A Level Sociology

Beliefs in Society

Topic 8 Science and Ideology

Learning Objectives: Know the difference between open and closed belief system Understand and be able to evaluate different view of science as a belief system Understand and be able to evaluate different views of the nature of ideology

Activity:

With a partner write down all the words you associate with Science.

Record both the positive and negative impacts Science and Technology has had on the world.

Open belief systems:According to Karl Popper (1959) science is an ‘open belief system.’ This means that every scientist’s views are open to scrutiny or criticism. Their hypothesis can also be tested by others. Science is governed by the principle of ‘Falsificationism.’ That means that scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories, deliberately seeking theories that would disprove them. That theory can then be discard and a better explanation found.

According to Popper discarding falsified knowledge is what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow, this knowledge is ‘cumulative.’

So, in other words, no scientific knowledge is ever held as completely true, only until we disprove it!

For example:

Who’s this guy?

If Popper is correct this leaves the question of why science has only grown so rapidly in the last few centuries.

Merton has the answer!Merton argues Science could thrive as a social institution if it is valued and receives support from other social institutions. Like Popper, he argued that Science as an organised activity needs an ethos or set of norms that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge.

CUDOS NORMS:

Communism

Universalism

Disinterestedness

Organised Scepticism

Are the following statements falsifiable?

Water boils at 100 degrees celsius.

Taureans can be fussy at times.

The working classes are suffering from false consciousness.

It may rain tomorrow.

Our dreams reflect our unconscious desires.

Closed Belief Systems:

Religion can be said to be fundamentally different to science and a ‘closed belief system.’ Whilst science is open to criticism and testing religion is not. Religion claims to have absolute truth, it cannot be challenged and those who do so may be punished. Therefore unlike scientific knowledge it does not grow and develop.

Horton (1970) argues that religion, magic and many other belief systems are closed. Whenever fundamental belief systems are challenged they have a number of ‘get out’ clauses that prevent the system from being disproved. These devices vary from one belief to another.

Case study one: Witchcraft amongst the Azande.

Like westerners the Azande believe that natural events have natural causes, for example ‘a snake bit me because I accidentally stepped on it as I was walking down the path.’ However unlike most westerners the Azande do not believe in coincidence or chance. They might think, ‘I have walked down the same path a thousand times and have never been bitten before – so why now?’ They may explain this in terms of witchcraft.

The injured party may make an accusation against the suspected witch and the matter may be resolved by consulting the prince’s magic poison oracle. A potion called a ‘benge’ will be administered to a chicken, at the same time asking the ‘benge’ whether the accused is the source of the witchcraft and telling it to kill the chicken if the answer is yes. If the chicken dies the sufferer can publicly demand the witchcraft to stop. This is usually enough to end the problem as the Azande believe that witchcraft can be practised unintentionally.

Evans-Pritchard argues that this performs useful social functions as it clears the air and prevents grudges from festering. This belief system is highly closed because it cannot be overturned by evidence.

1. Explain the difference between a how a westerner and how an Azande person would view being bitten by a snake.

2. What happens once the injured party has made an accusation of witchcraft?

3. What social functions does this perform?

4. Why is this an example of a closed belief system?

Case study two: Creationists Vs Evolutionists

Creationists believe in an almighty creator because the parts of the human body such as they eye are no use until everything else is in its place and working, therefore they believe the eye cannot evolve.

Creationists also have the fundamental belief that God created the world in seven days. This, in their eyes is infallible.

Watch the video of Richard Dawkins interviewing creationist Wendy Wright:

Richard Dawkins Interviews Creationist Wendy Wright (excerpt) - YouTube

1. How do they differ in their explanation of DNA?

2. How does Wright criticise Dawkins and science?

Some Sociologists argue that in fact Science is also a closed belief system. Scientists, like believers of religions all have similar beliefs, therefore when an outsider challenges them, they can be quick to reject them. For example, Velikovsky put forward a new theory which challenged the origins of the earth, scientists were quick to reject it and refused to put it the test

How might we relate this to religion?

Kuhn (1970) argued that science is dominated by paradigms or dominant systems of thought. Scientists who hold different views are discredited no matter how strong their arguments.

Scientists do not properly follow falsificationism. Ideas are held long after they have been falsified.

Feyerabend (1975) claimed that science develops in a haphazard way with no clear progress.

Sayer (1992) says the certainty of natural sciences is exaggerated. Scientists cannot always make accurate predictions, e.g. weather forecasting.

Scientists can fundamentally disagree on the same issue. They can “take sides” and be biased, e.g. for or against nuclear energy.

Scientists, therefore only become open to new ideas when there has been an accumulation of anomalies which the paradigm cannot account for

Interpretivists…Interpretivists have developed Kuhn’s ideas and argue that all knowledge is socially constructed. Woolgar argued scientists are in the same process as everyone else, making sense of the world and applying meaning. When confronted with evidence they decide what it means by applying theories, then they have to persuade others to accept their own interpretation.

For example...

On discovering ‘pulsars’ in a Cambridge astronomy lab, the scientists labelled their printouts LGM1/2

Reading the information on page 61 and 62 answer the following:

1. What does LGM stand for?

2. Why would the researchers be unable to use this interpretation in the scientific community?

3. What did they eventually settle for?

4. What does this demonstrate about science as a belief system?

Marxism, feminism and postmodernism:

Marxists argue that science often reflects the views of big business and is not objective. For example some scientists working for oil companies have claimed that the hazards of pollution are exaggerated. This suits their exployers’ interests.

Postmodernists like Lyotard say science is just one of a number of metanarratives that falsely claim to possess the truth. Science has caused a lot of problems in the world and the public are increasingly sceptical of scientific ideas.

Some feminists such as Harding (1986) see science as male-dominated or ‘malestream.’

What is ideology?

An ideology is a set of beliefs, usually used to justify or support a particular group.

The term “ideology” originally comes from Marx. Marx (1845) used it to refer to all other beliefs apart from his own. Ideologies are not true, unlike Marxism. For example capitalism uses ideology to promote its own views and get the public to support capitalism.

Examples of capitalist ideology (capitalist beliefs)

Capitalism and private property are good.

The rich deserve their wealth.

Inequality in society is fair.

Workers should obey bosses.

Marxists would challenge all these statements and say that they are false. However in capitalist society capitalist ideology is everywhere – it is promoted in the family, education, workplace, religion, politics and these days in the media. Alternative anti-capitalist views are either not heard at all or made to appear ridiculous or dangerous.

Neo-Marxists think ideology is increasingly important. The media are usually capitalist organisations and are a powerful means of spreading ideology. This is often done in newspapers which present trade unions and anti-capitalist organisations as extremists while celebrating bosses and other rich people. Most newspapers support the Conservative party who are strongly pro-capitalist. As Gramsci said ideology helps the capitalists achieve hegemony – leadership of society with consent. As the public are led to believe that society is fair they accept the capitalist system quite happily. In reality capitalism is unfair.

Pluralist views on ideologyPluralists reject the Marxist views on ideology. They say that Marxism is an ideology just like all the other views. There are lots of different viewpoints in society and capitalist ideas are not dominant. Most groups have some opportunity to get their views across. For example newspapers and TV can be critical of big business. There are magazines and websites supporting anti-capitalist and even Marxist views.

In the UK newspapers critical of capitalism like the one above do exist

The Ideology of nationalism: Nationalism has been an important political ideology which has had a major impact on the world in the last 200 years.

It claims that:

Nations are real distinctive communities, each with its own unique characteristics and a long shared history

Every nation should be self-governing National loyalty and identity should come before all others such as tribe, class or religion

However Anderson (2006) argues that a nation is only an imagined community, not a real one. Although we identify with it we will never know most of its members. This imagined community can bind millions of people together and create a common purpose.

Marx was an ‘internationalist’ His Communist Manifesto ends with the words:

‘Workers of all countries, unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains.’

From a Marxist perspective nationalism is a form a ‘false consciousness’ that prevents revolution.

Stretch yourself! AO2/3 Why does nationalism prevent revolution?

Functionalism and nationalism: RECAP!

1. How do functionalists see nationalism?

2. What functions does it perform?

3. How might the functionalist view be criticised?

Nationalism and modernity:Gellner (1994, 2006) also sees nationalism as ‘false consciousness’ he sees it as a modern idea that binds people together in an industrialised society. Before this face to face interaction bound people together. He also argues that the elite use nationalism as an ideology to motivate the population to endure hardships and suffering of the first phase of industrialisation thereby enabling a state to modernise.

Other views on ideology:Ideologies can used by any group and don’t just revolve around capitalism and Marxism. Feminists say that society is dominated by patriarchal ideology. These are ideas which suggest that male dominance is fair and that women should take second place. There can be racist ideologies attacking certain ethnic groups. Postmodernists say that all groups use ideologies. There is no truth or superior viewpoint.

Religion is seen as an ideology by perspectives such as Marxism and feminism. Marxists say that religion is untrue and is used to get believers to accept their place in society. Feminists argue that religion is an ideology to justify male dominance.

The supporters of science say it is the one true set of ideas in society. However postmodernists argue science is just as likely to be biased and misleading as any other beliefs – science is an ideology as well. Marxists and feminists also say that science often serves the interests of powerful groups such as capitalism and men.

Questions

1. What is an ideology?

2. Who produced the term ideology?

3. How is the neo-Marxist view of ideology different to that of Marx?

4. How do pluralists disagree with Marxists about ideology?

5. Give one example of (a) patriarchal ideology and (b) racist ideology.

The role of the Media:It is sometimes argued that the media, e.g. newspapers, magazines, TV and the Internet promote the ideologies of dominant groups in Britain. Examples of dominant groups include:

Business / capitalism

Men

White people

Heterosexuals

The able-bodied

Use your devices to find examples!

Karl Mannheim – Ideology and utopia:All belief systems are a partial or one sided world view. This results from being the view point of one particular group or class and its interests.

Mannheim identifies two broad types of belief system:

1. Ideological Thought – Justifies keeping things as they are and reflects the position and interests of privileged groups such as the capitalist class.

2. Utopian Thought – Justifies social change, reflects the position of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently

Mannheim sees these worldviews as creations of groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes or social groups. These groups only produce partial views of reality because they don’t represent society as a whole, each belief system of each class or group only gives us a partial truth about the world and this causes conflict, different intellectuals linked to different groups and

classes produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justify the interests and claims of their group as against the others. The solution, he argues, is to detach the intellectuals from the social groups they represent, create a free floating intelligentsia standing above the conflict. Being freed from representing the interests of the group they would be able to synthesise elements of different partial ideologies and utopias and arrive at a ‘total world view.’

Perspective/theorist Views on ideology/what is the role of ideology?

Marxism (Marx)

Neo Marxism (Gramsci)

Feminism

Functionalism and nationalism

Marxism and Nationalism

Modernity and nationalism

Mannheim and ideology

Key concepts to learn… Open belief system

Falsificationism

CUDOS Norms

Closed belief systems

Ideology

Hegemony

Nationalism

Utopia

Free floating intelligentsia

Exam Questions:

Outline and explain two reasons why science has replaced religion in today’s society (10 marks)

POINT ONE

POINT TWO

Item

Both science and religion are belief systems that involve sets of knowledge-claims: that is, statements that claim to offer explanations of why things are as they are.

For example, science uses concepts such as germs to explain why people fall ill from infectious diseases, while some religions use ideas such as the will of God to explain human illness and suffering.

Applying material from Item A, analyse two differences between science and religion as belief systems (10 marks)

POINT ONE

POINT TWO

Item A

The term ‘ideology’ usually refers to a belief system that serves the interests of a particular group or class. For example, Marxists argue that the ruling class use ideologies that portray inequality as inevitable and/or desirable. By doing so they seek to persuade the subordinate classes to accept the dominance of the ruling class over society. Institutions such as the media, education and religion play an important role in creating ideology.

From a Functionalist perspective, civil religion and political beliefs such as Nationalism may be seen as ideologies that can bind society together.

1. Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate Sociological explanations of the nature and role of ideology. (20)

Item B

The development of modern society has been accompanied by a scientific approach to understanding and controlling the world. Scientific explanations, based on evidence and reason, have challenged religious explanations based on faith.

However, religion continues to play an important role in many people’s lives today.

2. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the view that science has a greater influence than religion on people’s lives today. (20) June 2017