a historical review of records of the west indian manatee and the american crocodile in the dutch...

8/18/2019 A historical review of records of the West Indian manatee and the American crocodile in the Dutch Antilles

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Caribbean Journal of Science, Vol. 42, No. 2, 000–000, 2006Copyright 2006 College of Arts and SciencesUniversity of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez

A historical review of records ofthe West Indian manatee and the

American crocodile in theDutch Antilles

ADOLPHE O. DEBROT1* , G. VAN BUURT 2 ,ANDY CABALLERO3 AND ANDRZEJ A. ANTC-ZAK

4 1 Carmabi Foundation, Piscaderabaai z/n,P.O. Box 2090, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles,2 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of Curaçao, Klein Kwartier 33, Curaçao, Nether-lands Antilles,

3

St. Maarten Nature Founda-tion, P.O.Box 863, Philipsburg, St. Maarten,Netherlands Antilles, 4 Instituto de EstudiosRegionales y Urbanos, Universidad Simón Bo-livar, Apartado 89144, USB Módulo, Caracas1086A, Venezuela. *Corresponding author:[email protected]

ABSTRACT .—We discuss the significance of twomanatee records for the Dutch Windward Islands(Saba, St. Eustatius, St. Maarten) as well as six man-atid and one crocodile record for the Dutch LeewardIslands (Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao). The persistenceof the manatee in the Lesser Antilles until the early17th century suggests that in pre-Columbian timesmanatees would have also occurred regularly in theDutch Windward Islands. In pre-Columbian times,suitable habitat for the American crocodile was suf-ficient in the Dutch Leeward Islands to have sup-ported small resident populations, and habitat forthe manatee was possibly also present. Both specieshave been widely hunted by early humans and wesurmise that small, isolated populations of these spe-cies could easily have been extirpated on the DutchLeeward Islands well prior to European coloniza-tion. However, two manatee sightings within the lastfive years, suggest that these islands may somehowstill form part of the active range of this rare andelusive species.

KEYWORDS .—Trichechus manatus , Crocodylus acu-tus , manatee, crocodile, Caribbean, Netherlands An-tilles, Aruba

The West Indian manatee, Trichechus ma-natus, is widely distributed throughout the

West Indies but has been extirpatedthroughout much of its range, therewith becoming rare and even endangered inmost countries in which it still occurs. Thespecies is typically associated with estua-rine and seagrass habitat, and where avail-able shows a strong preference for freshwa-ter (Lefebvre et al. 1989; Ortíz 2001;Morales-Vela et al. 2003). Archeologicalfinds indicate that the species was widelyused by the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the region (McKillop 1985; Mercado 1990;Riviera and Rodríguez 1991; Scudder 1991;UNEP 1995). Nevertheless, remains of themanatee are surprisingly rare in Amerin-dian midden deposits, possibly becausethey were butchered at shore and only themeat was carried back to the home site(Newsom and Wing 2004). There may alsohave been taboos imposed on their huntingand consumption. Keeping in mind thatritual artifacts, such as the vomitic spatulasused in the ritual of the cohoba, were usu-ally made out of manatee bones by theTainos from the Greater Antilles, the mana-tee might have been considered a ‘special’animal within the Amerindian cultural tax-onomy. During the colonial era the specieswas hunted for its fine meat, oil, bone andleather (Husar 1978).

The American crocodile, Crocodylus acu-tus, is a large estuarine predator that like-wise has a wide distribution within theCaribbean basin. This species depends onfresh and/or brackish water for osmoregu-lation (Mazotti et al. 1988) but is capable of traversing large stretches of open sea tocolonise oceanic islands in the region.

We here review and discuss severalmanatee and one crocodile record for theDutch Antillean islands that comprise two

island groups separated by about 900 km of open sea (Fig. 1). The records are furtherdiscussed with reference to historical use of the animals by the inhabitants of the re-gion.

The islands of Saba, St. Eustatius and St.Martin lie in the Lesser Antilles east of theBritish Virgin Islands and are typically re-ms. received April 19, 2005; accepted August 3, 2005

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ferred to as the Dutch Windward Islands.In contrast, the islands typically referred toas the Dutch Leeward Islands (Aruba, Bo-naire and Cura çao) lie in the southern Car-ibbean, between 30 and 70 km off the eastcoast of Venezuela. Of these, only Arubalies on the South American continentalshelf while Bonaire and Cura çao are oce-anic islands separated from Venezuela bymore than 1000 m of water depth.

A single pre-Columbian record of themanatee for the island of Saba is repre-sented by a ceremonial pipe that was col-lected from a Taino archeological site. Thepipe is made from manatee bone and isshaped like a fish (Hoogland 1996; Hoo-

gland and Hofman 1999). Ceremonial para-phernalia made from manatee bone arecommon from Taino sites throughout theGreater Antilles (Richard 2001; C. Hofman,pers. comm.) but are also known from theLesser Antilles (e.g., Douglas 1991). Thesteep volcanic island of Saba has no la-goonal or seagrass habitat and is unlikely

to have been able to support any manateesduring recent millennia. Therefore, this ar-tifact was most certainly introduced to theisland. Archeological excavations have sofar not produced any manatee records forSt. Eustatius (van der Klift 1992) or St.Maarten (Haviser 1991; Nokkert 1999a,1999b). However, manatee bones have beendocumented at prehistoric Amerindiansites on several other Lesser Antillean is-lands, such as Antigua (Wing et al. 1968),Barbuda (Watters et al. 1984), Carriacou(Sutty 1990), Guadeloupe and Martinique(Richard 2001), St. Kitts (Wing 1973) andAnguilla (Douglas 1991). On Guadeloupethe species is portrayed in prehistoric rock

art on the Bananier River (Richard 2001),while original place names referring to themanatee are found on both Guadeloupeand Martinique (Ray 1960).

While sightings of manatee are not re-garded as particularly noteworthy in theDutch Windward Islands because they con-cern a species generally known to inhabit

FIG. 1. Map of the Caribbean showing the islands for which manatid ( ) and crocodile ( ) records arepresented.

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the nearby waters of Puerto Rico (F. vander Hoeven, long-time president of the St.Maarten National Parks Foundation, pers.comm.), we nevertheless can report a sight-ing record for St. Maarten dating from thelate 1980s.

In the late 1980s, probably 1987 or 1988,Mr. Robbie Cijntje and his wife and chil-dren observed a single, 3-m long manateeat close range one day while boating in the8.6 km 2 Simpson Bay Lagoon, St. Maarten.The animal in question remained in the la-goon for over a week and drew consider-able attention from boaters, but then disap-peared (Robbie Cijntje, Nature Foundation,St. Maarten, pers. comm.). St. Maarten has asizeable lagoon with sheltered seagrass beds, as well as several smaller lagoons, butno permanently-flowing freshwaterstreams. While it is not known with cer-tainty whether the manatee requires freshwater to drink (Lefebvre et al. 1989; Mo-rales-Vela et al. 2003), if such is the case,then St. Maarten cannot be expected tohave supported manatees in the recentpast. However, Hartog (1964) finds indica-tion that in former times (prior to defores-tation of the island) there could well have been small permanent streams on the is-land. At present, there are no manatees inthe Lesser Antilles (Ray 1960; Lefebvre etal. 1989). Manatees are also virtually un-known from the U. S. Virgin Islands (Le-febvre et al. 1989) but do persist in theGreater Antilles to the west, includingPuerto Rico. Hence, this sighting recordclearly constitutes a rare case of vagrancy.

During the early 17 th century manateeswere abundant in nearby Guadeloupe, tothe point that they constituted an impor-tant part of the diet of the French colonists(Richard 2001). According to at least twosources at that time, Guadeloupe Amerin-dian natives did not cherish manatee flesh,due to the copious amounts of fat, which

they detested, and because of the supersti-tion that consumption of manatee fleshcaused the recurrence of maladies includ-ing venereal disease and others (Moreau1991; Richard 2001). Late 17 th centurysources attributed the disappearance of manatees in Guadeloupe and Martinique toexcessive hunting by colonists (Richard

2001). In Grenada, where the species per-sisted until at least the 17 th century (Rom-ero and Hayford 2000), its disappearance isalso ascribed to excessive hunting. Thus, inlight of early French colonial sources, it iscertain that in pre-colonial times manateeswould have occurred regularly around St.Maarten, though it is not certain whetherlocal conditions could have allowed mana-tees to persist year-round.

For the Dutch Leeward Islands there isno mention of the manatee in historical ac-counts (Hartog 1968; Schiltkamp and deSmidt 1978) or in early species lists (Hering1779; Bosch 1836; Teenstra 1836; Simons1868; Boeke 1907), nor has the species yet been found at any Amerindian sites (Hooi- jer 1960, 1963; Versteeg 1991; Haviser 1994;Grouard 1997). However, Martin (1888)provides Pleistocene (possibly pre-Pleistocene: see de Buisonj é 1974) fossil rec-ords for “ Manatus” sp. for Aruba at SeroeColorado and for Bonaire at Fontein. Theserecords originate from rare marine verte- brate phosphate deposits, one of four typesof phosphate deposits known from theDutch Leeward Islands (de Buisonj é 1974).Van Oort (1902) provides further details of the Aruban record, which was based on avertebra, while Rutten (1931) cites both rec-ords in his paleontology review paper. Nofossil record for the manatee has yet beendocumented for Cura çao, where marinevertebrate phosphate deposits are also notknown (de Buisonj é 1974). Records of ex-tinct mammals (Hooijer 1967), speleologicalstudies (de Buisonj é 1974), as well as a syn-thesis of palynological studies (Haviser1987) would indicate that prior to about5000 B.P., rainfall was higher in the DutchLeeward Islands. During the Holocene(10,000 B.P.) sea level may have also beenmuch lower (Colin-Girard 2002; Peltier2002), which could have facilitated coloni-zation by the manatee and created more

suitable habitats for manatee than thosefound today. Therefore, these fossil recordspossibly stem from a time prior to the ar-rival of man and in which permanent fresh-water streams and better habitat conditionscould have been available on the island. Inthe absence of diagnostic specimens, how-ever, and in view of the prevalence of other

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sirenians (Dugongidae) in the CaribbeanTertiary (Domning 2001), it cannot even beassumed that these fossil records pertain tomanatees (Trichechidae).

For Cura çao a reliable sighting record forthe manatee that dates from the late 1970swas when Max Rijna saw a manatee atclose range from a boat on the wave-exposed northeast coast of Cura çao in thevicinity of Boka Wandomi (M. Rijna †, pers.comm. to GvB, late 1970s). While no detailswere recorded, this sighting can be consid-ered reliable as it concerns a face-to-faceencounter with an experienced diver, fa-miliar with the manatee. The wary animaldove rapidly after the encounter.

At about 3:00 P.M. on the afternoon of February 1, 2001, experienced diver A.Huang and buddy R. van Duuren observeda manatee from about 8 m distance abovethem while diving at a depth of 15 m at theDirectiestrand, Caracasbaai, along thesouthwest coast of Cura çao. The animalwas 1.5-2 m long, generally rotund, ap-peared greyish-green in color, had a large,flat, paddle-like tail, short and stubby“arms ”, and a bulky head with tiny eyesand whiskers. As soon as the animal sawthe divers it went rapidly off towards shal-lower waters. The divers did not realisethey had seen a manatee until after thedive, when they consulted marine fauna lit-erature.

On September 12, 2005, R. Siberie and F.Lucas saw an animal with a big round tailand a “pig ’s face” repeatedly surface to breath about 5 m from their fishing spot inthe coastal lagoon of Ascenci ón, on thenortheast coast of Cura çao. They recog-nized it as a manatee as seen on televisionand called AOD, who immediately droveto the site and confirmed the sighting uponarrival at 2:00 P.M. Several photographswere made to document the record. Thesolitary animal was orange/greenish-

brown, at most 1.6 m in length and did notappear to be wounded. The sighting wasamply reported in the media (e.g., Anony-mous 2005). The animal was further seenon September 14 th and 16 th .

Recent sightings for Cura çao indicatethat manatees clearly have the dispersal ca-pabilities to reach the Dutch Leeward Is-

lands and may even suggest that the is-lands could somehow still form part of theactive range of these rare and elusive crea-tures. The relevance of and need for addi-tional protective legislation is evident.

Manatees are actively protected in Ven-ezuela (Ojeda 1997). However, in this sec-tion of the Venezuelan coast they have not been abundant since at least historicaltimes, probably due to the combination of restricted habitat availability and Amerin-dian hunting (O ’Shea et al. 1988). UNEP(1995) listed only two recent records for theCaribbean coast of Venezuela. So far nomanatee remains have been found at Am-erindian archeological sites on Venezuelancoastal islands (Antczak 1999; Mackowiakde Antczak and Antczak 2005) and thereare only two mentions of manatee bonesrecovered from Amerindian sites on themainland coast of Venezuela. The first onecomes from the site of Trompis in westernpart of the central coast, dated to approxi-mately A.D. 260-290 (Rouse and Cruxent1963). The second mention is from a site atPalmasola, not so far from Trompis anddated to approximately A.D. 250-500(Sýkora 2005). Both reports are related tothe first centuries of the presence of theAmerindian agriculturalists and pottery bearers in the region, suggesting thatmanatees might have already been overex-ploited during these early times. The WestIndian manatee has gregarious feeding ten-dencies and is essentially defenseless,which would have made it a favorite targetfor the very early Amerindian groups (Pa-leo and Meso Indians sensu Rouse andCruxent 1963).

Geographic locations bearing historicalor pre-Columbian names referring to ex-tinct or extirpated fauna (toponyms) mayprovide clues about the former occurrenceof such species and constitute useful infor-mation (i.e., a “record ”) for historical bio-

geography purposes (e.g., Ray 1960; Rom-ero et al. 2002; Adam and Garcia 2003). OnBonaire, the 7.3 km 2 Lac Bay mangrove andseagrass lagoon, located on the island ’s eastcoast, is the only potential former manateehabitat. An area south of the lagoon isknown as “Manparia Kutu ”, the Papia-mento word referring to a siren legend

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(e.g., Hass 1956). Keeping in mind that leg-ends of sirens are common from mainlandtribal folklore (van Buurt and Joubert 1997),this place name could have originated frommanatee presence in southern Bonaire.However, possible association of this termand place name with the extinct West In-dian monk seal, Monachus tropicalis, insteadof the manatee, should not be excluded(van Buurt and Joubert 1997).

All three Dutch Leeward Islands pres-ently have sheltered habitat with seagrassgrowing in abundance in semi-enclosed la-goons formed by inundation of Pleistocenecoastal valleys. In Cura çao for instance, thethree largest lagoons alone comprise morethan 11 km 2 in combined surface area (dis-counting modern land reclamation activ-ity). These lagoons provide sufficient feed-ing areas to have supported small herds of manatees on all three islands. Manatees aregood osmoregulators in both fresh and salt-water (Ort íz et al. 1998), and like both pin-nipeds and cetaceans have the ability toconcentrate urine above the concentrationof seawater (Ort íz 2001). Studies further in-dicate that manatees chronically exposed tosalt water will reduce their water turnoverrates to only 15% of turnover rates typicalof freshwater conditions (Ort íz et al. 1999),and that during periods of reduced foodconsumption, they may be able to activatelipolysis to meet water requirements (Ort ízet al. 2000). Yet, it is still not known to whatextent the manatee requires periodic accessto freshwater for survival. Even though theexistence of permanently-flowing freshwa-ter streams on Cura çao in the last centuries before discovery is doubtful, it is possiblethat naturally occurring seasonal streamsand/or groundwater seeps may have beensufficient to meet manatee water needs. If such is the case, then Cura çao, and possiblyAruba and Bonaire, could have supportedsmall populations of the manatee. The rar-

ity or even absence of this near-shore, es-tuarine species prior to European arrivalwould then have to be attributed to extir-pation by the early Amerindian inhabitantsof these islands, in contrast to for instancethe West Indian monk seal, Monachus tropi-calis, which had the habit of frequentingsmall, isolated offshore islands and which

persisted into the early 17 th century (Debrot2000).

In implementation of the CITES Treatyand the SPAW Protocol of the CartagenaConvention to which the Kingdom of theNetherlands is party on behalf of the Neth-erlands Antilles, the manatee is affordedlimited protection in the Netherlands An-tilles by means of the National Fisheries Or-dinance of 1991 (P.B. 1991 No. 74) and theNational Nature Management Ordinanceof 1998 (P.B. 1998, No.49). However, whilethe SPAW Protocol specifies the need forprotection against disturbance, at the insu-lar level there is no legislation to eitherimplement protection or provide a work-able definition of disturbance. In the early1930s (probably 1932) after a period of heavy rainfall, a large, aggressive crocodil-ian crawled onto the island of KleinCura çao (van Buurt 2001). After a few daysthe animal was killed by the lighthousewatch, butchered and transported to themain island of Cura çao for consumption.The animal was landed at Boka St. Michielwith its tail already hacked into steaks(Ciro Maduro † and Kichin Zimmerman,pers. observ. as communicated to GvB).This is the only known record of a croco-dilian for the Dutch Leeward Islands andwe surmise it to have been an Americancrocodile, Crocodylus acutus, a species thatis well capable of oceanic dispersal, as itspresence on several Caribbean islandswould indicate (Platt et al. 1999). In Ven-ezuela it is known by the Arawak name of “Caiman ”, a name that Linnaeus errone-ously applied to a genus of crocodiliansmore akin to the alligators. The species wasformerly abundant all along the coast of Venezuela, where it survives to this date(Corcuera 1984), but has become very rarealong most of the coast. The extant popu-lation nearest to the Leeward Islands todayis that of the Cuare Reserve, about 130 km

due south of Bonaire. Rivas Fuenmayor etal. (2005) have raised doubts about the re-cent occurrence of this species on MargaritaIsland, Venezuela. In the coastal town of Barcelona, west of Margarita, crocodileswere a common sight on the street up intothe 1920s. In 1992 an inhabitant recountedthat the “last ” crocodile of the Rio Man-

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zanares in Cuman á was shot in 1948 (GvB,pers. comm.). Today the species is activelyprotected in Venezuela, and has benefittedfrom at least one breeding-and release pro-gram (Ojeda 1997). So far no crocodile re-mains have been found at Amerindian ar-cheological sites along the mainland coastof Venezuela or its islands (Rouse andCruxent 1963; Antczak 1999; Mackowiak deAntczak and Antczak 2005; S ýkora 2005). Itis possible that some remains have been re-covered but have not been discriminatedfrom among the remains of the freshwaterspecies (AAA, pers. obs.).

As is the case with the manatee, theAmerican crocodile has not been recordedin historical accounts, early species lists, orany Amerindian sites for any of the DutchLeeward Islands. The species, and notablyits hatchlings and young, depend on theavailability of fresh or brackish water forosmoregulation (Neill 1971; Mazotti et al.1986). Yet in the past and even today, suit-able habitat with shallow fresh and brack-ish water pools on shore bordering man-grove-lined lagoons is common (Debrot2004). High groundwater levels at the mar-gins of these lagoons formed the basis forhuman settlement of these islands dating tomore than 3500 years B.P. (Haviser 1987).Therefore, it is curious that the species hasnot yet been recorded in the Dutch Lee-ward Islands. Like the manatee, this largevertebrate was (Scudder 1991; Marchena1995; Wing and Wing 1995) and still iswidely used as food by the native peoplesof the region, and we surmise that a pos-sible reason for the lack of pre-Columbianrecords may be that its limited populations became extirpated due to hunting well be-fore European colonization of these islands.It may also be that proper preservationsites for this species have not yet been sur-veyed. Freshwater caverns have only re-cently yielded crocodilian remains in the

Cayman Islands (Morgan et al. 1993) andBahamas (Franz et al. 1995). Such habitat ispresent in several low-lying coastal areas inthe Dutch Leeward Islands but has not yet been explored.

Acknowledgments. — We thank Max Rijna †,Ciro Maduro †, Kichin Zimmerman, as well

as Jose Speetjens, Robbie Cijntje andFran çois van der Hoeven, for helping re-trace several almost-forgotten records. A.(Bert) Huang generously provided infor-mation on his 2001 manatee sighting. Fish-ermen R. (Siep) Siberie and Frank Lucas arethanked for alerting us to the 2005 manateesighting while Frank Ricardo, and policeofficers G. Pisas and E. Martina are thankedfor logistical assistance in reaching the site.Marcus de Maayer is further thanked foradditional sighting information. Leon Porsdrew our map. Drs. Aldemaro Romero, Pe-ter Adam, Nelio Barros, Corrine Hofmanand Stanley Criens provided assistance inobtaining literature. This paper further benefited substantially from reviews byDrs. Daryl Domning, and Aldermaro Rom-ero. The Carmabi Foundation ’s contribu-tion to this paper was made possible byannual general subsidies by the CentralGovernment of the Netherlands Antillesand the Island Government of Cura çao.

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a historical review of records of the west indian manatee and the american crocodile in the dutch...

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