a journal of burma studies

7/30/2019 A Journal of Burma Studies

1/56

The Journal of

Burma Studies

Volume 10

2005/06

Featuring Articles by:

Alexandra Green

Chie Ikeya

Yin Ker

Jacques P. Leider


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The Journal of Burma STudieSV 10

2005/06

President, Burma Studies Groupf. K. l

General EditorCt r

Center for Burma Studies, Northern Illinois University

Issue EditorCstp a. m

Production EditorC Q

Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University

Editorial AssistanceS Bkz

lz Ppps dsPtck a. mcCck

ac T

Design and TypesetingC as

SubscriptionsBt Bjb

2006 Ct Stst as Sts, nt is ust,

dKb, is uSa

ISSN # 1094-799X


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The Journal of Burma Studies s sc jjt sps b t B Sts Gp (assct

as Sts), t Ct B Sts (ntis ust), t Ct Stst as Sts(nt is ust).

atcs b pss ps. og scscpts s b st t: et, Ct Ststas Sts, nt is ust, dKb, il 60115.E-mail: spt@..

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bk t t nt is ust t t Ct B Sts, nt is ust, dKb, il 60115.mj ct cs ccpt. Subscriptions / E-mail: bbj@

.; tel: (815) 753-0512;fax: (815) 753-1776. Back issues / E-mail: sp@.; tel: (815) 756-1981;fax: (815) 753-1776.

f bstcts ps pbs tcs, stThe Journal of BurmaStudies Web site: hp://www.grad.niu.edu/Burma/publications.t.

The Journal of Burma Studies s bstct x t

wg:America: History and Life; Bibliography of Asian Studies;Historical Abstracts;MLA International Bibliography.


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The Journal of Burma STudieS V 10

2005/06

A

deeP ChanGe? 1B W P

E N CAlexandra Green

The Trad iTio nal hiG h STaTuS of 51Women in Burma:A H RCie Ikeya

modern BurmeS e PainTinG 83aCCordinG To BaGyi aunG SoeYin Ker

SPe Cial iST S for riTu al, 159maGiC, and de voTion:T C B (Pu) K K (17521885)Jacques P. Leider


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Coruor

ax G s ct as t ctg sct t ds ust G, o. S s ma Pd t Sc ot ac Sts,ust l. i t t scg t dscct Bs txts Bst t, s scs p gtt-ct w ptgs B, s t t s tcs t tpc. ot pbcts

c Burma: Art and Archaeology pbs b t Btsms Pss 2002. Ct sc tsts c tt-ct Bs scpt t dscollection and foreign inuences upon murals in Burma. She b c t g@s..

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ust, ss t cct Bs tt t Sgp at ms. S b c t

[email protected].

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Journal of Burma Studies, Volume 10 1

DEEP ChANGE?B W P

E N C

Alexandra Green

This article will compare the narrative constructions of early (eleventhto thirteenth centuries) and late (seventeenth to early nineteenthcenturies) Burmese wall paintings to determine whether or notdeep change has occurred. Although many of the same stories were

depicted in the murals during both time periods, the method by whichthe visual stories were portrayed changed from an emphasis uponiconic imagery to an exploration of narrative process. By analyzingthe narrative modes employed during the two periods, the emphases ofeach are revealed. The changes that occurred in the Burmese muralsmost likely relate to the increasing orthodoxy of Burmese TheravadaBuddhism and strengthening crown control over the country. Becausethe teleological purpose of the murals remains virtually identical,

however, it is argued that no deep change occurred in the muralsbetween the eleventh and nineteenth centuries.

Irououp tg tp tg t t Pg p (tt ttt cts), t w s gt wt ps gs Gt t ps Bs, Jtkstories, other tales deriving from Buddhist texts, and gures

w Bs m Bs. i ts w t tp tg t t stt t tt cts, t s pct t sw b jst s wg, wt g bbs csts wg t w t tp ws cw

b st gs t ps Bs. d t cgs t pctg t ps Bs, t Gt B, t Jtk sts btw t late periods represent a signicant shift in the meaning and


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2 Journal of Burma Studies, Volume 10

Alexandra Green

ct Bs w ptgs?1 Ts pp w cpt t cstcts bt t ptgs

wt t ct ctxt t t wt tdeep change has occurred. After rst dening deep change t t s s t ss t spc-t tsp pct t ptgs, t cctstcs c ps s xp t. a cps the paintings of the two eras reveals similarities and dierences,as well as specic emphases portrayed in each through thesct sts t gzt t ts. a

b k t gs s s sps scpts stc pts ps xp t pts b tcgs t . utt, t gt tspp s tt p cg, t ws, tt t tgc pps t ptgs, t pp, tg t ptgs st cc g t xtt s.

D ChTs ss Bs t sss tt t w ptgscsttt txt tss, wt txt b cstttg spct t ct tt tsts bt ssg.a sst pt tptg txts s ct ctts,pst pst, s cpg t ctxt. T gpp ssg t bjct s , s cst

b, t tptt ctxt (h 1986:143,5). Wt,w, s ctxt? it s g g tt t scssg cg txt (cg s txt, scs t Bs w ptgs) ks t tgb. i tws, txt xsts c, gs ptt b t t txts t. Bcs txts b ct gg, stg wk st c ss t t, txt tws (C 1981:108; Wg 1992:2). T cg,w, s w t t t pt ptt

1 T ts s t t g t t tt t stt cts.


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Deep Change

innite regression of surrounding material (Fewell 1992:17;B 1992:27,28; C 1992:111). f stc, a.l. Bcks

s pgc ts tptg Js wayangkulit pcs, ctxt qs t cc, g ptt/sptt, tts, t cs ttcc wt txt (Bck 1979:216). T st tsps

btw t pts ctbts t txt csttts tg tt txt.

i Bcks ss t wg kt, t tspbtw ctxt txt t wg ktct b cg

. Cc t pt s g b s cttgt tsp t pts t txt t t w; ts pss t txt cst t tsp wttheir source by permied levels of invention; the text and itspts sggst gs t t ws, bt ts gs wt t tts ( pc tts) t pcs;nally, the text can only refer to the non-text world throughtp (Bck 1979:239). dp cg csps t

tt ts cstts t ct wk, p ts ssct wt pt cc (Bck 1979:230).i t ws, p cg s t c tst the rules dening the construction of a narrative. This does not, w, tt tts c b t . Bckts tt c txt s cjct p-xstg cstts. . . wt t pst, t pctb, ptc now (Bck1979:213). Sptt xpsss t pst ptt t

past, and each text reects a varying set of relationships betweent tw (Bck 1979:21415). Bck t gs ttgg ccts t st tw s: sc ctt t sttts, wc c sts.i t cs t wg kt pcs, t ggpsts t pst tg t sc t (t kwst), bt cs pst gs tts g s tg t t sttts (t scs tptt) (Bck 1979:214).


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Alexandra Green

dp cg t Bs w ptgs wrequire a dierent teleological meaning between early (eleventh

t ttt ct) t (stt t ttct) ptgs. it s g tt sc tt cgcc t w ptgs, tg tts t.T sts pst t pst, bt t wc t pct pts ct gs tts, wct t. W t t s txts b ts gs tts t cgcsb ts t sp, sc cgs

the murals reect a narrower focus in the later period, thept s pss p kgsp tt pt t gtt, t pgss gsstzt B.

Narrative ModesIn the absence of wrien texts providing detailed informationabout the meanings and intentions specically associated with

t s, t s p t k t t t gzt t w ptgs t xp txt ctxt. T t ss tz cpss xt tdierent compositional devices used to portray the narratives Bs w ptgs. nt s stt ttsp btw spc t s sts, t s Bs s c t scc,conated, sequential, and continuous modes.

T scc s cps ct sttc . Sts pst t scc t t t st, bt ct s t t t t.T ct scc s cctz b sg ttk t tt s b sct t pst tw. it s qt, tg t ws, t tt kst pt (dj 1997:1012). as sg ct wtt ts sg sc, t ct scc sunied in time and place. The static monoscenic mode (also

kw s bg stt) cssts sg sc wc s ct wc t ct s c. Ts s s


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Deep Change

t pct scs t Bs w t spc t B s t pss, s st, t sw

p ct ts s t t st ptt pt tptg (dj 1997:15). T bjct sc gs st ct t w ss w t Bsws bts.

The conated mode is characterized by having one oft ccts (s t ptgst t pttgure) presented only once despite being involved in severalcs cst scs (dj 1997:2527). S ts

t t pct sg , b s g, tconnection between time and space is distorted (Weimann1947:1314; dj 1997:2627). Spt tts tptc t ct cct b t ssw ts tp ws tz (dj 1997:2627).

ext ts csst bt t sqt t cts s, s t s ts c. i txt t, t ptgst t st pps s

ts sccss stgs ct wt .T spc qt, t ts s t cctz b t. i B, t tsusually progress from left to right. The dierence between thetw s s t s ( -s) spt s. it sqt , t ts, bgs, gs s t k t bs btw scs. i tcts , t s tsc. T w st

cp t t sg cts sc s pp cgdierent directions or gaps between scenes (Dehejia 1997:1521; G 2002:7073).

expg t gzt t s ts t cct btw t spc s t pss t g. T t s ts p t stct ss tt sssts wt t sssst wtp cg s cc Bs w ptgs.


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Alexandra Green

Erl PPg-p w ptgs csst w t ts

tt Bs T, m, Ttc Bs. T tsps btw t gsts t ptgs t b xp , btt c sggsts tt t w ptgs t tto thirteenth centuries reect a syncretic approach to religiouss t t cpttz .2

S t Bc g cssts t h vc gs, t ts, t cs. exps

ts t t t ab tp, Pg,bt t t bgg t twt ct, sppsunder the direction of King Kyanzihas wife, a follower ofm Bs.3 igs g mand Tantric Buddhism include Avalokitesvara, the ve Jina,t gss T, lkt ( akts),mst ts cps t B, mt, Avalokitesvara, generalized bodhisava images as guardian

gures anking entrances, and cave scenes (Luce 1969:32144,pts B C). ot Bst t t w ptgscs pcts mt, t Jtk sts, t Gt B, t Bst txts, Bst Ccs, aming Buddha and the cosmological one, and the twenty-gt ps Bs. T pct s, sts tss, s st Bs bhumisparsha dharmachakra mudra with geometric or oral surrounds,

sometimes forming a honeycomb paern, was also common.4

hstc ts w sts cpt t twall paintings (Baue-Picron 2003:2729).

T ps Bs pct p st bhumisparsha, dharmachakra, ccs dhyana mudras t, pstg t gtt, tcg

2 S, g ts, ag-Tw 1985, cs. 23; Gw 2002; ag Tw 1972 scss ts tpc.3

S lc 1969:32144 scpt t ab s. a scpt calso be found in Baue-Picron 2003:17079.4 a t t g bs B gs pc pt tps c

b Inscriptions of Pagan, Pinya, and Ava 1899:86.


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Deep Change

the rst sermon, and meditation respectively (see g. 1 at end tc). ec ts gs s xp t sttc

scc bg--stt . Sts t Bs ccp b scps ts pct either side of or beneath the central gure. Also sometimescct wt ts gs st sqcs t s t twt-gt ps Bs stp ts. Ts g c gs s pctg t ptfrom the palace and the hair-cuing events. Dierentiation

btw ts gs ccs b swg t Bs-

t-b s ptg b t ss pq, ts t pt s, s t. ogzt, t Bs pt wt sq ctg gp wt tBs wt g p. Ts ts t ws b t Jtk sts scs t of the Buddha, above other imagery including paerns oft Bs st wt gtc sps, ccp

sbstt s w. Ts tp g s t tps t twt ct s c tpscstct g t ttt ct.

T B s pct w t wsg t Pg p (t t ttt cts).nts sct stt c s bt, tegtt, t s stts (s ppx) ccp

by the Buddha after reaching enlightenment, his rst sermon

in the deer park at Sarnath, the twin miracles at Savahi, hissct t sct pcg Tts h,s tt t Pk st, t tg t ngpt, pcg t vs, t P, ct, stbt s cs. excpt t s stts, ttcg t vs, t ts t t P, tsts csttt t gt gt ts Gt Bs.

Scs t t B pt t ws, bt t t gzt tz s p tstatic monoscenic mode, with some examples of the conated


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Alexandra Green

. T bsc t bg bck s sq tcrectangle with a large central image, often with small anking

gures and people kneeling at the base of the throne on whicht B s st. i t stc t bt, m sst csttt t ct c. T bx wt wc tt s sw s s bs t gs wtct bs sptg t t pts t cgpc pg, bt bs s stsdepicted more naturally. In these cases, extensive oral andfoliage designs may surround an image, or the gure may be

ct wt t tt bs s spt.fgs t scp sggt b ts ckts, ct bg, t ws t stctt t sptss t g. occs, tct g s st wt bg, wc t ssurrounded by lines creating a box structure. The ames found s Bs s ct t psz t sggure within the delineated space. A more extended version

ts bx cstct sws t Bs stsurrounded by small squares or rectangles or registers lledwith gures paying homage or depicting scenes associatedwt t ts bg t. T t gpg s stwt sg g sq ctg. a t s sct scs pct bt t ct B g.

m t gt gt ts pt st tt bs s cgt t pt

ws, c t t s cb(g. 2). The Buddhas life events are often indicated by smallaccompanying gures, hand gestures, or the location. Forexample, the rst sermon is indicated by the use of dharmachakramudra tw . T pt s tc wt t Bor the central image painted larger than the other gures inthe scene. Or, in conated scenes of the taming of the Nalagiript, t B s sw s g, ct, stggure with the palm of his right hand facing towards the

pt(s). T s sw twc, c wt s b tk s p g c pss kg t


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Deep Change

ground with his trunk curled under his neck. The laer imagest cs t . atg t B s ptcpt

in both the aack and the pacication of the elephant, he issw c g sz t psz s ptc bts. Ts t pctg t tg ngc b t tp sts, cg t Ptz lt t mt, Pg, tp 92 t S.

a xcpt t t b t gzt cb s pcts t Bs s Ttsh s sct t sct t t.

W gs ts ts pct s sg-sc ts wt t B scg ,t pct s zt , t s stcs,cg t t lktkp tp 1150 t Pg, t st bg pt cts s. i tlaer, continuous narratives, the Buddha is shown climbingt t gs mt m, pcg wpyahat (a wooden roong structure emblematic of

kingship) in Tavatimsa Heaven, and descending anked byt gs B Skk (i). i c cs, t Bimages are larger than other gures in the scenes, and all threectts tk pc wt sg p gst wttt g s.

Scs t t B scongurations with other temple elements and sculptures.Monoscenic and conated versions of the eight great events

s b b sqs pctg tJtk sts c cs, cs, t Buddha image of the temple, which reects an Indian Pala-Sena inuence. Some image panels are shown occupyingcs t ws tp cs tc s.Ts s c b tps, sc s tmkb Kbkg, wc ts t 1113 Ce, tstcts, sc s t mt gp, wc ws bt t ttt ct.

T Jtk ts p pt s sg scsin squares, which are set in rows on the walls of temples (g. 3).


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Alexandra Green

ot ts stts c st t 547 sts t ps s t B. ec st s ct

sq, xcpt t st t Jtk ts, tMahanipata,wc t pst ss sqs. mst tsqs sw t st ct scc t, wt sg t stg t w. occs, st sportrayed in the conated or static mode.

i w tps, sc s t twt-ctlktkp t Pg, t st t Jtk sts pctin an extended, horizontal strip format (g. 4). Both the

sqt t cts s t s,wt s spt ss ct wt scp architectural elements. The positioning of gures primarilyproduces intrinsic divisions. Often there is lile backgroundt t , ts, wt, bgs (psg st zayat st s-k stcts wt tw s), wc s t ts t scs,comprise the background seings of the narrative action.

Such imagery is standardized and not highly dierentiated sc t sc, kg cps t tdicult. Specic, easily identiable scenes and the captions

beneath the imagery are necessary for the identication ofJtk sts pct t xt t .

Jtk sts t ctstgt Pg-p tps. T t s ct t ct s , bt c b t c

tps cps sg . T pstts t Jtk sts st t w t ww b g, t w tg t bg w ccbtg, ts, ccbtcs tc s.

et- t ttt-ct sts t twt-gt ps Bs, t scs Gt B, t Jtk sts s tt pgst g t B t pcss. Ts s t b t tps t stct, sccand conated with limited examples of extended, chosen


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Deep Change

t pt t Bst t. T t g sz tBuddha compared with other gures and the relegation of the

t ct t t ss tg t sct stt t psz pcss, b ctg scs tg gsts gs (sc s t t t t tthrone signifying the rst sermon at the deer park in Sarnath), b cpssg sts t sg ps, sggsts ttthe narrative process was not as signicant as the icon of theB s. i t, t cpt wt t Bst txts sw cc

t sggsts tt t t cts tgt s w.Cb wt t tpct gs t B,ts t pszs t -cpssg t t B.

Svh- Ehh-Cur Pf t t stt ct w, t cs subject maer is almost entirely upon the last ten Jataka tales,

t Gt B, t twt-gt psBs. Sc sct t gzt bcg stz, tg t s ts g t g t . i g, t ptgs cctz b xt t, wtt sts stt stps t t tpws. us, t ps Bs sw tcg wt t t B bt t. T Jtkstories are most often beneath the laer. Natural and articials cpt t t g t gz tnarrative space, and background details compose a signicantpt t s sts. Tw t t gttct, t tct pspct gzt t xps t wt t stps w cs t t t, stg t ct t ttb bs. o t cs t stt ttt cts, stps wt bt gtcs (ppxt twt ctts) t bt t t( t) g.


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Alexandra Green

T twt-gt ps Bs sw ssg gs gz t ss. Ts Bs

pt t t tp t ws st bhumisparsha mudra t spct ts gtt. Sts, tare accompanied by kneeling disciples and devotees (g. 5).ec cts s sg-sc t b g tviewer of the story that gives it signicance; though, vieweds w, t ps Bs ctbt t cst sqc. Ts cc gs ctst stg wtt t B t Jtk sts tt sw

xt t.excpts t ts t cc t w sts, cgt Swz Pk, st m, tp ta g Sgg ds. h, scpts pst pt cs t gt s c b wsppspst t twt-gt ps Bs. a w tps,sc s t mp tp t P W dg, pt tws s s t s t ps Bs.

These are shown in a maximum of ve scenes, including thepc g x pc, s pt tpalace, being stopped by Mara and oered chakravartin stts,his hair-cuing, and his Enlightenment. Spatial organization bckg ts tc wt ts s depictions of the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories (g.6). Ts b scs st spt, ssct wt iconic gure.

Bw t gs t ps Bs scs t Gt B. Ts scs ptin an extended and standardized format (g. 7) with thests pgssg t t gt wt ccsgsss t spt gzt. Scs tspt b t ts t scp, sc s

bgs, cks, ts, s b w g wts. i t st ccps spc t s b

b, t t s ct t stp b, stg t tt s pws.


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Deep Change

epss t Bs b pstt t stt- gtt-ct

s. T gtt s sw b sttg t Bst bhumisparsha mudra under the Bodhi tree, the aack ofm, t et Gss wgg t . T sstts tt t B ccps g t s wks tgtt sts s sw. T ctsqc cpss t sgts; St wg sw c w C t ct Ktk ts wt b ; St g t pc wt

t ss s bg b devas; m bstctg stt w psg t pc chakravartinstts wt s s; C wpg t bof Kanthaka; and Prince Siddhartha cuing o his hair. The

birth is shown with the Buddha-to-be taking his rst sevenstps; bg t ct wt devas pg wt ; bg tspt t s pts pc; pcg st t t sg, ast. T sqc ts

ssct wt Sjt c t gs ckg c k,Sujata oering the bowl of food to the Buddha, and the Buddhaseing the bowl aoat on a river, where it rouses the naga w t pst gt t bws t ps Bs.

Scs sw ss t t w sts c tB bggg t Bbss pc, St g x wt s w ys, wkg t ap st,cg stct a uk, cg gssfrom the grass cuer to build the throne on which the Buddha

sts cs gtt, ctg t Pancavaggi, receiving Tapussa and Bhallikas homage. The ve monks, thePcgg, Skk cgg t B t w t w b sttg ts tgs p wt B cs s t ss c sc. aw sts, sc s Z dw dk a g, Sggds, pct t B pssg t ss tcg t s sts. T gt gt ts

pct, xcpt s pt t xt t, st pss t ptgs s t ts g t tegtt.


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Alexandra Green

T Jtk sts gz t s w st scs t t B. as t, t Jtk

sts pct bw t twt-gt ps Bs scs t t B. mst cts tt ts ts s pt t t pg pct tlast ten Jatakas or just the Vessantara Jataka (gs. 8a-e). Fewtps Jtk ts t t t st t pct t ws; t xcpts Tkg Sgg t a ok-kg t Pg.

Scs p b w g wt

s, sct t t b t t.o t st ptt ts pt. T ssgof the story is therefore transmied through a minimum oft cts. T stzt pss t

Mahanipata, wc cc g t stt gtt cts, st tps ts pctg t s g. G, tg t ws,the rst tale of the Mahanipata is shown closest to the oor,

t vsst Jtk s pt ct bt tscs t t B. S t sts sw gt t t t ts, wt t Ck,mkssp, t K bg g tst t w spc. T vsst s s sw t gst b scs s t st xts t Jtk ts. o, t Jtks ccp t stw spc w cp wt t cg g t t

t B t twt-gt ps Bs.o tp ws t twt-gt ps Bs csst t t cg, bw t scs Gts t Jtk sts. Scs , t c,are in close proximity to the oor. This vertical organizationreects Buddhist concepts of hierarchy by providing a structurethat moves from either scenes of hell or the rst Jataka storiest t gtt Gt B t twt-gtps Bs. i ts , t Jtk sts tgtt cpt t sg t, wcreveals the concept of cause and eect and demonstrates


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Deep Change

t ptc t paramis (t ts pst bthe Jataka storiessee appendix) to the process of aaining

gtt. T t sts s cc cs t pgss stt bg t w s pct t paramis tt csenlightenment. This hierarchical organization reects ideastt tg pt t Bst b sst Bs sc gzt. rbt t ssc cc st st cts tt pc bg t ccg tt- ps xstc (fgs 1975:15).

T qt s xstc ps s spst ss t c, b pct s kis beer than those lower on the scale of being. Consequently,sc stts pst ssct wt t t csp t pppt bt s pt t css (Scb 1989:126). T tc gzt t ptgs xpsss ts w w t ccgzt t s.

T sz sc t qc wt wc ts pt s ctbt t stg wt ssignicant in the wall paintings. Palace scenes and, occasionally,t pcsss g pc t ptgs. Wgsts sts t tw scts, ppand a lower, palace scenes always ll the entire register, andt t ccp t spc t t pt scs.Cp t t scs, ts pc t gst

most visually dominant (g. 9), and the scale of the portrayalbears lile relationship to the extent or complexity of a scenesct. mt, pcss, sc c, cgscs s psz. Ts xps s spccould be aributed partially to the necessities and stricturesinherent in depicting such images, particularly a royal gurewt t st bsc c s. W ts b t cs, sc scs w s qt sct pt g ts p tt gstcs ct cct t qtb spt stbt.


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Alexandra Green

T ptt t ts g scs temphasizes their signicance. Repetition of motifs is a creative

c tt pszs t g t pssg cs cpt b t w.5 T scs Jtk ts qt ct pcs cgs, tws cbtpp ccstc tg pcsss t scs.The imagery promotes the status of royal gures seated undert w pyahat ts t s scs.T pss sc t s pt t t t t

Jtk sts, ptc t st t, bt t t sggsts t

x pw g k. nt t pttcss p w tg, w. T ptt tt gtt, pst b t bqts twt-gt ps Bs t t tp t ws, stts tt,spt s s t sc sccss, s stthe highest and nal goal.

Coxul flu

The subject maer and method of depiction in seventeenth- tonineteenth-century murals reects the increasing centralization gs stzt B. otx pctcswt t sangha ct gs tgt wcg b t s. Txts scs tt swS lk xpw c tts. T ct g t tptt txts gs cct b ctg ccss tgs tts. a gs c xtsst w stbs t sps pc ks, ss ks w st t t cpt t ptt stzt pcss txts ts (lb1991:26; 1993:24243). T k ws s sbjct tnancial and personnel controls (Lieberman 1993:238), andthe use of a common vocabulary simplied administration t sangha (lb 1993:247). f, wt b tc t cs ct gs sts ws

5 For further discussion of this aspect of narrative, see Genee 1980:ch. 3; Eco1979:11922.


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t pt t twks. T stbst xpt-pt ts ctt t gc stc

t ts, gs g bc s t btw gs (lb 1991:15). Pp tz t ws, ps, gt wks, ks, pgs,g ts, t xts t b. Ts the eect of diusing lowland culture, language, and customst pp s (lb 1993:236,245). T s g ts t ct s t ts t, gs, tstc s kwg, g

t sc t. T st ts ss ws txps txt, t, stc, ct st pp s (lb 1991:26), t t xps st, h, c, sctc ts (lb1993:248). These trends are reected in the standardization sc sct, t xt t gztpszg t pcss, t xts pt scs pp ccstc Bs w ptgs

btw t stt tt cts.i xg gs ct scpts,w, t bcs ppt tt t Bs, t stt Pg p , pppt tk g-t w t pt t gtt . T st tt bgs pss tg ctss s b cg t t cc bt. Ts ws xpss ctscpts tg qsts t c B, t gt

t tss t pp, t b b gt t mt, t st t Bs tcgs tg, t b s c, t t

bck t ss b xstc. ic s tsscpts s t s t b b w wt wt, bt, g sc stts.

mc ag-Tw, xg gs bs B t t t ttt cts, mSp, w stgt bs Bs gs t -twtt ct, tt st Bs pp wwt s b t ktc Bs (ag-Tw 1985:


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cs. 23; Sp 1982:cs. 35).6 i ts pctc t g s tt gtt, bt t xzt ps

w g t cc bts. h, bgs tws t xtgs t k t, bt t p tt s sccss t s. T gt t s s pg s k s csqt pttpt gs pctc, bcs dana (ct) tpcpts t p ts pcg t, t cs t b ts stgc ct(Scb 1989:6793; T T 1959:75; lb 1984:71).7

T Bs ts ctbt t t g t pt st t t xpctt tt t t sswill be gratied in future lives (Spiro 1982:99109). Thecpc tsp btw t dana s tto Burmese ideas of social status, power, inuence, andgs spt (Scb 1989:71). os t gs,religious nature, and worldly success reect an individualsstts wt t ct, bt s spt sccss s

bs p t t g w ts ctts(ag-Tw 1985:44). B cctg t wt k,pw, , ts sst ct tt ts w wg k c bt gtt qck, ts, sc k wt s pc t c t css ct s t stc gtt (ag-Tw 1981:47,49). mt wsuccess functioned as cause and eect. For example, the wife

t mst mwz ct 1273, tg t scpt tt:

6 Pt t s pp bts st t ct tt pp kw ttt t samsara s xt g s st pssb stt. as st, pp t cc wt bg b w, wc tt pg w pss s s t t cg .7

T T ts tt t pctc ct ws t st pp s c-g t. lb ts tt pp tgt, ctst t cc Bs,cc , k ssc stts, s ct c t b bgp s g k.


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m ts, cg ts, wdestroy my oering, come under the wrath

t kg sb s s bgs. . . .

o t t , ts w spptmy oering share its merits equally with. m t g gs s t j ppss s nats, t tt bc

Buddhas and aain the bliss of Nirvna.(Inscriptions 1899:117)

iscpts t stt gttcenturies also corroborate the ndings of Spiro and Aung-Thwin.S scpts sp c t qst tt t c gtt, bt ts, t t skg gtt tt, s p psb bts.

ds qt st t xct st s tt s tt t w k t xpc. f stc, ta ok-kg scpt t 1780s, t ss:

For the benet of being free from thethreefold cycles of birth and for the benet sg nibbna, g g p g t wt ts

g sp t nibbna, ts Bckmst ws cs t b ct. . . .

o cct ts ts , I aain the peaceful and supreme nibbna.. . . Before I aain nibbna, sccssxstcs, i tk ccpt ( tts wb) s tihetuka bg (.., ps w s b wt t css -g, -t -s) tt psssss gts ws


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wt tt s b spctb ts. i i s,

i bc us mc. i ibc cs, i b w wtve kinds of supreme knowledge in allxstcs. m i b ks stcts, w wt ksof aainment, four kinds of blessing ands ks wt t G lw.m i pssss wt wc s t,

xstb, st cpb which cannot be harmed by ve kinds of. m i pssss tgc wcs sp, p, gt, qck, ssk t t, pttg cpb sg qsts. m i b wwt ks sp ts, tcpx g t swt c

karavika b wc s gt qts.n i ct s cb t ws, bt i ws ps ps b t ws. m i ssctwt t ts; i b w t cs. m i g t T Gs; i b w tsts. m b w like a cocks feather that is thrown into re;

s gs g, b wgt p spts xstcsk sp cp. B t ts ct t, wss ps brapidly fullled as much as I want in all myxstcs. i t, g bts, i b w wt t wt.m i ws s tt i c wk

my benets as well as others. In the presenceof Meeyya the Buddha, may I become (ant), w wt kwg


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(g) cct, b c st ws sp pw. (T

lw 1976:10609)

W ts s xp t s t c t g pss tg tp cts bts, ts xpss s ss. it s t tt w s t tt s stt, t s t t g t-gtg ctts. S scpts s scb wtt s t ws t bc. f xp, pp

t wt t b psc , t wt t b st t ss. ft, s sxpss t s t pt t Bst g pts tss samsara ( xp, Inscriptions1899:6,8,21,78). Wt bst szs t gs BsBst t s t ccpt t T Bsss, s G.h. lc P mg T t t. T T Bsss t bst t w, t bst t w t devas,

(P mg T lc 1963:69). Bs Bsts bt t Pg p t stt t ttct wt t xpc t, t ws ts stt ctbt t t pct t w ptgs g

bt t t ps tstc .

Coluoi s, t ptgs cps wt g, ctg sctc ppc t gg t p t t t ttt cts.dpcts t twt-gt ps Bs, scs t t B, t Jtk sts w ppt wt ptc ct spc, s sq ctg. mscc t cstcts, wtthe occasional use of the conated mode within a panel, weret . Ts ts ctbt t t sg cct t B t sts ssct wt . us xt, t pcss, t ws . icps, t ptgs t stt t


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tt cts cs tg t st, tt pszg t cc t t B. T xt

t t ws t t t stts t st t Jtk sts, t t B, t stsqcs t s t ps Bs. T psBs p sw cg gtt t spct ts t sttc scc (bg stt) t t tp t ws, pg ccg pt t xt ts, psc t.

dspt ts sg c st xts

cc g t t st tt sws sqc ts, t sggsts tt t ts t t ptgsc b s t s. T pts t t pt t t pts t sw tg st t cc g cctstc t p. T pct t twt-gt psBs sqs t t tp t ws t ccg t p, st sqcs t s

t ps Bs w s pt t ts t.ext pstts t st t Jtk sts c bs, xp, t t lktkp t tps 92 95 in Sale. The most signicant change in narrative is in thepstts t t B. Ts cg p, tg t t, t gt gt ts t p t ts tt st cc p t tgtt t t. T xt t cstct

t Bs scs g t t p pszsthe process of reaching enlightenment, which ts well with thew wc t Jtks pst t t s t. Tuse of comparable subject maer in both periods reects thects s s txts, bt t m, Ttc, Bc g ws b btw t tt stt cts.

T t t t g qst: p cgcc t ptgs btw t t ps Bs w ptgs? i s, t ppszs cc g, w t t pcts


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t ts pcss s. T t tstt- t tt-ct pt twt-gt

ps Bs, t Gt B, t stt Jtk stsc s b t p,

bt t t ptgs xbt w tpc g tt . T pps t ptgs s ts t tg s s t s tgt t ts- st Bs w ptgs. dspt tppt st pss cc g t tsthat focus upon karmic hierarchy and worldly benets, both

sts ptgs stt t ptc t B gtt, pst t w wt gs t t,, st ptt, gt t t s, tsts,and viewers. Regardless of the dierent appearances ofthe early and late murals in Burma, specic elements of thesubject maer and the intentions behind the production oft w ptgs cstt. Ctp ccs,sc s t spc t B t pstt

kgsp t, tg t scsand the signicant, mythological past is expressed throught sts tz. T st t pstt time reects the increasingly orthodox Theravada Buddhismtt c t t B t stgtg cwct. Bt w ctt b p cct tsptt twks. Ts, p cg ccs tpaintings because there is no change in plothere dened as

pgss tws gtt t cqst t.T t t ccs t t, bt t ttgoal of enlightenment reected in the murals remains the samewt t ptgs w pc t ttt ct t tt, Pg mw.


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L of Fur

Editors note: Color versions may be found online atwww.grad.niu.edu/burma/publications/journal/journal.htm.

Fig. 1. T twt-gt ps Bs wt t sqcs bt t, Ptz Tp, Pg (13tct).

Fig. 2. T t egt Gt ets Gt Bs

, n Tp, Pg (13t ct).

Fig. 3. Jtk sqs, Wtk- Kbkg, Pg (12t t13t cts).

Fig. 4. T vsst Jtk (. 547) gz stps,lktkp Tp, Pg (12t ct).

Fig. 5. T twt-gt ps Bs, Z dw dkcpx, a g, Sgg ds (18t ct).

Fig. 6. ext s t ps Bs, mp c(. 480), P W dg, Sgg ds (18t ct).

Fig. 7. l t B, Z dw dk cpx, ag, Sgg ds (18t ct).

Figs. 8a-e. Gt Jtk (. 520), Tkg c-tp, Sgg h, Sgg ds (t 17t 18tct).

Fig. 9. Palace scene from the Bhuridaa Jataka (no. 543),lg u hw, ywttg g, Sgg ds (18tct).


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Fig. 1. T twt-gt ps Bs wt t

sqcs bt t, Ptz Tp,Pg (13t ct).

Deep Change


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Fig. 2. T t egt Gt ets

Gt Bs , n T-p, Pg (13t ct).


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Fig. 3. Jtk sqs, Wtk- Kbkg,Pg (12t t 13t cts).


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Fig. 4. T vsst Jtk (. 547) gz stps,lktkp Tp, Pg (12t ct).


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Fig. 5. T twt-gt ps Bs,Z dw dk cpx, a g,Sgg ds (18t ct).


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Fig. 6. ext s t ps Bs,

mp C (. 480), P W dg,Sgg ds (18t ct).


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Fig. 7. l t B, Z dw dk cpx,a g, Sgg ds (18t ct).


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Fig. 8a. Gt Jtk (. 520),Tkg C-tp, Sgg h,Sgg ds (t 17t 18t ct).


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Figs. 8b-c. Gt Jtk (. 520),Tkg C-tp, Sgg h,Sgg ds (t 17t 18t ct).


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Figs. 8d-e. Gt Jtk (. 520),Tkg C-tp, Sgg h, Sgg ds

(t 17t 18t ct).


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Fig. 9. Palace scene from the Bhuridaa Jataka (no. 543),lg u hw, ywttg g,

Sgg ds (18t ct).


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Rfr

acgc S i. 1899. Inscriptions of Pagan, Pinya,and Ava. rg: Sptt, Gt Ptg.

ag Tw. 1972. Historical sites in Burma. rg: SpBk Pss.

ag-Tw, mc. 1981. Jbp: Cssc BsCt. Contributions to Asian Studies 16:3861.

______. 1985. Pagan: The origins of modern Burma. h:ust hw Pss.

B S. 1962. Lokahteikpan: Early Burmese culture in a Pagantemple. rg.Baue-Picron, Claudine. 1998. La reprsentation desJataka

Birmanie et dans lInde Orientale lepoque mdivale.i tudes birmanes, en hommage Denise Bernot, PPc fs rb, s.12945. Ps: c s ext-ot.

______. 1999. Btw i B: T ag St. i

The art of Burma,d Stt, ., 3752. mb:mg Pbcts.______. 2003. The Buddhist murals of Pagan: Timeless vistas of the

cosmos. Bgkk: oc Pss.B, Tt K. 1992. ig ttxtt: Sps

g ctg t s pct.i Reading between texts: Intertextuality and the HebrewBible, d n fw, ., 2739. ls, Ky:

Wstst/J Kx Pss.Bck, a. l. 1979. Txt-bg, pstg, sttcs Js sw tt. i The imagination of reality:Essays in Southeast Asian coherence systems, a.l. Bck a a. yg, s., 21143. nw, nJ:abx Pbsg Cpt.

Bt, rc. 1984. Visual narratives: Storytelling in Etruscanand Roman art. l: C ust Pss.

Bw, rbt. 1997. nt s c: T Jtk sts ct i Stst as ctct. iSacred biography in the Buddhist traditions of South and


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Southeast Asia, J Scb, ., 64109. h:ust hw Pss.

Cw, e.B., . 1897. The Jataka or stories of the Buddhas formerbirths, 6 s. Cbg: Cbg ustPss.

C, Jt. 1981. The pursuit of signs: Semiotics, literature,deconstruction. l: rtg Kg P.

dj, v. 1997. Discourse in early Buddhist art: Visual narratives ofIndia. nw d: ms m Pbss.

ds, C. 19151916. T a B ttc

Bs. Archaeological Survey of India,Annual Report.7993.ec, ubt. 1979. The role of the reader: Exploration in the semiotics

of texts. Bgt, in: i ust Pss.fgs, J P. 1975. Sbc ss t

Bs Sg. Pd sstt, C ust,itc, ny.

fw, d n. 1992. itct. i Reading between texts:

Intertextuality and the Hebrew Bible, d n fw,., 1123. ls, Ky: Wstst/J Kx Pss.Galloway, Charloe. 2002. Relationships between Buddhist

txts gs t egtt g t Pg p. i Burma: Art and archaeology, axG T. rc Bt, s., 4553. l:Bts ms Pss.

Genee, Gerard. 1980. Narrative discourse. ox: Bs

Bckw lt.G, ax. 2001. Bst t Bs s.Pd sstt, Sc ot acSts, ust l, l.

______. 2002. nt s stt t tt-ct Bs w ptgs. i Burma:

Art and archaeology, ax G T. rcBt, s., 6776. l: Bts ms Pss.

h, i. 1986. Reading the past: Current approaches tointerpretation in archaeology, 2 t. Cbg:Cbg ust Pss.


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h, i.B., ts. 1975. The minor anthologies of the Pali Canon,part III, chronicle of Buddhas (Buddhavamsa) and basket of

conduct (Cariyapitaka). l: P Txt Sct.______. 1978. Commentary on the chronicle of Buddhas

(Buddhavamsa). l: P Txt Sct.Kg, W J. 1990. The Burmese polity, 17521819: Politics,

administration, and social organization in the early Konbaungperiod. a ab, mi: ust mcg, Ct St Stst as Sts, Pps St Stst as, . 34.

lb, vct B. 1984. Burmese administrative cycles: Anarchyand conquest, c. 15801760. Pct, nJ: Pctust Pss.

______. 1991. Sc ts Bs cc st, c.13501830, t pcts stt t.

Modern Asian Studies 25, . 1:131.______. 1993. Ws t stt ct wts

Bs st? i Southeast Asia in the early modern

period: Trade, power, and belief. 21449. itc, ny:C ust Pss..lc, G h. 1969. Old Burma early Pagan, s. 13. lcst

v, ny: J.J. agst Pbs.ms, e. mc. 1975. Sangha and state in Burma: A study

of monastic sectarianism and leadership. l: Cust Pss.

P mg T G.h. lc, 1963. iscpts B.

Bulletin of the Burma Historical Commission . 3.Pc, P. 2001. Inventory of monuments at Pagan, .8, ts 20652834. Ps: ut nts,Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization.

r-K, St. 1983. Narrative fction: Contemporarypoetics. l: mt.

Scb, J. 1989. Pts t gtt: TBs pp B. Pd sstt,ust is, ub-Cpg.

S hs-. 1993. rgs -gs t dg s.Artibus Asiae. 53, . 1/2:5988.


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Sgss, a. 1985. The symbolism of the Stupa. itc, ny:Stst as Pg, C ust.

Sp, m e. 1982. Buddhism and society: A great traditionand its Burmese vicissitudes. Bk, Ca: ust C Pss.

Stc, P. 1989. Pagan: Art and architecture of Old Burma.Wtg B, a: Ksc.

T T. 1959. rgs bgs B, ad 10001300.Journal of the Burma Research Society. 42, . 2:7180.

T lw. 1976. a bck st scpts Pg.

Journal of the Burma Research Society, . 59, pt. 1:10119.Wg Jg. 1992. The story of stone: Intertextuality, ancient Chinesestone lore, and the stone symbolism in Dream of the redchamber, Water margin, and The journey to the West.d, SC: dk ust Pss.

Weimann, Kurt. 1947. Illustrations in roll and codex: A study ofthe origin and method of text illustration. Pct, nJ:Pct ust Pss.

Wk, K. 1977.Murals in Burma: Paintings from Pagan of the lateperiod, 18th century, . 1. Zc: vg ig vOppersdor.

Ax

The Mahanipata

T mpt: t st t Jtk sts, cps tmgpkk (. 538), mjk (. 539), S (. 540),Nemi (no. 541), Khandahala (no. 542), Bhuridaa (no. 543),mkssp (. 544), vpt (. 545),m-gg (. 546), vsst (. 547). ecpsts t T vts.

The Ten Virtues

T T vts paramis (paramitas) c gst(dana), cct (sila), ct (nekkhamma), ws(panna), energy, eort, or perseverance (viriya), ptc


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Alexandra Green

bc (khanti), ttss (sacca), st (adihana),g-kss (mea), qt (upekkha).

The Seven StationsT B ccp t s stts t s egtt.In the rst week the Buddha remained under the Bodhi treettg t c cst. dg t sc wk ws t ajp ng ( b t) uw t B hk ms gts ccst. T t wk spt t lk mc. it ws

tt t mc naga ptct t . dgt t wk, t B tt t rjtt, t t t wk ct Tpss Bk t t c.

T v cct gs ts , bt tJtk xts t p t s wks wt tthree being added between the rst and second weeks. Thus,t sc wk s spt t as Ct, t s bt

t spt w t B spt wk gzg bkg tt st t t t t B t. T t wk s sptt rtck Ct, t s t as Ct

bt t k t spt w t B spt wk ts gtt t Jw Wk. T t wkws spt t rtg Ct, t s t st t

Jw h ct b t gs. T B ctpttAbhidhamma Pitaka here. The fth week was spent at Ajapala

ng, t sxt t lk mc, t st trjt.

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