A Great and Glorious Event: Saratoga 1777

“I have beat them! I have beat the Americans!”-- King George III

• Lexington and Concord (Apr 75)• Fort Ticonderoga (May 75)• Bunker Hill (Jun 75)• Washington in Command (Jul 75)• Quebec (Dec 75)• British evacuate Boston (Mar 76)• Battles of Long Island and NYC and American withdrawal (Aug-Sep 76)• Americans Stop British advance from the North (Oct 76) • Battle of Trenton (Dec 76)• Battle of Princeton (Jan 77)

Operations from 1775-1777

Military Operations 1775-1777

National Policy Objectives Pre-Saratoga

• Independence • Suppress the Rebellion• Return to Status Quo

“. . . to treat with independence can never be possible!” -- King George III

DIMEBritish Military Strategy • Territorial Gains – Hope that Destruction of American Forces Result• Seek Decisive Battle • RN supports ground operations

DIMEAmerican Military Strategy

• War of Posts• Fabian Strategy – Preserve of the Army – Strike only when Conditions are Favorable • React to British Moves

Strategic Situation, 1777• Washington and his Army Escaped Destruction • Washington stops the Bleeding at Trenton and Princeton• British in possession of New York • Generals Howe and Burgoyne Present Different Plans

Howe vs. Burgoyne

• Howe presents Plans to Lord Germain in November 1776 and February 1777• Seize Philadelphia • Force Washington into a Decisive Battle

• Burgoyne presents “Thoughts” to the King and Germain in February 1777• Burgoyne Advocates Invasion from Canada• Link with Howe at Albany• Split Colonies in Half

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June-October 1777British PlansWhat Burgoyne

Wanted

Howe and Philadelphia

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British Plan for 1777• Sense of Urgency after Trenton-Princeton• Howe to Conduct Operation to seize Philadelphia• After taking Philly, Cooperate with Burgoyne• Burgoyne to Invade NY from Canada with Two Columns:• Main Force Down Lake Champlain• Supporting Force Down Mohawk River Valley

• Problems?

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June-October 1777British PlansSaratoga

Campaign

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British Command Team

Lieutenant General John Burgoyne

• “Gentleman Johnny” • Served in War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War• Participated in Siege of Boston and Served in Canadian and Northern Campaigns of 1776 • Favorite of King George III• Aggressive – Favored Active Offensive Operations

American Command Team

Major General Horatio Gates

• “Granny Gates”• Former British Army Officer• Served with Washington in French and Indian War• Favored Defensive Operations against British • Previous Experience in the North • Replaced Schuyler on 19 August

Comparison of Forces

Major General Horatio Gates

Lieutenant General John Burgoyne

4,000 English Regulars3,000 German Mercenaries

650 Canadians500 Indians

52 CannonMajor General Benedict Arnold

500 Soldiers900 Indians

Troops6,500 Continentals1,500+ Militia

Troops

BG Barry St. Leger

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June

Aug

Sept

Oct

1777

July

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June-October 1777Burgoyne’s ExpeditionSaratoga Campaign

June-September 1777

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July

Aug

Sep

1777

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Saratoga July-September 1777

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Hudson River

Miles

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To Albany

Mill Creek

American Bridge of Boats

Bemis Tavern

Bemis Heights

Gates’ HQ

Neilson’s House

Barber House

Middle Ravine

Great Ravine

Sword’s House

To S

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British Bridge of Boats

Freeman’s Farm

Burgoyne’s Plan of Attack

Hudson River

Miles

N

To Albany

Mill Creek

American Bridge of Boats

Bemis Tavern

Bemis Heights

Gates’ HQ

Neilson’s House

Barber House

Middle Ravine

Great Ravine

Sword’s House

To S

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oga

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British Bridge of Boats

Freeman’s Farm

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FraserHamilton

Riedesel

Gates7,000

Freeman’s FarmSeptember 19, 1777

Burgoyne7,500

19 Sep 77

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1777

July

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June-October 1777Burgoyne’s ExpeditionSaratoga Campaign

September-October 1777

Hudson River

Miles

N

To Albany

Mill Creek

American Bridge of Boats

Bemis Tavern

Bemis Heights

Gates’ HQ

Neilson’s House

Barber House

Middle Ravine

Great Ravine

Sword’s House

To S

arat

oga

0 1/2 1

British Bridge of Boats

Freeman’s Farm

Bemis HeightsOctober 7, 1777

Balcarres’ Redoubt

Breymann’s Redoubt

Burgoyne6,500

Gates11,000+

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7 Oct 778 Oct 77

Burgoyne’s Surrender, 17 October 1777• Started with almost 10,000 Troops• 3,500 Effectives Left on 14 Oct• Surrendered 5,895 Men – 3,018 Brits and 2414 German• 1,728 British and German Troops KIA or Captured • 1,297 at Ticonderoga• Remaining Deserted or MIA • The Convention

Aftermath: Long Term• Franco-American Alliance signed on 6 February 1778• War now global with North America a secondary theater • British attempt a negotiated peace with America • British change focus of their military strategy to the South and against French possessions and Navy• American combat power now augmented with French troops and Navy

National Policy ObjectivesPost-Saratoga

• Independence • End the Rebellion• Accept almost any terms short of Independence• Refocus on France

DIMEBritish Military Strategy • Naval war – Blockade and Interdict• Limited offensive operations• Reduce bases to defend• Defend Homeland and Overseas Possessions• Attack French Possessions• Southern Strategy

DIMEAmerican Military Strategy

• Take Advantage of French Sea Power• Continue Fabian Strategy • Cooperate with French Army in Large-Scale Opns• Exhaust British Army using Irregular Warfare

Military Turning Points of the American Revolution

• Battles of Lexington and Concord (Apr 75)• Battles of Trenton/Princeton (Dec 76-Jan 77)• Saratoga Campaign (Jun-Oct 77)• Siege of Yorktown (Oct 81)

Questions?

Policy-Strategy Formulation

Battles

Campaigns

WarStrategic

Operational

Tactical

“Levels of War”

“War is merely the continuation of policy by other means.” - Carl von Clausewitz

Policy

D I M E

StrategyFormulation

British Strengths

• British Military Best in World• Royal Navy• Population• Ability to Raise Money • German Mercenaries

British Weaknesses

• Fighting Far from Home• A Very Tough Political and Military Objective• Geography• Expense • Domestic Political Opposition • No Allies • Unrest in Ireland • Leadership Issues • Had to Conquer to Win

American Weaknesses

• Finances • Lack of Basic Supplies • Divided Loyalties • National Institutions • Colonies Poorly Organized and Disunited • Lack of Indian Support

American Strengths

• Mostly Intangibles• Strong Leadership• Resiliency • Covert Support from Europe • Geography • A Draw is a Win • Clarity of Vision

Burgoyne’s March Left Small Garrison at Fort TiconderogaMarched overlandSchuyler fell back – destroying bridges, blocking roads, harassingRate of March: 1 mile per dayArrived at Fort Edward on 1 Aug Burgoyne desperately short of supplies, horses, wagons, oxen Burgoyne’s Indians’ depredations drew out militia reinforcements New England Militia arrived by the hundreds Burgoyne dispatched column of 650 Germans to forage for suppliesNew Hampshire Militia force of 2000 annihilated the Column at Bennington on 16 AugBurgoyne moved West of Hudson and continued South – logistical problems getting worse each day and no help in sight from Howe (Indians deserted – little Intel) Gates had replaced Schuyler on 19 Aug – changed nothing, but morale improvedAmerican continues to gather strength as Burgoyne’s slips awayGates moves forward to high ground south of Saratoga – surveyed and prepared by COL Kosciusko – block Burgoyne’s advance to AlbanySet stage for first battle of Saratoga on 19 September

Saratoga Campaign Timeline 1776 10 Dec Burgoyne Presents his “Observations” 26 Dec Battle of Trenton

1777 3 Jan Battle of Princeton 28 Feb Burgoyne Presents Modified Plan 20 Jan Howe send Letters Outlining New ‘77 Campaign 26 Mar Germain Issues Orders to Burgoyne 5 Apr Howe’s Letter to Carlton outlining His Intent 18 May Germain authorizes Howe to take Philadelphia 17 Jun Burgoyne Departs Canada toward Albany 6 Jul Burgoyne Takes Fort Ticonderoga 23 Jul Howe departs NYC for Philadelphia Campaign

Saratoga Campaign Timeline (cont) 1777 1 Aug Burgoyne arrives at the Hudson River 16 Aug Battle of Bennington 19 Aug Gates Replaces Schuyler as Cdr Northern Army 25 Aug Howe’s Army disembarks at Chesapeake Bay 9-11 Sep Battle of Brandywine Creek 19 Sep 1st Battle of Saratoga – Freeman’s Farm 26 Sep Howe takes Philadelphia 4 Oct Battle of Germantown 7 Oct 2nd Battle of Saratoga – Bemis Heights 17 Oct Burgoyne Surrenders 17 Oct Clinton Abandons Attempt to Assist Burgoyne 2 Dec Official News of Disaster Reaches London

Reactions Germain “began to despair of success if they [America] should continue united.”

North had “hoped [Howe’s Philadelphia] campaign had produced events, which would enable us to enforce a conciliation with the colonies, on true constitutional grounds” and we must “get out of the dispute as soon as possible.”

Duke of Marlborough to North: “I hope you will not think of sending more troops, for I suppose, they may as well think of subduing the ocean by force of arms.”

Parliamentary Opposition • King’s 20 November 1777 speech: • Desire to end the war• Reiterated goal to end rebellion• Must prepare for threat from Spain and France • Whigs dispute Administration’s optimism • Chatham argues to switch focus from America to Spain and France

• 3-5 December Parliamentary Sessions – “a melancholy disaster” • Germain and North savaged • Burke, Fox, and Wilkes accuse ministers of criminal negligence

King’s Strategic Guidance

We must view Saratoga in its “true light, as very serious, but not without remedy; it may very probably on due consideration, which I trust all in my service will be willing to give, in the end prove the wisest step in our present situation to act only on the defensive with the army, and great activity as to the troops. Canada, Nova Scotia, the Floridas, New York, and Rhode Island, must probably be the stations, but those who have served in those parts, particularly Lord Amherst, must be consulted, and will be able to point out what is best.”

-- King George III, Dec 4, 1777

Carlisle Peace Commission

• Led by King’s Friend, Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle• Comprised of Diplomats and Senior Military Officials • In combination with Parliament’s repeal of most repugnant measures• Coupled with new military strategy • Carlisle Authorized to Offer: Almost Anything Short of Independence

Means or Resources • Sandwich’s call for increases in naval forces• Germain’s efforts to increase levies to replace Burgoyne’s forces• Germain explored option of raising Irish regiments that could be employed overseas • 15,000 additional recruits from Scotland and Wales • No alliance partners • New focus on Homeland Defense – Resource Drain • Change of Commanders throughout North America

Poisonous Relations between Senior Officers• Howe hated Germain: asked to be relieved in October 1777• Clinton hated Howe and Germain and Howe had “little confidence in Mr. Clinton.” • Clinton was “jealous of Burgoyne” • General Sir Guy Carleton “has shewn the utmost indifference for all these gentlemen.”