ANTROPOLOGIA CONTE~PORANEA VoI. 13, n. 4: 329-336, 1990

A. Coppa~',

S. M. Damadio H,G. J. Armelagos H~',D. Mancinelli~',R. Vargiu ~,

" Dipartimento di Biologia Ani-male e dell'Uomo - Università«La SapienZa»Piazza A. Moro 200 100 Rame - Italy*', Istituto di AntropologiaUniversità di FirenzeVia del Proconsolo 12

50122 Florence - Italy**', Departmemt ofAnthropologyUniversity of FloridaGainesville,Florida - U.5.A.

Paleobiology and Paleopathology

A preliminary study o£ the prehistoric fishingpopulation o£ Ra's al-Hamra 5 (Qurum,

Sultanate o£ Oman, 3,700-3,200 BC).

This study analyzes 157 individuals fram the cemetery of Ra's al-Hamra (RH5), in the Sultanate of Oman (3,700-3,200 BC). Anoverview of the population shows a low variability of metric traits anda distribution of non-metric traits, that leads one to believe it was anisolated group. Comparisons between the three levels of the cemeterydoes not demonstrate statistically significant differences.Paleodemographic analyses leads one to hypothysize the practice ofinfanticide and supports the archaeological hypothesis of a seasonalexploitation of the site. A worsening of life conditions with thepassage of time, as demonstrated by lower life expectancy, can possi-bly be interpreted as a consequence of isolation and inbreeding.Genetic isolation is also evidenced by a very high frequency (82.4%)of spina bifida occulta, the highest thus far reported in literature.Preliminary paleopathological analysis indicates the presence of infec-tious disease, arthitis, signs of trauma and various developmentaldefects.

Introduction

This study regards the cemetery ofprehistoric fisher-gatherers at the coastal site ofRa's al-Hamra 5 (RH5), located at Qurum near Muscat, in the Sultanate of Oman. The siteincludes the oldest entirely excavated cemetery from the Arabian Peninsula. The cemetery,situated on a promontory projecting into the Persian Gulf, was in use between 3700-3200BC. From 1981 to 1985 the site was excavated by the Istituto Universitario Orientale ofNaples, the Istituto per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente (IsMEO) of Rome, and the CentroStudi e Ricerche Ligabue of Venice, in collaboration with the Ministery of NationalHeritage and Culture of Oman (Biagi & Nisbet, 1984; Biagi et al., 1984; Coppa et al.,1985; IsMEO Activities, 1981, 1982).

Archaeological evidence indicates a predominant exploitation of the marine habitat bythe inhabitants of RH5. Remains of several species of fish and molluscs, gathered primarilyfrom the surrounding coastal ecosystem (mangrove swamps, sandy beaches and limestonecliffs), were present in the midden. The remains of Chelonia mydas, the green sea turtle,indicate another source of protein and, above all, fats. The few remains of domesticmammals such as bovine, sheep, goat and almost no wild animals, suggest they made littlecontribution to the overall diet (Uerpmann, 1989). Initial analysis of botanical remainsindicate extensive use of dune vegetation and the sporadic presence of domestic grain (Biagi& Nisbet, 1989; Biagi et al., 1989; Nisbet, 1985).

Located in the north-eastern portion of the site, the cemetery covered an area ofapproximately 160 square meters in which 125 tombs were excavated. Three phases ofinterment were distinguished but, as of yet, the exact chronological limits are not clear(Biagi & Salvatori, 1986; Salvatori, n. d.). The three phases are nominally referred to asLevels 1, 2 and 3 with Level 1 being the most recent and Level 3 the most ancient.

@ Editrice Il Sedicesimo firenze ISSN 0392-9035

330 COPPA, DAMADIO, ARMELAGOS, MANCINELLI & VARGIU

Burials were generalIy shalIow oval depressions and, in many .cases, multiple. Thedeceased was deposited in fetal position on one side, generalIy the right, with arms foldedand hands below or in front of the head which was oriented to the north-east. In some casesthe deceased clasped a valve of the mollusc Callista in one hand in front of the eyes. In othercases, a pearl was found clutched in the hand.

There was not much in the way of accompanying grave goods. Those present werelimited to objects of personal adornment such as pendants, necklaces and bracelets oftenmade of shell. Almost alI of the deceased were accompanied by what appeared to be ritualfood offerings generally consisting of the- remains of molIuscs, fish and portions of, or, insome cases, whole crania of the green sea turtle (Biagi & Salvatori, 1986; Coppa et a1.,1985; Salvatori, 1990; Santini, 1984).

There appears to be evidence for the seasonal exploitation of the site between themonths of August and December. Supporting this hypothesis is the apparent orientation ofa major poirtion of the crania with the face in the direction of the rising sun during aspecific portion of the year. Also, in a number of burials, there are the remains of sea turtleswhich only nest in the area £rom August to December (Biagi & Salvatori, 1986; Salvatori, n.d.).

Previous studies of material from the first two field seasons (burials 1-55) of skeletaland dental metric and non-metric traits showed a high degree of homogeneity in thepopulation of RH5 (Coppa et a1., 1985; IsMEO Activities, 1982; Macchiarelli, 1989).

This current study deals with demography and the evaluation of the biologicalcontinuity and the level of endogamy of this population, analyzing and comparing the threelevels.

Metric and discrete traits

For the purposes of this study, 157 individuals were taken into consideration. Theskeletal material was in poor condition, primarily due to termite activity and wind erosion,especially in burials from Level 1. This factor allowed for only partial measurements(according to Martin & Saller, 1957), and as a consequence, there is a low number ofindividual measurements in many cases.

As only a small number of measurements were possible, only select measurements ofthe mandible and long bones were taken into consideration. In order to evaluate possiblemicrodifferentation factors, comparisons of the measurements were made between thethree levels. An overall analysis of the fifty four comparisons possible (Tab. 1) reveals atotal absence of statisticalIy significant differences demonstrating a generaI tendency tohomogeneity in the RH5 population. This is also demonstrated by the generally low valuesof the coefficient of variability.

Some cranial and postcranial discrete traits (Berry & Berry, 1967 for cranial andFinnegan, 1978 for postcranial) were taken into consideration (Tab. 2) to better evaluatethis homogeneity. Comparisons of r! made with Yates correction show a 0.05 level ofsignificance in only one of fifty three statistical comparisons.

In RH5, seven discrete traits, metopic suture, palatine torus, maxillary torus, supra-condyloid process, double condylar facet, precondylar tubercle and third trochanter aretotalIy absent. Coupled with this absence, is the high frequency of other traits, such ashighest nuchalline - approximately 80%, parietal foramen - always above 70%, lateraltibial squatting facet - above 70%, frontal foramen approximately 50% and septal aperture- 30 - 40%. This absence of some traits, and the high frequency of others would suggestgenetic isolation.

Paleodemography

Paleodemographic analyses was first made between males and females, with allievelscombined. Comparisons were then made between the 3 levels with the sexes combined.Approximately the same number of individuals were present in each level. Sex wasdetermined following Acsadi and Nemeskéri (1970). Age at death of adults was attributedusing the <~complex'method» of Nemeskéri et al. (1960) while age determination ofsubadults followed Ferembach et al. (1977-79). Life tables were constructed followingAcsadi and Nemeskéri (1970).

PALEOBIOLOGY AND PALEOPATHOLOGY 331

TABLE 1 - Significance(ANOVA test) - Cranial'and postcranialmetric traits.

Leve! 1 Leve! 1 Leve! 2Leve! 2 Leve! 3 Leve! 3

F M F M F M

m 69 0.67 0.16m 69.1 rt 0.99 0.10 0.59m 69.3 rt 0.23 0.55 0.55 0.87h 1 l 0.42h 4 l 0.16 0.39h 4 rt 0.74h 5 rt 0.77h 6 rt 0.56r 3 rt 0.20r 4 l 0.27r 4 rt 0.68

5 l 0.145 rt 0.63

u 1 rt 0.09u 8 rt 0.90u 11 l 0.98u 11 rt 0.78u 12 rt 0.59u 13 l 0.29 0.30 0.88 0.53u 13 rt 0.70 0.83 0.99 0.62u 14 l 0.08 0.16 0.63 0.50u 14 rt 0.89 0.71 0.55 0.32f 1 l 0.89f 6 rt 0.73f 7 rt 0.81f 9 rt 0.59f 10 rt 0.51f 18 l 0.86f 18 rt 0.12f 19 rt 0.08t 1 rt 0.06fu 2 rt 0.71 0.45fu 3 rt 0.56 0.90

(m = mandible, h = humerus, r = radius, u = ulna, f = femur, t = tibia, fb = fibula; Martin Sallermeasu-rement number; rt = right, 1= left)

332 COPPA, DAMADIO, ARMELAGOS, MANCINELLI & VARGIU

TABLE 2 - Significance (X 2) - Cranial and post-cranial non-metric traits.

One notes in adult life expectancy (Fig. 1) a female curve which is lower than that ofmales in the 20-24 and 25-29 age intervals. This high mortality in the first two adult femaleage intervals (Fig. 2) is observed in both archaeological, (Green et al., 1974; Owsley & Bass,1979; Van Gerven et al., 1981) and modern Third World populations (Calot & Caselli,1988) and is associated with problems in childbirth (Clarke, 1977; Lallo, 1972; Bennet,1973; Swedlund & Armelagos, 1969). An inversion of the curve after age 30 is to beexpected as females over 30 years of age generally live longer than males. In RH5 howewer,female life expectancy is dramatically lower'than that of males after 40 years of age (Fig. 1).This could be due to non-demographic factors, that is, perhaps older females did not live onthe site, but remained at a base camp where they were also buried. This would lower thepercent of female deaths over 50 years of age (Fig. 2). This is also indicated by a sex ratio of2 to 1 in individuals over 40.

Another relevant phenomena is the low percentage of newborns. The fact that 85% ofthe individuals who died around age O were buried in multiple burials, and generallyassociated with females (who probably died in childbirth), indicates selective differentialburial customs for infants. In fact, there exists a clear underestimation of the infantpopulation. This phenomena is seen in numerous prehistoric sites (Brothwell, 1971; Nemes-kéri, 1978).

The presence of 2 triple burials in which a neonatal was buried with an infant and anadult female and other burials in which infants were buried with adults of both sexes, leadsone to the possible hypothysis of the exsistence of infanticide as a consequence of the deathof one parent. This practice is well documented ethnologically in various Oceanic fishinggroups as a consequence of the difficulty of the group to sustain the last born if one parentdies (Visca, 1977).

Level 1 Level 1 Level 2Level 2 Level 3 Level 3

Highest nuchal line 0.54 0.62 0.69Parietal foramen 0.55 0.36 0.68Mastoid foramen exsutural 0.32 0.52 0.03"Mastoid foramen absent 0.16 0.08 0.99Ant. condylar canal double 0.83 0.82 0.64Foramen spinosum open 0.58Zygomatico-facial foramen 0.49 0.70 0.41

Supra-orb. foramen complete 0.67 0.88 0.83Frontal foramen 0.68 0.80 0.32Accessory infraorb. foramen 0.92 0.59Accessory mental foramina 0.83 0.46Poirier' s facet 0.88 0.52Hypotrochanteric fossa 0.13 0.09 0.79Exostosis in trochan. fossa 0.75 0.93 0.69Lateral tibial squat. facet 0.55 0.54Septal aperture 0.86 0.31 0.13Inferior talar art. surface 0.21 0.22 0.92Anterior calco facet double 0.25 0.93 0.32Anterior calco facet absent 0.87 0.76Vastus notch 0.25 0.87 0.38

*p:50.05

PALEOBIOLOGY AND PALEOPATHOLOGY 333

eOx18

16

14----

12, i3 <--<lO

8

4

---------'13-----------

--o- - --- - - - ------

6

220-24 25-29 30-34 35-39

Age

40-44 45-49 50 +

--El-- feInales I[ -e-- Inales

Fig. 1 - Cementery o£ RH5 Levels 1,2 and 3 combined (eOx).

e x25

5

20

15

lO

O20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39

Age

40-44 45-49 50 +

[ § Inales _feInales I

Fig. 2 - Cementery o£ RH5 Levels 1,2 and 3 combined (dx).

334 COPPA, DAMADIO, ARMELAGOS, MANCINELLI & VARGIU

eOx18

16

8

14

12

lO

6

4 -220-24 25-29 30-34 35-39

Age

40-44 45-49 50 +

l o Level 1--EJ-- Level 2

-*- Level 3 I.

Fig. 3 - Cementery of RH5 Adults males and females combined (eOx).

One notes, when examining adult life expectancy (Fig. 3) between the three levels(males and females combined), that Level 3 is higher than that of Level 2 which is higherthan that of Level 1 until age interval 35-39. In age intervals 40-44 and 45-49, lifeexpectancy is more or less equal in allievels. While, after 50 years of age, life expectancy ishighest in Level 3 and lowest in Level 2. Therefore, it can be said that there is a clearindication of the lowering of life expectancy with the passage from the oldest (Level 3) tothe most recent (Level 1) time period, especially in age intervals 25-29 and 30-34 years.

Paleopathology

Signs of trauma, deve!opmental defects, degenerative changes and infection diseasewere present in the skeletal material of RH5.

Evidence of trauma consists of a healed cranial fracture, healed fractures of longbones, compression fractures and fusion. Traumatic fusion is visible in adjacent cervicalvertebrae, hand phalanges and the head of a femur to its acetablum. One individuaIexhibits multiple signs of trauma including, the pseudoarthrosis of a parry fracture of anulna, fractures of several ribs and a fibula.

Ninety eight cases of degenerative changes were observed which include osteophytosis,erosion, porosity, eburnation, resorption, intercortical porosity and ligament ossification.

Twenty six individuals show signs of infectious disease consisting primarily of perios-teal reaction on long bones.

Seventeen developmental defects were noted. There were 2 cases of spondylolisthesis,1 of lumbar sacralization, 4 of sacrallumbarization and 2 with bilateral os acromion. Sixty

PALEOBIOLOGY AND PALEOPATHOLOGY 335

TABLE 3 - Number and percent 01 spina bilida occulta.

Sacrumw/out defect

Spina bifidaocculta

NumberPercent

1317.6

6182.4

TABLE4 - Number and percent 01 total spina bilida occulta.

Sacrumw/out defect

TotalSpina bifida occulta

NumberPercent

4051.9

3748.1

TABLE5 - Mean age at death 01 individuals with and without spina bilida.

one cases of spina bifida occulta were present and limited to the the sacrum. Spina bifidaocculta, defined as the lack of ossification of the vertebral arch, is commonly considered anindicator of genetic isolation and inbreeding when there is a high frequency of occurence(Bennett, 1972; Castro de La Mata & Bonavia, 1980; Ferembach, 1962, 1963; Morse,1978). One must remember that there are some authors who believe spina bifida is aconsequence of nutritional stress due to trace mineraI deficiency (Devor & Cordeli1981).

Given the high number of sacra present (74), and the very high percent of spina bifidaocculta (82.4%) (Tab. 3), the defect was studied in detail. Spina bifida occulta is defined aspresent when it occurs in at least the fourth and fifth sacral vertebra. When the defect ispresent in ali five arches both, as an open canal, or with an arch defect, it is classified as«total spina bifida occulta». Total spina bifida occulta occurs in 48.1 % of the sample (Tab.4). The 82.4% presence of spina bifida occulta, in any manifestation, is the highest percentthus far reported in a prehistoric population. It is even higher than the 50% reported byFerembach (1962, 1963) in the epipalaeolithic cemetery of Taforalt. Fuhrman et al. (1971)reported 63.0% in a modern sample of inbred individuals.

The mean age at death (Tab. 5) for individuals with spina bifida occulta is significantlydifferent from those without. Mean age at death for those with spina bifida occulta is 5years lower in Levels 1 and 2 and lOyears in Level 3. This lowering of the mean age at death£rom those without the defect is even more marked in those individuals with total spinabifida occulta where the mean age at death is about lO years lower in Levels l and 2 and liyears in Level3. The worsening of life conditions in the span of 500 years, as demonstrated- - - - -

Total spina Spina bifida Sacrumbifida occulta occulta w/out defect

Level 1 23.66 27.94 32.70Level 2 23.12 28.53 33.83Level 3 25.64 27.02 36.50

Total RH5 24.25 27.89 34.25

336 COPPA, DAMADIO, ARMELAGOS, MANCINELLI & VARGIU

by the lower life expectancy and the subsequent rise in mortality (Fig. 3), can possibly beinterpreted as a consequence of an augmentation of the genetic load due to isolation andinbreeding.

Conclusion

The analysis of Ra' s al Hamra 5 paints the portrait of a population which apparentlyextensivly exploitated their marine habitat seasonally, but experienced a worsening of lifeconditions with the passage of time. They appear to exhibit a biological continuity andgenetic isolation with a high level of inbreeding.

Skeletal material from the site is currently being analyzed for indicators of nutritionalstress, traces elements, dental metric and non-metric traits and dental wear and microwear.

Given the scarcity of well documented skeletal remains from the Arabian Peninsula,this study is part of a larger project involving sites located in Oman and Yemen, thepaleobiological study of which, will serve to reconstruct the structure, life conditions andpopulation dynamics of the Arabian Peninsula. The study of Ra' s al Hamra 5 will serve as adata base and point of comparison.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS- The authors wish to thank the Ministry of National Heritage and Cultureof the Sultanate of Oman and, in particular, Dr. Ali Ahmed Bakhit al-Shanfari Director for theirsupport and assistance. We are grateful to Prof. Maurizio Tosi and to Dr. Sandro Salvatori, Directorand Supervisor respectively of the excavation, for their collaboration. Also thanks are due to Mr.Roberto Macchiarelli for his collaboration in the recovery of skeletal material during the excavation.This research was supported by the Italian Ministery of Education (M.P.I. quota 40%), the ItalianCouncil of Research (C.N.R. grant # 89.00902.15.), the Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue of Venice,and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research of New York.

Riassunto

Il presente studio è relativo a 157 resti scheletrici provenienti dalla necropoli di Ra's alHamra (RH5), nel Sultanato di Oman (3.700-3.200 a.c.).

La popolazione presa nel suo insieme ha evidenziato sia una scarsa variabilità deicaratteri metrici che una distribuzione dei caratetri non metrici tale da far pensare ad ungruppo isolato. Il confronto fra i tre livelli di occupazione della necropoli non ha messo inevidenza differenze statisticamente significative nei caratteri esaminati. I dati paleodemo-grafici sembrano supportare l'ipotesi sia di un uso stagionale del sito e sia di pratiche diinfanticidio. Inoltre il peggioramento nel tempo delle condizioni di vita, come evidenziatodalle curve di speranza di vita, è stato messo in relazione a fenomeni di endogamia edisolamento come evidenziato anche dall'altissima frequenza di spina bifida occulta (82.4%)la più alta descritta il letteratura. Le analisi paleopatologiche preliminari indicano lapresenza di malattie infettive, artriti, segni di traumi e difetti di sviluppo.

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