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N&U Mo, 29 VX
A PUBLIC VIEW OF ADULT EDUCATION
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fullfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
by
Joe Michael McCallister
Denton, Texas
December, 1988
ftwa
McCallister, Joe Michael, A Public View of Adult Education.
Doctor of Philosophy (Adult and Continuing Education),
December, 1988,133 pages, 8 tables, 15 figures, bibliography, 270
titles.
In this study the public view of adult education in the United
States was inferred from articles published in nationally
distributed magazines. Two hundred twenty-eight articles from
fifty-three non-professional magazines published in the United
States from January 1,1970, through December 31, 1987, were
reviewed. The articles were selected from those listed under "adult
education," or cross referenced as "see also" under "adult
education" in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. The
research questions were:
What concept of adult education appears in the print media?
To what extent is this view congruent with professional
views of adult education?
Leisure learning and literacy programs were prevalent and
available from a variety of sources. Adult illiteracy was reported
as a national concern. Programs that were commonplace (basic
education, general equivalency degree classes, job skills training,
and industrial training) were reported less often than new or novel
programs. Most articles were positive in tone, promoting adult
education activities as useful, rewarding, and enjoyable
experiences, but ignored adult education as a professional field.
The public view as reflected in the articles was positive with
programs available to adults of many levels of educational
attainment. The public view was not congruent with professional
writings. Group activities were more in evidence than self directed
learning. Learners tended to be urban, educated, and Caucasian.
Although few programs restricted participation because of age or
gender there were discernible groups of aged people and women.
Programs were usually sponsored by institutions of higher
education and entrepreneurs, and rarely by public school systems,
community organizations, or cultural groups. Program content
reflected adult interest in self improvement and entertainment
rather than professional growth.
To refine an understanding of the public view, further
research focusing on other information sources such as national
and regional newspapers and the electronic media is needed,
making it possible to compare the public view across various
regions of the country.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
list of Tables v
ListofFigures vi
Chapter
I INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Research Questions
H SYNTHESIS OF RELATED LITERATURE 5
Introduction The Professional View
Purposes, Aims, and Objectives of Adult Education Aspects of Adult Education Adult Learners Institutions Program Content Learning/Teaching Method
Definitions of Terms Delimitation Basic Assumptions
m METHODOLOGY 21
Procedures for the Collection of Data Data Analysis The Researcher's Frame of Reference Other Considerations
111
IV DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 34
Data Collection Article Selection Process Data Analysis Characteristics of the Adult Learners
Types of Adult Education Programs Sponsoring Agencies Funding Sources Descriptive Topics Summary
V DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 67
Participants Programs Sponsoring Agencies Entrepreneurial Activities Conclusions Recommendations
APPENDIX 108
BIBLIOGRAPHY I l l
IV
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. "Adult Education Final Report, 1975," National Center
for Education Statistics 11
2. Distribution of articles by magazine 37
3. Number of articles bv Reader's Guide to Periodical
literature descriptor 40
4. Length of articles by type 44
5. Tone of editorial articles 45
6. Distribution of teaching/learning method 49
7. Funding sources 60
8. Distribution of descriptive topics 61
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Computer data entry screen 29
2. Distribution of articles in magazines by type 36
3. Distribution of magazine articles 41
4. Distribution of articles by type 43
5. Distribution of articles by age of participants 47
6. Educational attainment of participants 48
7. Proportion of articles by general education programs 51
8. Distribution of articles by types of adult basic education
(ABE)and general equivalency degree(GED)
education programs 51
9. Distribution of articles reporting college credit programs . . . 52
10. Distribution of articles reporting vocational/occupational
programs 53
11. Distribution of articles reporting personal and family issue
programs 54
12. Distribution of articles reporting social life and recreation
programs 55
13. Proportion of types of sponsoring agencies 56
14. Distribution of articles reporting programs sponsored by
noneducational organizations 58
15. Types of noneducational agencies 59 VI
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Adult education has both a public and a professional image;
image in this instance refers to the concept or view that is assigned
to the term adult education by a professional in the field or by an
adult in the public at large. The internal view, shared by
professionals in adult education, includes a myriad of educational
opportunities and programs gathered under the umbrella term,
adult education. Indeed the professional view of adult education
includes any and every learning activity that an adult might
pursue.
The public's view of adult education depends on the
information to which it has access. To a member of the public,
adult education might be the local adult basic education or high
school equivalency program, community service classes, or
university credit classes for older students. This difference in
concept may have an impact on the growth and development of
adult education.
In order to identify the public view of adult education, it is
necessary to examine the sources of information to which the
public has access. Most adults in the United States receive
information from peer interaction, television, radio, and print
media. Of these, the most accessible in terms of searching for an
indication of a national view of adult education are segments of the
national print media, specifically magazines with a national
circulation. Although many newspapers have more readers, each
newspaper has a particular local or regional clientele and news
coverage area. Nationally distributed magazines are readily
available to the public throughout the country and by the nature of
their distribution present a consistent national coverage in the
print media. By considering the articles appearing in nationally
distributed magazines over a period of time, it is possible to
examine a representative sample of the information available to
members of the public from which impressions of the field of adult
education may be inferred.
Statement of the Problem
This study sought to infer from selected articles appearing
in nationally distributed magazines the public view of the field of
adult education in the United States.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe the public view of
adult education as presented in the nationally distributed print
media.
Significance of the Study
Adult education is unique in the broader field of education in
that its constituents are usually voluntary learners. Primary and
secondary education have clients who are mandated by law and
who fall into discrete age groups; their educational tasks are, by
and large, generally known, understood, and agreed upon. The
students have little say in the what, when, or where of their
schooling. In relation to this, the institutions responsible for
schooling primary and secondary students can present and
market themselves with a certainty that their clients, and those
who are responsible for those clients, will understand and react
predictably to the educational program.
Adult education, by the nature of its mission and clientele,
must present itself to its constituents in the manner of a business or
industry. Its clientele consists of voluntary, active consumers in
search of the best educational opportunity that meets their needs.
Professionals in the field of adult education need to understand the
view of the field held by the public so that programs can be
designed and marketed effectively.
No research has been done to date to indicate what this
public view might be. Harris states that comparative studies such
as this one have relevance to three groups of educators:
educational theorists and those who teach adult education as a
professional discipline; those politicians, administrators, and social
leaders who hold responsibility for some aspect of community well
being; and those who practice and dispense adult education
services, including teachers, counselors, advisors, organizers and
administrators (Harris, 1980, p. 1). This study provided the field of
adult education with information about how adult education
programs are presented in nationally distributed magazines.
Research Questions
The research questions addressed in this study were:
1. What concept of adult education appears in the print
media?
2. To what extent is this view congruent with professional
views of adult education?
CHAPTER II
SYNTHESIS OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
A thorough review of published research in adult education
revealed no studies concerning the public view of adult education
as presented in national magazines. Professional adult education
literature is written for, and consumed by, those who are engaged
in program administration or teaching in adult education as a
discipline. The professional literature consists of articles about
specific programs; literature reviews; reports of surveys on
programs, teaching styles, or testing results; interviews and
opinion pieces; and theoretical considerations of teaching and
learning models. Research that considers the field as reported in
non-professional sources is non-existent.
The Professional View
Adult education has been described as "a process whereby
persons whose major social roles are characteristic of adult status
undertake systematic and sustained learning activities for the
purpose of bringing about changes in knowledge, attitudes, values,
or skills" (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, p. 9). The term adult
education itself, with its synonyms: lifelong learning, lifelong
education, continuing education, andragogy, and others, is used to
describe the process by which adults continue to learn after formal
schooling has ended, as well as to describe the set of organized
activities which are offered by a wide variety of institutions
(Knowles, 1976, p. viii).
Adult education has been variously defined by authors in
the field. Harris defines adult education as "any organized
provision (educational program) intended to help adults learn
whatever they may wish to learn" {original italics} (Harris, 1980,
p. 7). Coolie Verner defines adult education as "a relationship
between an educational agent and a learner in which the agent
selects, arranges, and continually directs a sequence of progressive
tasks that provide systematic experiences to achieve learning for
those whose participation in such activities is subsidiary and
supplemental to a primary productive role in society" (Verner and
Boothe, 1964, p. 32). Houle's definition is also process-centered but
considers the adult learner as a more self-directed and active
participant. His definition refers to adult education as "a process by
which men and women (alone, in groups, or in institutional
settings) seek to improve themselves or their society by increasing
their skills, knowledge, or sensitiveness; or it is any process by
which individuals, groups, or institutions try to help men and
women improve in these ways" (Houle, 1972, p. 32).
In considering a selection of definitions of the field that Apps
refers to as "amorphous," it becomes apparent that adult education
is, and is considered by professionals to be, very broad and inclusive.
The basic commonality of definitions of adult education is that no
learning activity undertaken by an adult is excluded. Learning
can be random or planned, organized or individual.
However, is this the view that others in the public and in
education hold of the field? There are many organized
professional fields that are, by the nature of the clientele that they
serve, considered by adult educators as part of the field of adult
education. These professions include postsecondary vocational
education, technical education, human resource development, and
training in business and industry. The expansiveness of the
definition of adult education adds to the problem of presenting a
clear, concise image to the public.
Purposes. Aims, and Objectives of Adult Education
Further insight substantiating the professional's opinion
about the scope of the field can be seen from examining Apps' list of
purposes for continuing education. These purposes are as follows:
1. To help people acquire the tools for physical,
psychological, and social survival. These tools are the following:
a. work skills
b coping skills for day-to-day living
c. skills for interpersonal relationships
d. skills for leisure time
8
e. skills for preserving the natural environment
f. skills for social change
g. skills for problem solving.
2. To help people discover a sense of meaning in their lives
by these means:
a. helping people discover and achieve personal
creativity
b. helping people appreciate the satisfaction that goes
with excellence
c. helping people benefit from emotional and
intellectual discovery
d. helping people discover their place in the world.
3. To help people learn how to learn
4. To help communities (society) provide a more humane
social, psychological, and physical environment for
their members (Apps, 1979, pp. 91-99).
Another indication of the scope of the field is provided by
Darkenwald and Merriam in their discussions of aims and
objectives of adult education. They use the following subheadings:
cultivation of the intellect, individual self-actualization, personal
and social improvement, social transformation, and organizational
effectiveness (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, pp. 47-69).
Aspects of Adult Education
In order to review adult education as a concept, it was
divided into these components: adult learners, the sponsoring or
providing institutions, the study or course content of adult
education programs, and teaching or learning methods used in
adult education programs.
Adult Learners
Individuals who make up the population of adult learners
in the United States can be described in various ways. It is
important to realize, as Harris states, that the groups of learners in
organized learning situations are partly a function of the program
provider's choice of target population as well as their learners'
preference (Harris, 1980, p. 148). Members of socially
differentiated groups, occupational groups, age groups, and
cultural or racial groups tend to be attracted to educational
activities with like members. A program available to all of the
adults within an area will generally attract a clientele that is
representative of a particular segment of the population.
The typical participant is white and middle class, has
completed high school, (and) is married." (Darkenwald and
Merriam, 1982, p. 120). However the authors go on to say that to
assume this description is to overlook some important distinctions
between adults who participate and those who do not. The
10
particular characteristics of various types of programs, for
example adult basic literacy or corporate executive training, would
make great differences in the characteristics of people
participating. The information in Table 1 from the National
Center for Education Statistics provides insight into the
characteristics of participants in adult education activities in 1975.
The participation rate is reported in per cent of participants
compared to those "eligible" to participate in an adult education
activity. These figures exclude those adults who engaged in self
education and represent 11.6 per cent of the population of the
country at the time of the survey (Darkenwald and Merriam,
1982, p. 120).
Institutions
There are problems inherent in describing institutions that
provide adult education activities. Various providers might be
described by a common label while providing a variety of very
different programs. Additionally, institutions with similar labels
may have vastly different agendas and motivation for their
provision of programs which have evolved over the life of the
provider (Harris, 1980, p. 108).
In describing the adult education system in Britain, Harris
proposed four categories of providing institutions. The first
category is labeled "the government," which includes the national
government with its central departments and local education
11
T a b k l "Adult Education: Final Report, 1975," National Center for
Education Statistics
Characteristic Particination Rata in Ppr flpnt
Age 17-34 5.0 35-54 12.7 55+ 4.0
Gender Male 11.7 Female 11.6
Race Black 6.9 White 12.6
Schooling 0-11 years 3.3 12 years 11.9 1-3 years college 17.6 4 years college or more 28.3
Family Income Under $10,000 7.4 $10,000-$ 14,999 12.9 $15,000-$24,999 15.9 $25,000 and over 17.7
(from Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, p. 121).
authorities. The second category is the "statutory authorities,"
which are established by law for an educational purpose. These
12
include entities like public television and radio agencies, as well as
the adult and extension operations of colleges and universities. The
third category is "private organizations," which provide their
educational services to the public in order to make profits. This
category also includes business and industry, which include
education as a part of their organizations. The fourth category is
labeled "private and voluntary organizations." This group includes
those providers with education as an implicit or expressed function
which supports social, economic, religious, or political purpose.
Included in this group are churches and trade unions, as well as
local community organizations (Harris, 1980, pp. 23-24).
A different classification scheme for providing institutions is
offered by Darkenwald and Merriam. This scheme is divided into
the following categories:
Independent Adult Education Organizations
Community-Based Agencies
Proprietary Schools
External Degree Agencies
Quasi-Educational Organizations
Cultural Organizations
Community Organizations
Occupational Organizations
Educational Institutions
Public School Adult Education
Community Colleges
13
Four-year Colleges and Universities
Cooperative Extension Service
Correctional Agencies
Noneducational Organizations
Business and Industry
Government Agencies
Armed Forces
Unions
Other (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, pp. 153-177).
It is apparent from the preceding classifications that adult
education providing institutions can be grouped in a variety of
ways. Providing institutions generally can be placed into one of the
following three categories. The first group includes the institutions
whose primary goal is education, such as Darkenwald and
Merriam's independent adult education organizations,
educational institutions, and quasi-educational organizations. The
second group includes those institutions that educate adults to
increase organizational effectiveness and efficiency, including
business and industry, government agencies, and the armed
forces. The third group includes those organizations that educate
as a tool to accomplish some other agenda, including community
organizations, occupational organizations, correctional
institutions, and unions.
14
Program Content
Adults pursue learning activities in a variety of content
areas. The following categories are suggested by Harris: remedial
academic education, vocational education, and development of the
individual and the community. Remedial academic education
includes those programs which address adult basic education and
high school equivalency education. Vocational education is a broad
category that covers professional training, business and
occupational training, on-the-job training, and technical education
which occurs as preparation for, or as a part of, upgrading skills
for the student's occupation. The third category, individual and
community development, includes those learning activities that
center on the personal growth and development interests of the
client which are not included in the first two categories. These
categories, further described in an approximate order of
recognition and importance in "the eyes of most communities and
of official administrators," are as follows (Harris, 1980, p. 19):
Remedial Academic Education-
Primary schooling and fundamental education— including
literacy teaching, mainly part-time formal study for
adults.
Part-time secondary level and higher education~"home"
study for recognized examination certification up to
university level.
15
Vocational Education-
Education and instruction in technical and vocational
subjects— including professional refresher courses,
frequently short-time or part-time.
Individual and Community Development-
Community development — understood as learning
through self-planning and self-help.
Informal Group activities- including clubs,
societies,community action, co-operative movements,
trade unions, churches, and political parties.
Education by the mass media— including exhibitions,
posters, films, shows, and the broadcast sendees.
Recreational and leisure studies— including crafts,
languages, and sports.
Liberal and cultural activities and studies- including those
non-vocational and non-examinable activities relating to
understanding of.man and society.
Institutions which encourage and assist in motivated self-
study- including libraries and related agencies (Harris,
1980, pp. 19-20).
The following classification scheme was used by the
National Center for Education Statistics in the "Participation in
Adult Education," 1975 Survey.
General Education
Adult Basic Education
16
Citizenship Training
High School and College Credit
Community Issues
Civic and Public Affairs
Religion
Safety
Personal/Family Living
Home and Family Life
Personal Improvement
Hobbies and Handicrafts
Sports and Recreation
Occupational Training
T echnical/Vocational
Managerial
Professional
Other
(Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, p. 125)
In examining these classification systems for program
content, it becomes apparent that adult education programs can be
grouped into descriptive categories. The following categories will
be used throughout the study to organize and analyze data from
magazine articles.
17
Learning/Teaching Method
Teaching methods have been described as a group of related
instructional practices identified by type of resources and by
activities, by the situation and relationship between the
participants and by the approach and philosophy which justifies
and explains the practices and relationships (Harris, 1980, p. 131).
Harris refers to Bergevin in describing a teaching method as the
relationship established by an educational institution with groups
of participants for the systematic diffusion of knowledge" (Harris,
1980, p. 130). In addition, the term method is considered by Harris
as including such activities as program administration and
organization as well as lectures, discussions, demonstrations, and
other instructional techniques (Harris, 1980, p. 130).
Adult learning styles were explored by Cross and Valley.
This classification system can also be used as an indicator of
teaching styles in adult education programs. For the purposes of
this discussion, these categories can also be used to classify the
teaching styles as reported in the articles reviewed. The list of
styles by Cross and Valley is as follows:
Conferences, Institutes, or Workshops
Correspondence
Discussion Groups, Study Group, Book Club, Self-Study, No
Formal Instruction
Individual Lessons
18
Lectures or Classes
On-the-Job Training, Internship
Radio, Records, or Audio Cassette
Television or Video Cassettes
Travel-Study Program
Other
(Cross and Valley, 1974, p. 30).
Definitions of Terms
The following terms have restricted meanings and are thus defined for this study:
1. Adult is defined as a person over the age of seventeen years
whose major social roles are characteristic of adult status
(Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, p. 9).
2. For this study, adult education is defined as it appears in
the adult education and continuing education descriptors in the
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
3. Magazine is defined as a nationally distributed periodical
that is not published as a professional journal. Magazines may
have a particular target population or organizational affiliation
without being considered a professional journal.
19
Delimitation
This study was delimited by articles concerning adult
education published in nationally distributed magazines from 1970
through 1987.
Basic Assumptions
The following assumptions were necessary to this study:
1. Articles printed in nationally distributed magazines are an
accurate representation of the information that was available to
the public about adult education during the period of study.
2. Articles placed under the heading "adult education" and
"continuing education" in the Reader's Guide to Periodical
Literature are analogous.
3. The terms "adult education" and "continuing education" as
main headings will include articles that might also appear
elsewhere in the index under cross-referencing.
4. The magazines that are included in the Reader's Guide to
Periodical Literature present a complete and accurate compilation
of those magazines that were published and nationally distributed
during the time period selected for the study.
20
5. The trends and issues identified through the analysis of
the articles are analogous to the public view of the field of adult
education during the period of the study.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This was a qualitative, descriptive, inductive study which
described the public view of adult education by inference from
information available to the public during the period 1970 through
1987. The inferred public view was compared to the view of adult
education presented by the major writers in the field with the
purpose of identifying areas of congruence.
Procedures for the Collection of Data
The research design chosen for this study is inspired by the
work of John Naisbitt and the Naisbitt Group which led to the book
Megatrends. The Naisbitt Group analyzes newspaper articles
from a wide variety of cities and towns in the United States in
order to infer local trends. These local trends, which are identified
in particular topic areas, are then used to infer and predict
national trends. In this study, information from nationally
distributed, non-professional magazines was examined to infer the
public view of adult education during the period under
consideration.
21
22
As mentioned in the Introduction, adults receive most of
their information about the world around them from television,
radio, newspapers, magazines and peer interaction. In terms of a
retrospective study to ascertain public opinion, television and radio
archives are difficult to access and time consuming to analyze.
Newspapers have excellent archives and indexes, but identifying
newspapers or news articles that may have been read by a large
number of adults throughout the United States is a task beyond the
scope of this study. Additionally, newspapers in the United States
serve particular metropolitan areas and no newspaper or set of
newspapers can be described as having sufficient national
circulation over a sufficient period of time to be useful in this study.
A possible exception to this statement exists in the Wall Street
Journal, and to a lesser extent, The Christian Science Monitor. The
New York Times, and UgA Today. USA Today was founded in the
early 1980s and has not had a sufficient period of circulation for
the purposes of this study. Likewise, The New Vnrk whi ch
changed its policies to compete with USA Today during this same
period, has not been published for a sufficient length of time as a
national periodical to be of use in this study.
Magazines were chosen as the source of data due to their
national distribution, for ease of access, and the excellent indices of
articles that are available through the Reader's Guide £o Periodical
Literature. While this index does not release information about its
indexing policies, it uses a classification scheme which is based on
the Library of Congress cataloging system. The index reviews
over 400 periodicals on a regular basis, and is accepted by experts
23
in the Information Resource Management field as the standard
index of periodical literature.
Articles selected have been identified under the descriptors
"adult education" and "continuing education." Because the
information in professional journals is not consumed by the public
at large, articles from these journals were not included in this
study.
The collection of magazines available through the Sterling
Evans Library at Texas A&M University and its Interlibrary
Loan Service served as the source of data for this study. This
collection insured an adequate number of magazines
representative of the period under consideration. The Evans
Library has a collection of 192 periodicals which are indexed by the
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
The first step in the study was to collect the magazine
articles as listed in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
Starting with 1987, articles listed under the adult education and
continuing education descriptors were collected in reverse
chronological order through the year 1970. All articles included
under the adult education and continuing education descriptors
and their related "see also" references were included regardless of
length or any other criteria.
24
Data Analysis
The data derived from the magazine articles were treated
by content analysis. "Content analysis is a research technique for
the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the
manifest content of communication" (Krippendorf, 1980, p. 18).
Most early studies employing content analysis techniques relied on
frequency counts of objective variables. More recent techniques,
such as those used in this study, are designed to make inferences
into social and psychological issues (Borg and Gall, 1971, p. 254).
The content analysis utilized in this study is referred to as
pragmatical content analysis. This technique uses content
analysis for describing trends in communication content and to
reflect the attitudes, interests, and values ('cultural patterns') of
populations" (Krippendorf, 1980, p. 33).
Holsti, in his discussion of content analysis, focuses on the
data in the communication between sender and receiver. One of
the principal purposes of content analysis listed by Holsti is "to
make inferences as to the effects of communication—asking
(through content analysis) 'with what effects' something is said"
(Holsti, 1969, p. 35). The effect of the communication under
consideration in this study refers to the possible impact of the
information in the magazine articles on the opinion by the readers.
Krippendorf states that content analysis can be used to
describe "portions of reality" which he describes as systems. The
systems are trends, patterns (to be identified and used as
predictors), and differences in content of messages, audiences, and
25
attitudes exhibited (Krippendorf, 1980, pp 35-37). Identifying
trends was an important part of this study in that with the
identification of discernible trends in article content, types of
programs, groups of learners, and other factors, inferences can be
made about public opinion.
After the articles were collected, they were analyzed
through the use of the article review sheet (See Appendix.). This
review sheet, which incorporates classification systems that are
discussed in the synthesis of the literature, was used to collect data
on sponsoring agencies, adult learner characteristics,
teaching/learning methods used in the programs, program
content, and descriptive characteristics about the article and the
periodical in which it appeared. The categories in the review sheet
were chosen with two factors in mind. The first factor was that of
using predetermined categories as opposed to collecting the data
and allowing it to group itself into apparent categories.
Predetermined categories were chosen to facilitate a consistent
review of the data. The second factor was that of putting the data
into a form that would allow comparison of the view of adult
education put forth by the major writers in the field. The chosen
categories allowed the data to be grouped efficiently for this later
step.
As stated before, the articles used for this study were
selected from those listed under the descriptors and their related
see also references for adult education and continuing education
in the Reader s Quide to Periodical Literature. As the definition of
these terms and the types of educational programs which are
26
grouped under each are points of controversy in the field, a
segment of the study has been devoted to a comparison of the
articles under these descriptors. The results of this comparison
were compared with
the opinions of the leading writers in the field to establish the
degree in which the grouping of articles in the index reflects the
positions of professional adult educators.
It is likely that some articles that described adult education
activities during the study period were missed due to the selection
of Reader s Guide to Periodical Literature descriptors that were
used. These were "adult education" and its "see also" subheadings.
Other topics might have included:
Age and Employment
Employees, Training
Job Corps
Labor Laws and Legislation
Prisoners, Education
Prisoners, Vocational-Technical Education
Technical Education
Trade Unions
Training, Disadvantaged workers
Training, Occupational
Unemployment, Relief Measures, Welfare work programs
United States, Army, Education ( or Air Force, Coast Guard,
Marines, Navy)
United States, Department of Education
27
United States, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Vocational Technical Education
Many of these descriptors referenced articles that described adult education activities.
It is also likely that training and education programs could
have been identified by examining articles referenced by
particular occupations. An example would be "coal mines and
mining," which would reveal changes in federal mandates for
occupational and safety training in this industry. Similar articles
may have been identified under descriptors referencing other
occupations and professions.
After the articles were identified and reviewed, the data
from the categories were recorded as frequency counts in a
computerized database. These data were examined in two ways.
First, the frequency counts were examined within the category
from which they arose. The factor frequencies were arranged in
rank order by: adult learner, sponsoring agency, learning/teaching
method, and type of program, in order to identify those aspects
which most accurately reflect the information available in
magazine articles during the period of the study. After this step
was completed the most prevalent factors were examined with
regard to each of the other factors within each category of the
study. This step aided in the identification of trends and common
points of information. These factors were examined for apparent
clusters or trends. This effect was confounded by incomplete data
within the articles themselves. However, as it is unlikely that any
28
article would contain information relevant to each category in the
article review sheet, partial reports were recorded.
In order to describe the types of adult education programs,
professional writers develop typologies that include every possible
adult education activity. The purpose of the models is to describe
adult education in terms of the programs which may exist, as
opposed to describing the field in terms of those programs that
actually exist at a particular time. The proportion of adults who
may participate in an activity or the number of times a type of
program is offered is not as important in developing a. typology as
the ability of the scheme to include all activities. When the
researcher compared the findings of this study with professional
writings, the writings provided little information on which types of
programs were the most prevalent in adult education in the
United States. Information describing the rank order of programs
was lacking in the professional literature. Because of this,
comparison of the data from the articles in terms of the
proportions of programs or types of learners directly with the
professional literature was not possible. The existence of a
particular phenomenon in the articles and the number of reports
of that phenomenon relative to others was, however, a reasonable
indication of the likelihood of that information affecting the view of
adult education formed by a reader.
A further data recording function entailed the creation of a
number of topic fields for each article's record. These descriptive
topic fields were used by the researcher for making notes on each
article as it was reviewed. Article themes, relevant factors, and
29
points of common information were recorded in the topic fields to assist in sorting the data.
Figure 1 Computer data entry screen.
Record number I Author Title Magazine Page Numbers 1 Year 1 Month 1 .Length (.Column Inches) | Figures I Article Type | Magazine Type Tone Readers Guide tender | Age | Education Level Independent Adult Ed. Teaching Technique Educational Institution General Education Quasi-educational Occupational Training Non-educational Personal and Family Other Sponsor Social and Recreation Funding Source Other Program Topic Field 1
This anecdotal information was used to identify apparent
clusters of data In addition, individual anecdotal reports were
examined to discover to what degree they reinforced or
contradicted the report of the database or the inferential findings.
The anecdotal information was examined for indications of how
the philosophy and theory of the field of adult education is
evidenced in practice.
30
The article review data were assembled into clusters of
related information, apparent trends, and other groupings and
compared to the positions of the professionals in the field. The
discussion of comparisons was initially organized by the categories
used on the article review sheet. Discussions of each category
provided the building blocks for identifying significant trends. The
trends formed the basis for inferring public opinion or the public
view that could have been formed based on available data.
The Researcher's Frame of Reference
The nature of a qualitative study such as this one is that the
views and predispositions of the researcher have great influence
on the findings. The researcher's personal image of adult
education acts like a filter, limiting the set of informational bits
that will be recognized as "adult education." The view of this
researcher developed through three distinct stages. The first stage
lasted through early life, undergraduate education, and three
years as a secondary school teacher. The second phase or view
was developed during the period in which doctoral coursework
was taken; this coursework was completed prior to the
researcher s gaining any appreciable experience in adult
education. The third view, leading to the completion of this study,
was developed while the researcher was working as a professional
in the field of adult education.
The first view was that of a person living in primarily rural
environments, attending a small college, and teaching in public
31
school systems in northwest Louisiana. Throughout this time, the
term adult education always brought to mind the adult basic
education and general equivalency degree classes offered through
the local school system. No other connotation for the term existed.
Indeed, other than those teachers who pursued post-baccalaureate
degrees, no other adult learning was apparent in the researcher's
experience.
Upon entering the doctoral program in adult and continuing
education, the researcher was exposed to the writings of
professionals in adult education and to the universe of activities
that were ascribed to the field. The researcher internalized a
model of adult education as a wide ranging and inclusive field
including a great variety of subjects and types of students. This
view was refined by work experience and exposure to community
education; leisure learning programs; job skills training;
professional training in seminars and conferences; non-traditional
higher education programs; and adult basic education programs.
Indeed, the work experiences provided the transfer of that which
was learned as abstract information into real situations and
practice. These experiences and the view that was built from
them formed the researcher's personal context for this study. This
context undoubtably influenced which information was selected.
It is also likely that some pertinent data were not discovered
because it did not fit this context.
32
Other Considerations
The researcher s context is only one aspect of the
methodology of this study that must be considered. In choosing
national magazines as the news media to be studied, it is obvious
that certain types of programs were omitted. These programs,
including local adult basic education/general equivalency
programs, government sponsored job skills training, training in
correctional institutions, and many others, were not included in
the magazines. There are two probable reasons that this was true.
One reason is that those programs that were not reported were not
of sufficient general interest to be included. The programs were
commonplace in many communities and lacked uniqueness or
"newsworthiness." The second reason may be that the persons
who would most likely be interested in those programs which were
not reported were not likely to be consumers of the magazines. It
would naturally follow from a business standpoint that a magazine
designed to appeal to consumers would be biased to report only
those things that attracted the target audience to whom the
magazine was to be sold.
One facet of this study sought to compare those types of adult
education programs that are described by professional writers in
the field with the programs identified in the popular press. The
method used was to develop a procedure for reducing the
information in the articles to discernible bits of data, group those
groups, and generalize pattens and trends. There is, however, a
problem in examining groups of data to discover descriptive
33
trends, and comparing that information with the descriptions of
the field that are provided by professional writers. The trends and
patterns that were discovered in the study were the products of the
numbers of times a particular type of program appeared in
articles. These numbers were ranked, and the types of programs
with the greatest numbers were considered as the most prevalent
during the study period. The greater the number of reports, the
more likely that the assumption was correct.
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION OF THE DATA
The previous chapter provided an overview of the
methodology used in this study. This chapter presents the results
of the quantification of the data. As indicated in Chapter III, the
research involved the following tasks: (1) collecting the data by
identifying articles pertinent to inferring a public view of adult
education from nationally distributed, non-professional
magazines, (2) analyzing the article content through the use of a
standardized article review process, and (3) describing the results
of the article review in terms of the rate of occurrence of referral
to aspects of adult education in the articles.
Data Collection
Data were collected from articles which appeared in
nationally distributed non-professional magazines published in the
United States between January 1,1970, and December 31,1987.
The articles were chosen from those listed under the adult
education subject headings from issues of the Reader's Guide to
Periodical Literature published during the study period. Articles
34
35
were also selected from those headings which were referred to as
"see also" topics related to the adult education. The magazines
were selected by the following criteria:
(1) The magazines were published in the United States and
nationally distributed.
(2) The magazines were included in the Sterling Evans
Library collection at Texas A&M University.
(3) The magazines were non-professional publications.
Professional publications include journals of organizations
that publish scholarly articles and periodicals designed to be
consumed by a particular professional group. Examples of
professional publications indexed by the Reader's Guide £o
Periodical Literature and included in the Sterling Evans Library
collection are American Eduction, Publishers WppIcIv Monthly
Labor Review. The Clearing H m i « P , and Scholastic Arts The
rationale for the exclusion of these and similar publications is that
these magazines are not published for or marketed to the public at
large and therefore do not contribute to the public's formation of a
view of the field.
Magazines were included in the study which have a
particular clientele, but are not professional journals. Examples of
this type of magazine would include Aging, Ebony, Bvte. and
Vogue. Although these publications are consumed primarily by a
particular target audience, they were judged as being available to a
large cross-section of the population and would therefore
contribute to the public view.
36
A total of 245 articles were selected for the study out of 536
articles listed under the pertinent headings. Of this number
seventeen articles were unavailable in the library collection. These
articles are listed in the Bibliography separate from those articles
Figure 2 Distribution of reviewed articles by type of magazine
5.31%
25.22%
Business General Special
69.47%
which were reviewed. It is felt that although these articles were
not reviewed, they did not represent sufficient numbers of articles
about a particular subject or within a particular time period to
seriously affect the results of this study. The magazines were
categorized through a list of descriptors which were general
consumer, special interest consumer, business, association, farm,
and public relations. (Port and Snodgrass, 1968, p. 32). The
magazines from which articles were selected were placed in the
37
following groups: business- five titles, general interest consumer-
six titles, or special interest consumer-forty-three titles. Note in
Figure 2 that special interest consumer magazines made up
69.47% of the total sample of magazines.
Table 2 Distribution of articles by magazine
Magazine Business
Number of articles Magazine Number of articles magazines
Black Entprprigp Business Week Fortune Money Nation's Business
1 4 2 2 3
General Interest Consumer Magazines Newsweek 1 6
People 2 Reader's D i g ^ t 9 Saturday Evening Post 2 T i m e 17 U.S. News & World R*p0rf 12
Special Interest Consumer Magazines 5Q± 8
Aging 25 America 5 Better Homes and ftflrflenc 4 Byte 1 Change 17 Changing T i r ^ 4 Christianity Today 1 Current 3 Conservationist 1 Ebonv 3 Essence g Esquirg 1 Forbes 2 Futurist 2
Glamour 10 Good Housekeeping 5 House and Garden 2 Human Behavior 3 Intellect 6 Mademoiselle 4 McCall 's 5 Mechanix Illustrate^ 1 Mother Earth Npws 1 Ms 4 Nation 1 New Republic 2 New Yorker 1 Parents 5 Psychology Today 2 Redbook 1 Retirement Living 3 Saturday Review 6 Science 2 Seventeen 1 Smithsonian 1 Society 2 Sunset 1 Travel /Holidav 2 Vogue 3 Working Woman 1 Writer 's Digest 1
The selection of magazines in each of the three categories is
presented in Table 2. The majority of magazines published fewer
than ten articles on adult education during the study period. The
magazines most active in publishing articles about adult education
38
included Newsweek, Time. U. S. News & World Report Aging,
Change, and Glamour.
Article Selection Process
All articles listed under the topic heading "adult education"
were included in the study. In addition, when the Reader's Guide
to. Periodical Literature indicated additional topics as "see also"
headings, additional articles were selected. Fifty-eight articles
were taken from the "adult education" descriptor and 170 from the
"see also" descriptors. A list of the Reader's Guide to Periodical
Literature topic headings from which articles were selected is
included in Table 3.
The articles listed under the "see also headings" were
examined for reference to adult education activities. Only those
articles which specifically referred to adult learners or to
educational programming for adults were included An example
of an included article refers to university extension classes
designed for adults to pursue their education at the work place
(Williams and King, 1981, p. 74). An excluded article is illustrated
by "Women at the Military Academies: Not Much of a Problem"
(U.S. News & World Rppnrt, 1975, p. 64) which referred to
educational activities that were targeted at traditional
undergraduate students in higher education. Both of these articles
were listed under the university extension descriptor, but only the
former refers to an adult education opportunity.
39
The distribution of the articles included by Reader's Guide £o
Periodical Literature is reported in Figure 3. The descriptors from
which the largest number of articles were selected included adult
education, aged education, education of women, literacy (including
those articles under the "illiteracy" descriptor), television in
education, and university extension.
The incidence of articles over the period of the project is
presented in Figure 4. Note that numbers of articles published
each year increases in the period 1972-75 with ten or more articles
each year. The years with the highest incidence of articles are
1977, with twenty-four articles, and 1979, with twenty-three
articles. The period 1980-1982 had a high level of incidence, with
over seventeen articles each year, followed by a low incidence of
seven in 1983. The year 1984 contributed eighteen articles,
followed by 1985 with nine, 1986 with twelve, and 1987 with six articles.
The distribution of articles in the sample was affected by
several factors. The first of these factors is the collection of
magazines in the Sterling Evans Library. Some of the articles
listed under the topic headings in the Reader's Guide to Periodical
Literature are not included in the collection. Examples are Atlas.
Dung, Harvest Years. Harper's Jet SciQuest and New
York magazines. A variety of the magazines listed in the Reader's
Guide to Periodical Literature contained appropriate articles but
were not added to the library collection until after the date of the
40
T a b I ? 3 Number of articles by Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature descriptor
Descriptor Number of articles adult education 58 aged-education 30 armed forces-education 3 Chautauqua 4 Dartmouth College 1 education of women 34 executives-training 3 First Class, Inc. 1 labor and laboring classes 1 Learning Annex 2 literacy 33 Network of Learning 1 police-education 1 radio in education 2 summer schools 5 television in education 15 unions-education 1 university extension 23 vocational-technical education 10
particular article. This was especially true in the cases of Working-
Woman, Money, and Ebonv. In addition, as Texas A&M
was an all-male institution until 1970, many magazines targeting
women as consumers were added to the collection after the
starting date of the study period. Many of these magazines,
Figure 3 Distribution of magazine articles
41
30
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1M7
examples of which include Good HmispWrnnp-
Ma, Working Woman, and McCall's. were listed in the
Guide tQ Periodical Literature under pertinent descriptors, but
particular issues from the early 1970's were not in the library collection.
Another factor that influenced the data was the number of
magazines published during the study period that were designed to
attract women and aged citizens as consumers. Of the articles
included in the data collection phase of the study, forty-seven,
twenty-one per cent, are from magazines that are targeted to
women as consumers. Examples of these periodicals are
Mademoiselle, Working Woman Ms. Good Honspkpppinp
Olampur, and Vogue. Thirty-seven articles, sixteen per cent of the
total, were taken from magazines aimed at aged consumers.
Examples of these are 50_±, Aging, Sunset, and Retirement T,ivinp-
The magazines in these groups report on educational opportunities
42
that are of interest to their clientele at rates that are greater than
the other types of magazines reviewed.
Data Analysis
Once the magazine articles were identified and collected, the
article content was analyzed through the use of a four-part article
review procedure. The first part of the procedure concerned the
physical description of the article including bibliographic
information, article length in column inches, Reader's Guide to
Periodical Literature descriptor, indication of the presence of
illustrations, and the tone of the article.
The articles were further described through the use of
descriptors used to categorize news reporting (Berner, 1982, p. 72).
The types of articles used in the study are indicated in Figure 8 and
include two book reviews, seventeen editorials, eighteen profiles of
people, forty-two columns, and one hundred forty-nine feature stories.
Some of the magazines in the sample have regular education
columns. Time magazine had the largest number of adult
education articles appearing in a column with twelve reports. This
was followed by Glamour with eight reports, Essence with five
reports, MpCall 3 and Aging with two reports, and Psychology
Today, Human Behavior, Mademoiselle House and OAT-HPTI New
Republic, P&rqntg, Forbes, Esquire. Business WPPTC Good
Housekeeping, and W o r k i n g W o m a n wifV. 0ne report each.
43
Figure 4 Distribution of articles by type
0.88%
65.35%
7.46%
7.89%
18.42%
• Book Review H Editorial B Profile 0 Column [gg Feature
The length of each article was recorded in column inches.
Figure 5 presents the number of total column inches of each type
of article and the average length of each type of article. The
combined length of the two book reviews was twenty-one column
inches for an average length of 10.5 column inches. Column
articles total 547 column inches for an average length of 13
column inches. Editorials totaled 510 column inches with an
average length of 28.3 column inches. The total length of the
feature stories was 3918 column inches with an average article
length of 26.4 inches. Profile of people articles total 614 column
inches with an average of 34 column inches. The measure of
length was not found to be a useful record since the variety of
44
printing formats, type sizes, and page sizes affected the amount of
text included in an inch of print.
Special interest consumer magazines contained the highest
number of articles with illustrations, with fifty-two entries.
General interest magazines had thirty-two illustrated articles and
business magazines had seven illustrated articles. One hundred
eight feature articles were illustrated. Fourteen columns, one
editorial, and one book review were also illustrated.
Tone was recorded as positive, neutral, or negative in terms
of the reflection of the article on the field or practice of adult
education. The majority of the articles, 199 entries, was placed in
Table 4 Length of articles by type
Article type No. of articles Total Col. Inches Average Book review 2 21 io 5 Column 42 547 13 Editorial 18 510 oq q Feature 148 3918 26^4 Profile 18 614 34.1
the positive category. Placement in this category was based on the
article presenting an adult education opportunity or the efforts of
an adult learner in a positive way. Only 20 articles of the 228
reviewed were judged as being negative in tone. Of these, nine
articles discussed the problem of illiteracy. Other negative articles
referred to government mismanagement, the university without
45
walls movement, credit for life experience, programming for aged
persons m North Carolina, and the open door admission policy in
higher education. Seven articles referred to both positive and
negative points and were labeled as neutral. Topics included
national continuing education policy, an overview of lifelong
learning opportunities, the future of the community college,
literacy, the effect of the economy on business school enrollment,
lifelong learning, leisure learning programs, and the philosophy
and growth of the field of adult education.
Table 5 Tone of editorial articles
Subject Positive Tone Negative Tone Aged Education l Civic Education l Computer Education 1 Credit for Life Experience 1 Lifelong Learning 1 Literacy 5 7 Open Door Admissions
•
1 Television in Education 2 Women in Education 1
The topics in editorials included literacy, open door
admissions policies in higher education, women's issues in higher
education, lifelong learning, credit for life experience in higher
education, the use of television in education, education programs
for older citizens, adult civic education, and the use of computers in
46
adult education. Table 5 presents the topics of the editorials with an indication of the tone of the articles.
Characteristics of the Adult Learners
The second part of the article review procedure was designed
to describe the learners involved in the adult education activity
described . If the article indicated that the program under
discussion was for females only, males only, or no restrictions as to
the gender of the participants was mentioned, this information
was recorded to describe the gender distribution of the
participants. Forty-three articles described programs for female
learners or profiled a female involved in adult education activities.
One hundred eighty articles indicated no restrictions as to the
gender of the participants. Three articles referred to programs
that exclusively enrolled men. Eighteen articles were profiles of
people of which nine described the educational experiences of
women and six referred to men. Two articles were collections of
short profiles of men and women. Six of the profile articles
described adults and their struggle to overcome illiteracy. Nine
articles described the experiences of women who were returning
to school, most often higher education, after a period of time.
Many of these women were characterized as returning
homemakers and a large number were single parents who were
pursuing education as a way of improving their economic
condition. One article was a profile and interview with Paolo
Friere (Donohue, 1972) and a second reported the comments of
47
the Secretary of Education on a proposed national Center for
Lifelong Learning (Aging, 1970), which were the only articles that
referred to the profession of adult education or a professional adult
educator in the articles.
Figun? $ Distribution of articles by age of participants
5:29% 4.41%
20.26%
• 17-34 H 35-54 B 55+ Q no limit
70.04%
In those cases where the age of the participants, or of the
learner being profiled, was clearly indicated, the age was recorded.
If no mention of age was made, the program was described as
having no limit on the age of the participant. Twelve articles
reported programs in which participants were in the age group
17-34. Ten programs were aimed at participants from 35-54
years of age and forty-six programs were targeted for participants
fifty-five years old or older. The remaining articles reported no
48
age requirements for participation. Figure 6 portrays the
distribution of articles referring to adult learners by age category.
In the 17-34 age group, seven of the programs were provided for female learners.
The educational attainment required of the learner for
program participation was classified where indicated. Thirty-
seven articles referred to programs designed for persons
Figure 6 Educational attainment of participants
100 t
i
0-11 years 12 years 1-3 college no limit
participating in adult basic education or literacy programs. These
articles were grouped into the 0-11 year category. Sixteen articles
referred to learners in high school equivalency programs, which
were grouped under the 12 year category. Ninety-three articles
described learners in undergraduate college programs and
twenty-six referred to postgraduate programs. Seventy-nine
articles reported programs for which there were no particular
level of educational attainment for participation. The educational
49
attainment required for participation is illustrated in Figure 6.
Some articles referred to more than one type of program and this
accounts for the total of the programs listed in the figure exceeding
the total number of articles reviewed.
Types of Adult Education Programs
The third part of the review procedure was designed to
describe the adult education activity reported in the article. The
first subsection described the teaching/learning technique used m
Table 6 Distribution of teaching/learning method
Age Method Number of articles
17-34 lecture 11 conference 1 peer counseling 1
35-54 workshop 1
35-54 workshop
lecture 12 conference 2
55+ lecture 34 conference 9 study group 5 individual lesson 4 workshop 3 television 1 travel 1
50
the program under consideration as illustrated in Table 6. In
Table 6, the other classification includes correspondence courses,
peer counseling, travel, newspaper, computer learning, self study,
and credit for life experience. The predominant teaching/learning
technique described for female learners was lecture or class
activities with forty-one reports. Other methods were study
groups, with three entries; individual lessons, with two entries;
conferences, with one entry; and workshops, with four entries. For
the three instances in which programs were reported for only
male learners, the methods employed were on-the-job training,
lecture or class activities, and individual lessons.
General Education
One hundred fifty-seven of the 228 articles reviewed
reported general education programs. One hundred fifteen
entries described college credit programs. Figure 7 portrays the
proportion of articles in this section.
Thirty-six articles reported adult basic education(ABE) and
literacy training and five reported general equivalency
degree(GED) programs. Figure 8 illustrates the distribution of
these articles. The distribution of all reported general education
programs over the duration of the study period is represented in
51
Figure 7 Proportion of articles reporting general education programs
Q College Credit B ABE/Literacy H GEO
Figure 8. Note the increase in basic education programs in 1984-
1986. Also note the number of articles about college credit
programs which occurred in 1977 and 1979-1982 as illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure 8 Distribution of articles reporting adult basic
education(ABE) and general equivalency degree(GED) programs
I 6 " 4-
2*1
E3 E3
• ABE B GED
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1078 1979 1900 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1906 1987
52
Occupational Education
Seven articles described training programs for professional
workers and twenty-four articles described technical/vocational
Figure 9 Distribution of articles reporting college credit programs
20
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1362 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
training programs. Figure 10 portrays the distribution of
occupational programs over the study period. Professional
occupational programs included executive training, police
training, education for professional advancement, and state
certification requirements for teachers re-entering their field.
Vocational/occupational training programs described
included training for construction trades,the motion picture
industry, for literacy training in vocational education, military
training, and the future of vocational/technical training. Figure
10 illustrates the distribution of occupational/vocational articles
during the study period.
53
Figure 10 Distribution of articles describing
vocational/occupational programs
• Professional B Tech.Voc.
1870 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 lfl81 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1987
Personal and Family
Sixty-two articles described programs which addressed
personal and family issues. There was considerable crossover
between this category and the social life and recreation category
since many of the articles in each group reported a variety of
programs which had multiple classes or courses addressing each
topic. The majority of the articles in this category reported leisure
learning programs and also included programs for aged citizens,
including Elderhostel and other higher education non-credit and
credit programs, travel study programs, Chautauqua present-
ations, self-improvement training programs for executives, and
profiles of people returning to education to improve themselves
intellectually or economically. Figure 11 illustrates the
distribution of articles describing personal and family programs
during the period of the study.
54
Figure 11 Distribution of articles reporting personal and family
issues
1 2 -i
m 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1962 1983 1984 1985 1986
Social Life and Recreation
The articles describing social life and recreation programs
included a variety of leisure learning and self-improvement
programs. Twelve articles reported leisure learning programs
designed for older adults and sponsored by higher education
institutions. Four articles described people who have enjoyed
considerable financial success in offering adult education
programs. Five articles described the phenomenon of adult
education and leisure learning and gave an overview of the types
of leisure learning programs available from a variety of agencies.
Figure 12 illustrates the distribution of social life and recreation
program articles over the duration of the study period.
Figure 12 Distribution of articles describing social life and
recreation programs
55
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
Sponsoring Agencies
There were four categories of sponsoring agencies. These
included education institutions, independent adult education
agencies, quasi-education organizations, and non-education
agencies. Figure 13 illustrates the types of sponsoring agencies.
Educational Institutions
One hundred and fifty-five articles described programs that
were sponsored by educational institutions. One hundred and
forty-one of these programs were sponsored by higher education
56
institutions, ten were sponsored by public school systems, two were
sponsored by vocational or technical schools, one by a national
organization, and one by a cooperative extension service.
Figure 13 Proportion of types of sponsoring agencies
12.13% 14.64%
4.60%
/ ' / / / A
• Independent adult education organizations ® Education institution H Quasi-educational organization Q Noneducational organization
68.62%
Independent Adnlt, Education
Independent adult education organizations were primarily
community based organizations, as reported in eleven articles, and
proprietary schools reported in eighteen articles. Other articles
reported volunteer organizations which were concerned with
literacy education, such as the Laubach organization. The
predominant types of program overall were leisure learning
courses (twenty one reports), vocational training (eight reports),
57
and literacy programs (seven reports).
Quasi-educational Orpa nizati nn s
Quasi-educational organizations were reported in five
articles which appeared in 1973, 1977, 1980, and 1984. Programs
were sponsored by community based organizations including the
YWCA, libraries, churches, volunteers groups such as the
Laubach literacy association, and cultural organizations.
Programs included leisure learning programs, literacy education,
and educational programs for aged citizens.
Noneducational Organizations
The majority of articles reporting programs sponsored by
noneducational institutions described educational activities in
business and industry. Within this group there were reports of
executive training, training employees for jobs in new technology,
and in eight of the fifteen articles, business and industry response
to the problem of illiterate and functionally illiterate workers. Both
of the articles reporting programs sponsored by unions reported
literacy education projects, as did one of the government sponsored
programs. Other topics included literacy, training of police and
business executives, armed forces training, educational oppor-
tunities for veterans, programs for the aged, and Chautauqua
programs.
58
Figure 14 Distribution of articles on noneducational organizations
0
1
5-i
4 -
3 -
2 -
a * ' 1 • ,*rrri|irfrry rrrrij
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1983 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987
Government sponsorship was represented at the national,
state, and local level. A nationally funded program on sk i l l s
training for minority men and veterans educational opportunities
was discussed in three articles. The historic Chautauqua
institution in New York is a state administered park with year
round programs for a wide variety of learners. Locally funded
projects were represented by programs directed at literacy
education, services to aged persons, and police training. The
distribution of articles reporting noneducational agencies is
portrayed in Figure 14. The proportion of the types of
noneducational agencies is illustrated in Figure 15.
59
Figure 15 Types of noneducational agencies
11.54% 11.54%
26.92%
I Armed Forces B Business & Industry B Correctional Institutions J2 Government Agencies D Unions
46.15%
3.85%
Funding Sources
The third segment of the review described the source of
program funding. Descriptors for this section included tuition,
government funding (national, state, and local), business funding,
foundation support, and other funding sources. Table 7 lists the
types of funding sources and the number of each type reported.
Descriptive Topics
The fourth component of the analysis procedure involved the
addition of descriptive topic fields to the data base. These
descriptors, which were developed by the researcher, included
terms to describe articles concerned with aged education, women's
60
Table 7 Funding sources
Funding source Number of reports business 12 churches 2 donations \ foundation g free 4 government 30 tuition 150 labor union 1
concerns, literacy education, higher education programs for aged
and other adult students older than the traditional age of college
students, leisure learning, religious education, college credit for life
experiences, entrepreneurial activities, self-improvement,
training, television in adult education, university without walls
programs, and other trends.
Multiple topic fields were used to indicate secondary and
tertiary themes within articles. This allowed for a variety of
groupings of articles which, for example, indicated a program for
aged students that offered literacy training and leisure learning
opportunities (Human Behavior, 1979, p. 51). The ability to group
articles by a variety of topics allowed the researcher to identify
similar trends and factors that might otherwise have been
overlooked, especially in articles that were listed under a
particular descriptor.but which contained information about
groups or programs more normally described by articles from
61
another descriptor group. Programs for aged learners and
women, motivation, literacy, and adults in higher education all
tended to be reported in articles that appeared under a variety of
descriptors. The descriptive topic fields were also useful for
grouping articles in ways that were not apparent by the
T W e ft Distribution of descriptive topics
Descriptive topic Number of entries Aged learners 53 Entrepreneurial activity 9 Higher education 103 Leisure learning 29 Literacy 42 Minorities g Radio and television programs 17 Self-improvement 93 Training 20 Women 52
descriptors in the Readers Gujde to Periodical Literature. This
was especially true in the larger trends including adults in higher
education and programs for aged learners. Table 8 lists the most
common descriptive topics. The total number of articles to which
these topics refer is greater than the total number of articles in the
database. This discrepancy is due to many articles containing
information about more than one of the descriptive topics.
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Summary of Chapter IV
The number of factors that were included in the article
review process resulted in much difficulty in summarizing the
data. No single summary statement can be made. The articles
were processed through a six step process and then grouped by
themes. Each step contained multiple possible answers with, in
some cases, more than one possible answer for a particular article.
The first portion of the review process concerned
descriptive information about the article and the publication in
which it was found. Although this information was useful in
categorizing and sorting the articles, it yielded little useful data
about the field of adult education. For example,it might be
assumed that a measure of the length of different types of articles
would provide insight into the types of programs and students that
received the most news coverage during the study. It was found
that this measure was useless due to the variety of print formats
and type sizes used by the magazines. The presence of illustrations
was similarly non-informative. Illustrations were more likely to
be included in magazines which already were highly pictorial,
such as aging magazines, than in those which tended to a higher
ratio of print to illustrations. A comparison disclosed nothing about
the field of adult education.
The tone of the articles was overwhelmingly positive.
Only in limited cases were negative articles discovered, and these
were generally written about issues that generally receive
negative press such as the illiteracy problem and government
63
mismanagement. As many articles were of a promotional nature,
presenting adult education to aging learners, women, or other
particular groups, tone was generally positive. Articles that
profiled persons were, with one exception, the stories of persons
who had overcome obstacles— illiteracy, the lack of a higher
education— and had become more successful citizens. Although
the positive light in which the articles show adult education is a
boon to the field, the uniformity of attitude yielded no issues or
insights.
The second portion of the review process was designed to
describe the adult learners described in the articles. The data did
not reveal a stereotypical adult learner. The majority of the
programs reported did not discriminate as to participants, age, sex,
educational attainment, or race. Inference can be made, however,
from the articles that did mention characteristics of the learners in
reported programs. A great number of the articles that described
aged learners came from magazines that were targeted on an
aged clientele. Another obvious group was women, particularly
women returning to education after rearing children. From the
descriptions of higher education, leisure learning, and professional
training programs reported, it might be inferred that these
learners were predominantly of middle income. This is evident
from the fact that learners had the discretionary income to spend
on education, especially in those cases where persons were
attending a college or university full time. Also, because of the few
reports of learners who were members of racial minority groups, it
can be assumed that the majority of the learners were Caucasian.
64
The portion of the article review process seeking to
describe the teaching/learning process did not yield a great
amount of new information. As the majority of the programs
reported were higher education programs, the likelihood was that
the learners were engaged, by and large, in traditional lecture type
classes. Other formats, such as small group instruction, discussion
groups, and travel study were reported, but in very small
proportions. One interesting teaching/learning mode that was
reported was the use of radio and television for instruction. This
format was generally used by colleges and universities. Television
for instruction can be linked with higher education using a variety
of formats for offering classes, including nontraditional times and
sites for classes, in the attempts by these institutions to attract and
serve adult learners.
The programs described in the articles were of many
kinds and styles. It was surprising that common programs such
as adult basic education and general equivalency programs
received little attention. In addition there were a few instances
where job training programs, especially for those who were
unemployed, were reported.
Remarkable for its preponderance was adult participation
in higher education. The fact that this was the largest group of
adult learning activities was not anticipated. Similarly, the large
amount of programming specifically for aged learners is a notable
finding. Although as discussed earlier, the number of magazines
marketed to aged readers surely had an impact on this finding.
Literacy programs were also highly evident. In this case the
65
finding was a reasonable expectation, especially in light of the
emphasis placed on literacy training in recent years by the federal
government.
Many types of sponsoring institutions were described in
the articles. As might be expected, the greatest number of
programs were sponsored by educational institutions. That
colleges and universities would be the most common sponsors was
an interesting discovery. This may have been due to the fact that
returning to college was a more "newsworthy" subject than those
programs sponsored by local school districts. Other programs
were sponsored by business and industry, community-based
organizations, government agencies, and many other types of
organizations. One notable group of sponsors were those
individuals and institutions that offered adult education
opportunities as profit-generating businesses. Further it was
found that some colleges and universities were obviously pursuing
adults for the same motives, that of generating income.
The descriptive topics pointed out the trends discussed
above. As is evident in Table 8, the trends identified described types
of learners— aged learners, women; programs— literacy
education, higher education, leisure learning; teaching/learning
methods— television in education; motivation— self-improvement;
and other factors such as entrepreneurial activities by individuals
and institutions. These trends indicated some notable factors such
as the high incidence of aged learners and adults in higher
education. The use of the descriptive topics also aided in
discovering those programs that were not reported, including
66
ABE/GED classes in local communities, government sponsored job
skills training and retraining programs, professional continuing
education and industrial training.
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of the study was to infer the public view of adult
education in the United States in the period 1970 through 1987
through the analysis of articles from nationally distributed, non-
professional magazines. Information from two hundred and
thirty selected articles was examined through content analysis to
identify trends and points of common information. The results of
this analysis led to the following findings:
1. Adult education was available from a large variety of
sources in the United States, including institutions of higher
learning, public school systems, community-based groups,
and business and industry.
2. The most common adult education activity was the
pursuit of higher education. A prominent adult learning
activity was participation in higher education with no
professional goal. Higher education institutions offered a
variety of programs for adults in a variety of formats.
3. Many adult education activities were available to
participants regardless of the participant's age or educational
attainment.
67
68
4. A large number of those who were involved in adult
education activities were adults of advanced age.
5. Leisure learning programs were very popular, especially
among older people, and were available from a variety of
sources.
6. One major thrust of adult education programs was to
assist learners to overcome the problem of illiteracy. People
who improved their skills through literacy education
reported improvement both in their personal and
professional lives.
7. People who were involved in adult education were
described as highly motivated learners, seeking to improve
themselves either personally or professionally.
8. Although there was little discrimination in adult education
regarding the gender of participants, many adult education
programs were designed particularly for women.
9. There was little evidence of special adult education
programming for minorities.
10. Adult education was prevalent in the United States. The
market for adult education was sufficiently large for
entrepreneurial activity to exist.
11. Adult education was primarily an activity undertaken in
programs offered to groups of learners, as opposed to
individual learning activities.
12. Adult learners represented a cross section of the nation's
population. However, there were some discernible groups of
69
participants in adult education, including aged people,
Caucasians, and women.
13. Reporting about adult learners and adult education
opportunities was influenced by the newsworthiness of the
subject matter. Adult education programs that were
common throughout the country, such as adult basic
education or general equivalency degree classes, were less
likely to be reported than a program that was novel.
14. The learners profiled and the types of programs
described indicated that adult education focused on
individual growth and development as opposed to the pursuit
of social goals.
15. Government sponsorship of job skills training was the
subject of few reports although programs of this type were
common during the study period.
16. Discussions of adult education as a professional field or of
policy issues in adult education received little attention in this
group of magazines.
17. Adult education programs were predominantly
conducted in traditional lecture formats; however, there was
evidence that telecourses were being used as a form of
presentation. Presentation of educational programs at non-
traditional times and places chosen to facilitate adult
participation was a common practice in institutions of higher
education.
70
Discussion of Findings
The following discussion is organized around aspects of adult
education programs which are typically discussed in the
professional literature and are also likely to be reported in the
general literature available to the public. It is assumed that these
aspects and the generalizations that a reader would make about
them would influence an adult's view of the field. Each aspect,
such as types of learners or program sponsors, was reported in a
variety of articles and associated with many other aspects of the
field. That no single generalization can be drawn about each
aspect reflects the varied and multi-faceted field of adult
education. The public view will, therefore, be a reasonable
representation of the view, or more correctly the set of views, that
an individual might develop, based on impressions of a variety of
similar programs as described in the articles reviewed.
Participants
The image of the adult learners described in the articles was
influenced by the "newsworthiness" effect. The people and
programs described in the articles tended to be typical of those who
would be the readers of a particular magazine. Aging magazines
are written for retired persons who were inclined, and financially
and physically able, to go to college, travel, or take part in a variety
of other educational activities. The people and programs in these
magazines generally described that type of person. The persons
71
described in general interest magazines tended to reflect the
American middle class, who were active in leisure learning for self
improvement. Those women described in magazines targeted for
women consumers were generally participating in education to
improve themselves professionally, or pursuing leisure learning
for self improvement and recreation.
Gender
The vast majority of the articles reported educational
p r o g r a m s which had no restrictions based on the participants
gender; forty-three of the two hundred thirty articles described
programs designed only for women and an additional eleven
profile articles were totally or partially concerned with the
educational experiences of women. Thirty-four of the articles
reviewed in the study were selected from those listed under the
"education of women" descriptor. By comparison only three
articles and eight profiles referred to the experiences of men.
Further, no separate descriptor for men exists in the Reader's
Guide to Periodical Literature that is analogous to the "Education
of women." This is an indication that the growth in education
opportunities for women was a recognizable phenomenon during
the study period, that was reported with sufficient frequency to
j u s t i f y the creation of a separate descriptor in the Reader s Guide
to Periodical Literature. Clearly, women as a separate gender group received the
most coverage throughout the study period. Dominant themes
72
included leisure learning, preparing for professional careers, and
learning skills to increase earning power. The number of articles
referring to women was affected by the large proportion of
magazines in the database that are marketed primarily for female
consumption. However, seven articles reporting programs
designed specifically for women were found in publications that
could not be described as women's magazines.
The most common educational activity for women, reported
in thirty articles, was participation in higher education. Generally
these articles described the special difficulties of being an older
student, going to college and managing family affairs (especially
child rearing), obtaining a higher education to begin or advance a
career, and attending college to satisfy a self-perceived need for
personal improvement. Five articles spoke directly to women s
literacy concerns, three of these being profiles which described
particular women and their efforts to overcome illiteracy. These
articles spoke to the concerns of women during the study period
and offered strategies to pursue the new opportunities that were
becoming available at this time.
The period of the study covered an era in which women were
emerging as an active social and political group. Women's
organizations which focused on political and social change became
more active and their effect on the society was pronounced.
Women gained recognition as a minority group, sought after, and
received consideration as a group that deserved equal
consideration in employment and other practices. Articles in
73
women's magazines discussed this special status and its
implications for women seeking higher education. Many articles
in women's special interest magazines offered an overview of
education programs. These articles, when considered with
regularly appearing columns which promoted education as a
means of personal improvement, indicated that furthering one s
education was promoted as a productive strategy for women. The
articles reporting women returning to college, pursuing education
to undertake or enhance a professional career, or overcoming the
handicap of illiteracy are a direct indicator of promotion of
education as a route to follow in their self development. Another
indication of the promotion of adult education for women is found
in the nineteen articles which were designed to provide an
overview of all types of adult education opportunities. Of this
group, nine articles were taken from women's special interest
magazines and focused specifically on women. Other articles
referred to leisure learning and self improvement programs for
women. Educational opportunities of these types, available for
women with new aspirations, are strong indications of the social
conditions of the times and of the response of portions of the field of
adult education to the needs of women.
Although it is an easy assumption that women in traditional
family roles might be consumers of leisure learning programs,
new programs targeting women were evident. Women as a group
were found to be a viable market for adult education opportunities
in higher education. Professional development programs in
computers, mathematics, and management skills are examples of
74
opportunities designed to meet the needs of the new woman
consumer that emerged during this period.
Educational Attainment
The level of education required for learners to participate in
programs was inferred from the characteristics of the programs
reported in the articles. Articles describing adults engaged in the
pursuit of higher education indicated that the adult had achieved
the levels of education required for entrance in such a program. In
those articles in which literacy programs were described, the
assumption was made that the adult had not achieved a high
school diploma. In some articles, adults who had received
diplomas and still were illiterate were described. These articles
were placed in the same groups as those describing persons who
had not received a high school diploma, as the absence of skills
denoted the lack of an effective secondary education.
The largest group of adult learning programs involved
participation in some form of higher education. One hundred
nineteen of the two hundred thirty articles referred to adults as
undergraduate or graduate college students. Contributing factors
included women returning to college, adults pursuing higher
education as a way of advancing in their professions, and
participation in higher education by aged persons— both in regular
college offerings and in special programs. Adult participation in
higher education is a trend that extends throughout the study
75
period and is responsible for the number of reports of adult
learners with at least a high school education.
The number of articles referring to adults in higher
education indicates several important points. During the study
period it is obvious that, the most common educational activity in
which adults participated was some facet of higher education. The
motivation for participation ranged from economic betterment
and increased earning power to pursuit of higher education as a
leisure learning or retirement activity. It is also obvious that
institutions of higher education recognized adults as an important
clientele and source of enrollment. This is evidenced by the
number and content of the articles in this study, especially in terms
of special and non-traditional educational programming, designed
to ease adult participation in credit and no-credit courses.
Further indications can be found in the growth of community
colleges and in the aging of the average student during the study
period.
Adult basic education and high school general equivalency
degree education are important aspects of adult education. Fifty-
three articles referred to programs about adult basic education
and high school equivalency programs. The majority of these
articles concerned adult literacy, which received increased
coverage in the last four years of the study period. Literacy
programs will be further discussed in subsequent sections. High
school equivalency programs were reported in only sixteen
articles, the majority of which occurred in the period 1973-1978.
76
The low incidence of reports on adult basic education and
general equivalency degree programs is an interesting
phenomenon. Adult education has had as a primary part of its
identity the provision of adult basic and high school equivalency
education. Yet in the period of this study, the preponderance of the
programs reported in the articles reviewed was designed for adults
who were pursuing not basic education, but advanced education.
It is unclear as to why there are few reports on these types of
programs. As most school districts in the United States have
programs in both basic education and high school equivalency as
do many businesses and the military, a reasonable assumption
might be that these programs are too commonplace to receive
coverage in the magazines that were reviewed. Another
assumption is that those persons who are served by these
educational programs might not be considered by editors as
potential consumers of the magazines and therefore reports on
these subjects were not included.
Age
The greatest proportion of programs, over seventy per cent,
had no apparent age limitations on participation. The largest
group of programs designed for a particular group were those for
learners over the age of fifty-five, accounting for over twenty per
cent of the articles. Two factors contributed to this high proportion
of reports. One factor is the large number of magazines published
in the United States for aged people. These magazines routinely
77
report on educational and other activities that are of interest to
their readers. These facts influenced the number of articles in the
database and, in turn, the results of the study.
However, the number of magazines published for aged
consumers indicates a characteristic of the population as a whole.
Because of a variety of factors, including greater longevity, better
health care, retirement income insurance, and a growing
population, the number of aged people in the population of the
United States has increased. These people are increasingly
healthy and active after retirement and, by the evidence in the
articles reviewed, more involved in educational pursuits.
However, not all references to aged learners were found in
magazines which cater to an aged readership. Many references
were found in general interest and other special interest
magazines that pointed out the involvement of aged learners in
educational activities. The impact of aged learners on the field of
adult education is great and will, with the aging of the baby boom
generation, continue to increase.
Of the seventy-nine articles which reported no required level
of educational attainment, thirty were programs for aged
learners. It is interesting to note that of these thirty articles, fifteen
referred to programs for aged learners offered by higher
education institutions. Of the remaining forty-nine articles
reporting programs for aged learners, twelve reported other
programs in higher education settings, including residential
programs similar to Elderhostel, travel programs, and summer
leisure learning classes. Fifty-one articles reported programs that
78
were grouped under the heading of leisure learning. Other types
of reports included training in business and industry and articles
which provided an overview of a variety of adult education
activities of interest to aged learners.
Only 9.7% of the programs described were targeted for
learners in the 17-34 and 35-54 year age groups. These programs
primarily concerned higher education opportunities (eleven
reports), literacy programs (six reports), and leisure learning
programs (five reports). The small number of reports in these age
groups is remarkable because of the relatively high proportion of
the number of articles reporting programs for aged learners. It is
commonly known that learners in these age groups are being
served, but programs specifically for these age groups were not
reported in these magazines during the period of the study. It is
reasonable to assume that these groups participate in programs
with no age barriers to participation. Also, it is unlikely that
institutions that offer adult education programs would be as likely
to bar aged learners from a general interest program than they
would be to offer programs that cater to an aged clientele.
Illiteracy, especially functional illiteracy in public schools,
government, and business and industry, was a major concern
during the study period. It is reasonable to assume that those who
were involved as learners in programs addressing literacy and
high school equivalency in businesses and government service fell
into the 17-54 year old age groups, as the majority of them were
employed, and had not reached retirement age.. It is probable that
in reviewing different sources of information, especially those
79
reporting on a particular locality, that these programs would
appear. It is also possible that editorial decisions about what is
likely to serve the needs and interests of the magazines readers
would dictate that articles about these programs not be included as
readily as a report about some other educational opportunity.
Additionally, there are in the articles reviewed, a number of
articles that offer an overview of adult education. In each of these,
general equivalency and adult basic education programs and their
sponsors are reported.
Race
Programming for particular minority populations was
notable by its absence, with only seven articles which reported on
strictly minority concerns. The period of the study covers a time in
the development of the nation when members of minority
populations were, through legislation and affirmative action,
gaining a more influential position in society. Opportunities were
broadened and special programs were advanced to prepare
minority citizens to fully participate in society and the economy.
One article was a commentary on federal policy on job training
and education programs for minority citizens. Another article
reported on the education of a minority woman pursuing an
advanced degree. Other articles were descriptions of literacy
programs, particularly those offered by business and industry, and
one federally funded job training program. It is interesting to note
that programs were reported that were designed to meet the self
80
development needs of women and aged learners, yet few were
reported to address the needs of minorities. It may have been that
programs for minorities existed but were not reported in the
magazines studied, but it seems as likely that women and aged
learners were seen as a more viable market for programs where
minorities, many of whom exist in the lower socio-economic strata,
were not seen as a profitable target audience.
Adult Learners and Motivation
In most situations, adults are voluntary learners. Except in
job-related training and similar settings, participation in a
learning activity is at the discretion of the learner and is generally
toward a specific goal. The overall impression of adult learners
motivation throughout the articles is self improvement. Whether
studying to overcome illiteracy, pursuing vocational training,
attending college, or participating in leisure learning activity, the
adult learner is trying to fulfill a need to improve as a person. The
profile articles describing particular people and their educational
activities are, without exception, stories about people who felt a
need to learn and sought an educational remedy. Adults
participated in many varied learning activities but always toward
a similar goal: to learn and improve themselves as professionals or
as individuals.
Self improvement was a particularly strong theme in articles
about women and aged learners. First, in the case of the women s
programs, articles referred to getting' head starts on education, or
81
of "overcoming an invisible handicap", or informing the potential
learner that "your future is now." Women's magazines reflected
the movement of women into the professions (law school, MBA
programs, doctoral programs) and offered advice on how to
survive in college and how to receive financial aid. Courses and
class formats such as weekend college and telecourses were
described as methods for those women who had obligations
keeping them from full time pursuit of a higher education. In
general, programs were reported which were designed to assist
women readers in progressing toward a goal. Again and again
these articles stated to the reader that it was possible to progress
and listed methods that could be used to get started.
Programs for aged learners followed much the same trends.
The upswing in the number of elders in the population, elders who
would be retired and have expendable income for an extended
period, precipitated magazines that catered to the interests of that
clientele. It is obvious from the articles reviewed that a major
interest of aged adults is learning. And learning for what?
Primarily because it is enjoyable and rewarding. Articles referred
to learning as a "surprising Rx to a happier life," "good ideas for
growing and learning," and learning as a "fountain of youth.
"Why I am going to College," "So You Want to Be a Student," and
"Profiles in College" reported aged learners who were going to
higher education institutions and "Applying the Gray Matter."
Elderhostel, which is designed strictly as a learning vacation,
emerged during this period and was repeatedly described in
articles. This program has since spread to all fifty states and is
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successful at hundreds of campuses. All of these programs point
not only to aged learners seeking education for recreation, but also
to the personal satisfaction of learning with their peers.
Programs
The most prevalent adult education programs fell into the
following groups: higher education programs, programs for aged
learners, literacy, basic education, and high school equivalency
programs, leisure learning programs, and vocational/occupational
training programs.
Higher Education
Reported in one hundred forty-six of the two hundred thirty
articles, higher education participation was the outstanding trend
during the study period. This high incidence of reporting was no
doubt caused by the existence of many higher education activities
for adults. It is, however, likely that the fact that colleges and
universities generally have public information offices which are
the public relations organ for the institution, that this high
incidence of reporting occurred. In all of the sponsoring
organizations, no other group uniformly is in the business of self-
promotion as are higher education institutions.
Higher education programs included both college credit and
non-credit activities for adults of all ages. New formats for
83
offering credit courses such as telecourses and courses offered in
the workplace, granting college credit for life experiences, and the
appearance of new types of institutions such as the universities
without walls, point to the impact of adults on higher education.
These topics will be discussed further in the sections on programs
for aged learners, leisure learning, teaching/learning methods,
sponsoring agencies, and entrepreneurial activities.
Programs for Aged Learners
Educational programs for aged learners were reported in
fifty-one articles. The majority of these programs, reported in
thirty-eight articles, were higher education activities either for
college credit or non-credit leisure learning activities. A notable
example of the latter is the Elderhostel program which was
reported in six articles. Elderhostel is a non-credit, residential
program which is offered at colleges and universities. It is
designed to give the participants a college experience- living in
dormitories, eating in dining halls, and going to daily classes for a
week at each campus. Other articles reported programs similar
to Elderhostel entitled alumni colleges and educational vacations.
Returning to college to learn for the sake of learning was a
prominent theme. Twenty-nine articles discussed returning to
college or profiled aged learners who were involved in college
classes. Other types of programs for aged participants included
skills training, travel, Chautauqua, literacy, leisure learning,
music classes, and special education for persons in nursing homes.
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Many programs were offered through community-based or state-
funded centers for aged persons.
Literacy and Basic Education Programs
As previously stated, fifty-three articles described basic
education, primarily literacy, programs. Of these, nine articles
reported basic education programs other than literacy education.
These included military high school equivalency programs for
active personnel and veterans, basic education programs in
business and industry, basic education sponsored by religious
institutions, and discussion of federal policies on education and
training. These programs were discussed previously in the
sections on participants and sponsoring agencies.
Leisure Learning
The leisure learning programs that were reported can be
grouped for convenience into two subsets, those strictly for aged
learners and those open to all adults. Leisure learning programs
for aged learners included travel programs, Elderhostel programs,
programs offered by community centers for aged people, and
programs offered in nursing homes.
The second subset includes leisure learning programs
available to all adults. Thirty-five articles reported leisure
learning activities, including those offered by colleges, proprietary
organizations, community service groups, and other institutions.
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Leisure learning programs were reported as recreational and social activities, as well as opportunities for adults to learn practical information. The variety of sponsors indicates that leisure learning was available to adults from multiple sources in the community. Also, this indicates that a variety of program sponsors recognized leisure learning as a logical addition to their adult education services and as a productive, profitable service.
Vocational/Occupational
Thirty-six articles reported vocational or occupational training programs. The programs described included specialized professional training for business executives, federally funded skills training for minorities, military skills training, professional training for policemen, skills training for aged people, and literacy training in skills areas. Nine articles described different training opportunities and institutions and the advantages and disadvantages of various types of training. A recurring theme m these articles was the future of vocational/occupational training and training people for future employment. The discussion of future training was not focused on the condition of vocational training programs as much as changes in the economy and the resulting changes in worker training. Typical of this discussion were references to the changing of the national economy from an industrial/manufacturing base to a service base. These articles generally stressed the need for more highly skilled employees with
86
better preparation in basic educational skills as well as specific job
training.
Training for aged persons in job skills was reported in four
articles. In one article the learners were trained in skills that
would be useful in seeking part-time employment as aides for
those who were incapacitated or as child care assistants. Another
article discussed the services offered by the vocational schools in
one state and alluded to job skills training for retired persons,
although no particular types of training were discussed.
Teaching/Learning Methods
The most prevalent teaching method was the lecture. This
method was inferred from the large number of higher education
and class type activities reported. These were, however,
discussions of a variety of methods of class and course
presentation. This variety was indicative of the response by
program sponsors to the needs of adults in time allocation and
convenience. The variety of teaching/learning and scheduling
formats also indicated the realization by program offering
institutions that adults were a viable market for their services.
The offering of programs in the workplace immediately
before or after working hours, telecourses that allow participants
to receive lecture information in their homes, and weekend
courses for those who have full-time employment are all examples
of these methods. Television and radio in educational
87
programming were reported in fifteen articles. In all but two
articles, the learning activity was associated with the adult getting
college credit through the use of telecourses. The remaining
articles reported on foundation funding to develop telecourses for
use in higher education and other programs, and the future of
television in adult education. Non-credit activities sponsored by higher education
institutions and leisure learning proprietary programs were
provided in short-term formats at hours that would attract
participants and not interrupt other aspects of the adults' schedule.
The university without walls and credit for life experience
programs also were reported in numerous articles. These
programs were direct responses to the needs of adult students in
higher education for flexibility in course design as well as
recognition of the experiences and competencies that adults bring
to the learning situation.
Sponsoring Agencies
Although there are adult education programs sponsored by
school districts through the nation, ninety-one percent of the
sponsoring agencies, or one hundred forty-six of the two hundred
thirty reports, described sponsors as colleges and universities. This
is hardly representative of the total number of educational
institutions sponsoring adult education activities in the United
States. Education programs are an important part of the
88
rehabilitation programs of correctional institutions but only one
report of this type of activity was found. Business and industry
training, as discussed before, was largely unreported. Training in
the armed forces was not reported, although this subject is
included in the publications published by the services and other
magazines aimed at the serviceman and veteran. Training
sponsored by government agencies was rarely reported. Also,
there are many occupations in which employees must participate
in government mandated training. Examples of federally
mandated training include air traffic controllers and employees in
hazardous occupations such as coal mining. Other professions
such as paramedics and public school teachers, and related
occupations that require state or local licensure, have continuing
education requirements. Finally, many board certified professions,
including those in medicine, architecture, and others, have
continuing education requirements for certificate holders. These
types of training were not reported, although many of these fields
have journals and other publications that include information on
training opportunities.
Adult education programs sponsored by public school
systems were described in eleven articles. Five of these were
overview articles describing the breadth of educational
opportunities available to adults. Six articles were discussions of
the adult literacy problem that presented public school sponsored
programs as an option for those in need of literacy education.
Fifteen articles described programs sponsored by proprietary
institutions which offered programs in leisure learning, vocational
89
training or other types of programs. Business and industry
sponsored programs were reported in fourteen articles. Programs
included vocational training, executive training, educational
programs for the institutionalized aged, and literacy programs.
Literacy programs were described in ten of these articles. Literacy
programs sponsored by business and industry were referenced in
other articles concerning literacy. In editorials and overview
articles, the concern of the business sector with the poor
preparation of the workforce by public schools was a common
theme. The literacy programs that were described by the business
sector were indications of the commitment of the businesses to
their employees and that success in the literacy programs led to
incentives for the employees in terms of job enhancement or
advancement.
Community-based organizations sponsored programs that
were reported in eleven articles. Five articles reported educational
programs for aged learners that were presented in community
centers. Six articles reported community based leisure learning
programs including programs sponsored by the Chautauqua
institution. Community based programs are likely to have
suffered the same lack of coverage, due to their common
occurrence, as local school district adult education programs.
Many communities sponsor adult education through leisure
learning programs, programs at senior citizen centers, parks and
recreations services, and other agencies. It is assumed that since
some programs sponsored by these agencies were reported that
90
the majority were not considered newsworthy enough to be
reported on a national scale. Reported programs sponsored by government entities
included basic education and skills training by the military,
educational benefits for military veterans, and literacy programs
in correctional institutions. Government sponsorship was
discussed in articles about federal policy on job training programs.
It is interesting to note that, as mentioned elsewhere, the large
government efforts in job training received little coverage. At
various times during the study period there were economic
downturns which necessitated increases in government training
as retraining opportunities for the unemployed. As an example, in
1979 federal outlays for all work and training programs were in
excess of $14,000,000,000.00. During that same year there were
no reports in the sample about this type of activity (National
Commission for Employment Policy, 1980). Unemployment of
young adults, and particularly members of minority groups, was a
common subject of new coverage and political discussion. And yet,
when examining the articles for this study, only one reference was
found specifically describing a retraining program for minorities
in job skills. This lack of information might be attributed to the
same "commonplace' argument that has been advanced at several
points previously. Other factors might be that these particular
types of programs were listed under other descriptors in the
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature and were not cross
referenced with adult education. Another cause might be that
91
reports of programs such as these were not considered to be of
interest to the readers of the magazines that were reviewed.
The Chautauqua institution has a historic place in the
development of adult education in the United States. Five articles
reported aspects of the Chautauqua, three reporting on the types of
programs and activities offered at the Chautauqua in New York,
one article being a book, review of a history of the Chautauqua
movement, and one article reporting on a special Chautauqua
program for people over 55 years old. Two articles which were not
available for review (Brickmann, 1974; "Chautauqua movement",
1974) also reported on the one hundred year anniversary of the
Chautauqua institution and its impact on adult education. The
number of articles reporting on Chautauqua is notable not only
because of its place in the history of adult education, but because no
other single institution of any type was reported as often.
Entrepreneurial Activities
A discernible trend throughout the articles was the large
group of programs offered by individuals and institutions designed
to capitalize on the adult education market. Six articles reported
programs or profiled people who developed programs that
promoted leisure learning activities on a profit making basis.
These entrepreneurs offered programs that were designed for and
offered in urban settings. Classes generally had a short format,
presenting the learners a single, coherent subject. Another article
92
outlined the financial and personal advantages of professional
people becoming adjunct professors at institutions of higher
learning.
More striking, however, were the programs and program
formats that were offered by colleges and universities. Articles
described courses in a variety of formats, which were designed to
ease the adults' participation in higher education. Repeated
references were made to colleges becoming more aggressive in
marketing themselves and less traditional in the design and
offering of courses. Along with many of the methods mentioned in
the "teaching/learning methods" section, courses with schedules
that did not adhere to the traditional semester calendar were
offered. Another format included awarding credit for life
experiences— where adults had class credits awarded for
particular classes from experiences that they had gained in a
professional or private life. Another significant type of program
was the university without walls or non-campus institution. These
institutions, which may not have been designed solely to appeal to
adult learners, did, through their less structured environment,
lend themselves to the nontraditional, mature learner. Colleges
and universities also were reported as offering family educational
vacation programs and seminars and specialized professional
short courses. Financial aid, adult peer counseling programs, and
other specialized services designed to ease the adults transition to
higher education were described.
Earlier it was stated that the proportion of aged person in the
population was reflected in the increase of educational programs
93
offered for this group. The passing through traditional college age
of the baby boom generation had a marked effect on higher
education in the United States. During the early seventies, colleges
and universities experienced high enrollments with the high
income that is a natural effect of those enrollments. As the
seventies passed and the eighties began, enrollments dropped
sharply and a series of economic downturns drastically reduced
the cash flow of institutions of higher learning.
The adult learner affected higher education in two main
ways. First, adults returned to college to learn new skills and
improve their abilities in chosen careers. These returning adults
were women embarking on new careers, aged learners, people
looking for alternative careers in hard economic times, veterans,
and others. The effect was an aging of the overall student body and
a change in the makeup of the students in community and senior
colleges. The realization of this sizable new clientele is evidenced
by articles that refer to new forms of serving their needs.
However, higher education recognized the potential of adult
learners in another way. Adults, including aged learners, were a
segment of the population with educational needs that went
beyond traditional college credit courses. It is probable that there
have been adult learners in colleges taking credit courses as leisure
learning activities for a long time. In this period, however, colleges
created and offered non-credit courses on a large scale strictly for
those interested in leisure learning.
Programs such as Elderhostel and learning vacations were
custom made for aged learners and families. Community colleges
94
offered vocational/technical training either cooperatively with
industry or as a part of regular course offerings. Higher education
institutions cooperated with community agencies in offering
literacy training and community service programs. All of these
illustrate a change in the attitudes of higher education
administrations, realizing that providing services for adults would
generate income to support the institution. It is also reasonable to
assume that higher education administrators realized that
providing positive educational experiences to adults would
increase the community support for their institutions, generating
goodwill and augmenting the image of the institution in the
community.
These findings were used by the researcher to arrive at
conclusions about the public view of adult education during the
study period. Conclusions one through eleven address the first
research question of this study and are the most likely impressions,
or view, that a reader might form of the field from the information
in the magazine articles. Conclusions twelve and thirteen address
the second research question concerning the degree to which this
view is congruent with the view of adult education espoused by
professional writers in the field.
Conclusions
1. Adult education activities in the United States were generally
available and commonly reported during the study period, but the
95
view of adult education is not a comprehensive, accurate
description of the field.
Two hundred forty seven articles were selected, of which 230
were reviewed, from fifty-three nationally distributed news
magazines. The articles reported many adult education opportunities offered by a variety of sponsors throughout the
United States. As has been shown, articles were found during each
year of the study period, peaking in the 1977-1982 period.
2. Discussion of adult education in magazines is affected by the
purpose of the magazines and by the assumed interests of the
readers of the magazine.
The view of adult education as inferred from the articles was
probably not completely typical of the entirety of activities that
occurred during the period of the study. One factor that
contributed to this was the nature of the magazines themselves. As
discussed earlier, magazines are most likely to include reports that
are of interest to their readers. For the reports to be sufficiently
attractive to be interesting, the subject matter must meet two
requirements: (1) the subject must be unique or topical and (2) the
subject must be of interest to the readers of that particular
magazine. An illustration of the first point is the lack of articles
reporting adult basic education in local school districts. Programs
of this type are common to practically every community in the
nation and do not excite much interest on a national scale.
In the second case, the subject of the articles included in the
periodical must be of interest to the magazine's clientele. The lack
96
of reporting about basic job skills training or adult education
programs for members of minority groups in general interest
magazines was probably due to the lack of minority readers who
would qualify for or be interested in these topics. In those cases
where programs such as those mentioned above were unique, in
terms of unusual success or mismanagement or another factor
interesting to the magazine's readers, the programs were
reported. The result of this lack of reporting was a considerable
amount of adult education activity was invisible to the person who
relied on magazines as a primary source of information.
3. Adult education for aged learners is over reported in theses
magazines when compared with other areas of the field.
In the case of programming for aged learners, it is evident
from the existence of the periodicals targeting the aged clientele
that a market for programs designed for aged consumers existed.
The magazines were typically designed to attract a readership
that was physically active and who had the financial resources to
pay for educational and recreational activities. That these
educational activities had a comparatively higher incidence of
reporting in relation to other types of programming is an
indication that the activities were important and prevalent during
the study period.
4. Discussions of adult participation in higher education are more
likely to appear in periodicals than discussions of participation in
other institutional settings.
97
Participation in higher education activities was reported in
over 63% of the articles. Clearly this type of activity was an
important component of adult education during the study.
Additionally, the high incidence of reporting indicates that this
phenomenon was a significant and new trend during this period.
5. Given this sample, the majority of adults in higher education
are not pursuing college degrees or professional advancement.
The majority of the articles reporting adult participation in
higher education described persons, particularly aged persons,
who were attending college for recreation or for self improvement.
Many colleges and universities were reported as having extensive
non-credit programs for adults, including leisure learning
programs, travel programs, and special programs for aged
learners. The only significant exception to this trend was the
group of articles reporting opportunities and programs for women
who were participating in higher education to return to the
workforce after child rearing or to prepare for career
advancement.
6. Leisure learning activities are typically reported in magazines
published in the United States.
Leisure learning was an important segment of the programs
reported during the period. Programs were offered by a variety of
sources, including higher education institutions, community
groups, and private entrepreneurs. A large portion of the reported
programs was designed strictly for aged participants. The
98
majority of the reports of leisure learning programs came from
magazines targeted to the aged and to women, which indicated
high interest in these groups in this type of program.
7. Adult illiteracy is treated as a national concern in magazines
published in the United States.
The problem of illiteracy was repeatedly reported as a great
national problem. Those articles that described literacy education
programs indicated that literacy education was a positive step that
could be taken towards self-improvement. Literacy programs
were invariably shown in a positive light, illustrated with accounts
of people who overcame illiteracy and increased their
achievement in life.
Literacy programming increased in prevalence throughout
the latter part of the study. Obviously literacy was both an
important type of programming and an important issue during
the period. Literacy programs were also unique in the great
variety of sponsoring organizations, including school districts, the
military, volunteer groups, and business and industry. Literacy
education was a pervasive problem during the study period and
was the subject of a wide variety of adult education programs.
8. The lecture is projected in magazines published in the United
States as the most popular adult education teaching format.
Although the lecture was the most prevalent
teaching/learning method reported in the articles, this was caused
by the large percentage of reports of adults participating in higher
99
education programs. It is also likely that many teaching
technologies and non-traditional methods had not gained
acceptance, due to their newness and novelty. The most striking
trend in teaching/learning methods was that institutions,
particularly higher education institutions, made efforts to offer
programs at times and in places that would facilitate adult
participation. Classes in the workplace, travel courses, short
courses, credit for life experience, and telecourses were examples
of these programs. Entrepreneurs offered activities such as leisure
learning and travel programs for adults, indicating a great
interest by adults for these programs and a willingness by the
adults to pay for activities..
9. Periodicals focused on group or class learning activities more
than self -directed learning.
Independent learning undertaken by adults is described in
the professional literature as the most common adult education
activity. However, the majority of the programs reported in the
magazine articles were group activities. This may be due to
nature of individual learning, a difficult phenomenon to observe
and report. The closest reports to this type of learning were those
describing those adults returning to higher education. Although
these adults were participating in organized educational activities,
their degree of participation and rate of success was likely to be a
function of the individual effort of the learner. Other types of
individual learning, those projects that an adult might undertake
to learn a particular subject or to solve a particular problem, were
100
not in evidence. In addition, very few programs were reported
that offered adults the opportunity for team learning or for a
group of adults to work together to address community or societal
problems.
10. In popular magazines, Caucasians are projected as
participating in adult learning activities more than minorities.
Taken as a whole, the participants in the programs that were
reported in these articles were middle class and Caucasian. Much
of this can be attributed to the nature of the magazines, magazines
that were designed for, and supported by, advertising targeting the
middle class consumer. However, just as the programs described
in these articles are not entirely representative of all adult
education programs, the participants described also vary from the
totality of the people who participate in adult educations.
Examples of this disparity include adult basic education and
literacy programs which traditionally attract large enrollments
from lower socio-economic groups, minorities, and new
immigrants.
11. Magazines published for general consumption in the United
States ignore adult education as a professional field.
The overall impression of adult education as presented in
magazines was positive. The great majority of the articles
reviewed were positive in tone, promoting adult education
activities as useful, enjoyable experiences. People profiled in the
articles reported experiences that enhanced their lives and self
101
image. The articles that were focused on programs for aged
learners promoted leisure learning and higher education
programs as enticing and rewarding retirement activities. Those
articles reporting women's programs indicated programs that
were attractive as avenues to personal and professional
improvement as well as leisure time enjoyment. Adult basic
education was presented as useful and easily attainable. Although
the magazines were obviously biased to present adult activities that
would appeal to the magazine's target audience, this bias worked
to the benefit of adult education as the activities were always
presented in a positive light. The impression of adult education as set forth in these
articles was a definite asset to the field. Adults who read these
articles were likely to see adult education activities in all of its
forms as useful, appealing, and as occupying a helping, beneficial
place in the community. Although not all facets of adult education
received equal coverage in magazines, the act of learning for the
sake of learning- for self-improvement- was reported repeatedly
as a natural part of the behavior of adults. Pursuing knowledge
was described as the way that adults solve problems, seek
recreation, and develop themselves as individuals.
12. The fact that adult education as a professional field of study
received such little reporting is an indication of its weak image in
American society. Certainly, no reader of these magazines was presented with
sufficient information about the field to form an accurate picture
102
or concept and, except for the problem of illiteracy, no issues in
adult education were discussed. Adult education as a concept or an
informal set of activities benefitted from these articles, but the
professional field was invisible to the average reader.
13. Although many areas of congruence between the view as
reported in the magazines and professional writings exist, the
public view of adult education as described in the articles does not
support the view of professional writers in the field.
Considering the breadth of programs reported and their
content, adult education in the United States during the study
period included a great variety of educational opportunities. The
articles validate the diversity and the positive philosophy of adult
education as stated by the professional writers. Harris defines
adult education as any organized provision intended to help adults
learn whatever they wish to learn. This definition is appropriate to
t-lris set of programs. In addition, it is apparent that Houle s
statement of adult education being a process whereby adult seek to
improve themselves is especially pertinent
App's list of purposes was reinforced throughout the articles.
Learners pursued work skills, skills for leisure time, skills for
problem solving, and, through striving for self improvement,
sought greater personal satisfaction and creativity. Darkenwald
and Merriam referred to cultivation of the intellect, and individual
self-actualization to describe the adult's seeking opportunities for
learning for the growth of the self. Evidence for these points was
common throughout the articles.
103
There were areas in which the view of adult education as
inferred from these articles was clearly not congruent. From
App's list of purposes for continuing education, no programs were
found that addressed providing the learner with skills for
preserving the environment or, with the possible exception of some
programs for women, for affecting social change. Further, no
reports described programs that facilitated communities in
providing "more humane social, psychological, and physical
environments for their members (Apps, 1979, pp. 91-99).
Although none of the professional writers estimated what
proportion of adult programs would be represented by any one
type of activity, the great number of adults reported in higher
education activities is not congruent with professional writings.
The experts cited in Chapter II did not discuss this type of activity
as a part of adult education. However, when the articles were
analyzed, it became apparent that adults were participating in
higher education for a variety of reasons— leisure learning, self
improvement, career advancement— and that these activities
were obviously adult education as opposed to purely higher
education experiences. Darkenwald and Merriam listed a variety of organizations
that sponsor adult education activities. Many of these agencies did
not appear in the articles. Included in this group are community-
based independent adult education organizations, cultural
organizations, and cooperative extension services. The absence of
articles about cooperative extension services is particularly
remarkable since these services form some of the most extensive
104
systems of adult education in the United States. Although these
services may be more likely to be reported in periodicals dealing
with some portion of agriculture or other rural concerns, this lack
of reporting is significant.
Another important type of sponsoring agency, particularly
for adult basic education, is public libraries. Although almost every
town and city in the country has a library, most of them with adult
education programs, none were reported. The same can be said of
vocational training. There are many public and private agencies
that offer vocational training, but very few sponsors or programs
appeared in these articles. Again, it may have been that these were
listed under another descriptor, but as the study period covered
times of marked economic change, it is significant that this type of
programs was underrepresented.
Finally, as has been discussed, the most common learning
style for adults is self-study, undertaken by the adult towards
learning a specific subject or solving a particular problem. The
learning activities reported were invariably group activities,.with
the most common form being the traditional lecture. Although
adults generally learn with no formal instruction or group
interaction, the view in these articles was not representative of this
fact. Adult education, as it is set forth by professional writers,
includes the length and breadth of adult learning activities, the
sponsors of those activities, and the content of those activities.
Although the view that is set forth in these articles presents great
variety in all of these areas, this view does not include all of the
105
areas discussed by the professionals. In addition, the proportion of
the different types of programs reported in these articles is not
representative of the totality of the programs that were offered
during the period of the study.
Recommendations
The identification of the public view of the field of adult
education is important to performing and evaluating needs
analysis processes and addresses program design, promotion, and
management. It is also important as a reflection of the
effectiveness of the field in presenting itself to the public as a source
of educational services. Finally, a knowledge of the public view
provides professional adult educators with an indication of how the
professional literature reflects actual practice.
Qualitative research of non-professional publications offers
adult education a source of insight. Although this sample of
periodicals was slanted towards particular segments of the
population, including aged people, women, and the more
prosperous middle and upper classes, there is information
available through the popular press that is not readily found in the
professional literature. Indeed there is no evidence in the
professional literature that the public image of adult education had
been considered. Studies exist that describe what the professional
writers consider to be the component parts of the field, but no
106
research has been done to learn how the field is viewed by the adult
population.
Because adult education must compete with other activities
and institutions for its resources and clients, it seems reasonable
that this type of research needs to be pursued. It is evident from
this study that adult education did not capture the imagination of
those who decided what was published in magazines. It follows
that if "professional adult education" did not appear in this
important forum, that attracting public attention, garnering
support for the dedication of community assets to adult education
activities, and building support for adult education on a national
basis was handicapped during this period.
To further refine an understanding of the public view, it is
recommended that further research be conducted focusing on
adult education as represented in other information sources.
These sources should include national and regional newspapers
and the electronic media. By examining these additional sources, a
more accurate inference may be drawn of the public view.
Additionally, if local and regional sources are studied, it will be
possible to compare the public view across various regions of the
country.
Further research should also be undertaken to examine the
phenomenon of the adult college student. This group of adult
learners is growing and is causing higher education institutions to
adapt to its presence. Data should be gathered on effective services
and instructional methods, as well as the specific services that will
enhance higher education services for adults. An important issue
107
in study would be identifying if the colleges and universities offer
programs to meet the needs of the adult learners or to merely
capitalize on the economic opportunities that the adult students
offer. It is also important that a philosophical and practical case be
developed for the inclusion of professional adult educators in the
administration of those services in higher education institutions.
Further study needs to be done on adult education programs
for minorities and learners from lower socio-economic groups.
The period of this study was a time of great social change in this
country. The lack of reporting on programs for these groups
raises questions about the effectiveness of the field in serving these
students. A study of this type will be important in assisting the field
of adult education in broadening its purposes and constituencies as
society evolves.
APPENDIX
ARTICLE REVIEW SHEET
108
Article Review Sheet
109
1. Article Data
Author
Tifle_
Magazine.
Date Length. _col.ins. Page no..
Illustrations
Region
Tone: [ Positive Type of Article
[ ]Neutral [ ]Negative
• H a r d news [ Feature stories [JEditorial [ ]Column [ IBook Review [ ]Theater/Restaurant Review [ ]Profiles of People [ Feature [ ]Editorial [ ]Entertainment/Recreation news
Type of magazine
[ ] General consumer [ ] Special interest consumer [ ] Business [ ] Association [ ] Farm [ ] Public Relations
2. Learner characteristics [ ] Female only [ 1 Male only [ 1 No Group Identified [ ] Other restriction
Age-[ ] 17-34 [ ] 35-54 [ ] 55+ [ 1 No age limit
Education (in years) [ ] 0-11 [ ] 12 [ ] 1-3 college [ ] 4+ college
3. Teaching/Learning Technique [ ] Lecture or Class [ ] OJT or Internship
110
[ ] Conference, Workshop, or [ ] Individual Lesson Institute [ ] Group Action
[ ] Discussion, Study Group [ ] Self Study [ ] Correspondence [ 1 Radio, Record, Audio [ ] Travel Study [ 1 TV or Video Cassette [ ] Other Method
Type of Program [ ] General Education
[] ABE [] Citizenship [] GED [] College Credit [ ] Occupational Training
[ ] Tech/Voc [ ] Managerial [ ] Professional [ ] Community Issue
[ ] Civic/Public Affairs [ ] Religion [ ] Safety [ ] Personal and Family Issues [ ] Home/Family Life [ ] Personal Improvement [ ] Social Life and Recreation [ ] Hobbies/Handicrafts [ ] Sports/Recreation [ ] Other
Sponsoring Agency [ ] Independent Adult Education Organization
[ ] Community Based [ ] Proprietary Schools [ ] External Degree Agency
[ ] Educational Institutions [ ] Public School Adult Ed [ ] Community Colleges [ ] Four Year Colleges [ ] Cooperative Extension
[ ] Quasi-Educational Organization [ ] Cultural Org. [ ] Community Org. [ ] Occupational
[ ] Noneducational Organization [ ] Business & Industry [ 1 Government Agency [ ] Armed Forces [ 1 Union [ ] Correctional Institution
[ ] Other Agency , Funding Source
[ ] Tuition [ ] Government [ ] Business! ] Foundation [ ]Other
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ARTICLES IDENTIFIED AND REVIEWED
A different type of college: it comes to the students. (1971,
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A little learning. (September, 1985). New Yorker, PP. 26-27.
A $150 million gift for educational TV. (1981, March).
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Adult students breathe new life into education. (1977, March).
IT S. News & World Report, pp. 70-72.
Ahern, Ida Mae. (1977, January). So you'd like to go back to
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Alumni colleges. (1975, August). Time, pp. 75-76.
Anderson, Ken. (1979, January). So you want to know how to.
Mother Earth News, pp. 104-105.
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Back to school for millions of adults? Big surge in education.
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Back to the basics. (1987, September). Newsweek, pp. 54-55.
Bailin, Miriam. (1973, July). Beware of trade school charms.
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Barasch, Frances K (1981, April). Learning in the workplace:
Stronger support from the unions. Change, pp. 42-46.
Barbato, Joseph. (1979, September). For adults only: The possible
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Bass. Scott A (1986, no 354 ). Seniors train to serve seniors.
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Begley, Sharon; Malamud, Phylliss; Carey, John; Foltz, Kim; and
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Bensick, John. (1982, December). Becoming a part-time prof.
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Bishop, Jennifer. (1986, August). How I made big bucks.
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Bonham, G.W. (1979, November). Education and the telefuture.
Change, pp. 12-13.
Bormuth, J. R. (1979, March). The literate U.S. Science, p. 78.
Botstein, Leon. (1983, November). Why Jonathan can't read.
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Boyer, E. L. (1972, December). Universities without walls.
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117
Breslin, John B. (1973, October). Bibles for the minions. America,
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Brinley, Maryann. (1983, February). Course crazies. MqCall's, p.
76 Budget cutters worry about b-schools. (1970, December).
Business Week, p. 15.
Burning the weekend oil. (1980, August). Time, p. 54.
Cass, James. (1972, September). A system designed to be beaten.
Saturday Review, pp. 65.
Castro, J. (1983, November). Cultivating late bloomers. Time, p.
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Chautauqua: A 55+ learning experience. (1981, July/August).
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Chautauqua institution. (1977, April). Better Homes and
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Choate, Pat, and Epstein, Noel. (1982, November). The work
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Cioffredi, Peg. (1981, September/October). Education in the
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College on the weekend. (1976, January). Ebony, pp. 64-66,68,70.
College without a campus. (1971, March). Time, pp. 56,59.
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Colleges learn the hard sell. (1977, February). Business Week, pp.
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118
Copeland. JeffB.; Cohn, Bob; Springer, Karen; Hutchinson, Sue;
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Corporations take aim at illiteracy. (1986, September). Fortune,
pp. 48-50,52,54. Cottle, T.J. (1980, January). Overcoming an invisible handicap.
Psychology Today, p. 89.
Cross, Farrell. (1973, February). Weekends to stretch the mind.
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Cunningham, Helen. (1983, December). Why I am going to
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Davis, Lorraine. (1977, August). Your future is now. Vogue, p. 94.
Dawkins, Wayne J. (1985, July). Fighting illiteracy. Black
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DeBlasio, Fran. (1986, October). Read all about It: How a former
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Degrees for video watchers. (October, 1980, September). Time, p.
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DeMott, Benjamin. (1975, October). On continuing education,
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119
Donohue, John W. (1972, September). Paolo Freire-Philosopher
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Drazek, Stanley J. (1977, August). Adult continuing education
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Duncan, Lois. (1977, October). A graduate in the family. Good
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Erbland, Walter. (1978, March). Chautauqua institution.
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Farrell, M.H.J. (1985, August). How to go to college at home.
Good Housekeeping, p. 185.
Fast food for the brain. (1981, July). Time, p. 75.
Flaim, Kathleen. (1979, May). How I beat the welfare trap.
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For adults only! The pleasure and profits of learning. (1980,
December). Changing Times, pp. 54-56.
Fountain of youth: oldsters to learn again. (1979, May). Human
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Foundations fund an educational center for the elderly in
Arkansas. (1983, Fall). Aging, pp. 34-35.
Francke, Sue and Horacek, Bruce. (1977, September). Festival of
education for older people. Affing. pp. 24-25.
Free education to the volunteer serviceman. (1973, June).
Reader's Digest, pp. 148-149.
Freifeld, Karen. (1985, May). The right way, the wrong way, and
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120
Fromme, Allan. (1980, October). Live and learn. £0P1u£, p. 64.
Fuchs, Beverly. (1983, March/April). A distinguished lecture
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Furlong, William Barry. (1981, July). N.Y. school teaches 'how to
marry money'. Saturday Evening Post, pp. 24, 88,104,108,
124.
Garcia-Barrio, Constance. (1985, June). College with no class.
Essence, p. 18.
Garcia-Barrio, Constance. (1984, June). Informal learning
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Garcia-Barrio, Constance. (1984, January). The media
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Gleazer, Edmund J. (1977, October). The future of the
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Gleazer, Edmund. (1982, September). A case study: private two-
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Greenfield, Meg. (1977, September). Back to the ablative absolute.
Newsweek, p. 112.
Greene, Bob. (1984, August). The abc's of courage. Esquire, PP.
10,12.
Greene, Bob. (1984, December). I just want to read to my
granddaughter. 50 Plus, pp. 36, 38-39.
Green, Cynthia. (1986, April). Bill Zanker: Big bucks from 'a
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Gross, Ronald. (1977, April). Mother goes to school. Parents, PP.
18, 74-75.
121
Grover, Maijorie P. (1982, January). New options for adults who
want to learn, Better Homes and Gardens, pp. 23-
24,28,30,32.
Gurewitsch, Eleanor. (1979, January/February). Elderhostel: A
good idea for growing and growing. Aging, pp. 12-16.
Hamilton, Stephanie. (1981, January). Getting a B.A. from TV.
McCall's. p. 54.
Harmon, David (1986, September). Functional illiteracy:
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Hauelson, K (1976, November). State requirements for getting
back up the down staircase. Writer's Digest, pp. 30-31, 54-55.
Hechinger, Frank. (1977, September). U.S. level of literacy not
bad. Intellect, pp. 104-105.
Hechinger, Fred M. (1975, September). Education's 'new
majority'. Saturday Review, pp. 14-16,18.
Hechinger, Grace (1982, November). Back to college, it's never
too late. Glamour, pp. 284-285.
Hechinger, Grace (1984, September). Computer courses for
women. Glamour, p. 384.
Hechinger, Grace. (August, 1979). Grownups at school: a class for
every time and taste. Vogue, pp. 125-126,128.
Hechinger, Grace (1984, September). Watching tv for college
credit. Glamour, pp. 384,398.
Hershfield, Allan (1981, November/December). The national
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Hitting the books to get out of the slammer. (1986, February).
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122
HoldenC. (1971,.March). Open university is born. Science, p.
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How business is joining the fight against functional illiteracy.
(1984, April). Business Week, pp. 94,98.
Huggins, Susan (1984, September). Back to school: Financial aid
for women. Parents, p. 11.
Johnson, David S. (1987, April). Would it pay for you to go back to
school? Better Homes and Gardens, pp. 34,36.
Johnson, Sharon (1986, October). B a c k to school for grownups.
Working Woman, pp. 103-104.
Johnston, David (1978, December/January). The resurrection of
Marylhurst. Change, pp. 12-14.
Jones, Kenneth M. (1985, December). Why we can't read.
Essence, p. 34.
Jordan, Pat (1987, August). Bertha's triumph. Reader's Digest,
pp. 55-59. Kanigel, Robert (1979, April). Alumni colleges: No vacation from
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Kaplan, Max (1981, January/February). Elderhostel: Using a
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Keating, Kate (1977, January). How you can go back to school.
Better Homes and Gardens, pp. 50,52,54.
Klein, David (1982, September). What college can do for you. §0
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Roller, Marvin R. (1977, August). Retirement- no, back to
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Koslow, Sally Plotkin (1978, March). Math hangups, learning
how to lose them. Mademoiselle, pp. 10,110.
Koslow, S.P., and Calvert, C. (1975, December). However you do
it, plan summer '76 right now. Mademoiselle. pp. 27-28,
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Laurita, Raymond E. (1987, June). Let's do something about
literacy now! America, pp. 455-456. Learning for the aged. (1972, July). Time, p. 48.
T i m i n g holidays offered by colleges in the west this summer.
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Learning to live with TV. (1979, May). Time, pp. 49-50.
Lemmons, Phil (1986, September). Face-to-face or not to face,
college credits through telecommunications. BYTE, p. 6.
Less educated gain the most from Elderhostel program. (1983,
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Leubsdorf, Carl P. (1978, October). Options in education.
Change, pp. 52-53.
Lewis, Kenneth (1979, September). Education for the
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London, Herbert (1972, September). University without walls:
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Lost in the shuffle. (1978, November). Newsweek, p. 109.
Louie, Elaine (1981, September). Going back to college. House &
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124
Louie, Elaine (1982, May). Fear of numbers- how to lose it.
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Lubow, Arthur; Howard, Lucy, Beyley, Shawn; Labresque, Ron;
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Newsweek, pp. 106,109, 112.
Lynch, Gerald W. (1987, April). Cops and college. Amqrira, pp.
274-275.
Mahow, Gigi (1980, May). An MBA is still a ticket to what those
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Mallon, Linda (1982, January/February). Older students bring
insight and experience to the college classroom. Aging, pp.
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Math misery. (1979, January). Human Behavior, p. 67.
Math mystique: Fear of figuring. (1977, March). Time, p. 36.
McGrath, Ellie (1984, July). They call the teacher 'Sonny*. Time,
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McGee, Leo (1984, October). Nothing could stop my wife. Good
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Mclnnes, William (1981, December). Civic education. America,
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Mendelsohn, Pam (1980, July). How to go to college at home,
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Miller, Holly G. (1986, September). Heads up for literacy,
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Morris, J.E. (1973, December). Shelves of learning: Triton college.
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Mother and daughter back in school. (1976, December). Aging, p.
6. Mundt, John, J. (1978, December/January). Chautauqua~a
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Musil, Robert K (1975, April). The Pentagon moves in. Nation,
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NBC special focus of grandparent tv workshop. (1980,
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New Hampshire schools offer summer Elderhostels. (1975,
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No boob tubes, PBS and college education. (1981, October). Time,
p. 8.
North Dakota college offers elderly 'educational vacations'. (1974,
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Now more grownups are going back to school. (1972, March).
Changing Times, p. 25-28.
NYC school offers retired professional creative learning
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Older Americans who never learned to read. (1984, no 347).
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126
One hundred elderly learn organ music at three centers in
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One way to a free education. (1973, June). U. S. News & World
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Opening the ivory tower. (1970, March). Saturday Review, p. 49.
Oregon education system offers much to 65+ group. (1974,
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Oshins, Joseph H. (1981, October). 'Snap, crackle, pop': learning
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O'Toole, Patricia (1985, September). 'I can't read'- The literacy
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Refresher courses on life. (1981, November,). Nation g Business,
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Rinzler, Carol E. (1979, February). How to be the oldest kid in
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R o w a n , Carl T. and Mazie, David M. (1981, April). Surprising Rx
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Sam, Norman H. (1979, February). Life experience-an
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Schmidt, Peggy (1979, April). Six ideas for summer study.
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128
Schmidt, Peggy (1979, February). Thinking of returning to
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Schools and courses that train you for jobs. (1981, June).
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Self renewal takes new directions in hobbies, culture, back to
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Seligman, Daniel (1987, September). Literacy on the right.
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Senior program in 2nd year at university in New Jersey. (1974,
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Sewall, Gil; Hogal, Kim; Abramson, Pamela; and Kirsch, Jonathan
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66,68.
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129
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South Carolina senior college week sets record. (1975, June).
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Trachtenberg, Jeffrey A. (1984, December). School for singles.
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University without walls-new venture in higher education.
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Vocational education and colleges' role in serving elderly
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Why business takes education into own hands. (1979, July). LLS
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Women writer's workshop. (1979, August). McCall's. p. 56.
Worthington, Calvin R. (1976, May). My father's hands.
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Yarmon, Morton (1980, June). A 50 Plus challenge to American
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132
ARTICLES IDENTIFIED AND NOT REVIEWED
Anderson, B. R. (1977, January). B a c k to school for wives and
mothers. House Beautiful, p. 10.
Brickman, W. W. (1974, November). Chautauqua movement
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Casey, M. (1974, November). You never outgrow your need for
knowledge. Ms. PP. 17-18.
Chautauqua at 100. (1974, September). Newsweek, p. 73.
College is a family affair. (1970, March). Ebony, pp. 50-52.
Combating illiteracy. (1970, February). Harvest Yg^rs, p. 51.
Dorman, T. K (1975, February). Report from the Dale Carnegie
course. Harper, p. 10.
Harger,E. (1971, September). Learning for living. Harvest
Years, PP. 10-12.
Kuhn, J. W. (1970, December). Would Horatio Alger need a
degree? Saturday Review, pp. 54-5.
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