session which provided the children with new ideas and concepts, the
children could process what they had learnt through play, the acting-out phase of the
program. Smidt (2009) said that the educator must plan and resource activities. Although
play provocations were set out, the children took the initiative in their play. A transfer of
control of learning to learner took place, reflecting the role of the teacher in Vygotsky’s
theory: to assist children to develop understandings and to regulate their own learning, rather
than to tell them or demonstrate to them what they are required to know. Play occurred in a
play-rich environment filled with cultural and natural objects and play provocations related
to the topic and chosen to cultivate curiosity. This connected with active processing, one of
the factors identified as essential to learning by the Prime Minister's report (PMSEIC, 2009).
Themes in play aligned with the program topics, indicating that learning and play were
integrated. Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga (2008) supported the notion that pedagogies that
integrate play and learning are needed in the early years of schooling. Personal play
preferences were observed as children were compelled to take part in a certain kind of play
depending on their personal needs: they were motivated by things that interested them
personally (Ainley, 2006). An example of personal play is therapeutic play; this might be
observed in freeing a whale from a net or having a funeral for a dead insect, connecting with
Vygotsky’s notion that children are able to enact capacities within their play that they cannot
yet sustain outside of their play (Chaiklin, 2003). What the children had learnt in the
program was expressed and explored in high-quality play experiences. The characteristics
indicative of high-quality play include that it is voluntary and spontaneous; active and
enjoyable; adventurous and exciting; social and interactive; therapeutic; symbolic;
meaningful; and allowing children to become deeply absorbed and focused (NCCA, 2009).
Play is a natural conduit for creative curiosity and one of the clear consequences of
establishing curiosity is heightened awareness, expressed in the different forms of play:
dramatic, exploratory, manipulative, creative, and active. Table 6.2 provides a snapshot of
the types of high-quality play observed in each cycle. In each cycle a range of cultural and
natural objects and play provocations were provided.
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Table 6.2. Types of Play in Topics of Inquiry
Dramatic:
role play,
pretending
Exploratory:
magnifying
glasses
Manipulative:
puzzles,
threading
Creative:
art, craft
Active:
physical,
dancing
Cycle 1
Countries x x x x
Trees x x x x
Space x x x x
Cycle 2
Insects x x x x
Flowers x x x
Birds x x x
Cycle 3
Dinosaurs x x x x x
Structures x x
Arachnids x x x
Dramatic, exploratory, manipulative, creative, and active high-quality play were observed in
the various themes of play directly related to the topic. The children showed remarkable
creativity in their play with symbolic use of props representing high-level play that
contributes to literacy development. Play also provided opportunities for conversations
between educator and child. According to the teachers, this part of the program allowed the
children to ask questions, to wonder why, to explore, and to act. It gave the educator the
opportunity to address questions, to give directions and instructions, to engage children in
discussions, to address interests and personal issues, and to inspire compassion. Meaningful
symbolic, imaginative, and therapeutic play provided opportunities for mental tools to be
passed from adults to children. According to Bergen (2001), high-quality play contributes to
cognitive development in the early years. The high-quality play that was observed is an
indication that the children were observing, keenly investigating, experimenting, immersing
themselves, exploring, experiencing freedom, and making sense of what they had learnt and
their world. In doing this they were engaging cognitively, emotionally, and socially,
nurturing curiosity and developing interest.
6.5.3. Nurturing curiosity through parental participation
Curiosity was promoted by involving the parents in the learning. Briggs and Potter (1999)
stated that all parents need to know how they can become effective co-educators of their
children. Parents, family, and social support have a major influence on how children
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perceive learning and what their attitude is towards learning, according to Porter (2005).
UNESCO views families as the child’s first educators, saying they have the greatest
influence in shaping young children’s attitudes, values, behaviours, habits, and skills, and as
such, they have a central role to play in educating their children (Pramling Samuelsson &
Kaga, 2008). Parental participation represented the application phase of the program. Parents
could contribute by sharing cultural or natural objects with the group or providing their
children with real-life experiences via the activity booklets. The activity booklets had the
purpose of: informing the parents about what the children were learning; provided activities
that they could do together such as structured activities, for example, drawing the moon over
a period of two weeks activities in nature such as bird spotting; and suggestions for further
explorations.
By sharing relevant information on each topic, continuity of learning was supported as
parents could become learning partners. The activity booklets gave them information on the
topics that allowed them to have a dialogue with their children.
The most important aspect of the enrichment program is the booklets because it
shows the parents that children are ready to learn as well as what they can learn.
The booklets build bridges between parents and the school. Children are now
teaching their parents and families. – TT2
Parental reaction to the activity booklets was overwhelmingly positive, describing the
activity booklets as a worthwhile, age-appropriate resource that encouraged the home and
school connections. Comments made by parents regarding the activity booklets reflected this
sentiment:
The activity booklets were very worthwhile. They are a great resource for parents -
encourages home and school connections. – James’s mother
The booklets are a great way to go through the things that they are shown at Kindy.
The booklets give good little bits of information to trigger what was discussed with
the kids in class. – Ellie’s mother
Although not all the parents completed the activity booklets, those who did said that it was a
positive shared learning experience.
I think the booklets are interesting and it’s like your special time with your child. He
gets so excited when I go through it with him. – Jay’s mum
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The activity booklets were optional; approximately one third to half of the booklets were
completed. Some of the parents stated that they did not have the time to complete them.
Please know that the only reason the booklets were not completed was because I am
a single mum of four and I also work full time. I think this is a great program and
Adan has learnt a lot. – Adan’s mother
I think the program was great. However, I feel guilty now that I didn’t make more of
an effort with the booklets. But our discussion and what he learnt and enjoyed was
fantastic. –Jay’s mother
Two parents said that their children diagnosed as ASD were incapable of doing some of the
activities in the booklets. Suggestions were made to the parents of doing the activities that
they felt their child was capable of. They could still point out birds, insects or flowers to
their child even though it may appear to them that their child was not responding. The rest of
the parents said that their child enjoyed completing the activities and that the activities were
not too advanced for them to do with the help of their parents. None of the parents thought
that learning about the different topics was a waste of time or that it was not their job to
teach their children at home. Other parents were surprised that their children showed an
interest in topics that they may have considered advanced, such as structures, religions, or
space. The positive learning experience was extended to other family members such as
grandparents. Parents and children benefit from joint involvement in the education process,
according to Briggs and Potter (1999). As learning partners, parents do not have to have all
the answers as they can discover and learn with their children. According to Armstrong
(2010), any truly meaningful learning experience benefits both parents and child and parents
can also learn from their children. Viewing educators as learning partners connects with
Vygotsky's (1978) view that building a culture of learning is important.
Parents in the program were encouraged to be open to new learning experiences. According
to Glauert et al. (2007), taking advantage of incidental opportunities for learning and
encouraging children to think can help reinforce connections between learning and everyday
life. By being curious themselves, parents provided their young children, who are natural
imitators, with a good role model. Awareness of potential learning experiences in daily
living and providing children with authentic, real-life experiences will enrich their
understanding of concepts and extend the breadth and depth of their interest. This connects
with active processing. Wolfe (2001) confirmed that a concrete experience is one of the best
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ways to make strong, long-term neural connections. Real-life, authentic experiences engage
more of the senses and use multiple pathways to store, and therefore more ways to recall,
information. Ormrod (2011) suggested that parents provide opportunities for first-hand
observation and experimentation. Although children can discover many characteristics of the
world on their own by observing, interacting, and experimenting with objects around them,
their actions are guided by parents so that the children can interpret their observations
appropriately and connect them to scientific concepts and principles.
In summary, three factors that impact curiosity were identified: curiosity was sparked by
providing information; nurtured by play provocations in a play-rich school environment; and
encouraged via parental involvement. Although these factors are individually described, they
are all connected as curiosity development influences behavioural, emotional, and cognitive
engagement, and vice versa.
6.5.4. Conclusion
After three comprehensive cycles of the design-based research process, factors that impacted
engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) and curiosity as indicators of interest
have been identified and examined. The following tables provide an overview of the factors
that had an impact on interest in the enrichment program. Table 6.3 provides a summary of
seven factors that have an impact on behavioural engagement in the enrichment program as
indicated by body language, attentiveness and participation.
Table 6.3. Factors Impacting Behavioural Engagement
Factors
Behavioural
engagement
The ability of the
teacher and teaching
material to harness
attention
All key components of the enrichment program
were able to harness the attention of the children;
however, components providing a visual mode of
learning were more effective than components with
only an auditory mode of learning
Understanding
structure and
expectations of the
program
By explicitly stating the learning goals and
explaining the classroom procedure, learning is
improved (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017)
Duration of the
session
Sessions were kept brief, taking into consideration
the limited attention spans of young children. A 10-
15-minute session, followed by a 5-10-minute art-
based activity, was found to be age appropriate and
realistic
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Number of key
components
By utilising a range of key components in each
session, information could be processed through
multiple senses, differentiating instruction, and
facilitating multisensory learning
Optimal
engagement per
component
An optimal engagement time for each component
after which engagement began to decline was
determined in the enrichment program
Momentum of the
session
Behavioural disengagement occurred when the
momentum of the session was broken by a
technological problem, by distractions, or by
lengthy discussions
Addressing
disengagement
Three courses of action effectively addressed
disengagement in the enrichment program:
accelerating the tempo of the session, changing the
key component, or discontinuing the session
Table 6.4 provides a summary of three factors impacting emotional engagement in the
enrichment program as indicated by facial expressions, reactions, and body language.
Table 6.4. Factors Impacting Emotional Engagement
Factors
Emotional
engagement
Emotional
connection
with the topic
Children engaged emotionally with a topic when they
experienced emotions such as compassion for a topic.
Emotions are vital to learning as children only think
deeply about things they care about (Immordino-Yang,
2015).
Humour Humour was used with positive effect to engage the group
emotionally.
Responsive
teaching style
Emotional engagement is impacted by the ability of the
teacher to direct the child's attention to the material and
activities with enthusiasm and to provide the children with
a sense of safety that will allow them to be curious and to
explore and scaffold their learning with encouragement,
questioning, setting challenges, and giving feedback
(Christakis, 2016).
Table 6.5 provides an overview of nine factors impacting cognitive engagement indicated by
pre- and post-test results that determined basic understanding and vocabulary of the topic.
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Table 6.5. Factors Impacting Cognitive Engagement
Factors
Cognitive
engagement
The children were in
the sensitive period
for language and
vocabulary
development
The sensitive or critical period for language and
vocabulary development is an opportune time to
introduce children to new language (Nagel, 2012),
thereby increasing cognitive engagement
A cognitively
challenging
curriculum providing
an optimal level of
challenge
Vygotsky (1978) pointed out that learning is most
effective when there is an optimal level of
challenge. It is most likely to occur when an
individual is presented with challenges just beyond
their current level of attainment (ZPD).
Children were
provided with the
vocabulary to form a
conceptual category
and to communicate
about the topic
Language (vocabulary) provided children with
conceptual categories that helped them to organise
information and make linkages between ideas
(Smidt, 2009). Language is the most powerful of
all cultural tools and is an important way in which
ideas and thoughts are shared and meaning
negotiated (Vygotsky, 1987).
Program content was
kept small with small
bits of interesting
information
Small program content allowed concepts to be
revisited, consolidating learning. Interesting bits of
information generated interest, impacting cognitive
engagement.
Concepts clearly
defined, and learning
purpose made explicit
Learning purpose was made explicit in the
Introduction component of the program. Clearly
defined concepts promoted understanding and
cognitive engagement.
Categorisation Concepts were categorised under a topic.
“Chunking” information contributes to learning
when children can recognise patterns in
information and grasp underlying big ideas
(PMSEIC, 2009).
Repetition versus
novelty
Concepts that had been repeated more often were
recollected better. Although information was
repeated, new bits of information were added.
Inclusion of novel material combated habituation.
Multi-sensorial active
learning
Repetition was not necessarily the same stimulus,
but the same information presented as a variety of
experiences via multisensory learning.
Dynamic curriculum
The program curriculum was kept open and
dynamic allowing the interests of the children to
give direction to the curriculum, thereby further
promoting cognitive engagement.
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Table 6.6 provides an overview snapshot of three factors impacting curiosity as indicated by
themes in play, questions asked, and statements made.
Table 6.6. Factors Impacting Curiosity
Factors
Curiosity Sparking curiosity The Curiosity Learning program generated
curiosity in various topics by providing
interesting information.
Curiosity was nurtured
by play provocations in
a play-rich school
environment
A play-rich environment filled with cultural and
natural objects and play provocations
complementing the program was instrumental in
cultivating curiosity and developing interest
Parental involvement
that nurtured curiosity
with real-life
experiences
Parental involvement promoted via activity
booklets enabled parents to become learning
partners and had positive impact on curiosity
The various factors impacting emotional, behavioural, and cognitive engagement as well as
curiosity should not be viewed in isolation, but rather regarded as connected, having an
impact on each other and on interest. The process of interest development within the
enrichment program is described in the following section.
6.6. The process of interest development
The process of how interest developed in this enrichment program, based on findings made
in the previous chapter, is described (see Figure 6.4).
Interest was initiated by social interaction, the “active ingredient” (MCEETYA, 2008) in the
process. Educators were learning partners as well as role models and the interaction between
the children as they played together, shared knowledge and solved problems, also played a
role in the process. Via interaction between educator and child, each key component of the
program was delivered, promoting engagement and generating curiosity. Through
intentionally teaching terminology and concepts, the “language” of the topic was key to
communication and interesting information generated curiosity. Curiosity was nurtured by
providing cultural and natural objects within a play-rich environment. With the aid of
parental involvement, interest developed as it shifted from being extrinsically to being
intrinsically motivated.
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Figure 6.4. Process of interest development.
Children who had a basic understanding of the topic and the terminology to talk about the
topic (a cognitive category), as well as feelings about the topic (an emotive category),
attained what is referred to as a “conceptual category” for the topic. This led to a greater
awareness, exploration, and learning as a positive cycle of learning was created. Each
conceptual category was key to learning and contributed to the development of an overall
Worldview
Awareness Learning Exploration
Interest
Cognitive - emotive
conceptual category
Positive
cycle of
learning
Intrinsically motivated
interest
Cognitive category
Enrichment program
Engagement Extrinsically motivated
interest
Social Interaction
Emotive category
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worldview. This process represented interest development within the enrichment program;
the research does not, however, make the claim that the described process is applicable to
other learning situations. The described process is open to further refinement and
development with different learners and within different contexts. Each aspect of the process
of interest development will now be discussed further.
6.6.1. Social interaction
Social interaction formed the basis of learning in this enrichment program as each
component of the program was delivered through social interaction. Children’s knowledge is
constructed through social and cultural experiences with teachers, family, friends, and others
(QSA, 2006). This was indicated by the educator facilitating the learning through a
responsive teaching approach. Each key component of the program was delivered through
social interaction. Without the educator, there may not have been an enrichment program.
This explains to an extent why merely giving a child a book or placing them in front of a
documentary film will not be enough to spark interest. The child’s engagement in
relationships is the active ingredient for brain development (MCEETYA, 2008). This
connected with constructivist thinking that learning is a social and interactive experience
(Schunk, 2008), with Vygotsky's view that all learning is social (1978), and with
Montessori's (1988) belief that it is the role of parents to provide children with the right
stimulation during the first few years of life. According to the latter, the responsibility to
teach lies not only with the teachers, but all educators, parents, and teachers need to sow the
seeds of interest. Kuhl (2008) also stressed the importance of social interaction in learning,
claiming that young children benefit from strong, nurturing relationships with adults that
encourage them to be curious about the world around them. Parental involvement in the
research was identified as a factor impacting curiosity. Nagel (2012a) stated that the most
important factor related to cognitive development is that children in the earliest years of life
require safe and secure environments and need to be surrounded by positive, loving
relationships. Epstein (1996) confirmed that the role of parents is important and a significant
factor in educational success and school improvement. Adults have, according to Lindon
(1993), the power to make a major difference to children's learning by what they offer
children and by how they view their role as parents. Social interaction was therefore at the
basis of this enrichment program and a key finding of the research, as it facilitated the
learning and interest development.
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6.6.3. Enrichment program
Curiosity and interest needed a spark. In this research, curiosity was sparked by providing
children with interesting information via the key components of the enrichment program.
Each key component had the potential to spark interest, as curiosity and interest could be
sparked by large realistic images of flowers, the Image component, or by authentic flowers,
the Object component (see Figure 6.5).
.
Figure 6.5. Object and Image components sparking interest.
Within each key component, attention was focussed on the topic, encouraging behavioural,
emotional, and cognitive engagement. The program provided children with “cultural tools”
(Vygotsky, 1978), the vocabulary and basic concepts of each topic that allowed them to
share ideas and thoughts and negotiate meaning. Each program introduced the children to
the language of that topic, the terminology to describe the topic, and concepts within the
topic, building word banks and extending comprehension. By introducing them to the basic
ideas that give life and form to any topic at an early age, interest can be generated, giving
them good starting points for learning. The new concepts and ideas provided the children
with the groundwork, allowing for them to be revisited and built upon in later learning. Oral
language is the foundation underpinning literacy development (DET, 2017). Alexander
(2012) stated that oral language must be actively taught. The children acquired “mature
concepts” (Vygotsky, 1987) as everyday events and the scientific merged, helping them to
navigate the world. This was the ideal time to introduce children to new language as they
were in the sensitive or critical period for language and vocabulary development, a time
when they can pick up new words effortlessly simply by hearing them. The Council for
Early Childhood Development (2010) had noted the sensitive or critical period for language
development peaks at 1 year of age and remains on a high level until the age of 2 years,
when it slowly begins to decline. The effect of language-rich experiences during this
sensitive period was strong, an opportune time to engage in learning experiences (known as
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learning windows). From a neuro-biological perspective, learning windows are viewed as
optimum times of neural maturation when the brain requires certain types of stimulation to
create or to stabilise long-lasting neural connections. Later learning is still possible, it only
becomes more laborious as the child grows older (Nagel and Scholes, 2016).
Focussing and paying attention was regarded as the first step to encoding new information
and was directly linked to engagement. Dewey (1913) proposed that capturing interest
begins with seizing attention and capturing imagination. There are different ways of being
engaged: behavioural engagement such as paying attention and following instructions;
emotional engagement as demonstrated through reactions and cognitive engagement such as
actively thinking about the information (Fredericks et al., 2004). Engagement with the
enrichment program was influenced by various factors. Behavioural engagement was
impacted by six factors, including the duration of the session and the optimal engagement
time with each component; emotional engagement was impacted by three factors, including
the emotional connection that the children make with the program; and cognitive
engagement was impacted by nine factors, including repetition and revision and providing
an optimal challenge.
Although children are viewed as naturally curious, curiosity needed a spark if it were to
develop into interest. In this research, the enrichment program provided that spark, a key
finding. Although each component had pedagogical value and the potential of sparking
curiosity and interest, it is in combination that the strength of the program lay, as the same
information was presented as a variety of experiences via multisensory learning. The key
components were used in multiple combinations to support learning. Children were initially
extrinsically motivated by the educator but, as interest developed, they became more
intrinsically motivated.
6.6.4. From extrinsic to intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation should be the goal in education at every level (Duchesne & McMaugh,
2016). Nagel and Scholes (2016) described extrinsic motivation as a type of motivation that
is facilitated by using external rewards of punishment while intrinsic motivation is
motivation that is the product of an internal state or desire such as excitement or curiosity.
An intrinsically motivated child therefore does something for enjoyment; they enjoy
learning. They explore because it as an opportunity to learn something and there is great
enjoyment in that (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Pink (2009) stated that it is often not rewards and
punishments that motivate individuals: The carrot-and-stick approach works for simple
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tasks, but for creative work that requires rudimentary intellectual skills, higher incentives
can lead to worse performance. What motivates is intrinsic motivation, the deeply human
need to direct our own lives, to learn and create new things, and to improve ourselves and
our world. Intrinsic motivation is impacted by autonomy, the desire to be self-directed; to
get better at what we do and be part of something larger than ourselves. Intrinsic motivation
has also been linked to the theory of flow, which Csikszentmihalyi (2008) described as a
state where children are motivated and focussed on the activity itself, not on any rewards.
They may become so absorbed in the activity that they lose track of time. A child interested
and fascinated by a topic can become captivated and engrossed in the topic to a point which
is referred to as flow. Kellogg (2006) describes flow as a state of consciousness when the
individual is highly absorbed in the task and loses awareness of immediate surroundings. A
high level of intrinsic motivation is therefore associated with the achievement of flow.
Being intrinsically motivated is related to the basic human need of experiencing autonomy,
as described in Deci and Ryan’s (2000) self-determination theory. All humans, including
young children, have the desire to be determined by their own action and not the force of
others. When they are intrinsically motivated, they exercise their own will. Autonomy-
supportive teachers will foster that intrinsic motivation, allowing students to make personal
choices and direct themselves.
Interest is a motivational force as it moves from being extrinsically motivated to being
intrinsically motivated. Barish (2012) pointed out that interest is motivational as it leads to
exploration and learning. Interested children are more open to new experiences and have a
greater desire to explore the topic than uninterested children. As the level of curiosity and
interest increased in the enrichment program, the children became more intrinsically
motivated to explore and discover. Initially, they were extrinsically motivated by the
educator (which incorporates the modelling factor) to take part in the program and in the art-
based activities, but as they became interested in the subject, their actions became
progressively intrinsically motivated as indicated by play themes, linking back to
Vygostky’s (1978) view that a child’s cultural development appears first on the social level
then later on the individual level. Ryan and Deci (2000) described an intrinsically motivated
person as one moved to act for the fun or challenge rather than because of external prods,
pressures, or rewards. Intrinsic interest in a topic leads to the development of a conceptual
category. It is a key finding in this research that initially the children were extrinsically
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motivated by the educator, and as they became interested in the topic, their actions became
progressively intrinsically motivated.
6.6.5. Cognitive-emotive conceptual category
Intrinsically or self-motivated interest was referred to in this research as having a conceptual
category for a subject, as represented in Figure 6.6. Intrinsically motivated interest requires
the existence of a cognitive-emotive conceptual category. A conceptual category indicated
that the child has a basic concept or an understanding of the topic (cognitive category) as
well as feelings related to the topic (emotive category). A conceptual category was therefore
defined as intrinsically motivated cognitive-emotive interest. As the definition revealed, a
conceptual category consists of both a cognitive category and an emotive category. The
cognitive category is the existence of a basic concept of the topic – the language and
terminology related to the topic, also known as a schema. The emotive category is the
existence of emotions such as compassion or a feeling of wonder and curiosity regarding the
topic. This connected to Paul’s (2013) description of interest as both a cognitive and
affective state, calling it a “knowledge emotion”.
Figure 6.6. Cognitive-emotive conceptual category.
In this research the children were shown images of various types of reptiles, for example: a
snake; a crocodile; an alligator, a lizard; a gecko; a chameleon, a turtle; and a tortoise. This
allowed them to form a cognitive conceptual category for reptiles. Through stories and short
documentaries, they were encouraged to develop a sense of compassion towards reptiles,
Emotive category
Feelings/emotions
Curiosity
Cognitive category
Critical language
Basic concept & terminology
Intrinsically motivated interest
Cognitive-emotive
Conceptual category
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thereby forming an emotive conceptual category. Intrinsically motivated cognitive-emotive
interest can be compared to schemata, or units of knowledge, within which knowledge is
stored. Modern schema theory (Anderson, 1984; Rumelhart, 1980) as described in the
literature review, states that all knowledge is organised into units or schemata, creating a
cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information. Schemata provide a
knowledge base for new information that falls within an individual's schema to be easily
remembered and incorporated into their worldview, while new information that does not fit
into a schema may not be comprehended and is often ignored or forgotten. However, when
the new information cannot be ignored, existing schemata must be changed, or new
schemata must be created. Meaningful clusters of words and concepts create a self-teaching
device that supports independent learning (Neuman & Wright, 2013), becoming a schema
that helps children make sense of and store new words. For example, when words such as
bee, fly, butterfly, ant, stick insect, and praying mantis are presented in a meaningful
semantic cluster, the children made generalisations as they understood that they are all
insects with common features. Pritchard (2005) stated that it is adding of items to schema
and connecting them to other items that constitutes constructivist learning. There is no limit
to the size to which a schema might grow. The more connections there are within and
between schemas, the more construction has taken place, the more knowledge and
understanding has been gained, and the more learning has taken place.
The concept of a cognitive-emotive category differs from a schema as a cognitive-emotive
category implies knowledge but also emotions and intrinsically motivated interest.
Therefore, an individual may have a schema, but that schema does not necessarily imply that
the individual is intrinsically interested in the topic. For example, an individual can have
knowledge related to reptiles but no real interest in reptiles. Having a schema or some form
of knowledge is, however, a requirement for having a cognitive-emotive category, as it is
impossible to develop interest without knowledge. A cognitive-emotive category also differs
from extrinsic interest in that the children’s interest has not merely been caught but held.
Dewey (1913) said that catching a child’s interest is fleeting, while holding the interest is
more enduring. Dewey calls it “genuine” interest where the individual finds himself or
herself following a course of action, having moved from extrinsically to intrinsically
motivated interest. In this research interest moved from fleeting to genuine and extrinsically
motivated interest became self-motivated.
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The development of interest functions within Vygotsky's (1978) ZPD as it aims to close the
gap between potential and actual level of development. Vygotsky (1978) refers to the actual
developmental level as the buds of development and the potential level of development as
the fruits of development. These “fruits” can mature within the ZPD if given the support of
more competent others. This enrichment program generated interest that had the potential of
growing into a cognitive-emotive conceptual category. Without knowledge, the interest
cannot grow. A conceptual category provided children with starting points for learning
because it is properly located in the ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978), therefore offering the
appropriate challenge so the young person can learn. As demonstrated in the project,
children who had developed a conceptual category for garden birds were therefore
positioned for learning and taking notice of the birds in their environment, allowing new
knowledge in and creating a positive cycle of learning.
Although most of the children in the research project showed increased interest and
developed conceptual categories in every topic, interest varied with some children finding a
topic very compelling while another topic may leave a child only slightly interested. Why
one topic interests one child and not another is probably related to individuality. Even
though neuroscience is continually developing and finding new ways of understanding
interest, there is still something elusive and mysterious about personal taste and interest.
What became evident was that young children should not be underestimated in their ability
to show interest in a topic, as indicated by parental reactions. Although the development of
intrinsically motivated interest and a cognitive-emotive conceptual category cannot be
predicted with accuracy, children cannot become interested in something they know nothing
about; therefore, the role of educators is to provide children with the opportunities to
develop interest. For interest to develop further it must be nurtured in small and varied steps.
The rest is up to the child.
6.6.6. Awareness, exploration, and learning
Flowing from a conceptual category is awareness, exploration, and learning. Raised
awareness leading to exploration and learning was noted in play: children, after learning
about arachnids, became very aware of them, going on explorations to find spiders and
webs, asking questions along the way. Parents reported on how their children’s awareness
about the topics had increased:
Abbey has enjoyed the program very much. It has made her more aware and she
talks about what she has learnt. – Abbey’s mother
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Knowledge is a vital component of awareness as prior knowledge influences perceptual
interpretation. What a child knows influences what they see. Long and Toppino (2004)
described the “can’t-unsee” phenomenon as a visual stimulus that has been interpreted in a
certain way; it will continue to be interpreted in the same way every time the stimulus is
encountered. Children with no knowledge of something, for example of a bird, will not be
aware of the birds in the environment. Clark (2013) described the "bidirectional hierarchical
network model’ of the brain. Based on the knowledge it has, the brain makes predictions of
what it expects to see. This expectation is fed through the cortex to the eyes, influencing
what is seen and the cortex is changing the raw visual stimulus before it even reaches
consciousness. Therefore, awareness created by a cognitive-emotive conceptual category is
key to learning. With knowledge and interest raised, awareness and the opportunity to learn
is facilitated. A curious and interested mind can look beneath the surface at what is hidden
from most. For example, all children see flowers in their environment but if they are not
curious about flowers, they will not really “see” them. They may look but they will not see.
A child with heightened curiosity and interest has a heightened sense of awareness leading
to exploration and learning. Awareness increases the potential of new knowledge being
absorbed, creating a positive or virtuous cycle of learning. A cognitive-emotive conceptual
category is therefore key to awareness.
6.6.7. Cycle of learning
The interest generated in the enrichment program led to more awareness, exploration, and
learning about the topic, creating a virtuous cycle of learning, a cycle of recurring events
that benefit each other. Interest was therefore key to learning. Silvia (2006) referred to a
virtuous cycle stating that the more we know about a topic, the more interesting it becomes.
According to Silvia, learning leads to questions being asked which in turn leads to more
learning. Figure 6.7 illustrates how interest raises awareness; awareness leads to new
knowledge; new knowledge further raises interest, further increasing awareness and
allowing more knowledge to flow in.
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Figure 6.7. Cycle of learning.
Source developed from Silvia (2006)
eslie’s (2014) description of the value of creativity is also a virtuous cycle: curiosity and
creativity are not killed by facts; the opposite is true as the more children know, the more
they want to know and more connections are made between different bits of knowledge
generating more idea, the wellspring of creativity. In this research interest was sparked by
small bits of interesting information. Large amounts of information had the effect of
disengaging the children. A balance of delivered, explored and acquired information was
required. A culture of learning (Vygotsky, 2004) is built by providing an environment in
which questioning and seeking answers are embedded.
Key to understanding the cycle of learning is that it begins with knowledge. Providing
knowledge and conceptual categories to young children is incredibly important as, without
knowledge, children cannot become interested in something. Quintero (2017) advocated
teaching rich and challenging content, as knowledge is the foundation for acquiring more
knowledge. In this research it was evident that language is a powerful mental tool needed to
develop interest and awareness. The focus in this research was on teaching knowledge about
a wide range of interesting topics in the early years, thus creating a knowledge base, one of
the important factors identified that shape learning as developing deep understandings of
concepts, principles, and key ideas assists children to structure knowledge and to make sense
of new information (PMSEIC, 2009). Words and concepts act as a scaffold allowing
children to slot new information in the correct “place”.
Awareness
Knowledge
Interest
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Willingham (2009) stated that the more one knows, the easier it is to learn new things.
Knowledge grows exponentially: the more one knows, the easier it is to learn and the more
one learns each year, the more one will learn by the next (Hirsch, 2015). Students with more
topic-relevant knowledge understand more, learn more, are more critical of information,
make better inferences, and can apply their knowledge better (Adams, 2015). Adams went
on to say that relevant knowledge is even more important than general reading ability, with
poor readers with high background knowledge performing better that good readers with less
background knowledge. This connected with Vygotsky’s (1987) view that as children
develop language, they build a symbolic system helping them to understand the world.
Children’s thinking develops because of their social knowledge or language as they learn to
communicate, form thoughts, imagine, and become more consciously aware. Language has a
social function initially, providing a means for interacting with others, but as language skills
increase, it begins to serve an intellectual function, a tool for problem-solving and self-
regulation. Language becomes a powerful mental tool. The opposite effect of the virtuous
circle is also inevitable. Hirsch (2015) refers to the effect of accumulated advantage
described by the adage “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer,” saying that children
who do not have topic-relevant knowledge fall further behind.
6.6.8. Worldview
Each conceptual category in the research provided the children with ideas and feelings
regarding a topic and together, the scope of conceptual categories contributed to ideas and
feelings regarding the world as a whole. Establishing conceptual categories leads to the
development of a worldview, a network of information helping children to understand and
navigate the world. The individual’s worldview is the mind’s operating system, a network of
knowledge. Lima (2015) suggested that the old concept of a branching tree, the Porphyrian
tree of knowledge, be replaced with a new metaphor, a network of knowledge, as networks
embody notions of decentralisation, interconnectedness, and interdependence. Networks
consist of a complex structure of conceptual categories, a pattern of ideas that form a basic
concept or understanding of a topic as well as a level of interest in the topic. Each
conceptual category, consisting of a pattern of ideas, differs in size and complexity. The
greater the understanding and interest in a topic, the greater the size and complexity of the
category. Providing a child with a worldview, a network of ideas and feelings regarding
many topics influences the way they see the world.
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The network of knowledge is dynamic as with each new idea and each new conceptual
category the network of knowledge grows. The central message of each topic in the
Curiosity Learning program was compassion towards all living things and a sense of wonder
and awe, thereby promoting a compassionate world view. In the research negative
perceptions towards insects, arachnids and reptiles were changed and a compassionate view
was adopted by the children. It became clear that compassion could be taught. This echoes
what is being taught in Denmark where schools prioritise teaching empathy and consider it
as important as teaching math and literature (Salon, 2016). Mau (2004) stated that
everything matters when connectivity is understood. This compassionate worldview
connects with Montessori’s cosmic vision of human life, that children are stewards of the
Earth and that children are also encouraged to see humanity as part of a global family.
Children can be taught a reverence for life, of seeing themselves as part of the web of life,
dependent on the delicate balance within the natural world for their existence and needing to
treat every living thing with care (Seldin, 2007).
6.7: Conclusion
This chapter discusses the research findings from three cycles of design-based research
where interest in a range of topics was explored within an enrichment program. The research
discussion firstly described the factors impacting interest in the enrichment program as
indicated by engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) and curiosity and secondly
the process of interest development within the program. A range of factors had an impact on
engagement and curiosity, providing strategies and evidence-based techniques, most of
which can be leveraged to enhance interest.
Table 6.7 provides a summary of the process of interest development within the enrichment
program, commencing with social interaction, the first step, and ending in a worldview.
Table 6.7. Process of Interest Development
Steps
Process Social interaction Interest development was initiated by social interaction
Enrichment program
(information)
Children were provided with “cultural tools”
(Vygotsky, 1978), the vocabulary and basic concepts
that allowed them to share ideas and thoughts and
interesting facts that sparked curiosity
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From extrinsic to
intrinsic motivation
Initially the children were extrinsically motivated by
the educator, which incorporates the modelling factor,
but as they became interested in the topic, their actions
became progressively intrinsically motivated
Cognitive-emotive
conceptual category
Intrinsic self-motivated interest is referred to as having
a conceptual category for a subject. A conceptual
category consists of both a cognitive and an emotive
aspect.
Awareness,
exploration, and
learning
Curiosity and interest raised awareness which led to
exploration and learning
Cycle of learning Interest leading to awareness increased the potential of
new knowledge be absorbed, creating a virtuous cycle
of learning
Worldview As children gain conceptual categories, they develop a
worldview, a network of information helping them to
understand and navigate the world
It is evident that social interaction formed the basis of learning in this enrichment program
Curiosity was sparked from the onset as knowledge was shared in the form of interesting
facts and terminology. Language was a powerful mental tool needed to develop interest and
awareness. Initially the interest was extrinsically motivated by the educator but as children
became interested in the topic, their actions became progressively intrinsically motivated.
Cognitive-emotive conceptual categories, knowledge and interest of topics developed,
raising awareness which led to exploration and learning. A cycle of learning, of which
interest is one of the three key components, was created, contributing to a culture of learning
as described by Vygotsky (2004). The answer to the question of where interest is situated in
the learning process is clear. Interest is situated centrally to the learning process, a key factor
in creating a learning culture.
Chapter 7 will concludes the research project and provide recommendations regarding
practice, policy, and further research initiatives.
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Chapter 7: Conclusion and Recommendations
7.1. Introduction
Advances in the science of learning, incorporating psychology, education, and neuroscience,
provided an opportunity for developing a learning platform that drew upon this knowledge.
Advocacy for considering how emerging knowledge from the science of learning might
enhance the learning potential of individuals had been at the forefront of recommendations
from The Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council (2009). For a
decade, the council had recommended that programs and resources be developed to assist
parents to take a proactive approach to their children’s early learning, to take advantage of
the sensitive periods for developing skills, and to prepare them for formal education. More
recently, a Grattan Institute report (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017), called for policy reforms
recommending that all teachers be provided with practical tools and evidence-based
techniques and strategies to create the learning climate and to identify triggers for student
disengagement, so they can adapt and improve their approaches Student engagement had
also recently been positioned as an important outcome in the newly developed Australian
school performance framework (Commonwealth of Australia, 2018). Engagement matters
because when students are engaged in class, they learn more (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017). In
direct response to these recommendations, this study explored student interest by designing
an enrichment program for the early years, taking advantage of the sensitive periods for
developing skills. The overarching research question that guided the research was: How does
participation in an enrichment program impact student interest in the early years? Interest
was explored in terms of engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) as well as in
terms of curiosity. The research question was explored by considering two sub-questions:
What factors have an impact on student interest in the early years?
How does interest develop in the enrichment program in the early years?
The research process went through four phases which can be summarised as follows:
7.2. The four phases of design-based research
In Phase 1 the problem was identified: that educators were not taking full advantage of the
sensitive period for learning that young children are in as they are not being provided with a
broad knowledge base and interest in a range of topics. In consultation with teachers it was
found that time constraints made it difficult for them to plan programs that promote interest
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and that they did not have a clear understanding of what factors impacted interest
development. The aim of the research was therefore the design, evaluation, and refinement
of the enrichment program through multiple cycles of design-based research. The
enrichment program promoted interest development in a range of topics, allowing student
interest to be explored. Interest in this research was evaluated by viewing the following two
indicators of interest: engagement (cognitive, behavioural, and emotional); and curiosity.
Insight into the process of interest development and where it is positioned within the
enrichment program as well as an understanding of what factors impact engagement
provided evidence-based techniques and strategies for educators.
The last step in this phase was the literature review. It reviewed an educational, biological,
and psychological perspective on learning and interest. The educational perspective
considered the Montessori approach and Vygotsky’s social development theory; the
biological perspective took neuro-education into consideration; and the psychological
perspective incorporated Gardner’s (1983/2011) multiple intelligences, providing a holistic
view of the enrichment response.
From an educational viewpoint, young children have remarkable learning systems: an inborn
motivation to learn and “absorbent minds” with the ability to unconsciously soak up
information from their environment and learn at a rapid rate (Montessori, 2007).
Montessori's philosophy of education and Vygotsky's social development theory provided a
constructivist educational perspective on learning and a framework for developing an
enrichment program that promotes interest. Nine principles of the Montessori approach – the
absorbent mind, the importance of the early years, the prepared environment, sensitive
periods, multisensory learning, repetition, the role of the parents, the role of the teacher, and
a cosmic vision of human life – were considered in the design of the enrichment program.
Five principles of Vygotsky's social development theory also make a valuable contribution
to understanding learning: learning is viewed as social; cultural tools are vital to successful
learning; learning takes place through experience; consideration needs to be given to many
modes of learning; and the importance of the zone of proximal development. Although
differences exist between the two approaches, they both made valuable contributions to an
understanding of learning in the early years. The viewpoints of Montessori and Vygotsky
regarding the development of interest are not mutually exclusive and were integrated to form
a broader understanding of the development of interest within an enrichment program.
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From the biological perspective it was evident that young brains are primed for learning with
synaptic formation in the prefrontal cortex at its highest in the early years and young
children being in the sensitive period for language development. The advances in
understanding of the psychology of learning, as well as the neuroscience underpinning the
mechanisms for learning, identified 11 factors contributing to learning: early intervention;
attention and engagement; curiosity and interest; motivation; active processing; mirror
neurons; existing knowledge base; making sense of the world; repeated exposure; optimal
level of challenge; and optimum learning times (PMSEIC, 2009), that were incorporated into
the enrichment program.
From a psychological perspective, the multiple-intelligences model (Gardner, 1983/2011)
provided a reference for types of enrichment that can occur. A holistic view of the
enrichment response implied that a holistic view of the enrichment program curriculum was
taken. Gardner believed that each child has a unique personal blend of all the intelligences
and the capacity to develop them all. Enrichment can be logical-mathematical, linguistic,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and
existential. This research however used this model primarily as it pluralizes teaching with
important materials being taught in multiple ways. Children are provided with multiple ways
to access content and with multiple ways to demonstrate their knowledge and interest.
In Phase 2, a framework for the enrichment program was established: the curriculum, the
teaching approach, and key components of the program.
The broad-based, content-rich curriculum included arts-based components as well as
inquiry-based components. Fifteen topics of inquiry were utilised in the research: Flowers;
Trees; Birds; Arachnids; Reptiles; Amphibians; Mammals; Continents; Countries; What’s
inside my Body; Art; Structures; Religions; Dinosaurs; and Space. Topics of inquiry aimed
to enrich existing curricula, promoting interest in a wide range of topics, providing children
with many starting points for learning and a big picture of the world, enhancing their sense
of connectedness and enabling them to make sense of the world. As interest has a cognitive
component as well as an emotive component, the content shared in each topic also had a
cognitive and an emotive aspect. On a cognitive level, interesting information, terminology,
and a basic concept of the topic were shared, and on an emotive level, the central message of
every topic was compassion and a sense of wonder and awe.
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An intentional–constructivist teaching approach was utilised. A constructivist perspective
was well suited to the design of the enrichment program, building on Vygotsky’s and
Montessori’s ideas about how children’s thinking develops. To address the limitations of the
constructivist approach – the lack of structure, the lack of a planned curriculum, and the fact
that young children lack prior knowledge – intentional teaching, based on an information-
processing approach that incorporates contemporary insights into learning, was included into
the conceptual framework of the program. This provided a well-balanced, intentional-
constructivist teaching approach. Research in the early childhood sector had largely
established that play-based learning alone is insufficient for supporting children’s
acquisition of content knowledge (Edwards, 2017). Despite the Australian Early Years
Learning Framework (DEEWR, 2009) acknowledging that teachers use both play-based
learning and intentional teaching with young children, in practice intentional teaching can
appear to be at odds with play. Curiosity Learning conceptualises the pedagogical
relationship between intentional teaching and play-based learning, connecting with the
Pedagogical Play framework (Edwards, 2017) as well as the Age-appropriate Pedagogies
(DET, 2017).
Guided by the educational, biological, and psychological perspectives, the key components
of the program were determined: Introduction; Images; Objects; Audio-visual
documentaries; Audio-visual stories; Music; Drama; Books; Art -based activities; Play; and
Parental participation (see Chapter 3). A sequential model of the components was used in
the project. The first part of the program, intentional teaching, commenced with the
Introduction component, followed by multiple possible combinations of the key
components: Images, Objects, Audio-visual documentaries, Audio-visual stories, Music, and
Drama, delivered explicitly during a short session and concluding with an Art-based
activity. The second part of the session, play-based learning, consisted of Play, a reading
session later in the day, and Parental participation which facilitated meaningful real-life
experiences between parent and child with the help of activity booklets. Engaging parents as
a notion and a strategy is based on the assumption that parenting matters (MCEETYA,
2008). The same concepts were revisited through a range of experiences and contexts
(school and home) via the key components.
Design-based research was chosen as the methodology for this study because of its distinct
focus on determining how a learning environment design affects learning and interest.
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Phase 3 of the design-based research consisted of three iterative cycles during which the
program was implemented, data collected, the program evaluated in terms of interest, and
the program refined (see Chapter 5). The research was conducted over a 3-year period
during which insight was gained into factors that have an impact on engagement and
curiosity, the indicators of interest. Reflection on what worked and what didn’t work for
students informed teacher practice and the gradual improvement cycle was key to effective
engagement and learning. The outcomes of this research were derived from three types of
data: questionnaires provided to parents; pre- and post-tests done with children in the form
of researcher-child interviews; and observations obtained from video recordings,
photographs, and field notes. Behavioural and emotional engagement during the 15-minute
session was examined by using the overlaid engagement models of Gibbs and Poskitt (2010)
and Schlechty (2002) as a framework. Pre-and post-tests taken by the student participants to
determine knowledge gained were used as an indicator of cognitive engagement. Curiosity
was explored as expressed in play themes and via questionnaires provided to parents after
each topic.
Phase 4 reflected on the research findings as presented in Chapter 6, a discussion of the
factors impacting behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement as well as factors
impacting curiosity. The process of interest development in the enrichment program was
described. This phase also makes recommendations regarding educational practice,
educational policy, and future research initiatives in Chapter 7: Conclusion and
Recommendations.
7.3. Summary of research findings
The research findings addressed the overarching research question: How does participation
in an enrichment program impact student interest in the early years? After three
comprehensive cycles of the design-based research process, a unique enrichment program
for early years’ learners that takes advantage of the sensitive periods for developing skills
was designed, refined, and redesigned. The first sub-question: What factors have an impact
on student interest in the early years? was addressed. Factors impacting interest in the
enrichment program as indicated by engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) and
curiosity were identified. The research demonstrated that a range of connected factors had an
impact on engagement and curiosity, providing strategies and evidence-based techniques,
most of which can be leveraged to enhance interest. The second sub-question: How does
student interest develop in the enrichment program in the early years? was addressed by
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describing the process of interest development within the enrichment program,
demonstrating where interest is positioned within the process. The factors impacting
engagement and curiosity and the process of interest development will be discussed next.
7.3.1. Factors impacting engagement and curiosity
Engagement with the program, as the first indicator of interest, was explored and factors that
had an impact on behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement were identified.
Overall, the research findings regarding behavioural engagement were consistent with
research in this field. Factors such as the ability of the teacher and teaching material to
harness the attention of the children (Hardiman, 2003; Medina, 2008), understanding
structure and expectations (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017), and the length of the session (Bauer
& Wise 2009; Renninger & Hidi, 2002) are all well recognised in the field of education.
Other factors identified are not well-recognised, such as the number of key components
incorporated into a session, the optimal duration of each key component (Christakis, 2016),
maintaining the flow or momentum of the session (Doman et al., 1994), and addressing
disengagement effectively (Brewer, 2015; Christakis, 2016, Doman et al., 1994; Goss &
Sonnemann, 2017). Although these factors are not well-recognised notions, they align with
the educational, psychological, and biological rationales put forward. The factors impacting
emotional engagement in the program, such as the ability of the children to form an
emotional connection with the topic (Driscoll, 2005; Hardiman, 2003; Immordino-Yang,
2015; Meyer & Turner, 2006; Nagel, 2013; Paul, 2013; Stamm, 2008) and a responsive
teaching style where learning is scaffolded (Christakis, 2016; Geake, 2009; Goss &
Sonnemann, 2017; Jensen, 1998), are well recognised. The deliberate inclusion of humour in
the program (Rossi, 2015) is a less known technique but consistent with educational thought.
Overall, the research findings regarding behavioural engagement were consistent with
research in this field. Factors identified were: the children being in the sensitive period of
language and vocabulary development (Council for Early Childhood Development, 2010;
Montessori, 2008; Nagel & Scholes, 2017); a well-designed, cognitively challenging
curriculum providing an optimal level of challenge (Christakis, 2016; Jensen, 2006;
Montessori, 2007; Nagel & Scholes, 2016; Ormrod, 2011; PMSEIC, 2009; Russell, Ainley,
& Frydenberg, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978); the children being provided with cultural tools, that
is, the vocabulary to form a conceptual category and to communicate about the topic
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016; Hein, 2015; Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009; Nagel &
Scholes, 2017; Neuman & Wright, 2013; Schunk, 2008; Smidt, 2009); the program content
259
kept small (Rosenshine, 2010) with small bits of interesting information shared (Doman et
al., 1994); learning made explicit and concepts clearly defined (DET, 2017); categorisation
of information into topics to help them make sense of the world (Duchesne & McMaugh,
2016; PMSEIC, 2009); repetition and revision of information presented as a variety of
experiences (Begley, 2011; Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016; Gettman, 1987; Medina, 2008;
Montessori, 2007; Nagel, 2012; PMSEIC, 2009; Rosenshine, 2010); a multisensorial
program that utilises active learning and different learning strategies, allowing students to
use multiple learning styles (Goss & Sonnemann, 2017; May, 2018); and an open and
dynamic program curriculum allowing the interests of the children to give direction to the
curriculum (Churchill et.al., 2016).
The factors impacting curiosity, the second indicator of interest, also align with research in
the field. Factors such as curiosity needing a spark, in this research the enrichment program
(Jirout & Zimmerman, 2015; Stamm, 2007); curiosity being cultivated by play provocations
in a play-rich school environment (Ainley, 2006; Smidt, 2009); and parental involvement
which nurtured curiosity with real-life experiences (Briggs & Potter, 1999; Ellis, 2013;
Glauert et al., 2007; Haar 2006; Pramling Samuelsson & Kaga, 2008) are all well
recognised. The enrichment program provided a unique example of how such a spark was
provided and reiterated the positive impact of including the parents in the learning process.
The strength of this research lies in identifying and consolidating the many factors impacting
interest, some well-recognised, others not well-recognised and incorporating them into an
enrichment program that conceptualises the pedagogical relationship between intentional
teaching and play-based learning, providing a practical manifestation of the research.
7.3.2. Process of interest development
Exploring the process of interest development in the program revealed that interest was
integral to learning and a key factor in creating a learning culture. The research
demonstrated that interest in the enrichment program was initiated by social interaction. The
child’s engagement in a relationship with the educator was viewed as an important “active
ingredient” for brain development (MCEETYA, 2008), connecting with constructivist
thinking that learning is a social and interactive experience (Schunk, 2008), with Vygotsky's
view that all learning is social (1978), and with Montessori's (2007) belief that it is the role
of parents to provide children with the right stimulation during the first few years of life.
The interaction in the research was characterised by a combination of scaffolding (Bruner,
260
1996), reciprocal teaching (Schunk, 2008), and imitation (Zaretskii, 2009). The children
engaged behaviourally, emotionally, and cognitively with the Curiosity Learning program as
indicated by their participations, reactions, body language, and facial expressions and as
indicated by pre-and post-test results evaluating knowledge gained. The enrichment program
provided the children with cultural tools (Vygotsky, 1978) including the vocabulary and
basic concepts that allowed them to share ideas and thoughts and negotiate meaning and
interesting facts that generated curiosity. These mature concepts helped children to navigate
the world (Vygotsky, 1978), giving them a vehicle for thought (Johnston & Nahmad-
Williams, 2009) and mental tools that control intellectual activity (Schunk 2008). Interest
development occurred at an ideal time as, at 4 and 5 years of age, these children were in the
sensitive or critical period for language and vocabulary development (CECD, 2010). As the
level of interest increased, the research revealed that the children become more intrinsically
motivated to explore and discover, as indicated by play and as reported by their parents.
Initially they were extrinsically motivated by the educator, which incorporates the modelling
factor, but as they become interested in the topic, their actions become progressively
intrinsically motivated. This intrinsic or self-motivated interest was referred to as a
conceptual category in this research, consisting of both a cognitive aspect – the critical
language, the terminology, and basic concept of the topic – and an emotive aspect, feeling
and curiosity towards the topic. As demonstrated in the research, intrinsically motivated
children explored a topic because they were really interested in it, they cared about it, and it
brought them joy. They explored because it was an opportunity to learn something and there
is great enjoyment in that (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Flowing from heightened interest was a heightened sense of awareness leading to
exploration and learning. This raised awareness was consistently demonstrated in the
research as indicated by the questions children asked and the statements made, and as
reflected in their play. Moorjami (2006) stressed the importance of awareness, as without
awareness shining a beam of light in the dark, children can live unaware of the world filled
with wonder around them. Awareness led to new knowledge being absorbed, which
heightened interest, raising awareness even further, creating a positive cycle of learning. The
more children know about a topic, the more interesting it becomes as learning leads to
questions being asked, which in turn leads to more learning (Silvia, 2006). Knowledge is a
vital component of awareness as prior knowledge influences perceptual interpretation
(Clark, 2013; Long & Toppino, 2004), linking back to the importance of providing children
261
with conceptual categories. The more children know, the easier it is to learn (Adams, 2015;
Hirsch, 2015; Willingham, 2009) linking to Vygotsky’s (1987) view that as children develop
language, they build a symbolic system helping them to understand the world. The
conceptual categories, knowledge, and interest generated by the enrichment program raised
awareness and increased exploration and knowledge, creating a virtuous cycle of learning.
The opposite is also true, as children who do not have topic-relevant knowledge fall further
behind (Hirsh, 2015).
The conceptual categories that the children developed contributed to their network of
knowledge. The central message of each topic in the Curiosity Learning program was
compassion towards all living things and a sense of wonder and awe, thereby promoting a
compassionate world view, connecting with Montessori’s cosmic vision of human life
(Seldin, 2007).
Viewed broadly, the research on interest revealed that much like a seed needing soil, water,
and light to grow, interest also required the presence of “active ingredients” to grow into
authentic interest, an intrinsically motivated cognitive emotive conceptual category.
● The first active ingredient identified in the research was social interaction. Learning
is a social and interactive experience during which the children are in a relationship
with the educator, characterised by scaffolding reciprocal teaching and imitation.
● The second active ingredient was challenging and emotive information that sparked
curiosity. In the research the enrichment program provided interesting facts, the
critical language of the topic, terminology, and concepts, allowing them to share
ideas and negotiate meaning as well as emotional stories that encouraged feelings of
compassion.
● The third active ingredient was a play-rich environment that included cultural and
natural objects and play provocations and real-life experiences provided within the
home environment.
These active ingredients formed the basis of developing intrinsically motivated cognitive-
emotive interest or a conceptual category, a concept introduced in this research. A
conceptual category consists of both a cognitive aspect – the critical language, the
terminology, and basic concept of the topic – and an emotive aspect, the emotion and a sense
of compassion felt towards the topic. The strength of this research lies in the conceptualising
of interest development within the program, positioning it as central within the learning
262
process and identifying it as a key factor in creating a learning culture. The research also
introduced the concept of a conceptual category, contributing to an understanding of interest
development.
7.4. Limitations
Limitations of this design-based research had to be addressed. The lack of a theoretical
framework is a limitation associated with design-based research (Dede, 2004). This
limitation was addressed by positioning the research in the multidisciplinary field of mind,
brain education (MBE) science, the coming together of three disciplines: psychology,
neuroscience, and education in educational neuroscience (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2010). The
issue of determining standards was addressed by identifying criteria to measure the
indicators of interest, namely: engagement (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive); and
curiosity. Behavioural and emotional engagement were examined by using the overlaid
engagement models of Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) and Schlechty (2002) as a framework. Pre-
and post-tests taken by the student participants to determine knowledge gained were used as
an indicator of cognitive engagement. Curiosity was explored as expressed in play themes
and via questionnaires given to parents.
Due to the iterative nature of the design-based research, this project was time consuming,
extending over many years. Fortunately, there was continued support for the project by the
staff at the research site and from the central governing body of Creche and Kindergarten
Association Limited (C&K). Problems in respect to data saturation (Brown, 1992) were
addressed by only doing an in-depth analysis of three of the five sessions in each phase.
Another potential limitation of the research was that the researcher was in the dual
intellectual roles of advocate and critic. The question was asked whether a researcher, so
closely associated with the process, can make objective assertions (Design-Based Research
Collective, 2003). Cobb et al. (2001) answered this question by pointing to the value of the
researcher as designer and researcher, stating that researchers should not be detached from
the research content as it is through deep understanding that knowledge is produced.
Reliability of findings and measures was furthermore promoted through triangulation from
multiple data sources and repetition of analyses across cycles of enactment.
There are limitations to the generality of this research as this was one research design
applied to this particular study. Interest development was only explored within this specific
enrichment program with findings regarding cognitive, emotional, and behavioural
263
engagement relating specifically to the program. Generalisability value was, however,
improved by not simply showing the ability of the enrichment program to promote interest
but by conceptualising the process of interest development within the program. By making
connections to theoretical assertions and claims that transcend the local context,
consequentiality, an essential criterion for determining the significance of the study, was
demonstrated. Design-based research was ideally suited for this type of project with the goal
of addressing an authentic problem in education.
7.5. Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, recommendations associated with educational practice,
policy, and research initiatives were made. The recommendations relating to educational
practice are professional development for educators regarding interest development in the
early years; recommendations relating to educational policy are that educators should be
taking full advantage of the sensitive period for learning that young children are in by
providing them with opportunities to develop interest in a broad range of topics; and
recommendations regarding future research initiatives into interest are directed at older and
younger children as well as adapting enrichment programs for special needs children.
7.5.1. Practice recommendations
In terms of educational practice, it is recommended that insights gained in the research be
shared via professional development. The Mitchell Institute (Lamb et al., 2015) made it clear
that the education system needs to recognise and include early childhood development as
essential and take the professional development of teachers, at all levels, much more
seriously. A Grattan Institute report also called for all teachers to be provided with practical
tools and evidence-based techniques and strategies to create the learning climate and to
identify triggers for student disengagement, so they can adapt and improve their approaches
(Goss & Sonnemann, 2017). Insight into factors impacting interest and how interest
develops will be of value to early childhood educators, enabling them to leverage interest to
effectively enhance teaching and learning practices with young children, thus promoting
interest. Insight into optimum periods of engagement with different components can be used
to guide other similar types of program development for a similar age group. Evidence-
based data are provided on how young children can be cognitively, behaviourally, and
emotionally engaged and their curiosity sparked, in a range of topics. Guidelines for
effectively addressing disengagement can be useful to teachers. The enrichment program
264
also provides an example of how interest development can be promoted in the early years
with key components of the enrichment program providing a framework for teachers to use.
Secondly, it is recommended that a shared online interactive educational resource be created
where educators can share ideas and activities that promote interest in a broad range of
topics. Educators will benefit from having access to an online resource where they can share
images, objects, links to audio-visual documentaries and stories, music, and ideas for art-
based activities and play provocations for different topics of inquiry. Sharing activity
booklets that promote parental participation will also be a valuable resource.
7.5.2. Policy recommendations
Based on the results of this research, where young children, aged four and five, were able to
engage behaviourally, emotionally and cognitively and develop interests in a broad range of
topics, the recommendation is made that educators should take full advantage of the
sensitive period for learning that young children are in by providing them with a broad
knowledge base and interest in a range of topics. Young children should not be
underestimated in their ability to be curious; to engage with a range of topics; to develop
interest in them; and to show empathy and compassion. Children are capable of learning and
questioning from a young age, and their exploration and questioning should be supported. It
is recommended that a paradigm be embraced where educators are cultivators of curiosity
and interest and early childhood educational programs are intentionally designed to provide
young children with opportunities to develop interests in a range of topics.
7.5.3. Recommendations regarding research initiatives
In terms of future research initiatives, this research focussed on pre-school children in their
pre-preparatory year, at 4 and 5 years of age, but the same framework for developing interest
can be explored with younger or older children. A call for research initiatives is also made
on how the enrichment program and framework for developing interest can be adapted to the
requirements of children with special needs. The process of interest development observed
within the enrichment program could be compared to future research on interest to
determine if the same process is observed. Developing a theory of interest development
would be something to aspire to over time.
265
7.6. Conclusion
This research was undertaken from the viewpoint that the early years of a child’s life are
very important for their future development (COAG, 2009), a critical period of intense
learning for children providing the foundation for later academic and social success
(Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015) and that programs and resources be
developed that take advantage of the sensitive periods for developing skills (PMSEIC,
2009). The research explored the overarching research question: How does student
participation in an enrichment program impact interest in the early years? A lack of
consolidated information regarding interest development in the early years was an identified
gap in early childhood education. Interest was explored in terms of engagement
(behavioural, emotional, and cognitive) and curiosity, thereby addressing the first sub-
question: What factors have an impact on student interest in the early years? The strength of
the research lies in identifying and consolidating the many factors impacting interest, and
incorporating insights into an enrichment program, a practical manifestation of the research.
The second sub-question: How does student interest develop in the enrichment program in
the early years?, was addressed by conceptualising the process of interest development,
positioning interest as central within the learning process and identifying it as a key factor in
creating a learning culture. By understanding the process of developing interest, teachers can
leverage interest to effectively enhance teaching and learning practices with young children.
This research provides a foundational step to enhancing teaching practices where generating
interest is viewed as key to learning, thereby improving the quality of early childhood
education.
266
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Appendices
Appendix A: Introduction component
Introduction component
Program:
Curious
about
What’s
Inside the
Human
Body
Display table
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Display and provocation table
283
Appendix B: Images component
Images component
Program:
Curious
about
Arachnids
Image: Red-back spider
Cognitive connection: The
Arachnid is a red back spider.
Notice the a red marking on his
back
Program:
Curious
about
Flowers
Image: Rose.
Cognitive category: A rose is a
flower
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Image: Triceratops.
Cognitive category: A triceratops is
a dinosaur with three horns.
Program:
Curious
about Art
Image: da Vinci’s Mona Lisa
dressed as Vermeer’s Girl with the
Pearl Earring. Emotive category:
This image was a source of
amusement as the children
understood that this picture was a
combination of the two famous
portraits.
284
Appendix C: Object component
Object component
Program:
Curious about
Insects
Object: Multiple-eye screen.
Cognitive category: Flies are
insects that can see very well with
their compound eyes. Emotive
category: Sense of wonder at the
natural ability of flies.
Program:
Curious about
the Human
Body
Object: Stethoscope. Cognitive
category: I have a heart inside my
body that continuously pumps blood
to the rest of my body. Emotive
category: A sense of awe of the
human body
Program:
Curious about
Continents
Object: Map of the world.
Cognitive category: Identifying the
seven continents. Emotive category:
Sense of achievement in being able
to identify a continent on the world
map
Program:
Curious about
Dinosaurs
Program: Curious about Dinosaurs
Object: Blow-up T-Rex. Cognitive
category: Tyrannosaurus Rex is a
dinosaur. Emotive category: A
feeling of excitement in learning
about Dinosaurs
285
Appendix D: Audio-visual documentary component
Audio-visual documentary component
Program:
Curious
about
Flowers
Focus area: Dandelions - Time-lapse of a
dandelion flower opening. Cognitive
category: Flowers change from closed
buds to open flowers. Emotive category:
The sense awe experienced in watching a
flower opening.
Program:
Curious
about
Structures
Focus area: Bridges - New Year
fireworks off the Sydney Harbour
Bridge. Cognitive category: The Sydney
Harbour Bridge is a famous structure.
Emotive category: Excitement
experienced form watching fireworks
from the Sydney Harbour Bridge.
Program:
Curious
about
Mammals
Focus area: Flying mammals - orphaned
baby bats being fed. Cognitive
connection: A bat is a mammal that
needs milk. Emotional connection: A
feeling of compassion towards baby bats
that need care.
Program:
Curious
about
Arachnids
Focus area: Spiders - a spider spinning a
web. Cognitive connection: A spider is
an Arachnid, spiders spin webs to catch
their food. Emotional connection: A
sense of wonder at the spider’s ability to
spin an intricate web.
286
Appendix E: Audio-visual story component
Audio-visual stories component
Program:
Curious
about
Insects
Focus area: Flies. Audio-visual
story: Minuscule: The private life
of insects. Cognitive category: Flies
are insects. Emotional category:
Humorous clip (fly stuck in
chewing gum) promoted emotional
engagement with the topic and a
discussion on the impact of
pollution
Program:
Curious
about Art
Focus area: Arcimboldo. Audio-
visual story: Soupe-Opera
animation using food to create
story. Cognitive category: The artist
Arcimboldo used to food to make
art. Emotive category: Humorous
clip promoted emotional
engagement with the topic.
Program:
Curious
about
Mammals
Focus area: Oceanic mammals
Audio-visual story: Animated story
Whale. Cognitive connection: Some
mammals such as Blue whales live
in water. Emotional connection:
The story of a sad whale
encourages compassion.
287
Appendix F: Music component
Music component
Program:
Curious
about
Religions
Focus area: Jewish Religion.
Musical activity: Dancing to Hava
Nagila a traditional Jewish song.
Program:
Curious
about
Countries
Focus area: Italy
Musical activity: Listening to ‘The Pasta
Song’ during an art-based activity with
pasta.
Program:
Curious
about
Continents
Focus area: Continents
Musical activity: The Continent Song is a
learning song, an educational tool to
teach the names of the continents.
Program:
Curious
about
Space
Focus area: Planets
Musical activity: “Planets,” by Vanessa
and Karina Johnston played in the
background during painting, drawing and
constructing planets.
288
Appendix G: Drama actions component
Drama Actions component
Program:
Curious
about
Insects
Focus area: Fly.
Action: Fly tongue.
Cognitive category: A fly has a
proboscis, a tubular mouthpart used
for feeding and sucking.
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Focus area: Triceratops.
Action: Triceratops horns.
Cognitive category: A Triceratops is
a dinosaur with three horns.
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Focus area: Diplodocus.
Action: Diplodocus long necks.
Cognitive category: A Diplodocus is
a dinosaur with a long neck.
Program:
Curious
about
Arachnids
Program: Curious about Arachnids
Focus area: Spiders
Action: Making spiders with 8 legs
Cognitive category: A spider is an
Arachnid with 8 legs.
The children are beginning to mimic the actions without being prompted, for
example when I showed them the image of a wasp they spontaneously put their hand
on their waists and said, ‘skinny waist’ and when we looked at the dragonfly image
they put their arms out to the side and to the back for the damselfly image. – TT1
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Appendix H: Drama role play component
Drama Role Play component
Program:
Curious
about Art
Focus area: Edvard Munch.
Activity: Pretending to scream as in Munch’s
The Scream. Cognitive category: Munch’s
‘The Scream’ is a famous artwork.
Program:
Curious
about
Structures
Focus area: Statue of Liberty
Activity: Pretending to be the Statue of
Liberty. Cognitive category: The Statue of
Liberty is a famous statue.
Program:
Curious
about
Space
Focus area: Space travel.
Activity: Pretending to be an astronaut.
Cognitive category: Astronauts travel into
space
Program:
Curious
about
Birds
Focus area: Willie Wagtail.
Activity: Pretending to be Willie Wagtails.
Cognitive category: Willie Wagtail is garden
bird.
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Focus area: Triceratops.
Activity: Face painting Triceratops horns.
Cognitive category: A Triceratops has three
horns
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Appendix I: Drama puppetry component
Drama Puppetry component
Program: Curious
about Dinosaurs
Activity: Presenting an
interactive musical
puppet show to the
children
Program: Curious
about Reptiles
Activity: Children’s
puppet show - The
children successfully
negotiated and
organised themselves
into an ‘audience’ and
‘puppeteers’, patiently
waiting to have their
turn telling a story
through puppetry. By
negotiating the rules of
play and delaying
gratification, self-
regulation was
observed.
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Appendix J: Books component
Books component
Program:
Curious
about the
Human
Body
Activity: Reading non-fiction
books to the group. Books with
engaging lift-the-flap pages,
with a pop-up 3D shapes and
even interactive books can be
highly engaging.
Program:
Curious
about
Insects
Activity: Reading fiction, The
Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric
Carle with story board. Books
were chosen that could be read
in one sitting of 5 to 10 minutes.
Program:
Curious
about
Dinosaurs
Activity: Age-appropriate
informative books such as this
one about dinosaurs were set out
as provocations.
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Appendix K: Art-based activities component
Art-based activities Component
Program:
Curious
about
Arachnids
Focus area: Spiders. Activity:
Daddy longlegs spiders finger
painting and drawing. Capabilities
developed: Fine motor skills
painting, (visual-spatial
intelligence) drawing 8 legs
(logical-mathematical
intelligence). Cognitive category:
A spider is an Arachnid;
Arachnids have 8 legs (linguistic
intelligence).
Program:
Curious
about
Insects
Focus area: Bees. Activity:
Making a beehive by painting on
bubble wrap and printing on
paper. Capabilities developed:
Fine motor skills painting,
printing (visual-spatial
intelligence). Cognitive category:
Bees are insects; Bees live in
hives (linguistic intelligence).
Program:
Curious
about
Birds
Focus area: nests. Activity:
Making a playdough nest with
eggs; drawing a feather.
Capabilities developed: Fine -
motor control, observational skills
(visual-spatial intelligence) and
counting eggs (logical-
mathematical intelligence).
Cognitive category: Birds lay
their eggs in nests.
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Program:
Curious
about
Structures
Focus area: The Eiffel tower.
Activity: Making a ‘Eiffel Tower”
by constructing a tower with
spaghetti and marshmallows.
Capabilities developed: Fine -
motor control and visual-spatial
awareness. counting (logical-
mathematical intelligence).
Cognitive category: the Eiffel
Tower is a famous structure.
Program:
Curious
about
Flowers
Focus area: Rose.
Activity: Deconstructing a rose by
removing the petals of a rose.
Capabilities developed: Fine-
motor skills, counting petals and
sepals (logical-mathematical
intelligence). Cognitive category:
A rose has petals and sepals;
Program:
Curious
about
Space
Focus area: Space travel.
Activity: constructing a rocket by
cutting paper and taping it to a
toilet paper roll.
Capabilities developed: fine -
motor skills (cutting and taping).
Cognitive category: Where space
is located; space travel.
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Appendix L: Play component
Play component
Program:
Curious
about Art
Focus area: Arcimboldo.
Provocation: Bananas were not an intentional
provocation, but unexpectedly they were
given symbolic meaning. Dramatic play:
Look at our ’Arcimboldo’ smiles.
Focus area: Edvard Munch’s “The Scream”.
Provocation: Balloons with the suggestion to
draw the “Scream” faces on balloons.
Dramatic play: The symbolic use of objects
represents high-level play that contributes to
literacy development
Focus area: Van Gogh’s “Starry Night”
Provocation: Black paper and white pencils
Creative play: Drawing ‘starry night’.
Program:
Curious
about
Religions
Focus area: Christianity.
Cognitive category: Christians attend a church
and the cross is the symbol for this religion.
Provocation: Sandpit and sticks. Constructive
play: I’m making a church with a cross on it.
Focus area: Buddhism.
Cognitive construct: Buddhists meditate to
clear their minds.
Provocation: None. Dramatic play: I am
meditating.
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Focus area: Islam.
Cognitive category: Muslims sometimes wear
headscarves. Provocation: Scarves and cloths
were provided. Dramatic play: We are the
Islamic cats!
Focus area: Judaism.
Cognitive category: The Star of David is the
symbol for the Jewish religion. Provocation:
Drawing materials. Creative play: Drawing a
house with many Stars of David on it.
Program:
Curious
about
Mammals
Focus area: Mammals in the sky (Bats).
Cognitive construct: Bats hang upside down
in trees. Provocation: Paper bats made in the
art-based activity. Dramatic play: Placing the
‘orphan’ bats in the tree. Demonstrating
empathy towards mammals through their
play.
Focus area: Mammals in the ocean (whales).
Emotive construct: Whales sometimes get
caught in fishing nets. Provocation: Container
with toy mammals (whales, dolphins,
walruses, seals, otters…). Dramatic play: I’m
helping this whale. He got stuck in a net!.
This play was therapeutic as she dealt with
concerns about whales being caught in nets.
Focus area: Mammals on land.
Cognitive construct: All mammals drink milk.
Provocation: Plastic gloves filled with water
that represent an udder.
Dramatic play: I’m milking a cow!
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Appendix M: Parental involvement component
Parental Involvement component
Program:
Curious
about
Birds
Activity booklet: I can spot a
Garden Bird!
Children were encouraged to
do birdwatching and to tick
off the birds they had spotted
in their booklets.
Program:
Curious
about
Countries
Activity booklet: I know a
Country from each Continent!
Children completed activities
such as drawing a mexican hat
on the Mexican and counting
the Italian man’s pasta.
Program:
Curious
about
Trees
Activity booklet: I can find a
tree!
Children are asked to collect
bits of each tree, for example
a gum tree leaf, and stick it in
the booklet. The booklet
contains ideas activities that
encourage parental
involvement such as, starting
a leaf and bark collection.
297
Program:
Curious
about
Arachnids
Activity booklet: I know what
Arachnids are!
Children were asked to draw a
Daddy Long Legs spider with
8 long legs, to give the
Redback spider a red back, to
give the scorpion 8 eyes and
to give the tick 8 legs
Program:
Curious
about
Mammals
At-home project on mammals
initiated by the parent.
Program:
Curious
about
Reptiles
A parent brought in a pet
lizard to share with the class.
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Appendix N: Permission to conduct research letter
Early Childhood Coordinator
C & K Caloundra Community Childcare Centre
10 Thrush St.
Caloundra
Qld, 4551
12 August 2013
Dear Mrs. Davis,
Permission to conduct research at the C & K ----------- Community Kindergarten
As mentioned in previous correspondence, I am undertaking PhD research with the
Griffith School of Education and Professional Studies (Gold Coast). We are developing
the Brain Filing Enrichment Program (BFEP) a neuroscience-based enrichment
program for the early years. This program aims to bring together the fields of
psychology, neuroscience and education and is situated within the multidisciplinary field
of Mind, Brain and Education (MBE) Science. The research is of intersectional value, as
it incorporates new knowledge about the brain, cognitive processing and human
motivation to develop a unique enrichment program. With the promising results of the
first phase we have decided to further develop the program and continue with the
research.
I hereby request permission to conduct a second phase of research at the C & K ----
Community Kindergarten during the second semester of 2013. Provisional ethical
clearance has been obtained from Griffith University: Human Research Ethics. The
Director of the School, Mrs. ----- has again indicated her willingness to partake in the
study pending approval.
The central focus of this enrichment program is the development of curiosity and
interest. Attention is gained using images that are large, attractive, true-to-life and
colourful and by involving emotions in the learning process. This use of large colourful
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and true-to-life imagery and the specific incorporation of emotions to enhance learning
is unique to this program. Parents are also encouraged to become learning partners.
I would like to do research within four more subject areas, namely 'Reptiles', 'Flowers',
'Art' and 'What's Inside my Body?' This will be conducted over a period of eight weeks
during Semester 2 (2013). There will be 5 sessions per subject, with each session
lasting for approximately 15 minutes. As in the first phase, parents will receive printed
material on the subjects and given suggestions on how to further cultivate their child's
curiosity. They will be asked to fill in a short questionnaire at the start and at the end of
the program. We once again appreciate that the Director of the school, Mrs Debbie
Nortje has indicated her willingness to partake in the study pending approval.
Please find attached for your perusal the Flower Booklet and the Questionnaire that will
be given to the parents at the start of the program. The Program and Photography /
Video Information Sheets as well as Consent Forms that will be given to the parents
have remained unchanged.
Thank-you for your time and consideration with this matter.
Yours sincerely,
Christa van Aswegen
300
Appendix O: Program consent form
The design and evaluation of an enrichment program for
early years learners.
PROGRAM CONSENT FORM
Who is conducting the research?
Principal researcher: Christa van Aswegen, PhD candidate: School of Education and Professional Studies.
Associate researcher: Prof. Donna Pendergast, Dean: School of Education and Professional Studies
By signing below, I confirm that I have read and understood the information sheet and in particular
have noted that:
● I understand that my child will take part in the Brain Filing Enrichment Program. This will occur
in class. Eight topics will be implemented during Term 3 and Term 4. Each session lasting
approximately 20 minutes;
● I understand that I will receive information on the program. This information will enable me to
continue with the program at home if I would like to;
● I understand that my involvement in this research will involve the filling in of a short
questionnaire at the beginning and at the end of the program;
● I understand that I will be expected to return the questionnaire to my child's school;
● I have had any questions answered to my satisfaction;
● I understand the risks involved;
● I understand that there will be no direct benefit to me from my participation in this research;
● I understand that all information given to the researcher is confidential.
● I understand that my participation and my child's participation in this project are completely
voluntary. I have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty or comment. I do not need
to answer every question in the questionnaire unless I wish to respond.
● I understand that if I have any additional questions, I can contact the research team.
● I understand that I can contact the Manager, Research Ethics, at Griffith University Human
Research Ethics Committee on 3373 55585 (or [email protected]) if I have any
concerns about the ethical conduct of the project.
301
● I agree to participate and to let my child participate in the project.
Name of child: __________________________________________
Date of birth of child: _________________________________________
Name of parent: __________________________________________
Signature: __________________________________________
Date: ___________________________________________
302
Appendix P: Photographic and video information sheet
The design and evaluation of an enrichment program for
early years learners
PHOTOGRAPHIC / VIDEO INFORMATION SHEET
Who is conducting the research?
Principal researcher: Christa van Aswegen, PhD candidate: School of Education and Professional Studies.
Associate researcher: Prof. Donna Pendergast, Dean: School of Education and Professional Studies
Why is the photography/video being conducted?
This is a PhD research where the application of the Brain Filing Enrichment Program (BFEP) in a
classroom setting will be assessed. The photography and video are being conducted to help the
researchers understand the learning that occurs in the classroom context. It will also help researchers
to assess the implementation and the effectiveness of the program and enable them to make changes
to the design or application of the program if needed.
What are you asked to do?
Parents are asked to please:
a) Fill in the photography/video consent form.
b) Return the consent form to the school.
Expected benefits of the photography / video recordings.
Photography/video recordings are a valuable source of information as they provide the researchers
with a way to study the implementation of the program as well as the interactions between the children
and between educator and the children. It is also hoped that some of these recordings may be used
more widely (such as extracts in a conference presentations, journal articles or books).
Risks to you
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The identity of the participants in the photos/videos will be known only to the research team.
Photographs and video recordings will be made of only of participants who have given prior signed
consent.
Confidentiality
Your confidentiality is highly valued. Only the Griffith University research team will have access to
these recordings. In such a case where a photo or a video recording of your child is used, your child's
name and identity will not be revealed. The possibility does however exist that your child may be
identified through the recordings. At completion of the research the recordings will be de-identified.
The recordings will be retained as a transcript alone does not capture all the data of interest, such as
the expressions on the children's faces, body language or the tone of voice used. They will be retained
for as long as they may also be useful for teaching or learning purposes, after which they will be
destroyed.
Your participation is voluntary
Your participation and your child's participation in the video/ photography part of this project is
completely voluntary. The video/photography recording process can be stopped, or you can
conveniently withdraw from the photography/video recording without penalty or comment. We
understand that cultural considerations may apply, and you may feel uncomfortable with the retention
of photographs or recordings. Your decision not to give photographic/video consent will in no way
affect your child's involvement with the program.
Questions / further information
If you have any questions regarding this research, please contact Christa van Aswegen on …
The ethical conduct of this research
Griffith University conducts research in accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
Human Research (2007). If potential participants have any concerns or complaints about the ethical
conduct of the research project they should contact the Manager, Research Ethics on 3373 55585 or
Feedback to you
If you would like to review the results of this study once completed, please do not hesitate to contact
me, Christa van Aswegen at …
Expressing consent
By completing the attached consent form, you will be deemed to have consented to your child being
photographed or filmed by the research team from Griffith University while partaking in the Brain Filing
Enrichment Program. You will have also indicated consent that these photos/videos may be retained
and form part of the report or any publication arising from the research in journal articles, books,
conference presentations or in the PhD thesis. Please detach this sheet and retain it for your later
reference.
Privacy Statement
The conduct of this research involves the collection, access and/or use of your identified personal
information. The information is collected is confidential and will not be disclosed to third parties without
304
your consent, except to meet government, legal or other regulatory authority requirements. A de-
identified copy of this data may be used for other research purposes. However, your anonymity will at
all times be safeguarded. For further information consult the University's Privacy Plan at on 37355585
or http://www.griffith.edu.au/about-griffith/plans-publications/griffith-university-privacy-plan or
telephone (07)3735
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Appendix Q: Information letter to parents
10 June 2015
Dear C&K Parents and Guardians,
Griffith University has been conducting ongoing research at C&K ---------- since 2013. We are implementing various topics of an enrichment program called the Brain Filing Enrichment Program with pre-prep students. This year will be the final year of the research. Your child’s class has been selected to participate in the program.
The main goal of the program is getting young children interested in various topics. We believe that interest is the key to learning because once children become interested in, for example Birds, they become aware of birds. This interest is referred to as having a “brain file”. Having a brain file is a good starting point for learning. Feedback from parents indicates that the program has been a positive learning experience for the children and the parents.
Please read the following as it will provide you with information about the research and address some
questions that you might have.
What is the name of the research? The name of the research is: “The Design and Evaluation of an
Enrichment Program for Early Years Learners”.
Who is conducting the research?
Principal researcher: Christa van Aswegen, PhD candidate: School of Education and Professional Studies.
Associate researcher: Prof. Donna Pendergast, Dean: School of Education and Professional Studies
Why is the research being conducted?
The Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council (2009) recommended that
programs and resources be developed to assist parents to take a proactive approach to their
children’s early learning, to take advantage of the sensitive periods for developing particular kinds of
skills, and to prepare them for formal education. In direct response to these recommendations, this
doctoral study is concerned with the design and evaluation of an enrichment program for early year’s
learners.
306
How will the program be implemented?
The program will be implemented over Term Three and Four. The researcher, Christa van Aswegen,
will present various topics such as Trees, Fish, Amphibians, Birds, Mammals, Countries, Religions and
Space. During each twenty-minute session your child will be shown large, true-to-life images, be
shown short video clips and partake in play-based activities.
Parents will also receive booklets on the subjects giving them ideas of things they can do with their
children to further develop their interest in each topic. Parents play an important role in the education
of their children.
What will I be asked to do?
Parents will be asked to please: a) Fill in the: a) program consent form, b) photography and video
consent form and return them to the school.
b) Read the booklets that will be sent home once the program starts. They contain suggestions and
activities that can be done with your children at home.
c) Fill in the questionnaire at the end of the program. It will be given to you through the school after the
program has been completed. The questionnaire should take no longer than 10 minutes each to
complete and you will be asked to return them to school.
What are the expected benefits of the research?
Your children will benefit from doing the program as they are introduced to topics that they could
become interested in. Ultimately your children will be contributing to the development of an enrichment
program that will be a valuable tool that can be used in classrooms.
Are there any risks to my children?
All the activities are safe. Only children whose parents have given consent will be involved in the
program.
Is my confidentiality protected?
Your confidentiality is highly valued. You will not be named or be identifiable in any publication or
reporting. All the information given in the questionnaires will remain confidential. At completion of the
research the data will be de-identified.
Is my participation voluntary?
Your participation and your child's participation in this project are completely voluntary. You have the
right to withdraw at any time without penalty or comment. You do not need to answer every question in
307
the questionnaire unless you wish to respond. Your decision not to give photographic/video consent
will in no way affect your child's involvement with the program.
Is this research ethical?
Griffith University conducts research in accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
Human Research (2007). If potential participants have any concerns or complaints about the ethical
conduct of the research project they should contact the Manager, Research Ethics on 3373 55585 or
Do I get feedback?
If you would like to review the results of this study once completed, please do not hesitate to contact
me, Christa van Aswegen.
Privacy Statement
The conduct of this research involves the collection, access and/or use of your identified personal
information. The information is collected is confidential and will not be disclosed to third parties without
your consent, except to meet government, legal or other regulatory authority requirements. A de-
identified copy of this data may be used for other research purposes. However, your anonymity will at
all times be safeguarded. For further information consult the University's Privacy Plan at on 37355585
or http://www.griffith.edu.au/about-griffith/plans-publications/griffith-university-privacy-plan or
telephone (07)3735
By completing the consent form, you will be deemed to have consented to your participation and your
child's participation in the program. Please detach this sheet and retain it for your later reference.
If you have any questions regarding this research, please contact me, Christa van Aswegen.
Kind regards,
Christa van Aswegen
042 494 4545
308
Appendix R: Pre- and post-test
Pre-test Flower Test
Name of Child: ___________________________________________________
1. Point to the flower.
310
Point to the:
Rose Bird of Paradise
Tulip
311
Point to the:
Daffodil Sunflower
Orchid
312
Point to the:
Carnation Poppy
Protea Gerbera
313
How did you like looking at these pictures of flowers? (Point to the face)
I did not like looking at them at all
It was ok. I liked looking them a little bit
I liked looking at them a lot.
314
Appendix S: I can spot a flower! activity booklet
Curiosity Learning
I can spot a flower!
My name is
_________________________
315
See how many of these flowers you can spot.
Make a tick in the box if you have spotted one of these flowers.
Take time to look at them and smell each one's unique fragrance if you can.
Rose
Roses have sharp thorns along the stem.
Protea
Proteas are one of the oldest plants on the planet
Gerbera
Gently touch the stems of the Gerbera. Can you feel how fuzzy it is? It is
covered in fine hairs to prevent insects from crawling up the stem to eat the
flower.
Bird of Paradise
316
It is called a Bird of Paradise because it looks like a bird!
Tulips
Tulips come in all colours except blue. You can even get black tulips!
Poppy
Poppy seeds can be used to make poppy seed cake!
Daffodil
317
A daffodil does not have any leaves on the stem!
Sunflowers
The head of a sunflower follows the path of the sun as it moves throughout the
day.
Orchids
Orchids are very beautiful flowers.
Carnation
318
Carnations have soft flowers that have a ruffled appearance.
Bougainvillea
The bougainvillea has tiny little white flowers that are surrounded by three
magenta bracts (A bract is a special leaf).
Dandelion
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Some more suggestions to get your child interested in flowers:
Plant some bulbs in a flowerpot. Flowers can grow in pots on
windowsills or on patios. Go to a garden centre and let children chose
some seeds or bulbs that capture their imagination. The dwarf nasturtium
is a good choice and easy to grow from seeds in a container or in the
garden. The best thing about the happy yellow, orange and red flowers
is that they can be eaten! The leaves are edible too and have a slight
peppery tang. A nasturtium leaf with a droplet of water in the middle
resembles quicksilver.
Nasturtium
Plant a flower from seed, like a sunflower in a sunny spot in the garden.
Their growth is spectacular, and they can grow taller than an adult!
When the flower turns brown the seeds can be collected.
While you are waiting for seeds and bulbs to grow, buy a pansy or a
daisy plant already in bloom. Children can then experience planting their
flower in the ground and watering it.
Let children arrange cut flowers in a vase. Show them how to cut the
stem off at an angle and how to strip the lower leaves off. An interesting
variation is floating the heads of flowers in a glass bowl or a tiny
arrangement in a tiny vase.
Visit a flower show.
Go for a walk and pick wildflowers.
Buy a flower press or press flowers between heavy books.
Build a life-long interest in gardening by starting young!
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Appendix T: Questionnaire for parents
Dear Parents/Guardians,
Thank-you for having taken part in this program. It was a privilege for me to work
with your amazing children.
This questionnaire is very important as it will help determine if the program was a
success or not and how it can be improved. Please fill in these questions. It should
take no longer than 5 minutes to complete.
Your answers in this questionnaire are completely confidential.
If you would like to know more about this questionnaire, please do not hesitate to
contact me at:
Kind regards,
Christa van Aswegen
PhD candidate
School of Education and Professional Studies
Griffith University
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE PARENTS
Name of child: ______________________________
The Curious about Flowers Program
1. Did the 'Flower ' program increase your child's interest in flowers?
Yes Only a little bit No, not at all
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1.2 If your answer is 'a little bit or yes' indicate which of the following you noticed:
My child is more aware of the flowers in his/her environment
My child talks more about flowers
My child wants to look at books about flowers
My child asks questions about flowers
My child wants to pick flowers
What else have you noticed that indicates that your child is interested in flowers?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What did you think of the "I can spot a flower!" activity booklets that your child
brought home? (Tick as many boxes as you would like)
My child enjoyed doing the activity booklet.
I enjoyed doing the booklet with my child.
I did not have the time to do the booklet with my child
I think this activity is too difficult for young children to do.
I think that learning about flowers is a waste of time.
I do not think it is my job to teach my children at home.
Any other comments on the activity booklets:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Have you (the parent/guardian) become more interested in flowers as a result of
the program your child was doing?
Yes Only a little bit No, not at all