1. A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Video Games: A Ludonarrative Model Weimin Toh National University of Singapore 2. Aim of Study Propose an integrated framework to analyse video games from a multimodal discourse analysis perspective. Objective investigate players understanding of how the different modes (narrative and gameplay) of video games combine in video games. 3. Definition of terms Multimodality Multimodality inter-disciplinary approach that understands communication and representation to be more than language (Bezemer, 2012). Three theoretical assumptions Representation and communication always draw on a variety of modes, all of which contribute to meaning (Jewitt, 2013). Resources are socially shaped over time to become meaning making resources (Jewitt, 2013). People orchestrate meaning through their selection and configuration of modes (Jewitt, 2013). 4. Definition of terms Discourse Analysis Discourse language used in context (Glapka, 2014). A complex bundle of simultaneous and sequential interrelated linguistic acts, which manifest themselves within and across the social fields of action as thematically interrelated semiotic, oral or written tokens, very often as texts, that belong to specific semiotic types, i.e. genres. (Wodak, 2001a: 66). Semiotic elements of social practices. Discourse therefore includes language (written and spoken and in combination with other semiotics, for example, with music in singing), nonverbal communication (facial expressions, body movements, gestures, etc.) and visual images. (Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999:38). The notion of discourse analysis that this study adopts is in the analysis of the semiotic resources (e.g. narrative and gameplay) in the video game as understood by the: (1) analyst, which is negotiated with (2) the other players understanding/interpretation. 5. Definition of terms Ludo Ludo originate from Latin in the 19th century which means I play. In this study, Ludo is taken to refer to the gameplay in video games. No universally accepted definition of gameplay. Some gameplay definitions: The formalised, focused interaction that occurs when players follow the rules of a game in order to play it. (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004: 311). The set of activities that can be performed by the player during the ludic experience, and by other entities belonging to the virtual world, as a response to players actions/or as autonomous courses of action that contribute to the liveliness of the virtual world. (Fabricatore, 2007). The challenges that a player has to face to arrive at the object of the game and the actions that the player is permitted to address those challenges. (Adams, 2010: 11). Following Aarseth (2004), the definition of gameplay I propose for this study is the players [ergodic] actions, strategies, and motives to manipulate the constituents of the gameworld during their interaction with the video game to overcome the gameplay challenges which are restricted by rules. 6. Definitions of terms Narrative Various definitions Broadly classified into four groups. 1. Traditional narrative 2. Classical narrative Narratology 3. New theories (Ryan, 2001) 4. Psychoanalytical theories Following Ryan (2001), the definition of video game narrative in this study is: the cognitive interpretation of the players ergodic interaction and/or interpretation of the gameworld in both the scripted (cutscenes) and non-scripted sequences (narrative revealed via the players interactions in the game world). The players interpretations of the narratives are elicited via the interviews conducted for the game study. 7. Definition of terms Ludonarrative Refers to an imagined whole, of which every video game is comprised. This study focuses on the negotiation of both the analysts and players interpretation of the relationship between gameplay and story. Builds on Denas (2010) preliminary model to describe the meaning-making processes of polymorphic fiction. 8. Previous studies on Ludonarrative Juuls (2005) discussion of fiction and relationship between fiction and rules. Aarseths (2003) multi-dimensional typology of games. Ryans (2006) proposal of the relationship between narrative and gameplay. Bryans (2013) analysis of players decision-making in narrative choices. Pinchbecks (2009) conceptualization of story as a function of gameplay in First Person Shooter games. Linderoths (2013) discussion of suitability of gameplay mechanics for some narrative themes/elements. Fernandez-Varas (2009) research on the integration of story with players action in adventure games. Paucity of research on how players make choices (narrative/gameplay) based on ludonarrative relationships. 9. Theoretical Approach Denas (2010) Model Diagram illustrating the relations between principles, modes, and media, as espoused by Kress and van Leeuwen (2001) Reproduced from Dena (2010). 10. Theoretical Approach The Ludonarrative Model The Proposed Ludonarrative Model for Video Game Analysis. 11. Theoretical Approach The Ludonarrative Model Ludonarrative Dissonance Conflicts and disjunctions between a video game's narrative and its gameplay (Watssman, 2012). The game mechanics directly clash with the narrative and pacing of the title". (Brycer, 2013). Term originates from Hocking (2007) in Bioshock. In The Last of Us game study, players interviewed mentioned the constant random ammunition drops from the enemies which conflicted with the setting of the gameworld (scarcity of resources). 12. Theoretical Approach The Ludonarrative Model Ludonarrative Resonance The gameplay and the narrative fit together extremely well such that they cannot be separated (Watssman, 2012). Gameplay and story integration in The Walking Dead (killing Lees brother), Mass Effect, and The Last of Us. Ludonarrative Alienation Narrative and gameplay have a weak relationship with each other, neither conflicting, as in dissonance, nor harmonising, as in resonance. Narrative and gameplay gain little from the presence of the other (Watssman, 2012) but may also not restrict each other. For the game study, the Bioshock players focus on the gameplay and do not focus on the micro-plots of the minor characters in the narrative. Players in the Bioshocks game study also could not understand the subtle gameplay hints given in the narrative of the audio logs. 13. Video Games chosen for the Game Study The following six games were chosen for the game study: Bioshock, Mass Effect, The Walking Dead, The Witcher 2 (Dropped as there is too much data), The Last of Us, and Beyond 2 Souls. Criteria for the choice of games is their different ludonarrative relationships to test the different ludonarrative categories in the model. 14. Participants in the Game Study 37 participants were recruited but only 11 subjects completed the game study where they have to finish the entire game. Subjects were recruited from the National University of Singapore. Age range from 19 33. Stage 1 PC game subjects played for 2 3 hours in the game lab, followed by an hour of open-ended interview questions prepared beforehand in the game lab. Stage 2 PC game subjects finished playing the game at home. They record their audio reflections during and/or after the gameplay. Stage 3 PC game subjects undergo the final sessions open ended interview questions prepared beforehand in the game lab. A few PS3 game participants conducted all three stages in the game lab as they do not have the PS3 or game recorder at home. 15. Multimodal Discourse Analysis The second stage after theoretical discussion involves the analysts interpretation of the relationship between narrative and gameplay in the video games. The analyst looks through the video recordings of the participants gameplay data. Interview questions were created to understand the ludonarrative relationships in different games. An initial model is created based on the analysts understanding of the ludonarrative relationships in the video games. Based on the interviews, the model is modified to take into account the players experience after they played the game. Some findings indicate the disjunction between the analyst and the players interpretation. For instance, the analyst could understand the subtle hints provided by the narrative in Bioshocks audio logs to overcome the gameplay challenges but the players could not. 16. Implications of Findings The findings from the game study could highlight aspects of the ludonarrative relationships that are underutilised. For instance, gameplay hints given in narrative that are too subtle. Game developers could minimise the interruption/dissonance of the different modes, i.e. gameplay and narrative when designing the games. Video games with both narrative and gameplay could also benefit from a balancing of both modes through the playtesting using the ludonarrative model. For instance, when the playtest reveals the dominance of the category of ludonarrative alienation, the developers may redesign the game so that both narrative and gameplay could be more integrated with each other. 17. References Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Aarseth, E. (2003). A Multidimensional Typology of Games. In DiGRA 03 Proceedings of the 2003 DiGRA International Conference: Level Up. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.digra.org/digital- library/publications/a-multidimensional-typology-of-games/ Aarseth, E. (2004). Playing Research: Methodological approaches to game analysis. Game Approaches - Papers from spilforskning.dk Conference. Aug 28-29, 2003. Spilforskning.dk 2004. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.cs.uu.nl/docs/vakken/vw/literature/02.GameApproaches2.pdf Adams, E. (2010). Fundamentals of Game Design. Berkeley: New Riders. Bezemer, J. (2012). What is Multimodality? Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://mode.ioe.ac.uk/2012/02/16/what-is-multimodality/ Bryan, J. S. (2013). The Dynamics of the Player Narrative How Choices Shapes Videogame Literature. Masters Thesis. Georgia Institute of Technology. Bycer, J. (2013). Narrative Dissonance in Game Storytelling. Gamasutra. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20130628/195316/Narrative_Dissonance_in_Game_Storytellin g.php 18. References Chouliaraki, L. and Normal F. (1999). Discourse in late modernity Rethinking critical discourse analysis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Dena, C. (2010). Beyond Multimedia, Narrative, and Game - The Contributions of Multimodality and Polymorphic Fictions. In Ruth Page (Eds). New Perspectives on Narrative and Multimodality. Taylor & Francis. Fabricatore, C. (2007). Gameplay and game mechanics design: a key to quality in videogames. In Proceedings of OECD-CERI Expert Meeting on Videogames and Education, Santiago de Chile, Chile, 2007. [online] Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/17/39414829.pdf Fernandez-Vara, C. (2009). The tribulations of adventure games: integrating story into simulation through performance. PhD Thesis. Georgia Institute of Technology. Glapka, E. (2014). Reading Bridal Magazines from a Critical Discursive Perspective. United Kingdoms: Palgrave Macmillan. Hocking, C. (2007). Ludonarrative Dissonance in Bioshock. - The Problem of what the game is about. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://clicknothing.typepad.com/click_nothing/2007/10/ludonarrative-d.html Jewitt, C. (2013). Multimodality. Glossary of Multimodal Terms: A MODE Initiative. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://multimodalityglossary.wordpress.com/multimodality/ Juul, J. (2005). Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds. The MIT Press. Kress, G.R., and van Leeuwen. T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. London: Arnold. 19. References Linderoth, J. (2013). Superheroes, Greek gods and sport stars: Ecological empowerment as a ludonarratological construct. In Mitgutsch, K. Huber, S., Wimmer, J., Wagner, H. G., & Rosenstingl, H. (Eds.). Context Matters! Proceedings of the Vienna Games Conference 2013: Exploring and Reframing Games and Play in Context. Vienna: New academic press, pp. 17 30. Pinchbeck, D. (2009). Story as a function of gameplay in First Person Shooters. PhD Thesis. University of Portsmouth. Ryan, M-L. (2001). Beyond myth and metaphor - the case of narrative in digital media. Game Studies. Vol. 1, Issue 1, July 2001. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/ryan/ Ryan, M-L. (2006). Avatars of Story. University of Minnesota Press. Salen, K. & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of Play: game design fundamentals. MIT: Cambridge. Watssman, J. (2012). Essay: Ludonarrative Dissonance Explained and Expanded. Escapistmagazine. Retrieved 25 April 2015 from http://www.escapistmagazine.com/forums/read/9.389092-Essay-Ludonarrative-Dissonance- Explained-and-Expanded Wodak, R. (2001a). The discourse-historical approach, in: Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (eds), Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Sage, 63-94.