a guide to the theory of poetry. manfred jahn

8/16/2019 A Guide to the Theory of Poetry. Manfred Jahn

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Una guía para la teoría de la poesía

Manfred Jahn

Referencia Completo: Jahn, Manfred. 2002. Una guía para la teoría de la

poesía. Parte I de poemas, obras de teatro y prosa: Una guía para la teoría delos géneros literarios. Departamento de Inglés de la Universidad deColonia. Version: . .! Fecha: 02 de agosto 200" En estapágina: http#$$%%%.uni&'oeln.de $ ( ame02$pppp.htm página de presentacióndel proyecto: http#$$%%%.uni&'oeln.de$ ( ame02$ppp.htm

ara facilitar los índices mundiales ! todos los párrafos de esta sección tienen

el prefi"o ## de #po$tica#% &i usted cita de este documento! utilice el apartadoreferencias 'por e"emplo! ()%*+ en lugar de n,meros de página%

Reali-ar

*% Rhythm and Meter

)% Rhyme! secuencia .erso! estrofa

/% El análisis semántico de la poesía

0% Minima Rhetorica

1% Una interpretación de Ro2ert 3ra.es! 4Flying Croo5ed4 '*6/7+

8% oesía sitios 9e2

% Referencias

*% Rhythm and Meter

*%*% Poesía vs prosa. Danos una defini)i*n )on)isa de la poesía. +o se puede pensar en un fruto de la )asualidad -ueno, la verdad, siempre es difí)il definirun fen*meno aislado. Preguntas de esta manera, la )uesti*n tiene po)o sentido o

prop*sito. sí /ue permítanme reformular la pregunta, al pare)er por lo /ue esuno ms difí)il. 1amos a tratar de definir la poesía, en )ontraposi)i*n a la

prosa. n otras pala3ras, vamos a aspirar a un 4defini)i*n diferen)ial5, )u6afinalidad es poner de manifiesto la espe)ifi)idad de la poesía 6 )u6a valide7 8esde)ir, el é9ito o el fra)aso de diferen)iar seg:n lo previsto; se prue3a f)ilmente.

s evidente /ue en una pgina impresa de un poema se ve diferente desde un pasa


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)asualidad /ue las líneas de la poesía se identifi)an por un término espe)ial#verso;. =a prosa, en )am3io, se no )ompuesto por versos. n un te9to en prosa,/ue en realidad no importa si las líneas son a )orto o largo pla7o. l pare)er,

pues, lo /ue hemos aislado es una >)ondi)i*n sufi)iente> 8si el te9to est es)rito enverso, enton)es de3e ser la poesía;, posi3lemente in)luso una 5)ondi)i*n

ne)esaria5 8si esto es poesía enton)es de3e tener versos;. De he)ho, algunos delos enfo/ues ms re)ientes 8véase la referen)ia en P? ; utili7an estas )ondi)iones6a /ue sus supuestos 3si)os. =a siguiente )uenta, en )am3io, se 3asa en unenfo/ue ms tradi)ional /ue re)ono)e una )alidad poéti)a esen)ial, in)luso enausen)ia de la versifi)a)i*n. Considere las tres 3reves pasa


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% *%) Por supuesto, no podemos ir en la introdu))i*n de nuevos términos & verso,ritmo & /ue estn en ne)esidad de la defini)i*n. )er/uémonos, pues estipular lasiguiente defini)i*n de 5ritmo5#

• ritmo =a itera)i*n 8repeti)i*n; de un grupo de elementos.

sto es una defini)i*n general, )omo de3e ser, 6a /ue el ritmo es un fen*menomu6 general. Por e


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Aitmo poéti)o de este tipo se llama >metro> 8>medida> fr. griego;, 6 una línea 8overso; /ue es rítmi)a de esta manera, se di)e /ue es >métri)a>.

• metro l ritmo sil3i)o de la poesía. Un verso se )ompone de una serie degrupos de métri)as 8o unidades métri)as;. Nrupos métri)os )onsta de una

síla3a a)entuada 6 uno, dos o tres síla3as tonas.

*%0% metros de un poema puede ser llevado a )a3o mediante el uso de unaté)ni)a llamada escansión , una espe)ie de le)tura métri)a for7ada. Con el fin de>es)anear> una línea de poesía, ha)er una hip*tesis radi)al# se supone /ue unasíla3a puede ser )ual/uiera estresado o no for7ada, 6 nada ms. Para es)anear unalínea signifi)a asignar a )ada una de sus síla3as estrés 6a sea )ero o el esfuer7om9imo. upongamos, por un momento, /ue un síla3as tonas sonidos )omo undé3il 5da5 6 desta)* uno )omo un fuerte 5DUM5. hora toma la se)uen)ia 5da&DUM5 6 repetir un par de ve)es 8usted )onsigue la )aída de ella;. =o /ue seo3tiene es )laramente rítmi)a. )ontinua)i*n, tomar un grupo de síla3as /ue van)omo 5DUM&da&da5, 6 repetir eso. Un ritmo in)onfundi3le, un po)o )omo unvals, pero diferente de la anterior. @ome una /ue di)e 5da&da&DUM5. Otro tipo deritmo. @ome una /ue di)e 5da&DUM&da&da5. a6 mu)hos patrones ms sil3i)os& treinta 6 dos e9a)tamente & /ue se pueden )rear mediante la )om3ina)i*n dehasta )uatro síla3as t*ni)as 6 tonas, 6 un e9perto espe)ialista en prosodia todo

puede identifi)ar por su nom3re.8+o so6 un espe)ialista en prosodia e9perto, pero da&DUM es un 5)ordero5, DUM&da&da es un 5da)t6l >, da&da&DUM es un>anapest >, 6 da&DUM&da&da es una . >segunda paeon>; n el siguiente, sinem3argo, nos )entraremos :ni)amente en los )uatro patrones métri)os msfre)uentes 8ver -onheim BB0# )ap L para la lista )ompleta;.

i usted est interesado en un po)o de refle9i*n )ríti)a, )onsidere un )asolímite. @ome la síla3a 5DUM5 6 repetir ella. =e da un ritmo =a respuesta o3viaes 5+o5 8Por /ué;. Una alternativa menos o3via pero interesante es /ue de)ir5Depende5. 9pli/ue, si se puede, pero tal ve7 usted tendr /ue esperarhasta P.2 . Para P.!6 su nota so3re el término >3eat> tam3ién podría ser

pertinente.

*%1% n lugar de )ontinuar )on 5da5 6 5DUM5, lo /ue sería un po)o tonto, ahoravamos a introdu)ir una nota)i*n /ue viene a ser e9a)tamente lo mismo, pero se

pare)e ms distinguido 6 ms a)adémi)o. sugeren)ia de -onheim 8BB0;,vamos a partir de ahora utili7ar una min:s)ula 5o5 para una tona 8)ero estrés;síla3a, 6 un 55 por un estresado uno. 8Prosodists Dedi)ados utili7ar una variedadde )ara)teres espe)iales para esto, pero 5o5 s 6 5l5 s tienen la venta


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*%8% parte de los patrones de asigna)i*n de estrés, s)ansion evidentementetam3ién impli)a )ontar las síla3as. Contar síla3as es una ha3ilidad /ue vieneintuitiva 6 automti)a 8posi3lemente, una manera todo&demasiado f)il, lore)ono7)o;. Que nos a)a3a de seHalar, de paso, /ue el n:mero de síla3as en una

pala3ra suele ser igual al n:mero de vo)ales 8o grupos vo)ales; en una

pala3ra. s)aneo pala3ras individuales, vemos, por een la ter)era síla3a. n es)ansi*n, )omo se estipula en P. , se nos prohí3e usartensiones medias, por lo /ue la ter)era síla3a de 5)as)a3el5 o 3ien de3e sera)tuali7ado a la tensi*n total o re3amétri)a>#

• Una línea m$trica es una línea /ue, )uando se es)anea, tiene un patr*nrítmi)o regular. Una se)uen)ia )omo ooo es métri)a, 6a /ue se)ompone de tres grupos de 5o5 s, de modo /ue es oooo 8dos grupos deoo;. n )ontraste, la se)uen)ia de ooooooo no es rítmi)a, por/ue noha6 grupos sil3i)os iterados. @ampo)o es ..., por la misma ra7*n8esto es s*lo un elemento :ni)o iterada, no un grupo & en la m:si)a de

3aile moderna esto se suele llamar un golpe , tal ve7 ha3ría /ue )onsideraresto )omo un )aso límite del ritmo;.

• pie es una unidad métri)a sil3i)a mínimo 8o grupo rítmi)o;.

*%7% =os )uatro pies ms )omunes )onsisten en dos o tres síla3as de los )ualesuno est estresado.

• yam2o 8o; Un pie 6m3i)o es un pie de dos síla3as /ue )omien7a )onuna síla3a no a)entuada, 6 termina )on un ser estresado. ste es el tipoms )om:n de pie en la poesía Inglés 6 una regla mnemoté)ni)a :til es

http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P1.4http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P1.9http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P1.4http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P1.9


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aso)iarlo )on lo /ue es pro3a3lemente la línea ms )ono)ida en laliteratura Inglés, 5ser o no ser5 8ha'espeare;.

• tro;ueo 8o; pie tro)hai) es un pie de dos síla3as /ue )omien7a )on unasíla3a a)entuada seguida de una síla3a no a)entuada, un 6am3o invertido,

si lo desea.


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i lo ha)es todos dere)ha oír /ue Carroll utili7a un metro 6m3i)o todo. Pare)el*gi)o, tam3ién, /ue 5Aattlesna'e5 8)f. dis)usi*n en P.? ;, en el )onte9to dado,ha6 /ue desta)ar o, no oo. @enga en )uenta /ue, en el enfo/ue utili7ado a/uí,s)ansion siempre trata de esta3le)er un regular de la se)uen)iarítmi)a. @e*ri)amente, en la línea , se podría desta)ar simplemente las dos

apari)iones de 5él5 6 de 8o o;, >pentmetro 6m3i)o> 8o o o oo;, et) l pentmetro 6m3i)o, en parti)ular, se desta)a )omo la línea ms

popular en Inglés literatura verso, 6 usted no tiene /ue mirar mu6 le

*%**% li)en)ia poéti)a. ve)es el poeta se desvía inten)ionadamente del uso dellenguaelisión /uita una síla3a no a)entuada.


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ditores suelen indi)ar e9pansiones usando un a)ento grave 8W; 6 elisionesutili7ando una mar)a de ap*strofo 8>;.

lgunas e9pansiones 8)omo en un hombre ulto, una pierna torida ; 8tenga)uidado de no pronun)iar mal las pala3ras;, 6 mu)has )ontra))iones 8)omo no ,

et); son de uso )om:n 6 no )onstitu6en un )aso de li)en)ia poéti)a. a6, sinem3argo, una serie de )ontra))iones normalmente poéti)as# el o!er "sobre#, e!er"nuna#, e!en "par# & pronun)iado )omo o, aire, $an .

• in.ersión Una desvia)i*n del orden de las pala3ras ordinaria )on el fin demantener un metro regular. n los e


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• en .ísperas de las líneas > en"am2ement una línea )u6a )ontinuidad delha3la )ontinua, sin pausa, en el siguiente. De ve7 en )uando, >%raps> elmetro a la siguiente línea, tam3ién. ;. n)ual/uier )aso, no son tan irregulares )omo pueden pare)er a primera vista 8PoeB?B TL?# &!;.

*%*/% Uso de las poten)ialidades métri)as de elisi*n, e9pansi*n, )esura, líneasde )aden)ia, h6permetri)al 6 en)a3algamiento, mu)has irregularidades aparentess*lo se pueden e9pli)ar. =lega un momento, sin em3argo, )uando una línea no

puede )onsiderarse )omo verdaderamente regularmente por ms tiempo. Por lotanto una )ierta )antidad de varia)i*n rítmi)a tiene /ue ser tolerado, in)luso en elmar)o de la es)ansi*n redu)ida.

• metros mi=ta Un metro )u6o tipo 3si)o de pie est o)asionalmentesustituido por un tipo diferente de pie.

Metros mi9ta se regir por lo /ue A. ells ha denominado el 5prin)ipio de lama9imi7a)i*n5 8/td =ud%ig BB0# ;.

• principio de ma=imi-ación @omar de una línea de >metro predominante5para ser el /ue ma9imi7a la regularidad de la línea. Para ma9imi7ar laregularidad de una línea, mantenga el n:mero de pies de sustitu)i*n a unmínimo.

@érminos :tiles, pero no estndar serían vs >pies> end*genos >pies e9*genos58insider $ outsider pies;. Por lo tanto, el prin)ipio de la ma9imi7a)i*n podríareformularse, Al esanear un uso de la línea omo muhos pies end%genos omo

sea posible .


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• llí vivía una mu


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O do3la )on el removedor para /uitar.

5s perfe)tamente posi3le5, di)e 3rams, 5si se aplasta todas las sensi3ilidadesde uno, al leer la primera línea de este poema )omo un pentmetro 6m3i)ome)ni)a T.... Pero, por supuesto, nadie lo lee de esa manera, salvo para ha)er un

punto, leer )on a)ento Inglés normal 6 un )ierto sentido de lo /ue est di)iendo,la línea de3e pro3a3lemente formar un patr*n algo )omo esto T... T/ue indi)a un

patr*n de a)entua)i*n de oooooo, MJ, /ue no es ni ende)asíla3o ni enninguna modo 6m3i)o. =a segunda línea es un po)o ms 6m3i)o, pero leer lae9presi*n, )ae tan le


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*%*% Ystos son algunos ms est, t: me digas @odas las maravillas e9traHas /ue te han so3revenido, G


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*%*7% Poets menudo les gusta


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delfín, dapple&da%n&di3u


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• Una rima o"o enla7a dos pala3ras /ue se ven )omo si de3e rimar perfe)tamente, pero en realidad no lo ha)en, por e


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Un patr*n de rima )omo 9a9a9a 8)laramente una variante de una rima alterna;)onsiste en una se)uen)ia de verso de seis líneas de las )uales la segunda rima,)uarto 6 se9to 85=a )an)i*n de Mad Nardener5 de Carroll, par)ialmente )itadoen P.B , es un e


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i asume la persona de mi no3le padre,1o6 a ha3lar )on él, aun/ue el infierno mismo de3e 3oste7ar G mndame )allaré. 8 Aldea ;

% )%8 se)uen)ias 1erse normalmente se a)umulan en las estru)turas ms grandes

llamadas estrofas#

• Una estrofa es se)uen)ia de líneas /ue es mar)ada visualmente fuera)omo una unidad separada. Una estrofa )onsta de una o ms se)uen)ias deverso, 6 un poema se )ompone de uno o ms estrofas.

)%% lgunos tipos de poemas )omo 3aladas, /uintillas 6 sonetos puedendefinirse so3re la 3ase de sus )ara)terísti)as formales.

• Una 2alada estrofa es una estrofa de )uatro versos )onforme a la

9a"9a" patr*n.


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ofre)e 6 se re)i3e en 8o se utili7a para refor7ar; un espíritu de tran/uilidad,armonía, medita)i*n 6 )ontempla)i*n. 8@odo esto es típi)o, al pare)er, del

3udismo Zen, la )eremonia


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6er fun)iona3ao6 en día no est fun)ionandoindo%s es )omo /ue

Suera de la memoria.

Queremos mantener todo el )ielo,Pero nun)a lo haremos.

Primera nieve, luego el silen)io.Muere sta pantalla mil d*larestan 3ellamente.

l @ao /ue se ve+o es el verdadero @ao, hastaUsted trae t*ner nuevo.

Un ar)hivo tan grandePuede ser mu6 :til.Pero ahora se ha ido.

C*mo se podría anali7ar la efe)tividad de estos poemas 8Un e


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/%)% Aespe)to al tipo de dis)urso presentado por un poema, la distin)i*n ms:til es la /ue e9iste entre poemas líri)os 6 poemas narrativos 8)f. ta9onomía delgénero de este pro6e)to en I2 .

• Un poema lírico es un tipo su3


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misma identifi)a en primera persona, se puede utili7ar unnominali7ada @ )omo una forma de referen)ia 8el 56o de este poema refle


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e


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pronom3res son is*topos rela)ionados en te9tos )oherentes 85 Fate era unamu.

Mi )ora7*n salta )uando )ontemplo Un ar)o iris en el )ielo#nton)es fue )uando )omen7* mi vida,sí /ue ahora es /ue so6 un hom3re,Que así sea )uando 6o enve


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unidos por un denominador )om:n semnti)a Qué se entiende por 5l niHo esel padre del hom3re5 8línea !; @é)ni)amente, se trata de una parado


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% /%** )ompara)iones ret*ri)as vienen en dos formas# )omo 5símiles5 o5metforas5#

• Un símil es una )ompara)i*n ret*ri)a en la /ue omparandum primum 6 omparatum seundum estn unidos por una pala3ra de

)ompara)i*n e9plí)ita )omo 5me gusta5 o 5as5.


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Para o3tener instru))iones ms re)ientes en la teoría metfora >, /ue tam3iénin)lu6e un tratamiento de símil 6 la metonimia 8 P. ;, ver Orton6, ed. 8B!B;,=a'off 6 Johnson 8BL0;, =evinson 8BL"# " )ad.; Tnfo/ue pragmti)oK )ríti)ade la 5)ompara)i*n5 6 las teorías 4intera))i*n], =a'off 6 @urner 8BLB;,Sau)onnier 6 @urner 8BBL;, 6 el n:mero espe)ial de la 3oétia 4oy 20." 8BBB;.

/%*)%


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0%*% )ifras fonol*gi)os 8)ifras sonido orientados;

• aliteración repeti)i*n de )onsonantes ini)iales sonidos de las pala3rasve)inas. Un su3tipo de >)onsonan)ia> 8ver ms a3a


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• anáfora repeti)i*n de una pala3ra o e9presi*n al prin)ipio de las frasessu)esivas, ora)iones o versos.

o 6udaV +e)esito a alguien $ elpV +o )ual/uiera $ elpV a3es /uene)esito a alguien 8ong;

o G se olvid* de las estrellas, la luna 6 el sol, $ G se olvid* de la nada por en)ima de los r3oles, $ 6 se olvid* de las )aHadas donde lasaguas )orren, $ 6 se olvid* de la 3risa de otoHo frío. 8Feats,5Isa3ella5;

• arcaísmo uso de una pala3ra pasada de moda.

o Yl lo detiene )on su mano huesuda, $ >u3o un 3ar)o& 2uoth él. $>old offV uéltame, gris 3ar3a 3ri3*nV >$ E+tsoons su mano )a6*él. 8Coleridge;

• enallage inusual )om3ina)i*n de pala3ras.

o G )on la dote muerto de ansfo6 8penser;

• epanalepsis uso de la misma pala3ra /ue empie)e 6 finali)e versos, frasesu ora)iones.

o 1ive 6 de


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• geminatio dupli)a)i*n de una pala3ra.

o @igre, tigre, lu7 llameante 8-la'e;

• polyptoton =a repeti)i*n de una pala3ra en una forma diferente infle9i*n,/ue impli/ue un )am3io en el )aso, género, n:mero, tiempo, persona, elestado de nimo, o la vo7.

o +o ha6 nada /ue puedas haer /ue no se puede haer , $ +ada /ue puedas antar /ue no puede ser antada . 8@he -eatles;

• tautotes repeti)i*n fre)uente de una pala3ra.

o XOh, maravilloso, maravilloso, 6 ms maravilloso $ maravillosaV Guna ve7 ms maravilloso, $ 6 después de eso, de todos hulaV 8 1omo

gustéis ;

o &MaHana, 6 maHana, 6 maHana. 8 Mabeth ;

0%/% figuras sint)ti)as 8datos administrativos;

• puntos suspensi.os =a omisi*n de una pala3ra o frase.

o =a 3elle7a es verdad, la verdad, 3elle7a 8Feats;

• eugma =a fusi*n o superposi)i*n de dos )onstru))iones diferentes8normal, )omo para tomar onseo 6 tomar el té a )ontinua)i*n;.

o /uí t:, gran nnaV los )uales tres reinos o3ede)en, $ Dost ve)estoman )onse


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• paralelismo repeti)i*n de unidades sint)ti)as 8frases, )lusulas,ora)iones;.

o f)il viene, f)il se va. O


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• eufemismo uso de una e9presi*n inofensiva en lugar de un unodesagrada3le.

o estar 3a


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• parado"a de)lara)i*n aparentemente a3surda o il*gi)aK )ontradi))i*nresolver.

o l niHo es el padre del hom3re. 8ords%orth; 8 P".L para ladis)usi*n;

o n medio de la vida estamos en la muerte.

• símil Una )ompara)i*n de las )osas o a))iones introdu)idas por 5)omo5 o5)omo5. 1er P". para una dis)usi*n detallada.

o Como un puente so3re aguas tur3ulentas $ 6o me a)ostaré.

o 1agué solitario )omo una nu3e 8ords%orth;

o Mi amor es )omo una rosa ro


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• metonimia =a sustitu)i*n de una pala3ra por un término espa)ial o )ausal.

o leer a ha'espeare 8R las o3ras de ha'espeare;

o =a )orona se en)uentra un heredero 8R el monar)a se ...; 8 1uentode invierno ;

o Qué medidas ha tomado hitehall 8R el No3ierno 3ritni)o;

• sin$cdo;ue ustitu)i*n de una parte por el todo o el todo por una parte, eluso de un )on)epto ms estre)ho o ms an)ho 8 pars pro toto o totum proinstania de parte ;.

o Contemos las nari)esK ha3ía mu)has )aras nuevas en la reuni*n. 8RNente;

o =a ola o))idental 8R mar; esta3a en llamas. 8Coleridge;

• hip$r2ola uso de una e9presi*n e9agerada.

o Cien aHos 6o daría para ala3ar $ @us o


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o In)luso en la tarde de sus me


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• pregunta retórica Una pregunta /ue tiene una respuesta o3via.

o Un


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0. 6 me pare)e /ue viviste tu vida $ )omo una vela en el viento.

. =luvia, lluvia sale, viene otra ve7 otro día.

2. on las pe/ueHas )osas /ue nos ha)en grandes. 8Pu3li)idad;

". l ruido es una de las )osas /ue no se puede )errar los o


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2L. emos visto días me


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+o tiene su don fl6ing&tor)ida.

1%*% primera vista, esto pare)e ser un 5poema animal, 3si)amente, /uedes)ri3e las )ara)terísti)as de vuelo de una mariposa )om:n 8una5 repollo 5,;. Ms adelante en el te9to, la isotopía fl6ing&animales se retoma )uando se

)ompara 6 )ontrasta )on la de 5la a)ro3a)ia rpida5 8B; forma de la mariposa devuelo. l título del poema agrega un sesgo de evalua)i*n llamando al vuelo de lamariposa 5tor)ida5, las líneas posteriores se suman a este


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est en a3soluto interesado en una )uenta de 5neutral5, o3


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5Sormas poéti)as 6 terminología literaria.5 El &orton Antología de laliteratura $nglés . Quinta edi)i*n. =ondres# +orton.

-onheim, elmut. BB0.6istem0tia literarias. Cam3ridge# -re%er.

-roi)h, Ulri)hK Pfister, Manfred, eds. BL. $ntertetualit=t: >ormen, >un;tionen, anglistishe >allstudien . @\3ingen# +ieme6er.

-urdorf, Dieter. BB. Ein+?hrung in die Gedihtanalyse . tuttgart# Met7ler.

Culler, Jonathan. B!.. 3oétia estruturalista =ondon# Aoutledge.

Chatman, e6mour. B!0.5=os )omponentes del medidor Inglés5. n Sreeman, Donald C.,ed.,


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=a'off, NeorgeK Johnson, Mar'. BL0. Met0+oras &os vivir era . Chi)ago# U de Chi)ago P.

&&&K @urner, Mar'. BLB. M0s de +río Motivo: A >ield Guide to met0+ora poétia . Chi)ago# U deChi)ago P.

=anham, Ai)hard . BB. A 4andlist de términos ret%rios . -er'ele6# U of California P.

=anser, usan . BL.


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Department, Universit6 of Cologne.Version: .!.ate: ugust 2, 200"Dhis page: http#$$%%%.uni&'oeln.de$(ame02$pppp.htmro"ect introductory page: http#$$%%%.uni&'oeln.de$(ame02$ppp.htm

Do facilitate glo2al inde=ing! all paragraphs in this section are prefi=ed ##

for #poetry#% @f you ;uote from this document! use paragraph references 'e%g%!

)%*+ rather than page num2ers%

Contents

*% Rhythm and Meter

)% Rhyme! .erse se;uence! stan-a

/% &emantic analysis of poetry

0% Minima Rhetorica

1% An interpretation of Ro2ert 3ra.es! 4Flying Croo5ed4 '*6/7+8% oetry 9e2sites

% References

*% Rhythm and Meter

*%*% Poetr6 vs prose. Nive us a )on)ise definition of poetr6. Can>t thin' of oneoff the )uff ell, admittedl6, it is al%a6s diffi)ult to define a phenomenon inisolation. s'ed in this manner, the /uestion has little dire)tion or purpose. o let

me rephrase the /uestion, seemingl6 ma'ing it a more diffi)ult one. =et us tr6 todefine poetr6 in )ontradistin)tion to prose. In other %ords, let us aim at a>differential definition> %hose purpose is to 3ring out the spe)ifi)it6 of poetr6 and%hose validit6 8i.e., su))ess or failure to differentiate as intended; is easil6 tested.

O3viousl6, on a printed page a poem loo's different from a prose passage 8a pagefrom a novel, sa6;. In a poem, the individual lines seem to 3e relativel6independent units 8and it is no a))ident that lines of poetr6 are identified 36 aspe)ial term# verse;. Prose, in )ontrast, is not made up of verses. In a prose te9t, itdoes not reall6 matter %hether the lines are short or long. pparentl6, then, %hat

%e have isolated is a >suffi)ient )ondition> 8if this te9t is %ritten in verse then itmust 3e poetr6;, possi3l6 even a >ne)essar6 )ondition> 8if this is poetr6 then itmust have verses;. Indeed, some re)ent approa)hes 8see referen)e in P?; usethese )onditions as their 3asi) assumptions. @he follo%ing a))ount, in )ontrast,

3uilds on a more traditional approa)h %hi)h re)ogni7es an essential poeti)al/ualit6 even in the a3sen)e of versifi)ation. Consider the three short passages/uoted 3elo%. @he6 ma6 all loo; li'e prose, 6et the truth is that onl6 one of them

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is prose, %hile t%o of them )ome from poeti)al te9ts %hose versifi)ation has 3een suppressed 8)redit goes to Aaith B?2# for inventing this e9periment;. +evertheless, man6 people %ill 3e a3le to spot the differen)e and identif6 %hi)his prose and %hi)h is poetr6.

• In Eanadu did Fu3la Fhan a statel6 pleasure&dome de)reeK %here lph,the sa)red river, ran through )averns measureless to man . . .

• If it assume m6 no3le father>s person, I>ll spea' to it though hell itselfshould gape and 3id me hold m6 pea)e.

• nd then, thought Clarissa Dallo%a6, %hat a morning && fresh as if issuedto )hildren on a 3ea)h.

Most people are reasona3l6 )onfident to state && )orre)tl6 && that the first t%oitems are poetr6 and that the last item is prose. 8@he first one is the 3eginning ofColeridge>s poem 5Fu3la Fhan5K the se)ond is a line from ha'espeare>s 4amlet ,a pla6 %hi)h is largel6 %ritten in verse, and the third is the 3eginning of thenovel Mrs Dalloway 36 1irginia oolf.; pparentl6, then, the visual impressionthat poetr6 is %ritten in verse, though useful as an initial differentiation, is notenough. Indeed, man6 theorists assume that the true differentiating )riterion isnot a visual 3ut an auditor6 one. -ut ho% )an that 3e -e)ause, reading a te9t,one pronoun)es it mentall6. Aeading the three passages )ited a3ove, man6 peoplenote that the poeti)al passages have a )ertain >rh6thm>, and this is %hat interests

us in the follo%ing. @he prose passage from oolf>s novel, in )ontrast, has nosu)h rh6thmK it is >rh6thmi)all6 free>.

*%)% Of )ourse, %e )annot rh6thm>#

• rhythm @he iteration 8repetition; of a group of elements.

@his is /uite a general definition, as it must 3e, sin)e rh6thm is a ver6 general

phenomenon. Sor instan)e, the definition )overs )ases li'e the se/uen)e of tides8high tide, lo% tide, high tide, lo% tide ...;, the seasons of the 6ear 8spring,summer, autumn, %inter;, the rh6thm of 3reathing 83reathing in, 3reathingout, ...;K the rh6thmi) )ontra)tion and e9pansion of one>s heart 8s6stole, diastole;et). +ote that in all of these e9amples, rh6thm is indeed )hara)teri7ed 36 8i;elements, 8ii; groups, and 8iii; iterations.


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In the follo%ing, %e are )om3ining ertheimer>s prin)iples of grouping8a Gestalt &theoreti)al approa)h, see Ja)'endoff BL"# )h. L. for a more detaileda))ount; %ith the traditional stud6 of verse also 'no%n as prosody. s ane9er)ise, identif6 the elements, the groups, and the iterations in the e9amplesgiven a3ove.

*%/% It is no a))ident that the follo%ing lines 8and virtuall6 thousands more inthe )orpus of nglish poetr6; are all identi)al in one spe)ifi) feature. hi)h

• I find no pea)e, and all m6 %ar is done 86att, !;

• One da6 I %rote her name upon the strand 8penser, B;

• @hat time of 6ear thou ma6st in me 3ehold 8ha'espeare, ?0B;

• in)e there>s no help, )ome let us 'iss and part 8Dra6ton, ?B;

• nd ten lo% %ords oft )reep in one dull line 8Pope, !;

ns%er# @hese lines are all identi)al in length. +ot length as measured 36num3er of letters or num3er of %ords 8as is misleadingl6 suggested 36 item five&& note that item three has nine %ords, not ten;K no, it is the num3er of s6lla3les#the lines are all e9a)tl6 ten s6lla3les long. nd %hen one reads these lines 8eithermentall6 or out loud; one noti)es that the6 tend to 3rea' do%n into smallergroups of s6lla3les.

Poeti)al rh6thm of this sort is )alled >meter> 8fr. Nree' >measure>;, and a line 8orverse; that is rh6thmi)al in this manner is said to 3e >metri)al>.

• meter @he s6lla3i) rh6thm of poetr6. line of verse )onsists of a se/uen)eof metri)al groups 8or metri)al units;. Metri)al groups )onsists of onestressed s6lla3le and one, t%o, or three unstressed s6lla3les.

*%0% poem>s meter )an 3e 3rought out 36 using a te)hni/ue )alled scansion, a'ind of enfor)ed metri)al reading. In order to >s)an> a line of poetr6, ma'e oneradi)al assumption# assume that a s6lla3le )an 3e either stressed or unstressed,and nothing else. @o s)an a line means to assign to ea)h of its s6lla3les either7ero stress or ma9imum stress. uppose, for a moment, that an unstresseds6lla3le sounds li'e a %ea' 5da5 and a stressed one li'e a strong 5DUM5. +o%ta'e the se/uen)e 5da&DUM5 and repeat it a fe% times 86ou>ll get the hang of it;.hat 6ou get is )learl6 rh6thmi)al. +e9t, ta'e a group of s6lla3les that go li'e5DUM&da&da5, and iterate that. n unmista'a3le rh6thm, a 3it li'e a %alt7, 3ut


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different from the one 3efore. @a'e one that goes 5da&da&DUM5. nother 'ind ofrh6thm. @a'e one that goes 5da&DUM&da&da5. @here are man6 more s6lla3i)

patterns && thirt6&t%o e9a)tl6 && that )an 3e )reated 36 )om3ining up to fourstressed and unstressed s6lla3les, and an e9pert prosodist )an all identif6 them 36name. 8I am not an e9pert prosodist, 3ut da&DUM is an >iam3>, DUM&da&da is a

>da)t6l>, da&da&DUM is an >anapest>, and da&DUM&da&da is a >se)ond paeon>.; Inthe follo%ing, ho%ever, %e %ill fo)us on


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)an re)eive ma9imum stress 8his is the man && @his is the man && @his is theman&& @his is the man;.

*%% ere is ho% one determines %hether a line is >metri)al>#

• metrical line is a line %hi)h, %hen s)anned, has a regular rh6thmi)al pattern. se/uen)e li'e ooo is metri)al 3e)ause it )onsists of threegroups of 5o5sK so is oooo 8t%o groups of oo;. In )ontrast, these/uen)e ooooooo is not rh6thmi)al 3e)ause there are no iterateds6lla3i) groups. +either is ..., for the same reason 8this is mi9edmeter>,P.", 3elo%;. It is o3vious, ho%ever, that neither of these >feet> allo%srepetition as a rh6thmi)al group. Moreover, %e %ill soon introdu)e a distin)tion

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3et%een s)ansion and re)itation 8P., 3elo%; %hi)h removes the need fore9)eptional feet su)h as these && usuall6, the6 are s 5Mad Nardener>s ong5#e thought he sa% an lephant, @hat pra)tised on a fifeKe loo'ed again, and found it %as letter from his %ife.5t length I reali7e,5 he said, 5@he 3itterness of =ife.5

e thought he sa% a Aattlesna'e @hat /uestioned him in Nree'#

e loo'ed again, and found it %as @he middle of ne9t %ee'.5@he one thing I regret,5 he said, Is that it )annot spea'V5

If 6ou do it right ever63od6 %ill hear that Carroll uses an iam3i) meterthroughout. It seems sensi3le, too, that 5Aattlesna'e5 8)f. dis)ussion in P.?;, inthe given )onte9t, should 3e stressed o, not oo. +ote that, in the approa)hused here, s)ansion al%a6s attempts to esta3lish a regular rh6thmi)al se/uen)e.@heoreti)all6, in line , one )ould easil6 stress the t%o o))urren)es of 5he5 and

leave 5thought5 unstressed. s a )onse/uen)e, ho%ever, one %ould then 3efor)ed to stress 5an5, and 5lephant5 %ould )ome out as oo && a horri3le ideaV

*%*


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Of )ourse, it is al%a6s sensi3le to /uer6 definitions && do 6ou see the pro3lem that)omes %ith the notion of a >monometer>

*%**% Poeti) li)en)e. ometimes a poet intentionall6 deviates from ordinar6language usage or pronun)iation to )reate or maintain a regular meter.

pe)ifi)all6, poeti) li)en)e provides t%o standard tri)'s for gaining and losing as6lla3le.

• n e=pansion 6ields an unstressed s6lla3le, anda contraction>elision removes an unstressed s6lla3le.

9ample of an e9pansion#-ut )ame the %aves and %ashd it a%a6 8penser;

9ample )ontaining t%o )ontra)tions#

nd moan th>e9pense of man6 vanished sight@hen )an I grieve at grievan)es forgone,nd heavil6 from %oe to %oe tell o>er 8ha'espeare;.

ditors often signal e9pansions 36 using a gravis a))ent mar' 8W;, and elisions 36using an apostrophe mar' 8>;.

ome e9pansions 8as in a learned man, a roo;ed leg ; 83e )areful not tomispronoun)e these %ords;, and man6 )ontra)tions 8li'e don!t et).; are inordinar6 use and do not )onstitute a )ase of poeti) li)en)e. @here are, ho%ever, a

num3er of t6pi)all6 poeti) )ontra)tions# o!er "over#, e!er "ever#, e!en "even# && pronoun)ed li'e or,air, $an.

• in.ersion deviation from ordinar6 %ord order for the purpose ofmaintaining a regular meter. In the e9amples )ited a3ove, 5grievan)esforgone5 und 5)ame the %aves5 are metri)all6 motivated inversions.

*%*)% -oth a pause and the a3sen)e of a pause )an 3e used for metri)al purposes.

• caesura is a pause in the 3od6 of a line, often mar'ed 36 pun)tuation.O))asionall6 a )aesura su3stitutes for an other%ise >missing> s6lla3le.9ample#

I have a litt-le step--son of on-ly three years old

o 1 o 1 o 1 o 1(!) o 1 o 1 o 1


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s Poe 8B?B TL?# &2; argues, the )aesura after 5stepson5 ta'es the pla)e of a missing stressed s6lla3le.

• cadence @he final rh6thm group of a verse 8or senten)e;, usuall6 )losing%ith a pause. ometimes the final pause is a))epted as a su3stitute for a

missing s6lla3le. 9ample# 5@igerV @igerV -urning 3right5 8-la'e;Tmissing s6lla3le at the end su3stituted 36 verse&final pause. Conversel6,supernumerar6 unstressed s6lla3les are freel6 tolerated in the )onte9t of a)aden)e, 6ielding a >h6permetri)al line>. 9ample# 5 thing of 3eaut6 is a

%raparound meter> 8Poe did not, of )ourse, use the term >%raparound>;. t an6rate, the6 are not as irregular as the6 ma6 seem at first glan)e 8Poe B?B TL?#&!;.

*%*/% Using the metri)al potentialities of elision, e9pansion, )aesura, )aden)e,

h6permetri)al lines, and en


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Mi9ed meter is governed 36 %hat A. ells has termed the >prin)iple ofma9imi7ation> 8/td =ud%ig BB0# ;.

• principle of ma=imi-ation @a'e a line>s >predominant meter> to 3e the onethat ma9imi7es the line>s regularit6. @o ma9imi7e a line>s regularit6, 'eep

the num3er of su3stitute feet to a minimum.

Useful 3ut nonstandard terms %ould 3e >endogeni) feet> vs >e9ogeni) feet>8insider$outsider feet;. en)e, the prin)iple of ma9imi7ation )ould 3e rephrasedas, 5hen sanning a line use as many endogeni +eet as possible. 9amples#

• @here lived a %ife at Usher>s %ell

nd a %ealthie %ife %as she 8P2.!;

• hen that I %as, and a tin6 little 3o6 8ha'espeare, wel+th &ight 1.."!;

int# @he pro3lem areas are 5nd a %ealthie5 in item 8%h6 not simpl6 s)an thisline as a tro)hai) tetrameter;, and 5and a5 in item 2.

*%*0% )ansion vs re)itation. )anning is not the same as re)iting. )ansionattempts to esta3lish the metri)al 3asis 8or >metri)al grid>, =ud%ig BB0# !; of a

poeti)al line. Ae)iting a poem aims at reading it for sense and effe)tK s)ansion isan enfor)ed metri)al reading %hi)h sounds 8intentionall6; monotonous and

3oring. lthough sense )learl6 overrides predominant meter 8mith B?# 2;, a

re)iter must have a )on)eption of the metri)al grid on %hi)h a poem has 3eenfashionedK and, sense permitting, s$he %ill ta'e good )are to let this rh6thm 3e

per)eived.

*%*1% s an e9ample, )onsider the follo%ing lines#M6 heart leaps up %hen I 3ehold rain3o% in the s'6 8ords%orth;

mith 8B?# 2"; argues that the first line should 3e stressed ooo, pointingout that 5@he three stressed s6lla3les, heart leaps up, are li'e three strong 3ounds,

and %e feel the delight of the poet5. ell, possi3l6. -ut are %e tal'ing ofs)anning or of re)iting )ansion of the t%o lines, as an6 reader )an verif6, isregularl6 iam3i). o% a reiter a)tuall6 reads those lines is a different matteraltogether. @he first thing a re)iter %ill thro% over3oard is the s)ansion restri)tion)on)erning 7ero stress and ma9imum stress 8o>s and >s, P.;. hen s)anning6ou do not re)ite, and %hen re)iting 6ou do not s)an# it is reall6 as simple as that.



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Sailure to re)ogni7e this 3asi) distin)tion has resulted in a host of pointless)ontroversies in the histor6 of prosod6.

In this )onte9t, )onsider the follo%ing argument 36 M.. 3rams, the generaleditor of the reputa3le &orton Anthology. 3rams /uotes the initial /uatrain of

ha'espeare>s sonnet ?#=et me not to the marriage of true mindsadmit impediments. =ove is not lovehi)h alters %hen it alteration finds,Or 3ends %ith the remover to remove.

5It is perfe)tl6 possi3le5, 3rams sa6s, 5if one )rushes all one>s sensitivities, toread the first line of this poem as a me)hani)al iam3i) pentameter T.... -ut of)ourse no3od6 ever reads it that %a6, e9)ept to ma'e a pointK read %ith normalnglish a))ent and some sense of %hat it is sa6ing, the line should pro3a3l6 form

a pattern something li'e this T... Tindi)ating a stress pattern of oooooo, MJ,%hi)h is neither pentameter nor in an6 %a6 iam3i). @he se)ond line is a littlemore iam3i), 3ut, read for e9pression, falls s meter. o far sogood. On)e %e a))ept 3rams>s )on)lusion, ho%ever, %e find ourselves in a)orner. urel6, pronoun)ing line num3er one as 5=@ me not to the MAAiageof @AU MI+D5, as 3rams suggests, %ill not e9a)tl6 thrill an audien)e. @hereis reall6 no sensi3le reason %h6 a re)ital should 3e restri)ted to using full or 7erostresses e9)lusivel6. orse, line " supposedl6 5readTs as %ell as s)anTs li'e fiveiam3i) feet5, hen)e has a stress pattern of 5hi)h =ters + it =tertionSI+D5, follo%ed 36 5Or -+D %ith @ reMO1er @O reMO15. ell, ifthat rendering doesn>t )rush 5all one>s sensitivities5 then I don>t 'no% %hat does.Sinall6, )onsider line of the same poem, %hi)h runs 5O no, it is an ever fi9edmar'5. hould the %ord 5fi9ed5 3e rendered as one or as t%o s6lla3les 1irtuall6ever6 s)holar, in)luding 3rams 8I thin';, %ould e9pand it, ma'e it into t%os6lla3les 8P.;, and rightl6 so. -ut on %hat 3asis does one )ome to thatde)isionK on the 3asis of reading for e9pression or on the 3asis of s)ansion



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*%*8% opefull6, 3earing in mind the foregoing dis)ussion, 6ou are no% in a position to e9plain and resolve the %ell&'no%n metri)al pro3lems of thefollo%ing lines, also from a sonnet 36 ha'espeare 8Chatman B!0# "2L;. 8@hisshould not 3e too diffi)ult.;

hall I )ompare thee to a summer>s da6

@hou art more lovel6 and more temperate 8ha'espeare;

*%*% ere are some more s)ansion e9er)ises, 3ut 3e %arned, the6 are not /uiteas eas6 as the e9amples )ited earlier.

%ift of foot %as ia%athaKe )ould shoot an arro% from him,nd run for%ard %ith su)h fleetness,@hat the arro% fell 3ehind him. 8=ongfello%, 5@he ong of ia%atha5;

Cannon to right of them,Cannon to left of them,Cannon in front of them 1olle6ed and thunderedKtormed at %ith shot and shell,-oldl6 the6 rode and %ell,Into the st 3orne to strange sights, @hings invisi3le to see,Aide ten thousand da6s and nights, @ill age sno% %hite hairs on thee.@hou, %hen thou return>st, %ilt tell me ll strange %onders that 3efell thee, nd s%ear +o%here=ives a %oman true, and fair. 8Donne, 5No and )at)h a falling star5;

@here %as a 6oung lad6 of +iger ho smiled as she rode on a tigerK @he6 returned from the ride ith the lad6 inside,nd the smile on the fa)e of the tigerV


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ints# if the Donne poem poses a pro3lem )onsider that one line of it %as usedfor illustrating one of the most )ommon feet 8P.L;. If 6ou find that the limeri)'seems to 3e slightl6 irregular && it is && tr6 to esta3lish its predominant meter onthe 3asis of the )on)luding three lines.

*%*7% Poets often en


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• sprung rhythm 5N.M. op'ins> term for a mi9ed meter in %hi)h the foot)onsists of a stressed s6lla3le %hi)h ma6 stand alone, or ma6 3e )om3ined%ith from one to three more unstressed s6lla3les5 83rams B?# 2;.

I )aught this morning morning>s minion, 'ingdom of da6light>s

dauphin, dapple&da%n&dra%n Sal)on, in his ridingOf the rolling level underneath him stead6 air 8op'ins, 5@he indhover5;

• free .erse 5is verse %hi)h, although more rh6thmi) than ordinar6 prose, is%ritten %ithout a regular metri) pattern5 83rams B?# "B;.

=et us go then, 6ou and I,hen the evening is spread out against the s'6=i'e a patient etheri7ed upon a ta3le 8@.. liot, 5@he =ove ong of J. lfred Prufro)'5;

Can 6ou give me a pre)ise des)riptionaid the poli)eman. er lips, I told him,ere soft. Could 6ou give me, he said, pen)ilAaised, a metaphor oft as an open mouth,I said. 8-arr6 Cole, 5Aeported Missing5;

lthough these te9ts e9emplif6 a gradual loss of metrial 8i.e., s6lla3i); rh6thm,and 3egin to sound more and more li'e ordinar6 prose 8%ell, some of them do;,the6 still use elements li'e visual versifi)ation, )aden)es, and regular pauses thatmight 3e )onstitutive of a different 'ind of poeti)al rh6thm. @o m6 'no%ledge,little has 3een done in this area of prosod6.

)% Rhyme! .erse se;uence! stan-a

)%*% =i'e rh6thm, rh6me is a sound&oriented poeti)al feature.

• @%o %ords rhyme if the6 are identi)al or similar from the last stressedvo%el on%ards. rh6me is a pure rhyme or a perfect rhyme %hen therh6ming 3its are identi)al in sound 8ran)man, bright)night, many)any,

subdue)renew, glorious)vitorious;K %hereas a half rhyme> slant rhyme isone in %hi)h the rh6ming parts are onl6 similar in sound 8often it ise9a)tl6 the vo%els that differ# load)lid, stone)+rown, over)reover ;.


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@here are t%o main e9)eptions#

• n eye rhyme lin's t%o %ords that loo' as if the6 ought to rh6me perfe)tl6 3ut in realit6 do not, e.g., daughter and laughter . Usuall6, an e6erh6me is onl6 a half rh6me. +ote, ho%ever, that %hat ma6 appear as an

e6e rh6me ma6 on)e have 3een a pure rh6me 8as prove)love %as inha'espeare;K and in the spe)ial )ase of the %ord wind there %as on)e a

poeti) li)en)e 8P.; that permitted it to rh6me perfe)tl6 %ith %ordsli'e +ind et). 8Cases li'e these have to 3e )he)'ed in a good et6mologi)aldi)tionar6 su)h as the -+ord English Ditionary.;

• rich rhyme lin's t%o %ords that sound %holl6 ali'e8homophones;# reed)read, rite)right .

)%)% Surther )ommon distin)tions )on)ern the position of rh6mes and thenum3er of s6lla3les involved.

• n end rhyme is one in %hi)h the rh6ming %ords o))ur at the end of t%olines 8this is, of )ourse, the standard )ase;.

• n internal rhyme is one in %hi)h one of the rh6ming %ords o))urs inthe middle and the other at the end of a line 85On)e upon amidnight drear6, %hile I pondered, %ea' and %ear65 && Poe;.

•

masculine rhyme is one that ends in a single stressed s6lla3le8ran)man;.

• feminine rhyme is one that ends in one or more unstressed s6lla3les8 &iger)tiger ;.

)%/% Ah6mes have a variet6 of fun)tions# the6 emphasi7e the end of a lineK the6help memori7e versesK and the6 lin' and 3ind verse se/uen)es. Sor an anal6sis of )omple9 rh6ming patterns, ordinar6 lo%er&)ase letters 8%ith the e9)eption of >9>;are used to represent rh6ming lines, and the letter >9> represents a non&rh6ming

line. @he t%o most )ommon and 3asi) rh6ming patterns are alternate rh6mes andem3ra)ing rh6mes#

• n alternate rhyme is a verse se/uen)e that rh6mes a3a3 8or similarl6,su)h as 9a9a;K



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• an em2racing rhyme is a verse se/uen)e that rh6mes a33a 8or similarl6,su)h as a99a;.

rh6ming pattern su)h as 9a9a9a 8)learl6 a variant of an alternate rh6me;)onsists of a verse se/uen)e of si9 lines of %hi)h the se)ond, fourth and si9th

rh6me 8Carroll>s 5Mad Nardener>s ong5, partiall6 /uoted in P.B, provides ane9ample;. O))asionall6, one adds an indi)ation of the lines> metri)al length sothat the general formula for the stan7as of the 5Mad Nardener>s ong5 3e)omes9a"9a"9a".

)%0% @he follo%ing standard verse&se/uen)e patterns have a)/uired properterms#

• couplet is a verse se/uen)e )onsisting of e9a)tl6 t%o rh6ming lines8aa;.

• @he short couplet or octosylla2ic couplet is a verse se/uen)e )onsistingof the pattern aa#

I am his ighness> Dog at Fe%KPra6 tell me, ir, %hose Dog are 6ou 8Pope;

• @he heroic couplet uses the pattern aa#

n hour of /uiet shortl6 shall %e seeK@ill then, in patien)e our pro)eeding 3e. 8 4amlet 1..2B;

• tercet is a verse se/uen)e using either the rh6me pattern a9a or aaa 8thelatter is also )alled a triplet;.

• ;uatrain is a verse se/uen)e )onsisting of four lines, usuall6 of therh6ming pattern 9a9a, a33a or a3a3.

=onger verse se/uen)es 8%hose possi3le rh6ming patterns are too varied to 3elisted here; in)lude ;uintets, sestets, septets, octets, and nonets.

)%1% s %as pointed out a3ove 8P.";, the most popular t6pe of verse se/uen)ein nglish as %ell as uropean dramati) literature is the 3lan' verse.

• 2lan5 .erse se/uen)e of unrh6med iam3i) pentameters. -lan' verse is>3lan'> 3e)ause it has neither rh6mes nor a rh6ming pattern. Sor an



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e9ample, %e )an fall 3a)' on a )ouple of lines that %e used to esta3lish therh6thmi)al )hara)ter of poetr6 8P.;#

If it assume m6 no3le father>s person,I>ll spea' to it, though hell itself should gape

nd 3id me hold m6 pea)e. 8 4amlet ;

)%8% 1erse se/uen)es usuall6 a))umulate in larger stru)tures )alled stan7as#

• stan-a is se/uen)e of lines that is visuall6 mar'ed off as a separate unit. stan7a )onsists of one or more verse se/uen)es, and a poem )onsists ofone or more stan7as.

)%% ome t6pes of poems su)h as 3allads, limeri)'s and sonnets )an 3e definedon the 3asis of their formal features.

• 2allad stan-a is a four&line stan7a )onforming to the pattern 9a"9a".9ample#

@here lived a %ife at Usher>s ell nd a %ealthie %ife %as sheKhe had three stout an stal%art sons, nd she sent them o>er the sea.

• limeric5 8define it 6ourself && P.! )ites a t6pi)al e9ample;

• sonnet poem )onsisting of e9a)tl6 fourteen lines 8usuall6, iam3i) pentameters;. @he @talian sonnet su3divides into t%o /uatrains 8or oneo)tet; and t%o ter)ets 8or one sestet;, usuall6 follo%ing the pattern a33aa33a )de )de. @he English sonnet 8as used, among others, 36ha'espeare; su3divides into three /uatrains and one )ouplet 8usuall6 a3a3)d)d efef gg;. Man6 sonnets move to%ards a .olta, a sudden turn inthought && 5from /uestion to ans%er, from pro3lem to solution5 8olmanB!!;, often o))urring either at the end of the o)tet or the end of the third/uatrain.

)%7% Meter and rh6me are )ulturall6 determined patterns. Sor a t6pe of poemthat is 3ased on a different set of formal features )onsider the hai'u#

• hai5u three&line poem of Japanese origin, often )onsisting of e9a)tl6 !s6lla3les arranged in a &!& se/uen)e. -6 preferen)e, a hai'u treats anatural event 8often a trivial or /uotidian one related to one of the seasons



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of the 6ear;. It is usuall6 offered and re)eived in 8or used to reinfor)e; aspirit of tran/uillit6, harmon6, meditation, and )ontemplation. 8ll this ist6pi)al, apparentl6, of Zen -uddhism, the Japanese tea )eremon6, et).;

ere is a hai'u 36 Morita'e, a ?C poet, translated 36 -a3ette Deuts)h#

@he falling flo%er I sa% drift 3a)' to the 3ran)has a 3utterfl6.

s Deuts)h )omments, 5the poem refers to the -uddhist prover3 that the fallenflo%er never returns to the 3ran)hK the 3ro'en mirror never again refle)ts5 8/tdN%6nn, Condee and =e%is B?# ";.

Master6 of Japanese hai'u poetr6 is usuall6 )redited to the !C poet Matsuo-asho. ere is one of his hai'us 8/td Enylopaedia /ritannia s.v. /asho;#

On a %ithered 3ran)h )ro% has alighted#

+ightfall in autumn.

Perhaps -asho>s most famous hai'u is the one )ited in the opening s)ene ofd%ard -ond>s &arrow 'oad to the Deep &orth 8a pla6 on the life of -asho;#

ilent old poolSrog imagists>, a group of nglish andmeri)an poets, made o))asional use of the form. -est 'no%n is the follo%inghai'u 36 7ra Pound#

In a tation of the Metro@he apparition of these fa)es in the )ro%dKPetals on a %et, 3la)' 3ough.

ome useful %e3 lin's to the art and histor6 of hai'u %riting )an 3e foundat dir.6ahoo.)om$rts$umanities$=iterature$Poetr6$ai'u$ .

)%6% trange as it ma6 seem, the hai'u has re)entl6 3een revived in the form of>internet hai'us> or >error&message hai'us>, themati7ing a malfun)tioning)omputer )omponent or program#

Gesterda6 it %or'ed@oda6 it is not %or'ingindo%s is li'e that

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Out of memor6.e %ish to hold the %hole s'6,-ut %e never %ill.

Sirst sno%, then silen)e.

@his thousand dollar s)reen diesso 3eautifull6.

@he @ao that is seenIs not the true @ao, untilGou 3ring fresh toner.

file that 3igIt might 3e ver6 useful.-ut no% it is gone.

o% %ould one anal67e the effe)tiveness of these poems 8 diffi)ult e9er)ise, Ithin'K perhaps )on)epts su)h as parody, s6stem interte9tualit6 T8-roi)h andPfister BL# )h. III and$or epiphan6 T +".".0 might prove helpful.;

/% &emantic analysis of poetry

/%*% @6pes of poems. /ritish and Amerian 1lassial 3oems is a )arefull6annotated and lovingl6 illustrated antholog6 of poetr6 in %hi)h the poems are

arranged not, as is usual, 36 author or histori)al se/uen)e 3ut 36 te9t t6pes.mong their si9teen t6pes, editors errig, Meller, and \hnel in)lude 5-allads5,5+arrative Poems5, 5Dramati) Monologues5, 5hort =6ri)s and ongs5,5Pastorals5, 5onnets5, 5legies5, 5Odes5, 5Aefle)tive 1erse and 1erse ssa6s5,5pigrams5, and 5+urser6 Ah6mes5. ome of these t6pes of poems are defined

36 formal )riteria 8sonnet && a &line poem;, some 36 pragmati) )riteria 8+urser6Ah6mes && poems for )hildren;, and some 36 semanti) )riteria 8Pastoral && a poemset in id6lli) rural surroundings Toften identified as 5r)adia5 and revolvingaround the life of shepherds and shepherdesses;.

/%)% Aegarding the t6pe of dis)ourse presented 36 a poem, the most usefuldistin)tion is that 3et%een l6ri)al poems and narrative poems 8)p. this prosgenre ta9onom6 in I2.

• lyrical poem is a su3


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l6ri)al poem are t6pi)all6 framed in the present tense. Common su3t6pesof l6ri)al poems are odes, elegies and verse essa6s. ee P for aninterpretation of a l6ri)al poem.

• narrati.e poem, in )ontrast, 5is one that tells a stor65 8Preminger

B!;. @he spea'er of a narrative poem is a narrator %ho tells a stor6 thateither happened to her$himself or to other )hara)ters 8see the distin)tion

3et%een first& and third&person narrators in the narratolog6 se)tion, +";.@he senten)es of a narrative poem are t6pi)all6 framed in the past tense85@here lived a %ife at Usher>s ell5;. @he most )ommon t6pes ofnarrative poems are 3allads, nurser6 rh6mes and verse epi)s.

+ote that this is not intended to 3e a %atertight divisionK indeed, man6 poemshave 3oth l6ri)al and narrative features, or l6ri)al and narrative passages. till, itis usuall6 possi3le to determine a dominant orientation, espe)iall6 in the sensethat a narrative passage )an %or' in the servi)e of a l6ri)al poem, or else a l6ri)al

passage in the servi)e of a narrative poem 8)p. Chatman>s notion that te9t t6pes5)an operate at ea)h other>s servi)e5, BB0# L;.

/%/% Aegarding the person or su3author> and >spea'er>. =i'e all te9ts, poems have a )ommuni)ational stru)tureinvolving senders and addressees 8)ompare D2. and +2.". on the definition ofthese terms in drama theor6 and narratolog6, respe)tivel6;.

• spea5er @he te9t&internal agen)6 8usuall6 a first person; %ho a)ts as thesu3voi)e> of the poeti)al te9t 8or part of the poeti)alte9t, sin)e a poem ma6 have several spea'ers;. @he term >spea'er> is usefulfor t%o reasons# 8i; it emphasi7es the auditor6 )hara)teristi)s 8meter,rh6me; of most poeti)al te9ts, and 8ii; it avoids automati) e/uation %iththe te9t>s e9ternal author 8see 3elo%;. On)e the spea'er of a poemidentifies him& or herself in the first person, one )an use a nominali7ed @ asa form of referen)e 85the I of this poem refle)ts on... 5;. If the poemhappens to 3e a l6ri)al poem 8P".2;, then the term lyrical @ is appropriate.

If the te9t is a narrative poem 8P".2; then narratologi)al terms su)has narrator, narrating @ 8 +".".2;, et)., are appropriate. Sinall6, if one hasreasons to 3elieve that a poem>s spea'er is not the author then the spea'eris often )alled a persona 8t6pi)all6, the spea'ers of dramati) monologuesare personae && e9ample# the Du'e of Serrara in -ro%ning>s 5M6 =astDu)hess5;.

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@he spea'er>s )ommuni)ational partner is, logi)all6 enough, a hearer or moregenerall6 an addressee. @he addressee ma6 3e present, named, and >overt>K often,ho%ever, s$he is a3sent, nameless, indeterminate, or imaginar6 8)f. the rhetori)alfigure of apostrophe P.;. In an a)t of self&)ommuni)ation, the spea'er>saddressee is, of )ourse, the spea'er him& or herself.

• @he author, in )ontrast to the spea'er, is the real&life poet him& or herself,the te9t&e9ternal )reator 8%riter; of the poeti)al te9t# people li'e uden,Di)'inson, ha'espeare, ords%orth, and so on. in)e it is al%a6s

possi3le that the author ma6 use the voi)e of a persona 8see a3ove;, or useseveral spea'ers, man6 s)holars toda6 do not automati)all6 identif6 a

poem>s spea'er %ith its author.

ven though spea'ers and authors are here treated as distin)t >te9tual roles>, the6ma6, of )ourse, share )ertain )hara)teristi)sK indeed, 3iographi)al and other te9t&e9ternal eviden)e ma6 add )onsidera3le su3stan)e and meaning to a poem. In this)ase it is )learl6 legitimate to use the terms >spea'er> and >author> side 36 side.

Sinall6, 9e, i.e. >real> readers, are the author>s and the poeti)al te9t>s e9ternaladdressees.

/%0% hatever 6ou ma6 thin' of >politi)al )orre)tness> in general, interpretivedis)ourse must de)ide on %hi)h politi)all6 )orre)t pronoun to use for referring toa te9t>s spea'er. in)e a generi) >he> is )learl6 out of the /uestion, most s)holarstoda6 follo% %hat has 3e)ome 'no%n as >=anser>s rule> 8BL# ??;#

• Banser#s rule In the a3sen)e of an6 te9t&internal )lue as to the spea'er>sse9, use the pronoun appropriate to the author>s se9. Sor instan)e, aspea'er of indeterminate se9 in a poem 36 mil6 Di)'inson %ould 3ereferred to as 5she5, %hile a similar spea'er in a poem 36 illiam Carlosilliams %ould 3e referred to as 5he5.

+ote, =anser>s rule originall6 applies to narrators in fi)tional narrative te9ts8 +"..";.

/%1% @he 3asi) assumption guiding all anal6ses of meaning is that te9ts are)oherent. random )olle)tion of %ords su)h as 5@he 'ing of and is5 does not)onstitute a 8meaningful; te9t, and neither does a random )olle)tion of senten)esthat ma6 3e meaningful in isolation. In fa)t, let us assume that )oheren)e is thefeature that separates te9ts from >non&te9ts>#

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• nonte=t 8erli)h B!?# 2"; )onsists of a 3asi)all6 randoma))umulation of %ords or senten)es.

It %as a dar' and storm6 night. uddenl6 a shot rang out. @he maids)reamed. uddenl6 a pirate ship appeared on the hori7on. hile millions

of people %ere starving, the 'ing lived in lu9ur6. Mean%hile, on a smallfarm in Fansas, a 3o6 %as gro%ing up. 8Charles )hul7, Cou!re -ut o+6ight, 1harlie /rown;

• )oherent te=t, in )ontrast, is 3ased on a net%or' of meaningfull6 relatede9pressions#

nd %o% he died as %o% he lived,going %hop to the offi)e and 3looie home to sleep and 3iff got married and

3am had )hildren and oof got fired,7o%ie did he live and 7o%ie did he die 8Sran)is Searing, 5Dirge5;

ords and senten)es must )ohere if %e %ant to spea' meaningfull6# des)ri3esomething, tell a stor6, argue a point, or )onve6 a message.

/%8% Most approa)hes to%ard an anal6sis of themati) )oheren)e use the )on)eptof >isotopies> proposed 36 the Sren)h stru)turalist .J. Nreimas.

• n isotopy 8or le.el of isotopy; is a se/uen)e of e9pressions semanti) denominator>. n isotop6 identifies one of thete9t>s themes. On the most 3asi) level, names, des)riptive phrases, and

pronouns are isotopi)all6 related in )oherent te9ts 85Fate %as a 6oung%oman %ho ...5;. More generall6, s6non6ms and )o&referential e9pressions85Pluto5, 5m6 dog5; and mem3ers of a set 85)ats5, 5dogs5; are isotopi)all6related, and so are )ontrasts 853la)'5, 5%hite5; and opposites 85hot5,5)old5;. Often, one has to move up or do%n on the a2straction ladder ofthe language 8that is, generali7e or e9emplif6; to find the relevant semanti))ommonalit6 8)p. e9amples given here, and e9er)ises 3elo%;. Ultimatel6,the theor6 )laims that in a )oherent te9t all e9pressions are isotopi)all6lin'edK there are no isolated islands of e9pressions. ee Nreimas 8BL"TB??;K Culler 8B!# )h. I.;.

@hemati) anal6sis usuall6 3egins %ith an attempt to )olle)t e9pressions that)onstitute an isotop6 && either 36 )o&referen)e or )ommon set mem3ership. @itles,repetitions, parallelisms, oppositions and )ontrasts are important pointers to)entral isotopies. opefull6, %hen all relevant themes have 3een identified, the


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inter&themati) lin's 8%hi)h are also isotopies; %ill ultimatel6 )onstitute a te9t>sglo3al message.

/%% 9er)ise. In P"., a stan7a from Searing>s 5Dirge5 %as )ited as an e9ampleof a 8)oherent; te9t. sta3lish the main levels of isotopies in this te9t and relate

them to the title of the poem. +ote that the some%hat unusual o))urren)es of5po%5, 5%o%5, 53iff5 et). also )onstitute a re)urrent themati) level. here dothese >%ords> )ome from, %hat do the6 >mean>, and ho% are the6 related to theother themes of the poem

/%7% Consider the follo%ing programmati) poem 36 illiam ords%orth, a poetof the >Aomanti)> era.

M6 heart leaps up %hen I 3ehold rain3o% in the s'6#o %as it %hen m6 life 3egan,

o it is no% I am a man,o 3e it %hen I shall gro% old Or let me dieV@he Child is Sather of the ManKnd I )ould %ish m6 da6s to 3e-ound ea)h to ea)h 36 natural piet6.

ighlight the te9t>s isotopi)all6 related e9pressions. Sor instan)e, find the )o&referential e9pressions identif6ing the spea'er>s various states of e9isten)e. o%is the theme of 5%hen m6 life 3egan5 8line "; ta'en up again in the poem Is it

related to larger themes that are lin'ed 36 a )ommon semanti) denominatorhat is meant 36 5@he Child is Sather of the Man5 8line!; @e)hni)all6, this is a

parado9, a seemingl6 nonsensi)al statement. @o e9plain a parado9, 6ou %ill haveto sho% that %hat the spea'er means is not at all nonsensi)al. Sinall6, %hat is themeaning of 5natural piet65 in the last line If 6ou )annot relate it to an6thing thathas 3een mentioned 3efore 6our interpretation is not 6et finished.

/%6% Aead penser>s sonnet 5One da6 I %rote her name upon the strand5, and present a themati) anal6sis. int# 3egin 36 mar'ing and dra%ing )onne)ting lines 3et%een all e9pressions that designate, 3roadl6, a medium of language. Sind one

or more parallels for 5%ashed it a%a65. Identif6 the themes of life and death8remem3er that opposites are important pointers to isotopies;K note the lin'

3et%een these themes and ma'e a list of all te9tual allusions to them as the6o))ur in the te9t. fter a %hile, 6our )op6 %ill 3e mar'ed 36 a )riss)ross of linesof )orresponden)e %hi)h goes to sho% 8a; that penser>s sonnet is a highl6)oherent te9t and 83; that 6our themati) anal6sis is on the right tra)'. Sinall6,

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adding up all themes, formulate a )on)ise statement that summari7es the messageof the poem and might serve as a title.

/%*)omparison theor6> 8=evinson BL"# )h.".2.; and Nreimas>s theor6 of isotopies.

• rhetorical comparison )ompares a thing 8the primum omparandum;to a thing - 8the seundum omparatum; on the 3asis of a )ommon featureor similarit6 8the tertium omparationis;. @he )omparison pattern )anusuall6 3e formulated as either A is li;e / with respet to 1 , or A is as 1 as

/, or A is li;e / beause both are, or do, or loo; li;e, 1 . 1ariant termsfor primum omparandum are tenor, target, re)ipient fieldK for seundumomparatum# vehi)le, sour)e, donor field.

@6pi)all6, a rhetori)al )omparison presents an une9pe)ted or even unli'el6introdu)tion of -, seemingl6 ma'ing the te9t in)oherent. Sa)ing an apparentrupture in te9tual )oheren)e, the reader>s tas' is to esta3lish an isotop6 thatsupplies the missing lin', usuall6 36 guessing a suita3le tertium omparationis.

/%**% Ahetori)al )omparisons )ome in t%o forms# as >similes> or >metaphors>#

• simile is a rhetori)al )omparison in %hi)h primumomparandum and seundum omparatum are lin'ed 36 an e9pli)it)omparison %ord su)h as 5li'e5 or 5as5. 9ample#

M6 love is li'e a red red rose @hat>s ne%l6 sprung in June#M6 love is li'e the melodie @hat>s s%eetl6 pla6ed in tune. 8-urns;

@he spea'er>s 5love5 8this is the %oman he is in love %ith, not the emotion assu)h; is here )ompared to, first, a rose, and then a 5melodie5. Aegarding the first

simile, ho% is a %oman li'e a plant 8a seeming in)oheren)e; @he ensuing line5@hat>s ne%l6 sprung in June5 suggests that the tertium omparationis 8and thelin'ing isotop6 the te9t intends to esta3lish; is something li'e freshness && the%oman I love, the spea'er suggests, is as fresh as a rose. +ote that in another)onte9t the tertium omparationis of the identi)al simile might %ell 3e 3eaut6,thorniness, or dangerousness.


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• metaphor is a rhetori)al )omparison that leaves out the )omparison parti)le 8hen)e, 5m6 love is a rose5 %ould 3e a metaphor;. Sre/uentl6,the seundum omparatum simpl6 repla)es the primumomparandum 85M6 T%ife, %ho is as 3eautiful as a rose 'issed me andsaid ....5;. ere are some less sill6 e9amples#

o 5er 3a)'3one 8; %as a 3ended 3o% 8-;5 8+ash; && a metaphorinvo'ing a dog>s 6outhful sprightliness.

o 5@hat time of 6ear 8-; thou ma6st in me 3ehold5 8ha'espeare; &&the )urrent stage in a man>s life, 8;, is )ompared to a season 8-;.Surther )onte9t indi)ates that the season alluded to is autumn andthat the )ommon feature is de)a6, imminent death, et).

o 5Sorests 8-; at the 3ottom of the sea5 8hitman; && the spea'ersuggests that there are under%ater gro%ths 8; that loo' li'e 8C;forests 8-;.

Sor more re)ent dire)tions in >metaphor theor6>, %hi)h also in)ludes a treatmentof simile and meton6m6 8P.;, see Orton6, ed. 8B!B;, =a'off and Johnson8BL0;, =evinson 8BL"# )h. "; Tpragmati) approa)hK )riti/ue of >)omparison> and>intera)tion> theories, =a'off and @urner 8BLB;, Sau)onnier and @urner 8BBL;,and the spe)ial issue of 3oetis oday 20." 8BBB;.

/%*)% 9er)ise on )oheren)e and imager6.

• Dis)uss the main su3s song 5 Candle in the ind5.@here are t%o versions, and the more re)ent one 3egins %ith the %ords5Nood36e ngland>s rose5. -ut, I ta'e it, the song is neither a3out )andlesnor roses.

• Sind a )op6 of the poem 5@he Sl65 36 Farl hapiro. trangel6 enough, it 3egins %ith the %ords 5O hideous little 3at5 && and thus immediatel6)onfronts the reader %ith an apparent in)oheren)e. nal67e the poem>s

imager6 and %or' out its )ontri3ution to the te9t>s overall themati)stru)ture and message.

/%*/% 9er)ise# 8a; Present an isotopi)al anal6sis of the metaphor 5m6 leavesand flo%ers5 in Geats>s poem, 3elo%K 83; um up the poem>s overall message inone senten)e.

@ COMI+N OS IDOM I@ @IM



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@hough leaves are man6, the root is oneK@hrough all the l6ing da6s of m6 6outhI s%a6ed m6 leaves and flo%ers in the sunK

+o% I ma6 %ither into the truth. 8.-. Geats;

0% Minima Rhetorica

@he follo%ing 3rief surve6 of )lassi)al rhetori)al figures is 3ased on Forte andJahn 8BL;, a 0&page 3ro)hure still %idel6 used at the nglish Department ofthe Universit6 of Cologne. hen %e )ompiled that handout, our main sour)es%ere 3rams 8BL;, olman 8B!!;, Preminger 8B!;, and hiple6 8B!;K %ealso )onsulted some standard di)tionaries su)h as 5ebster!s 1ollegiate andthe 6horter -+ord English. Sor our main organi7ational prin)iple of grouping thefigures 36 their dominant linguisti) effe)t %e are inde3ted to Plett 8B!;. more

re)ent standard hand3oo' is =anham 8BB;. Sor an e9)ellent internet sour)e seearris 8BB!; at %%%.u'6.edu$rts)ien)es$Classi)s$arris$rhetform.html

0%*% Phonologi)al figures 8sound&oriented figures;

• alliteration Aepetition of initial )onsonant sounds in neigh3oring %ords. su3t6pe of >)onsonan)e> 8see 3elo%;.

o e )lasps the )rag %ith )roo'ed hands 8@enn6son;

o =ove>s =a3our>s =ost 8ha'espeare;

o Peter Piper pi)'ed a pe)' of pi)'led pepper

• assonance Aepetition of vo%el sounds.

o mad as a hatter

o I saw old autumn in the must6 mor n 8@. ood;

• consonance Aepetition of )onsonant sounds.

o last 3ut not least .

o as 6our soul sipped $ Of the s%eetness of all sweets$ as it%ell supped $ -ut 6et hungers and sweats 8. O%en;

http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/Harris/rhetform.htmlhttp://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/Harris/rhetform.html


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• onomatopoeia Imitation of the sound asso)iated %ith a thing or an a)tion.

o Co)' a doodle dooV M6 dame has lost her shoe. 8+urser6 rh6me;

o @he moan of doves in immemorial elms$ nd murmuring of

innumera3le 3ees 8@enn6son;

0%)% Morphologi)al figures 8%ord&oriented figures;

• anadiplosis Use of the last %ord of the previous verse or senten)e to 3egina ne% verse or senten)e.

o =ove give me strengthV and strength shall help afford. 8 'omeo and 8uliet ;

o he %al's %ith -eaut6 & -eaut6 that must die 8Feats;

• anaphora Aepetition of a %ord or e9pression at the 3eginning ofsu))essive phrases, senten)es, or verses.

o elpV I need some3od6$ elpV +ot @here %as a ship,> 2uoth he.$>old offV unhand me, gre6&3eard loonV>$ E+tsoons his hand droppedhe. 8Coleridge;

• enallage Unusual )om3ination of %ords.

o nd %ith ansfo6>s dead do%r6 8penser;

• epanalepsis Use of the same %ord to 3egin and end verses, phrases, orsenten)es.

o =ive and let live.


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• epiphora Aepetition of a %ord or e9pression at the end of su))essive phrases, senten)es, or verses.

o =ittle =am3, %ho made thee$ Dost thou 'no% %ho made thee8-la'e, 5@he =am35;

o hirl 6our pointed pines$ plash 6our great pines 8.D.;

• figura etymologica @he repetition of a %ord>s root, involving different%ord )ategories 8often, ver3s _ nouns;.

o I name no names.

o pea' the spee)h, I pra6 6ou 8 4amlet ;

• geminatio Dou3ling of a %ord.

o @iger, tiger, 3urning 3right 8-la'e;

• polyptoton @he repetition of a %ord in a differentl6 infle)ted form,involving a )hange in )ase, gender, num3er, tense, person, mood, or voi)e.

o @here>s nothing 6ou )an do that )an>t 3e done,$ +othing 6ou)an sing that )an>t 3e sung . 8@he -eatles;

• tautotes Sre/uent repetition of a %ord.

o O %onderful, %onderful, and most %onderful$ %onderfulV nd 6etagain %onderful,$ and after that, out of all hoopingV 8 As Cou


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o ere thou, great nnaV %hom three realms o3e6,$ Dost sometimes)ounsel ta'e && and sometimes tea. 8Pope;

• in.ersion Deviation from normal %ord order.

o +o living man$ all things )an.

o trange fits of passion have I 'no%n. 8ords%orth;

• hysteron proteron Inversion of the natural order of events.

o =et us die and rush into 3attle 81irgil;

• parallelism Aepetition of s6nta)ti)al units 8phrases, )lauses, senten)es;.

o eas6 )ome, eas6 go. Out of sight, out of mind.

o O %ell for the fisherman>s 3o6,$ @hat he shouts %ith his sister at pla6V$ O %ell for the sailor lad,$ @hat he sings in his 3oat on the 3a6V8@enn6son;

• chiasmus Cross&%ise 8or mirrorℑ arrangement of elements.

o Sair is foul, and foul is fair. 8 Mabeth, I.i;

o %ith %ealth 6our state$ 6our mind %ith arts improve. 8Donne;

• asyndeton Unusual omission of )onerthro%n$ @he )ourtier>s, soldier>s,s)holar>s, e6e, tongue, s%ord "4amlet ;

• polysyndeton Use of 8unne)essaril6; man6 )on


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• antonomasia 8a; Use of a proper name in pla)e of an ordinar6 %ordK 83;Use of a des)riptive phrase in pla)e of a proper name.

o 8a; a hoover, a 9ero9, a Croesus, ...

o 83; @he -ard, @he %an of von 8R ha'espeare;

• periphrasis Use of a des)riptive phrase 8)ir)umlo)ution; in pla)e of asimple e9pression.

o eason of mist and mello% fruitfulness 8Feats, 5@o utumn5;

• euphemism Use of an inoffensive e9pression in pla)e of an unpleasantone.

o to 3e under the %eather 8ill;K passed a%a6 8dead;

o Aemem3er me %hen I am gone a%a6,$ None far a%a6 into the silentland. 8C. Aossetti;

• o=ymoron Com3ination of in)ongruous %ords.

o O heav6 lightnessV serious vanit6V$ Mis&shapen )haos of %ell&seeming formsV$ Seather of lead, 3right smo'e, )old fire, si)'

healthV 8 'omeo and 8uliet ;• catachresis Use of an inappropriate %ordK in)ompati3le imager6 8mi9ed

metaphor;.

o ta'e arms against a sea of trou3les 8 4amlet, III.i;

• synesthesia 8Illogi)al; )om3ination of sense&impression terms.

o ave 6ou ever seen su)h a 3eautiful sound 8dvertisement;

o @he e6e of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man>shand is not a3le to taste, his tongue to )on)eive, nor his heart toreport, %hat m6 dream %as. 8 Midsummer &ight!s Dream;

• pleonasm 8Unne)essar6; a))umulation of e9pressions that mean the samething.


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o I have a daughter, have %hile she is mine. 8 4amlet ;

• antithesis Parallel arrangement of opposite terms.

o Sair %ithout, foul %ithin.

o rs longa, vita 3revis & rt is long, and @ime is fleeting.

o M6 %ords fl6 up, m6 thoughts remain 3elo%. 8 4amlet ;

• parado= eemingl6 nonsensi)al or illogi)al statementK resolva3le)ontradi)tion.

o @he )hild is father of the man. 8ords%orth; 8P".L for dis)ussion;

o In the midst of life %e are in death.

• simile )omparison of things or a)tions introdu)ed 36 5li'e5 or 5as5.ee P". for detailed dis)ussion.

o =i'e a 3ridge over trou3led %ater$ I %ill la6 me do%n.

o I %andered lonel6 as a )loud 8ords%orth;

o M6 love is li'e a red red rose 8-urns;

• metaphor )omparison of things or a)tions not introdu)ed 36 5li'e5 or5as5. ee P". for a detailed dis)ussion.

o Gou are a ma)hine. 8ha%;

o @he apparition of these fa)es in the )ro%dK$ Petals on a %et, 3la)' 3ough. 8Pound;

o ometime too hot the e6e of heaven 8R the sun; shines8ha'espeare;

o @he ship ploughs the %aves.

8 dead metaphor is an unoriginal metaphor, one that is in )ommon use,e.g., Cou are the apple o+ my eye.;

http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.8http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.8http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.11http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.11http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.8http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.11http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppp.htm#P3.11


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• personification ttri3ution of human /ualities to a thing or an a3stra)tion.

o Sortune is 3lind.

o @he dish ran a%a6 %ith the spoon.

o -e)ause I )ould not stop for Death &&$ e 'indl6 stopped for me 8.Di)'inson;

• metonymy u3stitution of a %ord 36 a spatiall6 or )ausall6 related term.

o to read ha'espeare 8R ha'espeare>s %or's;

o @he )ro%n %ill find an heir 8R the monar)h %ill ...; 85inter!s ale;

o hat a)tion has hitehall 8R the -ritish Novernment; ta'en

• synecdoche u3stitution of a part for the %hole or the %hole for a partKuse of a narro%er or %ider )on)ept 8 pars pro toto or totum pro parte;.

o =et>s )ount nosesK there %ere man6 ne% fa)es at the meeting. 8R people;

o @he %estern %ave 8R sea; %as all aflame. 8Coleridge;

• hyper2ola Use of an e9aggerated e9pression.

o n hundred 6ears should go to praise$ @hine e6es, and on th6forehead ga7e.$ @%o hundred to adore ea)h 3reastK$ -ut thirt6thousand to the rest. 8Marvell;

o this$ fine spe)imen of h6permagi)al$ ultraomnipoten)e 8Cummings;

• litotes Ironi)al understatementK often e9pressed 36 a dou3le negation.

o he is not a 3ad sort.

o +or are th6 lips ungra)eful,$ ire of Men, +or @ongue inelo/uent.8Milton;

• hendiad Use of a )om3ination of t%o %ords to e9press a single idea.


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o la% and orderK aims and o3st the s'iesV 8idne6;

o MiltonV @hou should>st 3e living at this hour 8ords%orth;

• rhetorical ;uestion /uestion that has an o3vious ans%er.


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o ath not a Je% e6es ath not a Je% hands, organs, dimensions,senses, affe)tions, passions "Merhant o+ 9enie;

• irony statement that e9presses the opposite of %hat is literall6 stated.

o onderful da6, isn>t it 8it>s reall6 raining outside;

o ere, under leave of -rutus and the rest &$ Sor -rutus is anhonoura3le manK$ o are the6 all, all honoura3le men &$ Come I tospea' in Caesar>s funeral. 8 8ulius 1aesar ;

0%8% 9er)ise# Identif6 the rhetori)al figures used in the follo%ing items. 8Don>t 3other a3out alliterations and parallelisms, these are almost al%a6s present.;

. @he things %hi)h I have seen I no% )an see no more. 8ords%orth;

2. lone, alone, all, all alone,$ lone on a %ide %ide seaV 8Coleridge, Anient Mariner#

". Sor the s'6 and the sea, and the sea and the s'6$ =a6 li'e a load on m6 %ear6e6e. "Anient Mariner#

. Neorge the Sirst %as al%a6s re)'oned$ 1ile, 3ut viler Neorge the e)ond.8.. =andor;

. eard melodies are s%eet, 3ut those unheard are s%eeter. 8Feats, 5Ode On aNre)ian Urn5;

?. nipV napV nipV the s)issors goK$ nd Conrad )ries out OhV OhV OhV 85@henglish tru%%elpeter5;

!. I %asted time, and no% doth time %aste me. "'ihard $$, 1.v;

L. @he 6ello% fog that ru3s its 3a)' upon the %indo%&panes,$ @he 6ello% smo'ethat ru3s its mu77le on the %indo%&panes. 8liot, 5=ove ong of J. lfred

Prufro)'5;

B. In ever6 voi)e, in ever6 3an,$ @he mind&forged mana)les I hear. 8-la'e,5=ondon5;

0. and it seems to me 6ou lived 6our life$ li'e a )andle in the %ind.

. Aain, rain go a%a6, Come again another da6.


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2. It>s the little things that ma'e us 3igger. 8dvertisement;

". +oise is the one thing 6ou )an>t )lose 6our e6es to. 8dvertisement;

. +o% is the %inter of our dis)ontent $ Made glorious summer 36 this sun of

Gor'. "'ihard $$$, I.;

. here the 3ee su)'s, there su)' I. "he empest, 1.;

?. =ies have short legs. 8Prover3;

!. @hen, ngland>s ground, fare%ellK s%eet soil, adieu, $ M6 mother and m6nurse that 3ears me 6etV "'ihard $$, I.iii;

L. ver3al )ontra)t isn>t %orth the paper it>s %ritten on. 8. Nold%6n;

B. mall 3irds on stilts along the 3ea)h$ Aose up %ith piping )r6. 8O. +ash;

20. I thin' I e9istK therefore I e9ist, I thin'. 8Nraffito;

2. =ittle -ig Man. 8Silm title;

22. =ove is not love $ hi)h alters %hen it alteration finds$ Or 3ends %ith theremover to remove. 8ha'espeare, sonnet ?;

2". ome rise 36 sin, and some 36 virtue fall. "Measure +or Measure, II.ii;

2. @he6 have )ommitted false reportsK moreover, the6 have spo'en untruthsKse)ondaril6, the6 are slanders. "Muh Ado About &othing, 1.i;

2. @he %orst is death, and death %ill have its da6. "'ihard $$, III.ii;

2?. Sor 6ou and I are past our dan)ing da6s. "'omeo and 8uliet, I.v;

2!. nton6# Gou %rong this presen)eK therefore spea' no more.$ no3ar3us# Noto, thenK 6our )onsiderate stone. 8 Antony and 1leopatra, II.ii;

2L. e have seen 3etter da6s. "imon o+ Athens, I1.ii;

2B. @he )loud&)apped to%ers, the gorgeous pala)es,$ the solemn temples, thegreat glo3e itself,$ Gea, all %hi)h it inherit, shall dissolve. "he empest, I1.i;


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"0. +ot presume to di)tate, 3ut 3roiled fo%l and mushrooms & )apital thingV8Di)'ens, 3i;wi; 3apers#

0%% olutions 8onl6 figures other than alliteration and parallelism;.

. Pol6ptoton. 2. @autotes, anaphora, epanalepsis, geminatio. ". Chiasmus, simile.. Pol6ptoton. . Parado9. ?. Onomatopoeia, geminatio. !. Chiasmus,

personifi)ation. L. naphora, epiphora, personifi)ation. B. Metaphor, inversion.0. Sigura et6mologi)a, simile. . Neminatio, apostrophe, assonan)e. 2.Parado9. ". 6nesthesia. . Pun 8sun$son;, meton6m6 8 Du;e o+ Gor';. .Chiasmus, pol6ptoton. ?. Personifi)ation. !. postrophe, metaphor,hendiadio6n, parado9, pun 853ears5# sustains$gives 3irth to;. L. Parado9. B.Metaphor 8stilts R legs;. 20. Chiasmus. 2. O96moron. 22. Sigura et6mologi)a8t%i)e;. 2". ntitheses, )hiasmus, inversion. 2. Pleonasms. 2. nadiplosis. 2?.Periphrasis. 2!. llipsis 8 $!ll be your ...;, metaphor, enallage. 2L. =itotes. 2B.

Clima9K metaphor 8)loud&)apped to%ers;K pun 8glo3e$Nlo3e @heater TD.2;,antithesis. "0. llipsis.

1% An isotopiesoriented interpretation of Ro2ert 3ra.es! 4Flying

Croo5ed4 '*6/7+

S=GI+N CAOOFD

@he 3utterfl6, the )a33age %hite,

8is honest idio)6 of flight;ill never no%, it is too late,Master the art of fl6ing straight,Get has && %ho 'no%s so %ell as I && s manner offlight is )ompared and )ontrasted to that of 5the aero3ati) s%ift5 8B;. @he poem>stitle adds an evaluative slant 36 )alling the 3utterfl6>s flight 5)roo'ed5K later linesadd to this derogator6


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straight5, in )ontrast, is termed an 5art5 8; and )learl6 mar'ed as a positiveopposite to 5fl6ing )roo'ed5. @he level of isotop6 isolated so far suggests that the

3utterfl6>s %a6 of fl6ing is aimless, insta3le, inept, and hapha7ard.

1%)% nd 56et5 8;, though less noti)ea3le at first, the poem also in)reasingl6

foregrounds )ertain redeeming /ualities in the 3utterfl6>s %a6 of flight, %hi)h isalso a %a6 of life. lread6 in line 2, the 3utterfl6>s 5idio)6 of flight5 isa))ompanied 36 5honest5, an une9pe)tedl6 positive term. In line !, the 3utterfl6is granted a 5s errati) 3ehavior over themaster6, artfulness and elegan)e of the s%ift. Overall, the poem>s strateg6 is toreverse not onl6 first impressions 3ut also the >natural> value s poem so stimulating and thought&provo'ing.Clearl6, %hat it lets the reader 3e)ome a%are of is that language&en)ased valuesare not final


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leads to a goal, that provides the impulse for an artist to produ)e a pie)e of art, orfor a s)ientist to ma'e a dis)over6.

8% &ome useful poetry 9e2sites

• %%%.english.)am.a).u'$v)lass$virt)las.htm

Colin -urro%>s 1irtual Classroom Page at Cam3ridge Universit6. Containsa )ourse on pra)ti)al )riti)ism, )ase stud6 of a ha'espeare sonnet, aglossar6 of terms, and a /ui7.

• %%%.uni&duis3urg.de$S-"$NAM$-randme6er$Nedi)htanal6se$home.html

Audolf -randme6er>s poetr6 page at the Nerman Dept. of the U of

Duis3urg, Nerman6. @e9t is all Nerman, 3ut referen)es are internationalKdetailed intro to the theor6 of verse 8rather than of meter;, overvie% of

poeti) forms, sample interpretations 8termpapers, in Nerman;, large)lassified list of poetr6 %e3sites.

% References

3rams, Me6er . B?. A Glossary o+


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1oming to erms: he 'hetori o+ &arrative in >ition and >ilm. Itha)a#Cornell UP.

Sau)onnier, NillesK @urner, Mar'. BBL.5Con)eptual Integration +et%or's5. 1ognitive 6iene 22# ""&L!.

Sran', orst J. BB.5ie interpretiere ih ein Gediht@ @\3ingen# Sran)'e.

Nreimas, lgirdas Julien. BL" TB??.6trutural 6emantis. @rans. M)Do%ell, D., )hleifer, ., 1elie, .=in)oln# U of +e3ras'a P.

N%6nn, Srederi)' =., Condee, A.., =e%is, .O. B?.he 1ase +or 3oetry: A 1ritial Anthology. =ondon# Prenti)e&all.

arris, Ao3ert.BB!. 5 and3oo' of Ahetori)al Devi)es.5 B ugust BB!. Internetdo)ument a))essed 2 O)to3erBBB.http#$$%%%.s))u.edu$fa)ult6$A`arris$rhetori).htm

errig, =ud%igK Meller, .K \hnel, A., eds. B??. /ritish and Amerian 1lassial 3oems. -rauns)h%eig# estermann.

olman, C. ugh. B!!. A 4andboo; to


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Metaphor and hought . Cam3ridge# Cam3ridge UP.Plett, einri)h S. B!.

etwissensha+t und etanalyse: 6emioti;,

a guide to the theory of poetry. manfred jahn

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