A Psychological Skills

Inventory for Sport

Kerry-Ann Wheaton

Thesis presented in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Human Movement Science

at the

University of Stellenbosch

Supervisor: Prof. J .R. Potgieter

December 1998

Declaration

I, the undersigned hereby declare that the work contained in

this thesis is my own original work and that I have not

previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any other

university for a degree.

J~Signature

30.Cf.98Date

Summary

The purpose of this study was to develop a practical, reliable

psychological skills inventory to assess the psychological

skills of athletes. This primarily involved identifying the

relevant psychological skills that affect sport performance. A

variety of developmental procedures were applied in the

construction of this inventory, including the consultation of

sport psychology literature, identification of articles which

characterise successful athletes, analysis of research articles

pertaining to the psychological Skills, and review of available

psychological tests. The initial inventory consisted of 82

items which evaluated six psychological skills: achievement

motivation, goal setting, anxiety control, maintaining

confidence, concentration and mental rehearsal. The

inventory was completed by 304 students from the

Department of Human Movement Science at the University of

Stellenbosch. The respondents' data were divided into two

groups depending on their achievement in sport. The results

indicated that the inventory was able to differentiate between

successful and less successful athletes on the psychological

skills measured. Other aspects were statistically analysed,

namely language, age, and gender differences, correlation

between individual item and achievement level, and the

contri,bution of each item to its psychological skill. The final

inventory consists of 60 items, with ten items from each of

the six psychological skills. Information obtained from the

inventory can identify the strengths, weaknesses and

deficiencies in the psychological skills of athletes, so that a

psychological skills training programme can be developed.

Opsomming

Die doel van hierdie studie was om 'n praktiese, betroubare

sielkundige inventaris te ontwerp om die sielkundige

vaardighede van sportlui vas te stel. Dit het hoofsaaklik

bestaan uit die identifisering van relevante sielkundige

vaardighede wat sportprestasie beinvloed. 'n Verskeidenheid

van prosedures was toegepas in die konstruksie van die

inventaris, insluitend konsultasie van sportsielkunde­

literatuur, identifesering van artikels wat suksesvolle sportlui

beskryf, ontleding van narvorsingsartikels met betrekking tot

sielkundige vaardighede en 'n oorsigstudie van relevante siel­

kundige toetse. Die aanvanklike inventaris het bestaan uit 82

items, wat ses sielkundige vaardighede getoets het, naamlik

prestasiemotivering, doelwitstelling, aktiveringsbeheer, hand­

hawing van selfvertroue, konsentrasie en verstandelike

oefening. Die inventaris is deur 304 studente van die

Departement Menslike Bewegingskunde aan die Universiteit

van Stellenbosch voltooi. Die respondente se data is in twee

groepe, afhangende van hul prestasie in sport, verdeel. Die

resultate het aangedui dat die inventaris tussen suksesvolle

en minder suksesvolle atlete onderskei met betrekking tot die

sielkundige vaardighede wat gemeet is. Ander aspekte is

statisties ontleed, naamlik taal, ouderdom, geslag, korrelasie

tussen afsonderlike items en prestasievlak, asook die bydrae

van elke item tot sy sielkundige vaardigheid. Die finale

inventaris behels 60 items, met tien items van elk van die

sielkundige vaardighede. Inligting wat van die inventaris

verkry word, kan die sterkpunte en tekortominge van atlete

bepaal, wat as basis vir die ontwikkeling van 'n sielkundige

program kan dien.

Dedication

• To my family for supporting me in my studies

• To my supervisor, Prof Potgieter, for all his

knowledge and guidance

Contents

Chapter one

Statement of the problem

The importance of psychological skills in sport

The purpose in assessing psychological skills

The problem

Research protocol

Chapter two

Related literature

Introduction

Comparison of successful and less successful

Athletes

Peak performance

Existing instruments

Measurement of personality characteristics

Measurement of cognitive strategies

Measurement of achievement orientation

Locus of control

Measurement of anxiety

Measurement of confidence

Measurement of concentration

Measurement of imagery

Conclusion

Chapter three

Methodology

Test plan

Test construction procedure

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Generating items 28

Measurement scales 30

Number of items and subjects 31

Dealing with preconceptions 31

Construction of tests 31

Validity 33

Reliability 34

Method 34

Chapter four

Identification of psychological skills to be included in the 36

inventory

Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation theories

Achievement motivation summary

Goal setting

Types of goals

Why goal setting works

Goal setting principles

Goal setting research

Goal setting summary

Anxiety control

Arousal

Anxiety

Stress

Performance characteristics

Relationship between arousal and athletic performance

Anxiety control summary

Maintaining confidence

Approaches to confidence

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Benefits of confidence 71

Confidence summary 74

Concentration 76

Factors affecting concentration 79

Concentration summary 79

Mental rehearsal 80

Imagery perspectives 81

Imagery ability 83

Uses of imagery 83

Imagery research 86

Guidelines for using imagery 87

Mental rehearsal summary 88

Coping strategies 89

Self-talk 91

Preperformance routines 94

Coping strategy summary 95

Conclusion 96

Chapter five

Statistical analysis, conclusions and recommendations 97

Language differences 99

Age differences 99

Gender differences 99

Correlation between psychological skills 100

Achievement level differences 101

Correlation between individual items and achievement level 102

Contribution of each item to its psychological skill 103

Discussion 104

Conclusion 117

Recommendation

References

Appendices

A. Psychological skills inventory for sport

B. Anonymous three item questionnaire

C. Sielkundige vaardighede inventaris

D. Anonieme drie-item vraelys

E. Score sheet

F. Antwoordvel

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Table

2.1

2.2

5.1

5.2

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5.10

List of tables

Definitions of subscales of the ACSI-28 rating form

Attentional and interpersonal subscales of the TAIS

Test-retest correlations

Correlation between psychological skills

Spearman rank correlation between individual items and

achievement level

Item contributing most to each total psychological skill score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total achievement motivation score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total goal setting score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total anxiety control score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total maintaining confidence score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total concentration score

Spearman rank order correlations between individual items and

total mental rehearsal score

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