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A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR THE CURRICULUM OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION: IMPLICATIONS ON THE CURRICULA OF

ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN KERALA, INDIA

BY

SHAFEEQ HUSSAIN VAZHATHODI

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

Education (Curriculum and Instruction)

Institute of Education International Islamic University

Malaysia

JUNE 2011

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ABSTRACT

This study attempts to trace the foundations of the Islamic education and its curriculum in an effort to revive the curricula of the Islamic Religious Higher education (IRHE) system prevalent in India. It is undertaken in the context of the persistent pleas from various intellectuals and educators to revitalize the system, especially in the light of contemporary challenges to Islam and Muslims on various fronts. Hence, firstly, the study explores various fundamental elements and structures of the Islamic Worldview. Then, the study establishes the relevance of and coherency among these elements by indicating how they are represented in various Islamic codes of conduct (Sharī‘ah), and Sharī‘ah principles (‘usūl) and objectives (maqāsid). Secondly, the study explores what these essential elements imply to the foundations of the curriculum of Islamic education, its fields of exposition as well as its pedagogical focus. Accordingly, the researcher proposes a ‘basic’ curriculum framework for Islamic education. Further, the researcher identifies the role of IRHE institutions and the ‘ulamā’ produced in them in providing proactive and visionary leadership. Lastly, the study explores the implications of the framework on the IRHE institutions in Kerala and their curricula, educational intents, contents, pedagogy and the methods of evaluation. While undertaking these exercises, the study primarily uses a philosophical and analytical approach. Various deliberations carried out using these methods have proved that the Islamic education system, although theological in essence, is practical and pragmatic in spirit. In fact, the three essential Islamic elements of faith, knowledge and value, make sense only within the human and civilizational domains. These five key structures of the Islamic Worldview constitute the theological/spiritual, intellectual/psychic, moral, physical/social and civilizational foundations and dimensions of the Islamic education curriculum. They are unified by the core concept of faith. Together, they impinge on the educational intents, contents, pedagogy and the methods of evaluation.

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البحث ةصخلا

ع أســـــــــــــس التربيـــــــــــــة الإســـــــــــــلامية ومناهجهـــــــــــــا فى محاولـــــــــــــة تهـــــــــــــدف هـــــــــــــذه الدراســـــــــــــة إلى تتبـــــــــــــــــــــــد، وذلــــــــــك ــــــــــدينى الإســــــــــلامى العــــــــــالي الســــــــــائد فى كــــــــــيرالا، الهن ــــــــــوى ال ــــــــــاء النظــــــــــام الترب لإحي

ين لتشـــــــــــييد هـــــــــــذا النظـــــــــــام، فى ســـــــــــياق النـــــــــــداءات المســـــــــــتمرة مـــــــــــن مختلـــــــــــف المفكـــــــــــرين والمـــــــــــرب ـــــــــــــــــف ضـــــــــــــــــوء التحـــــــــــــــــد�ت المعاصـــــــــــــــــرة للإولا ســـــــــــــــــيما فى ســـــــــــــــــلام والمســـــــــــــــــلمين مـــــــــــــــــن مختل

أ�ـــــــــــــا تبحـــــــــــــث عـــــــــــــن العناصـــــــــــــر الجوهريـــــــــــــة والهياكـــــــــــــل الجهـــــــــــــات.ومن إثـــــــــــــر هـــــــــــــذه المحاولـــــــــــــةلتهـــــــــــا الأساســـــــــــية للتصـــــــــــور الإســـــــــــلامى وعـــــــــــن أهميـــــــــــة الـــــــــــترابط والتماســـــــــــك بينهـــــــــــا كمـــــــــــا مث

الشــــــــــــريعة الإســــــــــــلامية فى أصــــــــــــولها ومقاصــــــــــــدها. إضــــــــــــافة الى ذلــــــــــــك، تبحــــــــــــث عــــــــــــن تأثــــــــــــير ه العناصــــــــــــر والهياكــــــــــــل علــــــــــــى أســــــــــــس المنـــــــــــاهج التربويــــــــــــة الدينيــــــــــــة ومضــــــــــــمو�ا وطــــــــــــرق هـــــــــــذ

ـــــــــــا أساســـــــــــيا للمـــــــــــنهج التربـــــــــــوى ـــــــــــه، يقـــــــــــترح الباحـــــــــــث إطـــــــــــارا نموذجي تدريســـــــــــها. وبنـــــــــــاء عليجين د دور المؤسســــــــــــات التربويــــــــــــة الدينيــــــــــــة العاليــــــــــــة ودور العلمــــــــــــاء المتخــــــــــــر الإســــــــــــلامى ويحــــــــــــد

يرا، تكشـــــــــــف هـــــــــــذه الدراســـــــــــة عــــــــــــن منهـــــــــــا فى تـــــــــــوفير قيـــــــــــادة ذات رؤيـــــــــــة وبصـــــــــــيرة. وأخـــــــــــالآثار المترتبـــــــــــــة علـــــــــــــى هـــــــــــــذا الإطـــــــــــــار فى صـــــــــــــياغة منـــــــــــــاهج المؤسســـــــــــــات التربويـــــــــــــة الدينيـــــــــــــة

ــــــــد ــــــــة كــــــــيرالا، الهن وفى تحقيــــــــق أهــــــــدافها ومضــــــــمو�ا وأســــــــاليب تعليمهــــــــا العاليــــــــة فى ولاي. لــــــــــــــذا قــــــــــــــام الباحــــــــــــــث باســــــــــــــتخدام المــــــــــــــنهج التحليلــــــــــــــى الفلســــــــــــــفى فى هــــــــــــــذه وتقويمهــــــــــــــا

الباحــــــــــث إلى أن النظــــــــــام التربــــــــــوى الإســــــــــلامى علــــــــــى الــــــــــرغم مــــــــــن الدراســــــــــة. ولقــــــــــد توصــــــــــل فى الأصـــــــــل. ووجـــــــــد الـــــــــدراس أيضـــــــــا بأنـــــــــه وواقعـــــــــي كونـــــــــه إلهيـــــــــا فى جـــــــــوهره، فإنـــــــــه تطبيقـــــــــي

ق العناصـــــــــــــر الإســـــــــــــلامية الأساســـــــــــــية الثلاثـــــــــــــة (الإيمـــــــــــــان والعلـــــــــــــم والقـــــــــــــيم) إلا فى لا تتحقـــــــــــــل أســــــــــس المــــــــــنهج شــــــــــك ت ت المجــــــــــالات الإنســــــــــانية والحضــــــــــارية، وأن هــــــــــذه العناصــــــــــر والمجــــــــــالا

التربيـــــــــــــــــــــــة الإســـــــــــــــــــــــلامية الخمســـــــــــــــــــــــة (الإلهى/الروحـــــــــــــــــــــــى، الفكرى/النفســـــــــــــــــــــــى، الخلقـــــــــــــــــــــــى، ــــــــــــيرا ؤث طــــــــــــة برابطــــــــــــة الإيمــــــــــــان بالله، وتــــــــــــالجســــــــــــدى/الإجتماعى، الحضــــــــــــارى)، وأ�ــــــــــــا مرتب ر تأث

مباشرا على أهداف التربية الإسلامية ومناهجها وأساليب تعليمها وتقويمها.

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APPROVAL PAGE

The dissertation of Shafeeq Hussain Vazhathodi has been approved by the following:

_______________________________ Rosnani Hashim

Supervisor

___________________________________

Adnan Abd. Rashid Internal Examiner

____________________________________

Aref Tawfiq Mohd. Al-Attari External Examiner

____________________________________

Nasr Eldin Ibrahim Ahmad Chairman

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it is not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at International Islamic University

Malaysia or other institutions.

Shafeeq Hussain Vazhathodi

Signature …………………………… Date:………………….

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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH Copyright © 2011 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.

A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR THE CURRICULUM OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION: IMPLICATIONS ON THE CURRICULA OF ISLAMIC

RELIGIOUS HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN KERALA, INDIA

I hereby affirm that the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all

rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any

form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder.

Affirmed by Shafeeq Hussain Vazhathodi

………………………………. …………………...

Signature Date

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This study is dedicated to: all those who were involved in assisting me with intellectual guidance and

financial help, especially the El-Farouq Foundation, U.K.; to my spiritual guardians and well-wishers in Darul Huda Islamic University;

to my beloved parents, brothers and sister; to my beloved wife, Jamshi for her elongated patience and sincere prayers; and

to the new member of our family, Aysha Nuha. Praying that the Almighty Allah will accept this contribution and make it an

impetus to the revivification of Islamic Education system, Āmīn

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All the praises to Allah, full of compassion, ever compassionate. Let the grace and honour of Allah be upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad, the best

ever murabbī

For the successful completion of this work, I owe my gratitude particularly to Prof. Dr. Rosnani Hashim for her sincere assistance in guiding, supervising and advising me. Also, I am grateful to all other members of the dissertation Committee and other academicians at the Institute of Education, International Islamic University Malaysia who instructed me in various courses. I do owe special gratitude to my friends and classmates who assisted me by various forms and means, especially with mental support and prayers during the extended journey of doctoral studies. May Allah, the Almighty render His bounties and blessings on all of them, Āmīn. For the entire shortcoming that remains, the responsibility is mine alone. Allah alone is the Perfect and He knows the best.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract …….………………………………………………..……...….….............. ii Abstract in Arabic ...…………………………………………..………….………... iii Approval Page ...………………………………………………..……...…............... iv Declaration ……...……………………………………………................................. v Copyright Page ..………………………………………………..…………….......... vi Dedication ………….……………………………………………..……………...... vii Acknowledgements …..…………………………………………….……...…......... viii List of Tables ………….……………………………………………..….…………. xii List of Figures ...……….………………………………………………...………… xiii Transliteration Table …..………………………………………………………….. xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ……………………... 1 Background of the Study …………………………………………………............... 3 Statements of the Problem ……………………………………………..….............. 8 Purpose of the Study ……………………………………………………................. 12 Research Questions …………………………………………………….….............. 13 Significance of the Study ………………………………………………................. 14 Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………. 17 Previous Studies ………………………………………………………................... 20 Islamic Religious Higher Education in India ………………………….............. 23 Organization of the Study …………………………………………….….………... 32 CHAPTER TWO: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS….…...….. 36 Madāris During Muslim Rule ……………………………...……………………... 37 Madāris During the Colonial Times (1757-1947 A.D.) …………………............... 42 Darul Uloom Deoband ……………………………………………………... 43 Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama, Lucknow ………………………….……... 45 Other Educational Institutions During the Colonial Times …………….. 46 South Indian Madāris ……………………………………………………………… 49 The Post-Independence Period ………………………………………….................. 50 Muslims in Kerala …………………………………………………………………. 54 Development of Religious Higher Education in Kerala …………………………... 57 Dars System ………………..…………………………………..…......... 58 Sharī‘ah Colleges ………….…………………………………...…......... 61 Curricula of Islamic Religious Higher Education in India ………………................ 64 Reforms of Madāris Curriculum …….…………………………............. 71 Dualistic System of Education …………………………………............. 75

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CHAPTER THREE: THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL ………... 83 The Concept of Reality …………………………………………….……………… 85 Faith Structure ……………………………………………………………... 87 The Concept of Knowledge ……………………………………….......................... 92 Knowledge and Truth ……………………………………………………... 93 The Unity and Integrality of Knowledge …………………………………. 94 Sacredness of Knowledge …………………………………………………. 96 The Scope of Revealed Knowledge ……………………………………….. 96 The Concept of Man ………………………………………………………………. 99 Faculties which Make Knowledge Possible …...…………………………... 102 The Scope of Man’s Knowledge …………………………………………... 104 Man as ‘abd Allah ……………………………………………………......... 106 Man as khalīfat Allah ……………………………………………………… 107 Moral and Social Mission …………………………..………………….. 108 The Concept of Virtue ……………………………………………..……………… 112 The Concept of Life/Civilization (Tamaddun) ……………………………………. 115 Sharī‘ah: Its Aims and Objectives ………………………………………………… 117 Summary …………………………………………………………………............... 122 CHAPTER FOUR: THE FOUNDATIONS AND FRAMEWORK OF ……... 124 The Curriculum Studies …………………………………………………………… 125 Major Foundations of the Curricula of Islamic Education ………………………... 130 The Faith-based Theological Foundations of the Curriculum ….…………. 131 The Knowledge-based Intellectual Foundations of the Curriculum ………. 132 The Value-based Moral Foundations of the Curriculum …………….......... 133 The Man-related Physical/Social Foundations of the Curriculum …............ 134 The Physical World-related Civilizational Foundations ………………..…. 136 Islamic Education’s Fields of Exposition …………………………………………. 138 The Revealed Sciences ……………………………………………….......... 139 The Intermediary Human Sciences ……………………………………….. 141 The Physical and Natural Sciences ………………………………………... 142 Islamic Education’s Pedagogical Focus ………………………............................... 144 Al-Attas’ Curriculum Model …………………………………………......... 148 Rosnani’s Curriculum Model …………………………………………..….. 152 Curriculum Framework for Islamic Education …………………………................. 158 Organization of the Framework ………………………………………........ 160 The Vertical and Horizontal Integrity of the Framework ……………….. 160 The Concept of Religious Leadership …………………………………………….. 169 Summary ………………………………………………………………...………… 179 CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLICATION OF THE CURRICULUM ......................... 180 Islamic Religious Higher Education in Kerala …………………………................. 180 Al-Jamia Al-Nooriya Al-Arabiya (JNA) …………………………………... 185 Al-Jamia al-Islamiya (JI) …………………………………………………... 187 Darul Huda Islamic University (DHIU) …………………………………… 189 Brief Analysis of the IRHE Curriculum in Kerala ………………………………... 194 Implication on Aims and Goals of IRHE ………………………………….. 202

xi

Implications on the Organization and Content of IRHE Curriculum ……… 209 Organization of the Curriculum ..………………………………….. 210 The Contents of the IRHE Curriculum ……………………………. 212 Methodical and Practical Approaches to the Curriculum Contents .. 213

Implications on the Pedagogy and Methodology of IRHE ……………….. 226 Implications on Evaluation of IRHE ……………………………………..... 234 Summary …………………………………………………………………………... 235 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND ..……………... 237 Summary of the Study …………………………………………………………….. 237 General Implications ………………………………………………………………. 244 Recommendations for Future Studies ……………………………………………... 246 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….... 247 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………………... 251 APPENDIX I: DARS-I-NIZAMI OF MULLA NIZAMUDDIN SIHĀLWI ….. 274 APPENDIX II: CONNECTION BETWEEN MAN, KNOWLEDGE ...……… 276 APPENDIX III: DISCIPLINES AND SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN ………..…… 277

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No. 1.1 Muslim Employees in Government Sector Employment 7

2.1 Major Educational contributions of the Muslim Dynasties in India

39

2.2 Major Types of Islamic Religious Higher Education Institutions

63

2.3 Books taught in Durūs

69

2.4 A Summary of Criticism on Madāris

72

2.5 Islamization of Knowledge: Problems, Consequence and Solutions

79

3.1 The Comprehensive Conception of Man in Islam

101

4.1 Five Approaches to Curriculum

126

4.2 Five Concurrent Curricula

127

4.3 Ralph W. Tyler’s Four Questions

128

4.4 Islamic Sciences

147

4.5 Cursory Schemata of Man, Knowledge and University

149

4.6 Framework for Islamic Education Curriculum

164

5.1 Aims and Goals of Islamic Religious Education at Higher Levels 207

Structure

5.1 Structure to denote to the Vertical and Horizontal Integration

211

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No.

Page No.

1.1 Map of India

4

2.1 Map of Kerala, India

56

3.1 Immediate Conception of Reality

86

3.2 The Structure of Islamic Worldview

87

3.3 Almighty Allah as the Metaphysical Source and the Uniting Base of all Sciences

95

3.4 Revelation as the Criteria

97

3.5 The Holistic Integrative Values-Structure Represented by Sharī‘ah

113

3.6 Value Structure in the Islamic Worldview

118

3.7 Criteria that Determine the Values

120

3.8 Consonance and Congruity between Theory and Practice

122

4.1 The Conceptual Basis of the Islamic Education

138

4.2 Islamic Education’s Field of Enquiry

144

4.3 The Islamic Education’s Pedagogical Focus

145

4.4 Connection among Man, Knowledge and University

150

4.5 The Curriculum of an Islamic University

153

4.6 The Process of Curriculum Decision Making for Islamic Education

156

4.7 Faith-centered Frame of Islamic Education

162

5.1 Convergence between Five Components and Curriculum Components and Processes

212

5.2 Pedagogical Implication of IRHE Framework 231

xiv

TRANSLITERATION TABLE

z ظ ’ ء ‘ ع b ب

Gh غ t ت F ف th ث Q ق j ج K ك h ح L ل kh خ M م d د n ن dh ذ h ھـ r ر w و z ز y ي s س ā ــ + ا sh ش ī ــ + ي s ص ū ــ + و d ض t ط

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Ever since the independence of India in 1947, empowerment of the Muslim

community in India especially in the educational sector is significant among agendas

of various governmental and non-governmental organizations. Then onwards, madāris

(sing. madrasah, the traditional institutions of Islamic religious learning) - especially

those at the tertiary levels, and the ‘ulamā’ (religious scholars, sing. ‘ālim) reared in

them were the spotlight of deliberate calls for the uplift of the Muslim community.

The immediate reason why madāris and ‘ulamā’ are the focal point in this debate may

be that they are persistently continuing to influence a major part of the Muslim

population in India. In the past, the ‘ulamā’ were successful as qudāt (sing. qādī,

judges), fuqahā’ (sing. faqīh, jurisprudents), muftī (the juris-consultants) qualified to

issue fatāwā (sing. fatwā, legal opinions) and civil servants able to man the

administrative cadres of different ruling dynasties. At other times, they were very

successful in instituting the ‘bastions of believers’, aimed to safeguard the religious

and cultural identity of Muslims and to cater for their social and moral education (al-

Nadvi, 1985; Zaman, 1999; Halstead, 2004; Sikand, 2005).

As of contemporary times, they are constantly but strongly being criticized for

being narrow-minded, conservative, and fearful of changes. Nevertheless, to a greater

degree than any secular or cultural organizations, religious establishments such as

mosques, madāris and other local religious bodies enjoy a much greater impact on

shaping the mentality of the Muslim masses (Nadvi, 2008; Taludkar, 2010). They are

already well established, and they have strong networks in local rural areas. This is

2

why, most of those who call for revitalization of Muslim community eye, have one

eye on the religious establishments for various reasons. To Taludkar (2010), the best

way to spread “the message of worldly education comes through any religious body…

[because it will] have much more penetrating effect than a million dollar campaign”

(p. 3). He considers Friday sermons and tablīqhī gatherings, for example as potential

avenues for this. It is for the same reason, that the present study argues that the

‘ulamā’ coming out of the madāris ought to be moulded as firm, visionary, integrated

and holistic personalities and leaders, who are able to guide the community

simultaneously in spiritual-moral, intellectual, socio-political and economic spheres

(Zaman, 1999). In addition, they are responsible to continue the legacy of the

Prophetic mission and they are entrusted to act as exemplars of the Prophets of Allah

(PBUT) in guiding the community in every faculties of life as well. According to the

prophetic Hadīth, the ‘ulamā’ are the inheritors of the Prophets (PBUT), who have

left behind, neither dīnār nor dirham but knowledge (Ahmad, Tirmidhī, Abu Dā’ūd

and Ibn Mājah).

In short, it is with regard to two specific contexts, that the present work seeks

to explore the means of revitalizing the Islamic education system. The first context is

the ever-lagging backwardness of the Muslim community in India. The second context

is the ascribed responsibility that the ‘ulamā’ should undertake as the harbingers of

creative and Prophetic leadership models. It is in this regard, that madāris in India can

play a dynamic and creative role in the empowerment of the Muslim community and

how specifically the diversity of academic and educational activities can be reoriented

and revitalized. In this respect, the Islamic spirit and vigour are very pertinent. What

ideal roles the madāris and the ‘ulamā’ arising out of them) should play, are, in

themselves, issues of various contentions and discourses among the policy makers,

3

scholars and intellectuals in India. While explaining these significant contexts in an

elaborate manner, the following part also provides some background information on

the education, social, political and economic situations of the Muslim community as

well a brief review of their literature.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The population of India is heterogeneous, multi-lingual and multi-cultural. The same

is true about Muslims, as well as the madāris run by them. Geographically, Muslims

in India are scattered and do not belong to one monolithic group. With the exception

of Jammu and Kashmir (64%) and the Union Territory of Lakshwadeep, in no state or

union territory do Muslims form a majority. More than half of the entire Muslim

population lives in four states: Uttar Pradesh (22%), West Bengal (23%), Bihar (14%)

and Maharashtra (9%). In Kerala, Muslims form 23% of the population (Prime

Minister’s High Level Committee Report, headed by Rajinder Sachar 2006,

henceforth mentioned as Sachar Committee Report). The population of other states

varies between 3-10 million Muslims. The states where the Muslim population is 5%

of the total population, or less are - Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab and

Tamil Nadu.

Together, Muslims form the largest minority community in the country,

constituting 13.4 % of the population, but sadly, they are seriously lagging behind in

terms of most development indicators, such as levels of literacy, developments,

schooling, education, higher education, health, politics, security and other government

level services. The comprehensive Sachar Committee Report published in 2006,

underscores this many-a-time proved reality. In marked contrast to ‘the other 900

million Indians’ who have moved ahead, the Muslim community in India still remains

4

as the most backward and marginalized community of India (Subash, 2002; Khalidi,

2006; Najiullah, 2006a).

Figure 1.1: Map of India Source: Drawn, based upon the map provided on the District wide Concentration of the Muslim population in “Social, Economic and Educational status of the Muslim Community of India”: A Report. (New Delhi: Government of India, 2006, p.32).

Kerala Tamil Nadu

Andhra Pradesh

Orissa

Karnataka

Maharshtra

Chhatisgarh

Gujarat Madhya Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh Rajastan

West Bengal Jharkhand

Bihar

Meghalaya

Tripura

Mizoram

Manipur

Nagaland

Arunachal Pradesh

Jammu &Kashmir

Himachal Pradesh Punjab

Haryana

Uttarakhand

Delhi

Assam

Sikkim

Goa

And

aman

& N

icob

ar Is

land

s

Laks

hadw

eep

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

5

The gap between Muslims and ‘All Others’ has widened consistently at the all-

India level and for all states -especially at the higher education levels. At the all-India-

level, the educational attainment of Muslims worsens in relative terms as community

moves from lower to higher levels of school education, especially at both middle and

primary levels of education. Whilst overall, 26% of those 17 years and above have

completed matriculation; this percentage is only 17% amongst Muslims. Gaps are vast

and increasing over time, contrary to the expectation that as the overall educational

system improves the disparities will be reduced. In the areas of Science, Technology,

Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Muslims continue to be backward. As a result,

Muslims representation is poorer in numbers among the professional positions such as

university professorships. Widespread illiteracy, low income, irregular employment -

implying thereby a high incidence of poverty are rampant among them (Qasmi, 2005;

Khalidi, 2006; Najiullah, 2006a; Hamid, 2005).

The Sachar Committee analyzed data for the year 2006 on Indian

Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and Indian Police Service

(IPS) -the most prestigious services and position of power in India- and found the

share of Muslims to be respectively only 3%, 1.8% and 4%. As Khalidi (2006) points

out, “numerous studies of the social background of IAS officers covering various

years show that Muslims represented less than 4% in the total cadre at any time since

independence” (p. 45), while the Sachar Committee Report (2006) mentioned that, “in

the years 2003 and 2004 only 4.9% of candidates appeared in the written examination

of Civil Services which is far below the 13.4 % share of Muslims in the population”

(pp. 165-166).

The lack of Muslim representation in positions of power, in public employment - in the bureaucracy, police and the judiciary, and so on - has been a matter of great concern too. For example, less than 3% of

6

Muslims were members of the 1.5 million strong armed forces at the beginning of the 21st century. The same is true of the Central Paramilitary Forces (Khalidi, 2006, p. 51).

According to the Sachar Committee report, the share of Muslims in

employment in various departments is abysmally low at all levels. Data pertaining to

8.8 million employees among different government departments, agencies and

institutions reveals that only 440,000 (or 5%) are reported to be Muslims. Information

on 1.4 million Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) workers shows that Muslims

constituted only 3.3% of Central PSUs and 10.8% of the State level PSUs from which

data was received (Table 1.1). In addition, their political participation is meagre and

the number of their representatives in Parliament and state assemblies is decreasing.

As Pandey (1997) puts it, “there were forty six Muslims in the Lokh Sabha (lower

house of Parliament) in 1982, a figure which went down to 26 in the 1991 elections;

this in turn demeans their influence in the public-policy making of the governments

(cited in Kazi, 1999, p. 26).

The dismal state of Muslim participation in almost all development spheres of

modern India can be ascribed to various historical reasons, such as the British

antipathy to Muslims; Muslims’ abhorrence to English education; the memory of

bygone superiority; then the partition and the subsequent exodus of Muslim members

of communities. Then, after independence, the attitude of the Government and of the

majority community, which, instead of preserving the democratic rights of the

minorities and ensuring social justice, allowed the state mechanisms, not excluding

the courts, continuously to fail in keeping the democratic nature and to fulfil their

promises (Hamid, 2004; Qasmi, 2005). These were some external causes. There were

many internal problems as well, both at political and religious levels, such as the

Muslims’ own backward mentality and absence of creative leadership. They meddled

7

with unclear vision and ambiguity regarding their political and religious identity and

their own destiny. Thus they suffered a lot and are continuously suffering from the

lack of visionary leadership.

Table 1.1 Muslim Employees in Government Sector Employment

Departments/ Institutions Reporting

Reported No. of Employees

Reported number of Muslim Employees

Muslims as Percentage to reported Employees

State Level – Departments 4452851 278385 6.3 Railways 1418747 64066 4.5 Banks and RBI 680833 15030 2.2 Security Agencies* 1879134 60517 3.2 Postal Service 275841 13759 5.0 Universities** 137263 6416 4.7 All Reported Government Employment (Excludes PSUs)

8844669 438173 4.9

Central PSUs*** 687512 22387 3.3 States PSUs 745271 80661 10.8 All PSUs 1432783 103048 7.2

*CRPF, CISF, BSF, SSB and other agencies; **129 Universities (Central and State) and 84 Colleges; *** Data from 154 PSUs

Source: Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India: A Report, (New Delhi: Government of India, 2006), p.186.

Undoubtedly, the miserable participation of Muslims in the education sector is

the major cause of this dismal state of their backwardness. In addition, this can be

remedied only through educational empowerment (Prasad, 1954; Rahim, 1997;

Haque, 2000; Ahmadi, 2004, etc.). It is in this regard, the religious figures and

establishments such as mosques, madāris and other local religious bodies that

persistently continue to enjoy an indelible influence on the religious, cultural social

and educational fabric of a major chunk of the Muslim population in India should be

8

empowered. This study believes that the proper revitalization of the religious

educational establishments, specifically at higher levels certainly is the only the

panacea to the education and intellectual inertia of Muslim communities in India.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

“If we analyze the anatomy of the specific revolution in human affairs which the

arrival of Islam activated, we shall see that its motivating force or sustaining energy

was not political or economic but essentially educational in nature” (Saad, 1986, pp.

78-79 as cited in Hamadi, 2005, p. 4). Conversely, to al-Attas (1999) the basic cause

of the political weaknesses and economics backwardness of Muslims in general is the

problem of the content of education as well. Many other Muslim intellectuals also

have ascribed the present malaise of the Muslim mind and its intellectual paralysis, to

its educational institutions (Ashraf, 1985; Hamid, 2004; AbuSulayman, 2009; Kasule,

2007). According to Kasule (2007), the knowledge crisis and thought crisis are major

causes of the weakness of the Muslim community. Grave mistakes in setting wrong

priorities, and error in the content of knowledge, according to al-Attas (1979)

produced false leaders in every spheres of life, religious, spiritual, intellectual, socio-

political, socio-cultural and others. Therefore, unless Muslims adopt a bold and

critical perspective to equip themselves with the appropriate tools of knowledge and

thereby identify the root causes of under-development and backwardness, this

situation will persist without a proper cure (al-Attas, 1979).

The present study has struck at the root of the problem. It investigates how

Islamic Religious Higher Education (IRHE) institutions can reinstate the genuine and

authentic Islamic spiritual and intellectual tradition. Only a genuine, courageous and

visionary leadership trained deeply in religious matters, but simultaneously oriented

9

about the lived reality of the people can successfully provide proper guidance to the

Muslim mass in India, concurrently in spiritual, intellectual, socio-political, socio-

cultural and physical departments of their every day life. Hence, it is vital that both

the institutions of Islamic religious higher education and the ‘ulamā’ take the issue of

education in most serious manner. According to the prophetic Hadīth, the scholars

(‘ulamā’) are the inheritors of the prophets (PBUT) (Ahmad, Tirmidhī, Abu Dā’ūd,

Ibn Mājah). They are entrusted to act as exemplars of the Prophets of Allah (PBUT)

in guiding the community in every faculty of life, religious and in every other way.

Unfortunately, the very vision and mission, the intellectual and academic

atmosphere and the curricula of IRHE institutions do not reflect the essence of Islamic

ontological, epistemological and axiological world-view and its educational

foundations and principles (AbuSulayman, 2009). Their curricula are so limited and

have outlived their usefulness. Their pedagogy is isolated from the Islamic world-view

and their concept of knowledge has no relations with the contemporary life. That does

not ‘help students to understand contemporary social, political, or scientific issues’

(Rosnani, 2004, p. 10). They promote a distorted picture of Islam as al-din as a

complete way of life; and thereby wrong results prevail among the Muslims (Daud,

1998). Hence, their graduates are not capable to guide the society properly, in accord

with the changing circumstances, especially at intellectual and educational levels.

As far as ‘ulamā’ in India are concerned, once they played the role of

significant religious, intellectual and socio-political activists. Now they have become

stagnant and infertile. During the Muslim rule, they enjoyed royal status as courtly

men, largely acting as the link between their Rulers and the Muslim mass, especially

in religious matters. However, with the installation of colonial structures by the British

in India, the Muslim rule ended. The loss of Muslim rule itself was a serious blow to

10

Muslims. It was at this point of time, that the religious leadership in India played a

very creative and vital role in safeguarding the Islamic faith of the Muslim masses.

They took a systematic recourse in a hostile and unfamiliar environment by instituting

a number of madāris throughout the length and breadth of the country. Initially, they

introduced new courses with emphasis on study of Hadīth. They adopted the

technology of print, used Urdu as the medium of reformist discourses and even

followed the administrative structures that the British introduced in their newly built

schools. Further they could withstand ‘the serious threat to the Muslim identity and

tradition’ posed by the colonial forces. Colonialism, being the by-product of

fundamental social, political, intellectual, and technological transformations in the

West introduced new ideas, institutions, and forms of knowledge (Zaman, 2002).

Thus, ‘ulamā’ not only continued to respond to the challenges of changing

times; they also were successful in enhancing their influence, in broadening their

audiences and in making significant contributions to public discourses, and even in

setting the terms for such discourses. Gradually, their influence among the Muslim

masses, especially in forming their public perceptions became undeniable. The

Colonial regime, cautioned by the mass influence of the ‘ulamā’, vigorously sought to

circumscribe their influence and curtailed financial support for the institutions of

religious learning. They instituted various mechanisms to dismantle its stronghold

among the Muslim masses.

Thus, the initial vigour and interest started to fade away, and the institutions

which the ‘ulamā’ fostered, performed a kind of turning away from the issues such as

the organization of state and society, and concerned themselves with the moral

qualities of individual Muslims - an emphasis on the reform of the believer as an

individual. It is in this regard that the madāris and the ‘ulamā’ in post-colonial India