a hypothesis concerning the character of islamic art

A Hypothesis concerning the Character of Islamic ArtAuthor(s): Asli GocerSource: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 60, No. 4 (Oct., 1999), pp. 683-692Published by: University of Pennsylvania PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654114 .

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A Hypothesis Concerning the

Character of Islamic Art

Asli Gocer

Why Islamic art has the distinctive features it has continues to generate clashing explanations. The Islamic visual treasury has no figural images, for

instance, and three-dimensional sculpture or large scale oil painting, but instead contains miniatures, vegetal ornaments, arabesque surface patterns, and com-

plex geometrical designs. To account for the phenomena the following radically opposing theories have been offered: the influence of Judaism, the Quranic pro- hibition against making images,1 Islamic resentment of the glory of Byzantine icons,2 logocentricism of classical Islam,3 the spiritual dimension of Islam,4 tacit Islamic assertion of "otherness,"5 and contingency of history.6 The merits of these theories have been roundly discussed in the literature, and so I will not

repeat the task here. I will insist that none of these theories offer a coherent

explanation for all arts, but my presumption is that such an explanation is pos- sible. In nonvisual arts the Muslim prefers simple tunes over that of the sym- phony, for instance, whirling dervishes over the ballet, and lyric poetry over dramatic literature. In my view what explains the common characteristic of all these arts is a certain kind of Islamic attitude informed by a certain philosophical outlook. Although it would be hasty to suggest the existence of a monolithic

The most frequently quoted passages from the Quran are for post facto justifications (34.12; 3.42; 5.92; 6.74, e.g.).

2 Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven, 1987). 3 Mohammed Arkoun, "L'Humanisme arabe au IX siecle," Studia Islamica, 15 (1961),

63-87. 4 Lois Ibsen Al Faruqi, "An Islamic Perspective on Symbolism in the Arts: New Thoughts

on Figural Representation," Art, Creativity, and the Sacred, ed. D. Apostolos-Cappadona (New York, 1984), 164-79.

5 Gulru Necipoglu, The Topkapi Scrolls: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture

(Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1995), 73-87. 6 Oleg Grabar, "Islamic Art," The Dictionary of Art (New York, 1996), 16, 99-101.

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Copyright 1999 by Journal of the History of Ideas, Inc.



Islamic art, it would be equally rash to deny some striking commonalities among its diverse examples.7

The following observation by a Muslim scholar is notable in this regard: "Whether in the great courtyard of the Delhi Mosque or the Qarawiyyin in Fez, one feels oneself within the same artistic and spiritual universe despite all the local variations in material, structural techniques, and the like."8 Some cite geometry as what mediates that feeling to the observer despite the cultural diver-

gences in style.9 Even those who have given up the search for the universal or the

spiritual in Islamic art cannot help but see in it the classical ideal of beauty.'0 It is this classical heritage that in fact holds one of the important keys to the puzzle at hand. In particular I shall claim that Islamic art is the living image of what Plato has in mind for art in a theocratic state. Clearly, to refer to Plato and art in the same breath invites trouble. As is well enough known, giving a general inter- pretation of Plato's views on the nature of art is a very complex endeavor." Even in the face of grave difficulties in textual exegesis, however, there is sufficient evidence that Plato has some settled views on art. Those pertinent to our discussion here involve two claims, that beauty and goodness are divine and that all human endeavor (including artistic creation) must imitate the divine.12 Although Platonic strain in Islam has been noted in other areas, its persistent legacy has been overlooked in art.13 I shall argue that the Platonic influence on Islamic

thought can be traced not only to political philosophy4 and geometry,'5 as it has been commonly accepted, but also aesthetics.16 A philosophical explanation of the Islamic attitude toward art may therefore be derivable from the Platonic axiom that god is the paradigm of beauty, which is the cosmological principle of

7 Contra Necipoglu, op.cit., 73-87, and Mehmet Agaoglu, "Remarks on the Character of Islamic Art," The Art Bulletin, 36 (1954), 175-202.

8 Sayeed H. Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality (Albany, 1987), 3; cf. 82, n.l. 9 Oleg Grabar, The Mediation of Ornament (Princeton, 1992), 226-27. 10

Necipoglu, op. cit., 194, e.g. " See G. Sorbom, Mimesis and Art: Studies in the Origin and Early Development of an

Aesthetic Vocabulary (Uppsala, 1966); J. Tate, "Plato and Imitation," Classical Quarterly, 26 (1932), 161-69; and "Imitation," Classical Quarterly, 22 (1928), 16-23; and K. Walton, Mime- sis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of Representational Art (Cambridge, 1990).

12 See my "The Theological Basis of Plato's Criticism of Art with Reference to Icons," The Southern Journal of Philosophy, 36 (1998), 353-65.

13 In her The Fire and the Sun (Oxford, 1977) Iris Murdoch briefly notes the echoes of Platonism in Islamic art but does not provide a sustained analysis. F. E. Peters, "The Origins of Islamic Platonism: The School Tradition," Islamic Philosophical Theology, ed. P. Morewedge (Albany, 1979) takes this legacy to be in mathematics.

14 F.E. Peters, op.cit., 14, and "The Greek and Syriac background," History of Islamic Philosophy, eds. S.H. Nasr and 0. Leaman (2 vols.; London, 1996), I, 40-51.

15 See Sayeed H. Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 7-19.

16 "Aesthetics" here refers to a cluster of issues arising in philosophy of art ranging from the elements of beauty to the psychology of artistic creation.

684 Asli Gocer



order and harmony; and as all created things, art, too, must reflect the divine

paradigm. Before defending this ahistorical hypothesis on the character of Islamic art

so reviled in recent literature, a few caveats are in order. "Islamic art" contains redundant terms. Strictly speaking all art in Islam is "Islamic," because for the Muslim art is a crucial point of contact with the divine. That art should direct the mind to the divine is also Plato's view.'7 Second, the categories that have tradi-

tionally been used to describe Islamic art such as "aniconic" and "nonrepresen- tational" are unhelpful for the problem at hand.18 When it comes to the issue of

iconography in Islamic arts, there is no consensus, for Islamicists are notably divided on the semiotic dimension of the Islamic visual language. The question of whether the geometric surface pattern is essentially iconography, for instance, is yet an unresolved and contentious inquiry; and Plato's discussion of art leads us to the same interpretive dilemma. On the issue ofnonrepresentational character of Islamic art no consensus is forthcoming either. This may be in part due to

thinking of art in dichotomous terms of representation and nonrepresentation, which is itself problematic. Third, the distinctions between art and crafts, and art and ornament, are alien to Islamic art, and so neither is relevant to studying the subject at hand. For the Muslim as for Plato all art is a making, and as such, art and craft is one. With these caveats in mind, let us turn to what may be said to be Platonic about Islamic art.

Before we can answer such a question we must confront two problems fac-

ing us, namely, finding hard evidence for influence of Plato on Muslim philosophers and showing philosophical influence over the making of arts. While there is no question that Islamic philosophy has been influenced by Greek philosophy, there is no settled view on how to characterize this relationship. One view is that the relationship is one of identity. One western scholar in fact claims that "Is- lamic philosophy is Greek philosophy."'9 In this view Muslim cosmology is es-

sentially Greek theology. The deeply complex relationship between cosmology and theology notwithstanding, Muslim scholars see the relationship differently and view Greek theology as God's occasion for Islamic cosmology. According to a prominent scholar, for instance, "ancient sages provided providentially a sacred science which Islam could easily assimilate into its world view."20 In

particular the influence ofNeoplatonic philosophy on early Muslim thinkers has

17 Charles Le Gai Eaton, "Man," Islamic Spirituality: Foundations, ed. S. H. Nasr (New York, 1987b), 358-77; and see Titus Burkhardt, "The Void in Islamic Art," Studies in Com-

parative Religion, 16 (1981), 79-82. 18 Islamic art is said to be aniconic because "the spiritual world is reflected in the sensible

world through geometry and rhythm"; see Keith Critchlow, Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach (New York, 1976), 6.

19 Richard Walzer, "On the Legacy of the Classics in the Islamic World," Greek Into Ara- bic: Essays on Islamic Philosophy, ed. R. Walzer (Oxford, 1962), 35.

20 S. H. Nasr, Islamic Art, 47.

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often been cited.21 The impact of Plotinus on abstract modes of visual representation in the medieval world is widely accepted.22

Unhappily, we have no reliable knowledge of exactly how pre-Politinian Platonism got integrated into Muslim thought in general.23 We do know that early Muslim philosophers worked mostly with Aristotelian texts, but under the guise of Aristotelian authority many Platonic ideas of theology and cosmology circulated in the medieval world.24 It is not clear how much of Platonism seeped into the Aristotelianism that was being studied; nor can scholars agree on how important the study of Plato was for the medieval thinker. There is some specu- lation that some Muslim philosophers worked directly with Platonic texts.25 Some recent studies suggest, for instance, that Al-Farabi's work on happiness and the perfect state reflect more Platonic influence than commonly supposed particularly in his conceptions of knowledge, religious law, imitation, and images.26 We also have some reason to think that the early contact with Platonism came through partial translations of or commentaries on the Republic, Timaeus, the Laws, the Sophist, Philebus, the Statesman,27 and perhaps the Theaetetus.28 These dialogues contain Plato's important views not only on politics, cosmology, and theology but also art. Finally, we know that some of the Islamic philosophers working on Greek philosophy, Plato in particular, were notable authorities in music,29 literature,30 and architecture.31

And yet, even if we can show that Plato loomed large on the intellectual horizon of the important medieval Muslim philosophers, how this may have influenced the actual production of the arts is far from being clear. This is both

21 See Josef van Ess, Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra: Eine Geschichte des religiosen Denkens infruhen Islam (6 vols.; Berlin, 1991), III, 42-48.

2 Andre Grabar, Les Origines de L'esthetique medievale (Paris: Macula, 1992); Gary M. Gurtler, "Plotinus and Byzantine Aesthetics," The Modern Schoolman, 66.14 (1989), 275-84; Gervase Matthew, Byzantine Aesthetics (London, 1963).

23 See Hilmi Z. Ulken, Eski Yunan 'dan Cagdas Dusunceye Dogru Islam Felsefesi Kaynaklari ve Etkileri (Istanbul, 1967, 19934), 25-31; cf. L. Gardet et M. M. Anawati, Introduction a la theologie musulmane (1948). The impact of Plotinus's Enneads on emanationist cosmology of Arab philosophers such as al-Ghazali, Ibn-Khaldun, and al-Dawwani have is noted by Necipoglu, op. cit., 186-90.

24 David Luscombe, Medieval Thought (Oxford, 1997), 63-71. 25 Al-Farabi's On Plato s Philosophy is said to be one such example, which purports to

give an account of all Platonic dialogues. See Richard Walzer, Al Farabi on the Perfect State (Oxford, 1985), 550-51; cf. Walzer, op. cit. (1962), 31; cf. F. Rosenthal and R. Walzer, Alfarabius De Platonis philosophia, Plato Arabus II (London, 1943).

26 Joep Lameer, Al-Farabi and Aristotelian Syllogistics: Greek Theory and Islamic Prac- tice (Leiden, 1994), 31-34, 261-65.

27 On the lost Arabic translation of the Statesman, see Lameer, op.cit., 263 n.5; cf. Walzer, op. cit. (1985), 424.

28 Peters, "Origins of Islamic Platonism," 29-31. 29 Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, e.g.; see Nasr, Islamic Art, 151-62, Luscombe, op. cit., 67-68. 30 Poetry in particular, Ibn Sina, Al-Farabi, Ibn Rashq, Ibn Rushd, Al-Ghazzali, e.g.; see

Salim Kamal, "Aesthetics," Nasr and Leaman, op. cit., 969-78. 31 Ibn Miskawayh, al Ghazali, e.g.; see Necipoglu, op. cit., 4.

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an empirical and a philosophical issue. On the empirical question, clearly more research is needed, for example, on craftsman guilds and commissioned works. On the philosophical question, we can only argue from plausibility. The similarities among the arts produced in Islamic cultures and what Plato discusses as acceptable arts in his theocratic state constitute prima facie evidence for the argument. How any philosophical outlook influences the arts is rather mysteri- ous. How one is influenced and what that amounts to involves questions of cau- sation and associated problems, but such an endeavor will take this project else- where. For now I shall simply assume the common-sense view that the making of art does not take place in an intellectual vacuum and that artistic production to a large degree is a reflection of or a reaction to the intellectual environment. Indeed the issue here is so richly equivocal that I think that a hypothesis of the sort that shall be defended here can be put forward.

Plato and His Acceptable Arts

Plato is conventionally understood as denouncing art on mainly psychological, moral, and political grounds.32 This is because he finds art to be an unset- tling force for the human psyche and thinks of art in general as being devoid of cognitive value. Plato worries that art may be morally useless or, worse, harmful; for in his view art delights in feeding and drawing on the baser part of ourselves, the part that lacks in reason, is passive and fond of base emotions (R. 604d-e).33 In Plato's view prolonged exposition to art warps the natural rule of reason in the soul and forms emotive habits that lead to asocial or otherwise harmful behavior. To prevent social diseases that might result from individual corruption art, Plato believes, should be closely censored and regulated by the state. We are familiar with this picture, and most philosophical analysis stops right here. Often overlooked, however, is that Plato accepts some art, namely, that which conforms to beauty, grace, harmony, and rhythm (R. 400e). Hence the starting point in this paper is not what Plato rejects but what he accepts for good society, because it is with the arts that are acceptable to the ideal commu- nity that Plato might have influenced Islamic thinkers in conceptualizing the role of art in the theocratic state.

The menagerie of arts that Plato thinks should be allowed are the following: truthful stories particularly those pertaining to gods (R. 389b-c), simple and austere narrative poetry (R. 393d), lyrical poetry whose content conforms to its fine rhythm (R. 400d), sweet, soft, plaintive tunes and prayer-like music (R. 41 la),

32 Christopher Janaway, Images of Excellence: Plato s Critique of the Arts (Oxford, 1995), and Plato on Beauty, Wisdom, and the Arts, eds. J. M. E. Moravcsik and P. Temko (Totowa, N.J., 1982).

33 References are to Plato: Complete Works, ed. John Cooper (Indianapolis, 1997); and the Loeb editions of Republic (R); Laws (L); 7imaeus (71); Phaedo (Phd); Philebus (Phlb); Theaetetus (Tht); Sophist (Sph); Statesman (Stm); Cratylus (Cra).

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simple melodies which do not mix up different rhythms and modes (R. 398d; cf. 397b), rhythmic dance to soft melody (R. 412b), choir dances (L. 654b), simple instruments such as flute (R. 399c-d), modest paintings of scenery (L. 602d; Cratylus 107c), and weaving, embroidery, architecture, and furniture that have simple form and pure color (R. 401a; L. 668b). So why does Plato allow these particular cases when he so clearly worries about the dangers of art in general? The quick and the standard answer is that these arts are beneficial to the individual and society. Precisely because it has a transformative power Plato thinks art can and must be put to good use. That is, he thinks that we can make use of art in disciplining the soul to acquire the right habits to be a just person and lead a just life (cf. R. 410b). The sorts of art that are allowed such as those above will, according to this answer, have the right sort of transformative impact on the soul. Instead of being a hindrance to the turning of the soul the right way, these arts will be an aid to it. Therefore, so the reasoning goes, these arts will help the citizens in their plight of becoming reasonable, just, and hence good. The propitious psychology of good art is certainly a plausible but rather thin account of why Plato would allow for the particular arts above. A thicker account would have to take into view Plato's theology.

The scholarly disagreements on Plato's views of art pale next to those over his views on God.34 A fascinating debate though it is, it cannot be fully ad- dressed here. This much is undisputed. According to Plato's memorable model of artistic creation in the Republic, God is the maker of each kind of thing in nature, and his creation is thus unique (R. 597d3). A craftsman makes something that looks like the real thing god-fashioned, whereas a painter merely makes an image of that which looks like the real thing. So Plato thinks that art cannot possibly compete with God's creation; it can only approximate it. Plato holds the view that all created things imitate the divine model, and this view is importantly related to the cosmological account in the limaeus of God's artistic creation of the universe and the ethical account in the Theaetetus that goodness in this life lies in becoming god-like. In the Timaeus Plato operates with the axiom that "whenever the maker [demiurgos] of anything looks to that which is always unchanging, and uses as a model of that description in fashioning the form and quality of his work, all that he thus accomplishes must be beautiful [kalos]" (Ti. 28a-b). As it is with ugliness, beauty has both ethical and aesthetic connotations in Greek; indeed to the Greek mind the beauty of a thing entails its goodness. If the artist looks only to that which has little reality, such as artifacts, and uses them as a model, his work will not be beautiful and good. Surprisingly, even God creates in this fashion, namely, by looking to and imitating the divine model (Ti. 28-29, cf. R. 500e). God's model is the Living Being (Ti. 37d; cf.39e), and this world is an image of it (Ti. 29b). (Whether Plato thinks that God stands separate from the model or that the model is the content of God's mind is a

34 See G. M. A. Grube, Plato s Thought (Indianapolis, 1980), 150-78.

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question that is beyond the scope of this essay.) His account of imitation is also

subject to immense interpretative squabbles. Suffice it to say, however, that there is enough textual support for the conclusion that for Plato God and the divine

paradigm are (or perhaps, is, if they are different aspects of the same realm) the measure of all things (L. 716d, 803c, 709b), and their imitation in all things human is of enormous importance.

Moreover, Plato's conception of God's creativeness must be evaluated in the context of what he takes to be God's essential unity. For Plato God is not only perfectly good (R. 379bl, c2; cf. 380c9-10), supremely true and just (Tht. 176c; cf. R. 382e 1), absolutely perfect (R. 381b4, 382e10), and the most beautiful (R. 381c8); but more importantly, he is perfectly simple (R. 380d5). In his sim-

plicity God's beauty and goodness cohere. It is the aesthetic manifestation of that coherence that is, I think, most relevant to the influence he may have had over Muslim thinking about nature and its representation. Indeed, for Plato beauty and goodness are manifest in the visible realm precisely because the world is fashioned by God, who created it unbegrudgingly like himself (i. 29e-30c; cf. L. 665a). Those who are trained right can therefore see beauty everywhere (L. 669b). For Plato the fundamental properties of beauty are order and relation, which are revealed in measure, proportion (Phlb. 64e, 66ab, 87cd), harmony (Phd. 86al), form (Sph. 228e; cf. Phlb. 51c) and purity in tone (Phlb. 5 Id), and in color (Phlb. 53ab). These are the aesthetic elements of the divine, present not

only in nature and art but also in good life. Eyes, sound, hearing, and speech were given, Plato says, as divine aides for humans to comprehend divine intelli-

gence in nature and apply it to all of their own work and understanding (Ti. 44e-

47d). Studying geometry is one such aide in understanding the nature of the work of the divine artist (cf. R. 521 e).

Plato thinks that divine beauty is revealed especially in shapes such as the circle and the triangle. The world, celestial stars, and human heads are all round, for instance, because divinity is made manifest in the perfection of the circle (7i. 33c). The "dancing movements" of the celestial gods are all circular, for they all reflect divine intelligence (i. 40c-d). For Plato the triangle is another geometrical shape the study of which reveals the work of the divine architect. It is the

simplest figure to which all other polygons can be reduced, and by repetition triangles explain the laws of order in the universe. The fundamental solid struc- tures in the world are configurations of triangles, and they show how the different elements transform into one another (T. 54e-55d).

The aesthetic dimension of the divine has implications both for artistic creation and ethical improvement. Just as the good life is the life of measure, proportion, and harmony, so all art must contain the divine elements of beauty. Plato argues that God directed all his creation to imitate his power (7y. 41b cf. 41c, 29e; Stm. 274d; cf. Tht. 176b). Order by movement and order by sound, for

instance, not only reveal rhythm and harmony but also, through such revelation, recovers our lost sense of measure and grace. Music, dance, and visual arts are

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divine gifts for the pleasure of understanding god and his work (i. 47d, cf. L.

659a, 897d-e, 930e-93 la; cf. R. 532c). Since art essentially fails to recreate the true condition of the real thing, Plato recommends that it be purified of all of its excess and vainglory. It must imitate the essential reality of the divine by simple harmony, rhythm, and geometry, but always with the understanding that what is created is a meager indicator of the real thing. The simple tunes, "folk" art, and

simple design listed in the list above are accepted precisely because only they self-consciously reflect elements of the divine. The arts prevented from the re-

public are in fact those arts that do not reflect the divine paradigm.

The Platonic Picture in Islamic Art

This view finds an expression in the arts accepted by the Muslim. Although the connection is admittedly educated guesswork, the powerful similarities therein

prevents its wholesale dismissal. Islamic rejection of certain kinds of art is based on the supposition shared by Plato that because art can be a psychological det- riment to the individual it must be subject to social control. Islamic rejection of certain kinds of art is also grounded in the understanding that God is the su-

preme creator whose beauty must be reflected in art. To the Muslim art that is not theologically reflective is metaphysically vacuous and morally pernicious, and hence it has no place in good society, as it does not for Plato. The central

message of the Quran is that of the absolute creativeness of God.35 For God alone is said to have fashioned the universe and created the real.36 Like Platonic

theology Islam considers God to be the paradigm of beauty. As for Plato, for the Muslim God is supremely simple. In his simplicity all of God's attributes be- come one, and his beauty and goodness cohere. As for Plato, beauty is for the Muslim therefore a manifestation of the goodness of God, and for both God is the Divine Craftsman whose creative work of the universe is the result of his

goodness. Since God is the source of all positive qualities manifest in the universe, he is also the source of beauty and goodness in all human endeavor. Imi- tation of God is thus central to the ethical and aesthetic outlook of both Platonic and Islamic philosophy. Both take the regimen of moral and aesthetic training to be one, resting entirely rests on being properly influenced by the right theological doctrines. The transformative power of such imitative regimen on the intel- lect is fundamental, I believe, in deciphering the kinds of arts both philosophies accept.

Like Plato, the Muslim rejects figurative representation on the basis of its inherent deception and vanity.37 The self-conscious avoidance of depth and shadow in Islamic miniatures, for instance, evoke Plato's caution against realism in paint-

35 See S. H. Nasr, "God" in Islamic Art, 312-18, 348-49. 36 The fundamental difference is that for the Muslim God creates ex nihilo whereas for

Plato god is a fashioner of what is. 37 See Nasr, Islamic Art, 312-18; 348-49.

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ing in recreating illusions of perception. The figurative representations are to be

avoided, because for both Plato the Muslim they run the risk of engendering in the artist the false pride of having created something real and, in the observer, the false admiration for human creativity.38 For both, complete emulation of the divine paradigm is impossible but approximation is required in the ethical as well as the aesthetic realm. Like its counterpart in Plato, Islamic theology sees the artist as a messenger of God's beauty for those able to comprehend it.

Like Plato, the Muslim sees geometry and exact proportion as a direct ex-

pression of the divine and takes mathematics to be the key to understanding the structure of the cosmos. For both, repetitive patterns, exactness of proportion, and symmetry are synonymous with God's perfect paradigm.39 The most origi- nal Islamic contribution to art, geometrical design, arabesque, and patterned surface art often consist in the complex design of an interlocking system of

rotating polygons and stars within circles. As it is for Plato, circle is the govern- ing basis of all geometrical shapes for the Muslim, followed by hexagon, tri-

angle, and square in depicting the fundmental shapes of the geometric universe.

Coupled with a sense of rhythm, these shapes are considered by some sects of Islam to evoke infinity, which is a symbol of the divine presence.40 The signifi- cance of the sphere and circle is seen in Islamic architecture, especially the tra- ditional hemispheric mosque domes, cylindrical minarets, and muquarnas vaults.

The circular movements of divine objects that Plato so lovingly mentions in the 7imaeus find their echo in the sacred dance of whirling Dervishes in their

attempt to unite with the divine. The Mawlawi session, the sama, is held in concentric circles creating an image of the planets, and the dance advances ac-

cording to rhythmic juxtapositions and circling of the participants. The dance itself is to reproduce on earth the movements of the stars themselves, and the dervish clad in pure white is to lend himself over to the universal harmony of cosmos.4' In a most Platonic manner the Muslim believes that geometrical patterns draw attention away from the physical world to one of pure forms, and

they point to the purity of essential relationships which lie beneath the visual surface.

Geometry controls not only patterned surface art but also the art of calligraphy, which is the only universally agreed upon Islamic artistic genre. Islamic

calligraphy combines verticality and horizontality in a proportionate mixture of static and flowing figures, thereby represents in geometric design God's presence in language. By means of rotation and repetition, the art of writing shows balance and harmony-the very elements of Plato's acceptable arts. The calli-

38 For a discussion of the false pride of the artist in Islam, see Richard Ettinghausen, "The Character of Islamic Art," in The Arab Heritage (Princeton, 1946).

39 Zuheir Al Faqih, "Islamic Art, Submission to Divine Will," The Arab World 16.5-6 (1970), 16-25; Jean-Louis Michon, "The Message of Islamic Art," Studies in Comparative Religion, 17 (1985), 70-79.

40 Critchlow, op. cit., 74-104. 41 Jean-Louis Michon, "Spiritual Practices of Sufism," Nasr, Islamic Art, 281-84.

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graphic importance of symmetry and harmony in patterns can be also seen in

weaving, embroidery, and other decorative arts as well. Plato's recommendation of pure tones in nonpolyharmonic music finds its

echo in the clarity the Islamic call to prayer, the liturgical recitations, and the evocations to the praise of the prophet. The Platonic exhortation for flute is echoed in the ubiquitous use ofney, not only in the mystical dances of the sama but also in the lonely revolutions of a country shepherd. The harmony between content and style for poetry earns Plato's aesthetic approval. What makes a work of literature an aesthetic failure in Islam, like for Plato, are its lack of truth and exaggerated style.42 Like Plato, the Muslim critic sees as factors that beau-

tify a poem feelings of calm and peace.43 This can only be achieved by purging language from irreverence and mockery. Language reflects cosmic harmony by aligning content with style, and balances its form with content. As such it is based on and generates in the listener a rational pleasure deriving from the rec-

ognition of the divine in language.

The comparative analysis proposed here should not be understood as a re- ductionist attempt to understand Islamic aesthetics only in terms of its Platonic echo. Clearly there are intricate differences between Islamic theology and Pla- tonic theology, and clearly the ecological setting, political events, and culture

vary in Islamic practice and naturally affect the kind of art created in particular regions. What is proposed instead is this. Platonic and Islamic theology are

frequently reviled in their conservatism about the artistic process. If my discussion shows anything, it shows that neither sees the creative act as reprehensible in itself. Quite the reverse, both accounts give a place for art to go; both views ask that art be an aide to reason and to help the mind concentrate on the divine not mundane. Contrary to the received opinion, neither Plato nor the Muslim is averse to pleasure received from art. Both take pleasure as a proper criterion in art but consider this pleasure to be of a cognitive kind, that is, the recognition of the divine as the measure of all; both consider a proper education in art as yield- ing the highest moral standard; and both advocate pure, unpretentious art that

attempts to emulate God's beauty and natural harmony in geometrical shapes, pure sounds, and harmonious literature. The very sobriety espoused both by Plato and Islam prevents art from becoming shallow and profane. For represent- ing that seriousness of mind, both accounts indeed respect and do not resent art.44

Hollins College and the University of Toronto.

42 See Kemal, op. cit., 974-76. 43 Kemal, op. cit., 970 44 An earlier version of this paper was presented to the Society for Ancient Greek Philoso-

phy, Binghamton University, in October 1997. I am grateful to Angela Currant and Chris Perricone and the anonymous referee of this journal for helpful suggestions.

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a hypothesis concerning the character of islamic art

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