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ANNOTATED OUTLINE: STORYBOOK READING INTERVENTION

Storybook Reading Intervention in Developing Literacy Skills for Students At-Risk for

Reading Difficulties

Henrietta Rema Sawyerr

George Mason University

March 31st 2016


Storybook Reading Intervention in Developing Literacy Skills for Students At-Risk for

Reading Difficulties

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to review literature on storybook reading intervention in

developing emergent literacy skills. This paper begins with the theoretical framework that the

studies in this paper were based on and reviews literature that focuses on storybook intervention

with children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. It also examines literature on,

developing vocabulary skills, phonological awareness and concepts of print during storybook

reading as well as examines research that had been conducted on storybook reading with students

with disabilities. A discussion of the research findings and strength and limitations of the

research being used to support a particular practice will be explored. Finally a statement

regarding the amount and type of convergence evidence needed to support storybook reading

intervention will be discussed.

In recent times, children from families with low socioeconomic status and children

entering preschool programs from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are prone to

be at-risk for reading difficulties (Kelley, Goldstein, Spencer, & Sherman, 2015). These children

have limited oral language skills and also lack literacy skills that enable them to be successful in

school. In addition, there are many immigrant children who come from different ethnic

backgrounds and these children often find themselves in a new school environment, which is

unfamiliar to them (Chlapana & Tafa, 2014). These children face a lot of challenges in school

and some do not perform well academically and often find themselves lagging behind their

peers. The importance of storybook reading intervention cannot be emphasized. Storybook


reading not only develops phonological skills, and vocabulary but also provides other literacy

experiences such as the development of concepts of print in young children.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for storybook reading intervention is based on Vygotsky’s

Sociocultural Theory. Vygotsky (1978) emphasized that learning is highly social especially

since there has been an increase in social learning in order to master language. According to

Vygotsky (1978) individuals learn through their interactions and communication with others.

Vygotsky examined how our social environments influence the learning process. Adult-child

shared book reading interactions enable children to discuss and collaborate with peers especially

when it comes to developing core vocabulary words. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Learning as proposed my Mayer (2005) suggests that learning needs to take place using multiple

formats. For example, displaying information using not only words but pictures as well. This

theory like Howard Gardeners Theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes that individuals learn

differently and so both theories place emphasis on teachers using multiple ways to teach lessons

in order to meet the needs of diverse learners. Through storybook reading the children interact

with the reader as the reader reads the text (placing emphasis on the words in the text, phonics

and emergent reading behaviors such as concepts of print) and shows pictures of the illustration

in the book to the children.

In recent times, there has been an increase in the number of children from cultural and

linguistic diverse families in our schools. This increase has led teachers, and early childhood

educators to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of their learners. A study conducted by

Chlapana & Tafa (2014) focused on enhancing vocabulary through storybook reading for

immigrant children in kindergarten. This study does not just address teaching of vocabulary for


young children at risk for difficulties but also focuses on instructing young children from

culturally and linguistic diverse backgrounds. Chlapana & Tafa (2014) conducted a study in

which eighty seven, four to six year old Greek language learners in kindergarten participated in

the study. The purpose of this study was examine the impact that direct and interactive

instruction has on children’s vocabulary learning during storybook reading. All the participants

were from immigrant families. In terms of ethnicity, out of the eighty seven children forty six

children were from Albania, eleven from India, two from Romania, five from Syria, two from

Turkey, one from the Netherlands, three from England and two from Russia (Chlapana & Tafa,

2014). This indicates a much diversified sample in terms of the demographics and in terms of

socioeconomic status, all the children were from working class families (Chlapana & Tafa,

2014). All the children were learning the Greek language and Greek was the only medium of

instruction used in schools. The research design used in this study was the between subject

experimental design. There were two groups for the intervention. The first group focused on

direct instruction of target words while the second group focused on interactive instruction of

targeted words. The Colored Progressive Matrices was used to measure children’s non-verbal

cognitive ability. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was used to measure children’s Greek

receptive vocabulary (Chlapana & Tafa, 2014). A questionnaire was used to assess children’s

use of their mother tongue and the Greek language in school. In addition to this, the Target

Vocabulary Test was used to assess children’s knowledge of targeted words. Six storybooks

were used for the intervention. Fifty six words were from the storybooks. Out of the fifty six

words, thirty four words were used for instruction and the other twenty two words were used to

assess students. Each book was read twice over a two week period (Chlapana & Tafa, 2014).

The first experimental group were exposed to the words explicitly and directly from the


storybooks. However, the second experimental group, were exposed to targeted words through

interactive instruction. The results indicated that children who were exposed to the interactive

instruction gained more in terms of target vocabulary than the children who were exposed to

direct instruction (Chlapana & Tafa, 2014).

Apart from Chlapana & Tafa’s (2014) study, another study was conducted by

Huennekens & Xu (2010) in which the effects of a shared reading experience was examined.

Two four year old English language learners in preschool took part in this study. The children

were both bilinguals. In terms of gender, one student was male and the second student was

female. The parents of the children completed a survey and the information in the survey

indicated that the children spoke a different language at home. The study took place in a Head

Start preschool and therefore the children met the requirements and qualified to be enrolled in

this school. The first child was a sixty five-month- old male who had been in Head Start for less

than five months and spoke Spanish at home. The mother of the first child did complete high

school (Huennekens & Xu, 2010). The second child, a fifty-eight-month-old female had been in

Head Start for more than six months and also spoke Spanish at home. The mother of the second

child did complete elementary school. A single-subject design with multiple baselines was used

for this study. Each child was observed in the classroom for a period of twenty five minutes

during large group and storybook time (Huennekens & Xu, 2010). The children were also

observed during center time and when they were doing their work independently. The observers

recorded they rate of utterances. The parents of the children who participated in this study were

trained and the parents received a Spanish book which was the same as the English book they

had listened to at school. The parents had to read the Spanish version at home to their child. The


results indicate that there is a relationship between the shared reading experience in the home

language and the child’s second language acquisition (Huennekens & Xu, 2010).

Developing vocabulary skills during storybook reading intervention

The importance of developing vocabulary skills through storybook reading cannot be

overemphasized. Developing vocabulary skills through storybook reading intervention has an

effect of students reading ability. Kelley, Goldstein, Spencer, & Sherman (2015) conducted a

study in which an automated storybook intervention was used to promote school readiness

among pre-kindergarten children who were at risk. The pre-kindergarten children who took part

in this study were all African American. Eighteen children, eleven girls and seven boys

participated in this study. The children had a mean age of four years, six months. The

participants who were recruited came from low income families and had limited oral language

skills. None of the participants had an individual education program (IEP) and did not have a

disability at the time of the recruitment and all the children who took part in this study spoke

English as their only language. In order for students to be selected for this study, the researchers

selected participants following a certain criteria. To begin with, the children completed a picture

naming test. Participants were given fifteen cards with pictures of objects and they had to

verbally label the pictures. For example, the researchers presented a picture of a car to a child

and then the child had to verbally label or say the name of the picture. The researchers also

made the children complete a “Which One Doesn’t Belong” test. The children were given

photographs of three objects (For example, ball, table, and chair) and asked to point to the

picture that did not belong to that group (Kelly et al., 2015)

According to Kelley, Goldstein, Spencer, & Sherman (2015), in addition to the “Picture

Naming Test” and the “Which One Doesn’t Belong Test,” children had to meet another criteria


before they were eligible to take part in the study. The children had to complete the Peabody

Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). This test is a norm reference test that measures receptive

vocabulary. In this test, the children were presented with four pictures and participants had to

select a picture that matches a target word. Children met this criteria if they had a score of 83-44

on the picture vocabulary test (Kelley et al., 2015). A final criteria that the children had to meet

before they were eligible to participate in this study was to complete the Core Language Subtests

of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool. This test is a norm reference

test that measures oral language skills and focuses on sentence structure, word, structure,

expressive vocabulary and also test syntax and grammar. According to Kelley et al., 2015), the

focus of this study is on storybook reading intervention as an evidence based practice which was

embedded in the response to intervention model. The students who took part in this study were

introduced to the Story Friends intervention which involved instructional lessons that focused on

vocabulary words and answering questions related to the story. Two research designs used in

this study were the randomized group design and a single subject experimental design. The

duration of the study was fourteen weeks which included a pre-test and a post-test. In the group

design, students in the treatment group who were exposed to the Story Friends intervention and

completed unit test and mastering monitoring probes. Children in the treatment group listened to

a storybook at the listening center

Justice (2002) conducted a study in which words were exposed to a group of children

based on a storybook reading. Adults questioning as opposed to labeling of novel words were

examined as well as adults perceptual and conceptual questions about novel words were also

explored. The participants, twenty three preschool children, ten girls and thirteen boys, with a

mean age of forty seven months took part in this study. All the participants spoke English as


their native language. In relation to ethnicity, nineteen out of the twenty three participants were

Caucasian, three were African American and on child was Hispanic but also had an African

American heritage (Justice, 2002). In terms of socioeconomic status, fifteen mothers of the

children who took part in this study had high school diplomas, three mothers had a college

degree, three fathers did not complete high school, fourteen fathers had high school diplomas,

four had a college or technical degree and one had a bachelor’s degree (Justice, 2002). The

intervention which lasted for a week, focused on using the storybook, “Feathers for Lunch.”

According to Justice (2002), the main criteria for selecting words in this storybook was

that these words were unfamiliar to the preschool children. The Novel Receptive Vocabulary

and the Novel Expressive Vocabulary were the two measures that were used in this study. The

Novel Receptive Vocabulary measured the receptive knowledge of targeted vocabulary words.

For this measure, children were presented with four pictures (For example, pictures of a cardinal,

oriole, wren, and woodpecker) and then were asked to identify a particular item mentioned by

the examiner. For the Novel Expressive Vocabulary measure, children were presented with

pictures and asked to label the items depicted on a card (Justice, 2002). For this study a group

experimental research design was used. The children who participated in this study, were pre-

tested prior to the intervention. The Novel Expressive Vocabulary measure, which involved

identifying twelve birds (robin, bluejay, cardinal, wren, woodpecker, blackbird, oriole, dove,

flicker, hummingbird, sparrow, and flinch) and five flowers (geranium, forsythia, tulip, lilac, petunia). If children identified a word correctly, that word was eliminated for each child. The

examiners came up with ten words for each child for the intervention. Five words were


randomly assigned to the labeling condition and the other five words were assigned to the

questioning condition for each child (Justice, 2002). During the intervention, an adult read the

storybook to the children and exposed the children to the words and also asked questions.

Children were put into two groups. The perceptual question group (twelve children) and the

conceptual question group (eleven children). The perceptual questions focused certain features

such as size, shape or color, whereas the conceptual questions focused on requiring children to

make judgements or predictions about certain targeted items. The storybook “Feathers for

Lunch” was read to the children a second time and then children completed a post-test to test

their knowledge of the novel words. The results of this study indicate that when adults labeled

novel words, this facilitated receptive word learning of children and there wasn’t any difference

between receptive or expressive word learning as a result of being exposed to conceptual or

perceptual questions (Justice, 2002).

Nielsen & Friesen (2012) conducted a study to examine the effects of small group

storybook intervention on vocabulary and narrative development of kindergarten students who

were at risk for reading achievement. Twenty eight kindergarten children, twenty male and eight

female, participated in this study. In terms of ethnicity, twenty of the participants were African

American, three were Caucasian, three were Hispanic and three were Asian. Five out of the

twenty eight participants spoke English as a second language. Twenty four participants received

free or reduced price meals. All the participants were at risk for later reading achievement

(Nielsen & Friesen, 2012). A quasi-experimental design was used for this study. Teachers were


asked to select students who were at risk of reading achievement. In addition to this, an

expressive vocabulary measure, the Expressive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test was

administered to all the kindergarten children (Nielsen & Friesen, 2012). Participants were

randomly assigned and put into an intervention or a control group. The intervention lasted for

twelve weeks. The participants who were in the intervention or treatment group received

instruction in small groups for thirty minutes three times a week. The books used in the

intervention group were all narratives and varied each week. For each book that was read, six or

seven vocabulary words were selected and taught (Nielsen & Friesen, 2012). According to

Nielsen & Friesen (2012), interventionists provided description of some words, showed pictures

that were related to some of the words taught and also used role plays to demonstrate word

meanings. At times interventionists showed real objects of some of the targeted words. On the

second day of the intervention, the targeted words were reviewed and taught explicitly and

students were encouraged to repeat the definition of words after interventionist provided

modeling. Words were also used in sentences to provide context for the targeted words. The

interventionist engaged participants by encouraging participants to retell the stories that were

read to them. The books that were read to the children contained pictures. However, the

interventionist did not initially show the pictures to the children during the intervention because

the interventionist wanted the children to pay attention to the material being read to them.

Students were asked questions throughout that were related to the story being read to them. The

results indicated that students in the intervention group performed better on measure of

vocabulary and narrative achievement as compared to the control group or business as usual

group (Nielsen & Friesen, 2012).


Walsh & Blewitt (2006) conducted a study in which they examined the effects of

adult questioning on novel word acquisition of children during a storybook reading intervention.

Thirty five, three year olds enrolled in child care centers participated in this study. The

participants were randomly assigned to three groups. Eleven children were put in the vocabulary

eliciting questions group, twelve children were put into the non-eliciting questions group and

twelve children were put into the no questions group. Children in the vocabulary eliciting group

were required to respond with novel targeted words from the story. For example, when the

interventionist pointed to a picture, the child had to respond by providing the vocabulary word

that goes with that picture. For the non-eliciting condition, the interventionist will ask a question

with the novel word in the question and children would have to provide the correct response to

the question (For example, what color is the ball?). In the no question condition no questions

were asked during the storybook reading intervention (Walsh & Blewitt, 2006). The storybooks

used in this study were appropriate for three year olds even though the story were unfamiliar to

the children. For each book, six targeted words were selected and each word was illustrated in

the book. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT III), the New Word Production Test, and

the New Word Comprehension Test were used to assess children prior to the intervention taking

place. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT III) involved children matching pictures to

the target word. The New Word Production Test involved children labeling the pictures that

were provided to them. The New Word Comprehension Test assessed thee children’s

comprehension of the targeted words presented to them. Children with the highest scores were

randomly assigned to the three intervention groups (Walsh & Blewitt, 2006). Children were

exposed to four storybooks during the storybook reading intervention. The duration of the

intervention was six weeks. During the intervention, the facilitators read three or four


storybooks to the children and then the children were asked questions pertaining to the stories

that were read to them. The results indicated that children who were required to answer

questions during the intervention performed better in terms of an increase in the comprehension

of novel words as compared to those in the control group (Walsh & Blewitt, 2006).

Coyne, McCoach, Loftus, Zipoli, & Kapp (2009) conducted a study in which two

methods used to teach word meanings were compared within storybook reading intervention. For

this study, the participants included forty two kindergarten children. Out of the forty two

children who took part in this study, twenty three were female and nineteen were male. Twelve

of the participants were Hispanic, eight were African American, three were Caucasian, and one

student was Asian. The average age of the students who participated in this study was five years,

four months. This study used a within-subject experimental design. According to Coyne,

McCoach, Loftus, Zipoli & Kapp (2009), Goldilocks was the storybook used for this

intervention. Nine targeted words were selected from this book for the intervention. The story

Goldilocks was read three times in three different sessions during the intervention. The duration

of the intervention was one week and was delivered in small groups. For the embedded

instruction, children were introduced to targeted words by graduate students and had to repeat

each word. Children had to listen for the targeted words and raise their hands when they heard

the targeted words in the story (Coyne et al., 2009). When students heard the target word they

had to identify the target word and say the sentence in which the found the targeted word. The

facilitator will then provide a definition of the target word and a picture of the target word was

displayed for the students. Students then had to pronounce the target word. This process was

repeated for each of the target words in the storybook. For the extended instruction, the targeted


words were introduced prior to the storybook reading (Coyne et al., 2009). However, facilitators

led children in performing activities that allowed the children to experience these words in

context. In terms of incidental exposure, the target words in the storybook were not taught

directly. The results indicated that children exposed to extended instruction provided full word

knowledge compared to that of embedded instruction in which children provide partial word

knowledge (Coyne et al., 2009).

Spencer, Goldstein, Sherman, Noe, Tabbah, Ziolkowski, & Schneider (2012) investigated

the effects of vocabulary and comprehension intervention embedded in storybooks. Nine pre-

kindergarten children, five male and four female, with a mean age of four years four months,

with no individual education programs participated in this study. A single case experimental

design was used for this study. In terms of ethnicity, eight were African American, and one was

European American (Spencer et al., 2012). The children in this study were made to listen to

stories. There were nine storybooks in all. For each book, two vocabulary words were chosen

for explicit instruction. The words that were selected were unfamiliar to the preschool children.

For each book, children were asked three questions. The results indicate that there were

improvements in vocabulary and comprehension (Spencer et al., 2012).

Developing phonological and print awareness during storybook reading intervention

Some research has been conducted on the effects of storybook reading on developing not

just vocabulary, but also developing print awareness and phonological awareness through

storybook reading. Lefebvre, Trudeau, & Sutton (2011) conducted a study to compare two

storybook reading interventions on emergent literacy skills of low income preschool children.

Forty children were eligible to take part in this study. Of the forty participants, twenty eight

were from low-income families and twelve children were from higher-income families. All the


students spoke French as their native language and the children that participated in this study

were in child care centers in Canada (Lefebvre et al., 2011). There were ten children in the

experimental group and thirteen children in the control group. For the experimental group, there

were six male students and four female students. For the control group, there were eight male

students and five female students (Lefebvre et al., 2011). This study employed a quasi-

experimental pre-test/post-test research design. The experimental group targeted print awareness

and phonological awareness during storybook reading intervention (Lefebvre et al., 2011). The

control group focused on developing only language and print awareness during storybook

reading intervention. Children in the comparison group, which included higher-income

preschoolers did not receive any intervention. All students in the experimental group and control

group were low-income preschoolers. The results indicate that low-income preschoolers in the

experimental condition outperformed higher-income preschoolers in the comparison condition

(Lefebvre et al., 2011).

A study conducted by Justice, Kaderavek, Fan, Sofka, & Hunt (2009) examined the

impact of print referencing by teachers during storybook reading intervention. In this study, fifty

nine boys and forty seven girls, with a mean age of four years four months took part in the study.

In terms of ethnicity, sixty seven children were whit, twenty four were black, nine were Hispanic

White, two were Native Americans, and two were Asian (Justice et al., 2009). All the children

who took part in this study spoke English. The mothers of the children who participated in this

study had at least a high school diploma with seven six percent having a college or a university

degree. For the intervention fourteen classrooms were randomly assigned to the print

referencing condition and nine classrooms were assigned to the shared reading comparison

condition. The intervention lasted for thirty weeks with teachers receiving thirty books that were


appropriated for three year olds. Teachers were assigned a book to read each week to the

children (Justice et al., 2009). Teachers were made to read the book three more times during the

week making sure that the book was read four times a week. Teachers in the print referencing

condition focused on print referencing techniques, whereas teachers in the shared reading

comparison condition just read the book assigned each week four times without focusing on any

particular technique. Children who were exposed to the print referencing technique made gains

in terms of concept of print, letter knowledge and name writing than their peers in the shared

storybook reading comparison condition (Justice et al., 2009).

Storybook Reading Intervention and Students with Disabilities

Even though some studies have been conducted on the impact of storybook reading

intervention on developing emergent literacy skills in young children, not much research has

been done on storybook intervention with students with disabilities. A study conducted by

Ziolkowski & Goldstein (2008) investigated phonological awareness intervention embedded in a

storybook reading for preschool children with language delays. Thirteen children, five boys and

eight girls, with a mean age of four years eight months from low income families and from

schools serving children with developmental delays participated in this study. In terms of

ethnicity, ten of the children who took part in this study were African American, two were

European American, and one was Hispanic (Ziolkowski & Goldstein, 2008). This study

employed a multiple-baseline design. The intervention lasted thirteen weeks and involved

reading storybooks to the children as well as children identifying rhymes and initial sound in

words. The results indicated that phonological awareness is embedded in repeated storybook

reading, children’s emergent literacy skills improved (Ziolkowski & Goldstein, 2008)

Convergence Evidence


In this section, the amount and type of convergence evidence needed to support

storybook reading will be discussed. Most of the studies that were examined in this paper,

focused on developing and enhancing vocabulary skills of young children through storybook

reading intervention. A few studies have been conducted on developing vocabulary learning of

young children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Moreover, some studies

focused on developing, not only vocabulary, but phonological awareness and print awareness

through storybook reading. However, there is little research on storybook intervention with

students with disabilities. Eleven studies were examined in this paper. The studies that were

examined in this paper were all quantitative studies. None of the studies utilized a qualitative

approach. This is because all the articles focused on the storybook reading intervention. Studies

that normally focus on an intervention are quantitative in nature. Even though all eleven studies

were quantitative, these studies varied slightly based on the research design. For example, four

out of the eleven studies (Chlapana & Tafa, 2014; Coyne, McCoach, Loftus, Zipoli, & Kapp,

2009; Walsh & Blewitt, 2006 & Justice, 2002) used an experimental group research design.

Three studies (Huennekens & Xu, Spencer, Goldstein, Sherman, Noe, Tabbah, Ziolkowski, &

Schneider, 2012 and Ziolkowski & Goldstein, 2008) used a single case experimental research

design, one study (Kelley, Goldstein, Spencer, & Sherman, 2015) used an experimental group

design with an embedded single case experimental design and two other studies (Nielsen &

Friesen, 2012; Lefebvre, Trudeau, & Sutton, 2016) used a quasi-experimental research design.

In cases were the studies used experimental group research designs, the researchers did compare

two different approaches such as using a directive approach as opposed to an interactive

approach in teaching storybook reading.

Limitations


There were limitations to the studies that were examined in this paper. For example,

Coyne et al., (2009) study compared the direct approach to incidental learning of vocabulary

words to children during storybook reading. One of the limitations in this study was that the

duration of the study was short and the children were only taught the meaning of three words

during the intervention. Another limitation was that this study only examined proximal measures

of target vocabulary. Ziolkowski & Goldstein (2008) study also revealed that time is needed to

determine the long term effects of shared storybook reading on reading development for children

at risk of language delays. It would have been better for the intervention to occur throughout the

school year for it to have an effect on literacy outcomes. In examining Ziolkowski & Goldstein

(2008) study, it is important to replicate these studies and to ensure that early childhood

educators and parents of preschool children act as interventionist since it this study the

interventionists were only graduate students.


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