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Spring 2014 / LAKELINE 1

LakeLineA publication of the North American Lake Management Society

NORTH AMERICAN LAKEMANAGEMENT SOCIETY1315 E. Tenth StreetBloomington, IN 47405-1701

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PAIDBloomington, INPermit No. 171

Continuous Monitoring

Volume 34, No. 1 • Spring 2014

2 Spring 2014 / LAKELINE

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The theme of NALMS’ 2014 International Symposium features both watershed and in-lake management and research efforts that can provide more near-term meaningful results. With seemingly endless water features and equally abundant water resource management challenges, Florida is uniquely positioned to host a discussion of these issues and to share national and international approaches and solutions. NALMS and the Florida Lake Management Society invite you to join us for NALMS 2014 at the Marriott Waterside Hotel and Marina in beautiful Tampa, Florida.

NALMS 2014 offers an opportunity to explore old Florida habitats, springs, rivers and beaches. Florida is a world-class destination where visitors can enjoy the attractions as well as the arts, history and Hispanic culture of west central Florida and its sub-tropical splendor. Tampa provides an opportunity to bring together lake managers, regulators, educators, researchers, students and corporate partners from around the continent and the world to share the results of research and management, to exchange ideas and information, and to learn about advancements in technology, management, and knowledge.

Tampa is served by a modern major airport with daily direct flights from cities in the United States and Canada. The Tampa Marriott Waterside Hotel and Marina is a world-class hotel that overlooks Tampa Bay in the heart of Downtown Tampa. Nearby Ybor City, the Florida Aquarium, the Tampa Bay History Center and other attractions are within a short walk or can be reached by trolley making Tampa a perfect destination for work and play.

Managing for Results: In-lake and Watershed Management

We encourage the submission of papers or posters on any of the topics listed below or that address topics of broad interest to the lake and reservoir management community.

If you are interested in developing a special session of specific interest please contact the program committee no later than March 30th. Sessions should consist of at least 4 presentations, or 3 presentations and a panel discussion. Abstracts are due by May 16, 2014.

Preliminary Session Topics

Hosted by the Florida Lake Management Society

• Springs and Coastal Rivers Assessment and Management

• In-Lake Restoration and Management Techniques

• Innovative Watershed Strategies For Nutrient Control

• National and Regional Lake Assessment

• Lake Management Case Studies

• Sustainability of Water Supply and Lakes

• Harmful Algal Blooms

• Invasive Species Management

• Stormwater Management

• Alum Treatment Technologies and Approaches

• Fish and Wildlife Habitat Improvement

• Large Lake Systems Management and Restoration

• Aquatic Plant Ecology and Management

Tampa, FloridaNovember 12 – 14, 2014

Call for Abstracts

™

• Data Management and Technologies

• Managing Reservoirs for Riparian Habitats and Protected Species

• International Perspectives on Lake Management

• Citizen Science and Monitoring

Photo: Experience Kissimmee


• PowerPoint created files will be required for all oral presentations to ensure compatibility. Laptop computers and LCD projectors will be provided. Presentation computers will not have internet access or sound output available.

• The use of embedded video and audio files is discouraged.

• Oral presentations will be allotted 20 minutes, including time for questions.

• The Program Committee will give preference to requests for oral presentations that describe completed or well-advanced studies which present actual lab or field data. Presentations which describe future projects or which do not contain actual data are discouraged.

• NALMS does not endorse specific products or services. Therefore, papers presented by individuals representing corporations or projects conducted by corporations should avoid the use of trade or brand names and refer to the products or services by a generic descriptor.

• Abstract submissions for poster sessions are encouraged. All posters will be displayed throughout the entire symposium and will be featured in the exhibit hall and refreshment area. Poster boards will be in landscape format and will accommodate posters up to 4’ × 8’ (1.2 m × 2.4 m).

• Students presenting oral papers or posters as primary authors will be considered for monetary awards.

• All presenters of accepted abstracts must register for the symposium. The NALMS Office must receive registration and payment no later than August 15, 2014 to ensure inclusion in the symposium program.

• Abstracts are due by May 16, 2014 and must contain the following information in the specified format.

• Only submissions via the NALMS website will be accepted. Abstracts received after the submission deadline, if accepted, may be relegated to poster presentations regardless of the presenter’s preference.

• Submittal: Submit abstract via NALMS’ online submission system by visiting www.nalms.org.

• Title: Should accurately summarize the subject of the proposed presentation.

• Authors: Provide names and affiliations of all authors including address, phone number & email address.

• Text: Abstract should state the purpose, significant findings and main conclusions of the work. Abstracts must not exceed 250 words. Abstracts in excess of 250 words may be truncated. Abstracts selected for either oral or poster presentations will be published in the Final Program.

• Format: Indicate the type of presentation you prefer (Oral, Poster, Either or Both).

• Students: Please indicate if the primary author is a student so that the presentation may be considered for student awards.

May 16, 2014Abstracts due.

August 15, 2014Registration and payment from presenters of accepted abstracts due.

October 9, 2014Last day conference hotel rate available.

General Presentation Information Important Dates

Contact InformationGeneral Abstract InformationHost Committee ChairMichael Perry 352-343-3777 [email protected]

Program ChairSergio Duarte 407-836-1505 [email protected]

Sponsorship/Exhibitor ChairBrian Catanzaro (toll-free): 877-900-AHAB (2422) (local): 407-886-7575 [email protected]

General Conference, Exhibitor & Sponsorship InformationNALMS Office 608-233-2836 www.nalms.org

Tampa Marriott Waterside Hotel & Marina700 South Florida Avenue Tampa, Florida 813-221-4900 | tampawaterside.com

• Room rates are $129 for single occupancy plus tax.

• Government rate rooms are available.

• The conference rate is available until October 9, 2014

Hotel Information

Submit your abstract online at www.nalms.org

Photo: James Butler


Published quarterly by the north american Lake Management Society (naLMS) as a medium for exchange and communication among all those interested in lake management. Points of view expressed and products advertised herein do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of NALMS or its Affiliates. Mention of trade names and commercial products shall not constitute an endorsement of their use. all rights reserved. Standard postage is paid at Bloomington, in and additional mailing offices.

NALMS OfficersPresident

Terry McNabb

immediate Past-PresidentAnn Shortelle

President-electReed Green

SecretarySara PeelTreasurer

Michael Perry

NALMS Regional DirectorsRegion 1 Wendy GendronRegion 2 Chris MikolajczykRegion 3 Imad HannounRegion 4 Jason YarbroughRegion 5 Melissa ClarkRegion 6 Julie ChambersRegion 7 Jennifer GrahamRegion 8 Craig WolfRegion 9 Todd TietjenRegion 10 Frank WilhelmRegion 11 Anna DeSellasRegion 12 Ron ZurawellAt-Large Nicki BellezzaStudent At-Large Lindsey Witthaus

LakeLine Staffeditor: William W. Jones

advertising Manager: Philip ForsbergProduction: Parchment Farm Productions

Printed by: Metropolitan Printing Service Inc.

ISSN 0734-7978 ©2014 North American

Lake Management Society4510 Regent Street

Suite 2AMadison, WI 53705

(all changes of address should go here.)Permission granted to reprint with credit.

Address all editorial inquiries to:William Jones

1305 East Richland DriveBloomington, IN 47408

Tel: 812/[email protected]

Address all advertising inquiries to:Philip Forsberg

NALMSPO Box 5443

Madison, WI 53705-0443Tel: 608/233-2836Fax: 608/233-3186

[email protected]

LakeLine

On the cover:“Lake Everest Sunset” by Chris Mikolajczyk, winner of the Editors’ Choice award in the 2014 NALMS photo contest.

Advertisers Index

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Contents Volume 34, No. 1 / Spring 2014

8 From the Editor 9 From the President


10 USGS Reservoir & Lake Gages: Elevation & Volumetric Contents Data, & Their Uses 15 Optical Sensors for Water Quality 20 Using Remote Automatic Weather Stations to Determine Evapotranspiration 23 Real-Time Water Quality Monitoring in Lake Maumelle, Arkansas 28 Developing Predictive Models for Cyanobacterial Blooms in Western Lake Erie 31 The Journey to Automation: A Glen Lake Story 36 The Global Lake Ecological Observatory Network (GLEON)

38 Student Corner 41 Affiliate News44 Literature Search

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FromBill Jones the Editor

LakeLine encourages letters to the editor. Do you have a lake-related question? Or, have you read something in LakeLine that stimulates your interest? We’d love to hear from you via e-mail, telephone, or postal letter.

As a limnologist for almost 40 years, I’ve spent lots of time out on lakes and in streams under all types of

conditions. It doesn’t get much better professionally than to spend time in a boat, on a lake, during a beautiful summer’s day. We collect lake or stream samples so that we can better

understand these waterbodies. But when we collect a water sample, that sample gives us information about the lake at the time of sampling. This is good if we want to know the concentration of dissolved oxygen or phosphorus for one particular time. What if we want to know how dissolved oxygen or phosphorus (or some other parameter) changes over time? Well, we can collect more samples. But how many do we need? One per month? One per week? One per day? Even one sample per day might not be sufficient to generate an accurate seasonal or annual phosphorus budget for our lake. We could extrapolate data from data patterns we’ve observed to fill in those periods between discrete sampling events. But there is inherent error in such extrapolations. To improve on our understanding of daily, seasonal, or annual changes in water quality and quantity patterns, we could turn to a variety of instruments that can be left in the water to measure our parameters continuously. Many limnologists can recall going out sampling in the middle of the night, during a thunderstorm, or on a cold winter’s day to collect our water samples. How I wish I had continuous monitoring devices during some of these times. On one memorable winter sampling of a utility cooling lake,

the water was warm enough to launch and operate our boat but the air temperature was about 150F. The fog froze on contact with our boat, our sampling devices, and on us! There was a good quarter-inch of ice on everything by the time we finished. Continuous monitoring is the theme of this issue of LakeLine. Within the articles we’ll identify and describe a variety of instruments, their use, and the resulting data. In many cases the articles identify instrument manufacturers, to better facilitate your understanding of the variety of devices out there. Please be aware that any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by NALMS or the U.S. government. In our first article, Anita Kroska of USGS in Kansas describes lake gages, equipment needed to measure lake level, and why these data are so very important. Then, Brian Pellerin and Brian Bergamaschi, also with USGS in California, write about new optical sensors for measuring water quality, specifically those for nitrate and organic matter. Water budgets are so important to determine for lakes and Kurt Nemeth of OTT Hydromet compares conventional and new, automated weather stations. Then Reed Green (USGS) and Paul Easley (Central Arkansas Water) describe an ambitious 12-sensor array they use on Lake Maumelle, Central Arkansas’ major water-supply reservoir. This array allows water resource managers up-to-the-minute data needed to assist in making informed management decisions.

Continuous monitors can also be used for biological aquatic measures. Timothy Moore of the University of New Hampshire, Mike Twardowski of Sea-Bird, and Corey Koch also of Sea-Bird collaborated on a project in western Lake Erie where they measured chlorophyll and phycocyanin fluorescence, turbidity, and phosphate continuously from a floating platform to better understand cyanobacteria dynamics. With this technology, they can predict blooms days in advance and provide an early warning to lake users and water treatment plant operators. Next we learn how Cal Killen has helped the Glen Lake Association (MI) implement continuous monitors to use court-ordered rules regulating that lake’s water levels. Finally, we learn how the Global Lake Ecological Observatory Network (GLEON) has organized a world-wide lake monitoring network to document changes in lake ecosystems. In our “Student Corner,” Nancy Serediak describes how essential continuous monitoring data were to her doctoral research in northern Wisconsin. Some of our NALMS Affiliates are gearing up for their annual meetings. We hear from five of them in this issue’s “Affiliate News.” We conclude this issue with “Literature Search.” Enjoy!

William (Bill) Jones, is LakeLine’s editor and a former NALMS president, and clinical professor (retired) from Indiana University’s School of Public and Environmental Affairs. He can be reached at: 1305 East Richland Drive, Bloomington, IN 47408; e-mail: [email protected]. c


FromTerry McNabb the President

You learn something new every day.... The majority of my professional work in lake management has

focused on restoring habitats infested with invasive aquatic plants like Eurasian watermilfoil, Brazilian elodea, hydrilla, water hyacinth, and others. When allowed

to expand, these plant species can cause dramatic damage to the aquatic environment and habitat for fish and can impact beneficial water resources. More and more, however, we are experiencing threats from algae in the lakes we work on. Cyanobacteria have long been recognized as a potential health threat where bloom conditions occur. Most states have programs though their state and local health departments or environmental agencies that have mechanisms to sample for blue-green algal toxins and post warnings or lake closures where toxins in the water pose a health threat to humans. These algae have long been known to produce toxins with acute or rapid effects on animals that ingest water with high concentrations. Nerve and liver toxins produced by these species have resulted in harm to humans in the past few years. We have even had a sitting U.S. Senator hospitalized for exposure to blue-green algae toxins. While we have long known about these issues, more and more of our lakes are experiencing these conditions in recent times. Also new to me this year was learning about similar impacts to waterfowl and their predators. A newly discovered cyanobacteria species that

grows on submerged aquatic weeds from the order Stigonematales (or Stig, for short) produces a toxin that creates vacuoles or holes in nerve cells. This degeneration in the nervous systems of waterfowl that consume large volumes of aquatic plants leads to loss of motor skills and, eventually, death. American coots are one of the species highly affected by this disease where Stig is prevalent. Coots are a food source for eagles and coots impacted by this disease are much easier prey. Avian Vascular Myelinopathy or AVM is thus moving up the food chain. There are a number of locations in the U.S. Southeast where there are documented cases of significant bald eagle and coot mortality directly linked to Stig poisoning. The expansion of the invasive aquatic plant Hydrilla in many of these reservoirs has provided a host for the Stig; it grows densely on this species. The website http://www.forestry.uga.edu/swilde/ is a sort of clearinghouse for information on this relatively new development and threat to wildlife. Also this year, our team experienced our first bloom of golden algae in a system we manage. Prymnnesium parvam has been an issue in Texas and Arizona for a few years. We found it in a Southern California lake system last month. The first sign of this was dead and very near-dead fish. Water testing confirmed the presence of golden algae. This toxin appears to be very specific: It does not impact wildlife, livestock, or humans. When it gains a competitive advantage over other species and blooms, the toxins that can be produced target gilled organisms such as fish and clams. In Texas, it is estimated that this species was responsible for the death of over 4.9 million fish in just one bloom on Lake Whitney in the Brazos River Basin.

There have also been examples where this species has found its way into state fish hatcheries. One location in Texas experienced the loss of over five million fish from their hatchery ponds in one event. An entire year’s production of Striped Bass was wiped out. Lake managers must educate themselves about new and emerging threats to lakes. Tried and true management practices may not be appropriate for new situations. We can and must learn from each other through communications within NALMS and other professional outlets. The U.S. Senate recently approved Senate Bill 1254 to authorize interagency work on algae blooms, creating a national program with a research plan and action strategy. So maybe we will be getting some help with this. Let’s as a group keep an eye on these developments and lend our expertise where we can.

Terry McNabb has been working in the field of lake and aquatic plant management for about 40 years and specializes in management of invasive aquatic species. He is a graduate of Michigan State University and works primarily in the Western United States. He lives in Bellingham, Washington, with his family. c


USGS Reservoir & Lake Gages: Elevation & Volumetric Contents Data, & Their Uses

Anita Kroska


Water Level Gage Basics

In December of 2013, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) marked the 125th anniversary of the installation

of its first official water level and streamflow gage, on the Rio Grande at Embudo, New Mexico. The gage was installed because it was recognized that water data were important to expanding irrigation needs. The USGS is a federal agency that provides nationally consistent and unbiased surface-water elevation and streamflow data at more than 10,000 gaging locations in the United States, about 330 of which are lakes and reservoirs (referred to hereafter as lakes) (Figure 1). The job of quantifying water resources, whether lakes, streams, or aquifers, is fundamental to proper water management and conservation of resources. The purpose of lake monitoring stations generally is to obtain a real-time record of water-surface elevation. Water-surface elevation, known as stage, is either referenced to an established datum or an arbitrary datum (a datum being a point against which measurements are made, and stage being the height of the water above that given point or datum) (Sauer and Turnipseed 2010). In its most basic design, a real-time lake gaging station consists of a few simple components: an automatic water level sensor, a data recorder, a telemetry system, a power supply system, and a non-recording reference gage that is independent from the rest of the gaging station equipment. The gaging stations are inspected periodically to ensure proper calibration and function of the equipment deployed. At lakes, the stage is often used as an index to determine the approximate contents (current water volume) of the

lake (usually in acre-feet in the United States). The relation between stage, lake surface area, and capacity is defined in area-capacity tables, which are derived from water-body-specific bathymetric and land surveys. Lake capacity refers to the amount of water that the surveyed area can theoretically contain, whereas contents refers to the volume of water present at a given water surface elevation or point in time. The real-time water-surface elevation data and corresponding reservoir contents, along with inflow and outflow, are essential tools for the management of water releases from the lake. Lake managers control water releases for several reasons, including: to mitigate flood damage for communities upstream and downstream from the lake; to maintain navigable water depths in streams; to maintain and deliver a water supply for agricultural, municipal, and

Figure 1. USGS lake and reservoir real-time monitoring stations in the continental U.S. as of 2013 (base map from the national atlas of the United States, 2012, sites current as of Dec. 19, 2013).

industrial users; to preserve aquatic ecosystems and lessen bank erosion; and to ensure public health and safety in recreation.

How Water-Surface Elevation is Measured There are several common systems that currently are employed to electronically measure and transmit lake stage (water-surface elevation). Some of these systems are located inside stilling wells, which are basically small tanks of water connected to the lake with pipes (Figure 2), while other systems have sensors placed directly in the lake itself to measure the elevation of the water surface (Figure 3). Each electronic system is set to the stage reading of a non-recording reference gage that is physically independent from the recording system.

0 200 400 600 miles

0 200 400 600 kilometers


Figure 2. Diagram of a common equipment configuration inside a stilling well (modified from Sauer and Turnipseed 2010).

Figure 3. Diagram of a common equipment configuration on the shore of a lake (modified from Sauer and Turnipseed 2010).

A stilling well is often made of concrete, metal, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC), with intake pipes that equilibrate the water-surface elevation inside the well with the lake’s water surface outside

of the well. The well dampens the effects of wind and wave action on the water surface, thereby increasing accuracy of stage readings measured by the stage sensor placed inside of the well.

Recording Stage Sensors There are three common types of recording stage sensors used at lakes: shaft encoders, non-submersible pressure transducers, and submersible pressure transducers (Figure 4). Electronic sensor readings are generally relayed to a data logger (or data collection platform) in the gage shelter (Figure 3), which collects and transmits the data so that lake managers and others have access to the real-time (current) lake elevation data on the Internet. Shaft encoders are sensors that work on a float-pulley system inside a stilling well, where a graduated metal tape on a spindle is weighted on one end and attached to a float on the other end. As the water rises, the float rises, turning the spindle, which then registers an increase in stage and similarly, when the water surface drops, the shaft encoder indicates a decreasing stage (Figure 2). A non-submersible

pressure transducer, commonly called a bubbler system, is a system based on pressure variance where a gas is forced through tubing to a fixed orifice mounted below the water surface. The

pressure transducer housed in the gage shelter measures pressure exerted on the gas in the tubing. This back pressure varies with changes in stage and can be converted from units of pressure to water head (feet of water above the end of the orifice) (Figure 3). A submersible pressure transducer is similar to the non-submersible transducer except that the sensor itself is in the water, and pressure above the unit is measured directly. This type of sensor is also generally installed in a pipe that runs from the gage shelter into the water.

Non-Recording Reference Gages Recording stage sensors are generally very accurate, but they do need to be checked occasionally against and set to an independent reading of water-surface elevation. Non-recording “reference” gages are used for these readings and are considered to be the most accurate. Both the reference gage and the recording stage sensor are tied to the same gage datum, which can be arbitrary and gage-specific, or tied to a recognized datum such as North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). For gages with stilling wells, the reference gage usually indicates the elevation of the water surface inside of the stilling well. At gages without stilling wells, the reference gage directly indicates the elevation of the lake water surface. The four most common non-recording gages used are staff gages, wire-weight gages, tape-down reference points, and electronic tape gages (Figure 5). To ensure that these reference gages are accurate, they are periodically surveyed and checked against the elevation of nearby stable benchmarks of known elevation with a levelling instrument (usually every one to three years). Staff gages are commonly seen near boat ramps, on the side of a lake control tower structure, inclined on a sloping bank, or installed directly in the water itself. Occasionally, staff gages are found on the inside of stilling well structures. Staff gages are essentially a long ruler attached to a fixed object in the water to determine the water elevation. A wire-weight gage consists of a weighted steel wire that is wrapped around a drum, with a dial that rotates with each turn of the cylinder. The weighted steel wire is lowered until it just

Voltageregulator

Antenna Solar panels

Dry airsystem

BatteryGage shelter

Reference (staff) gage

Water surfaceOrifice line

Pipe

Orifice

Station folder

Gas-purgesystem

Non-submersible

pressuretransducer

High-datarate datacollectionplatform12V

USGS

Solar panels

Antenna

Data collection platform

Battery12V

Shaftencoder

Flushing tank

ValvesIntake pipes


Figure 4. example of stage sensors from left to right: shaft encoder, non-submersible pressure transducer, and submersible pressure transducer (Sauer and Turnipseed 2010).

Figure 5. examples of non-recording reference gages: staff gage (upper left), wire-weight gage (upper right), tape-down reference point (in orange) on a stilling well (lower left), electronic tape gage (lower right, Sauer and Turnipseed 2010).

touches the water surface, and then the dials are read. A wire-weight gage is an auxiliary reference gage used to determine that the intake pipes in a stilling well are clear, and that the water level inside the well is representative of that outside the well. A measurement of stage inside a stilling well is more accurate than a wire

weight reading due to the dampening of waves by the well. A tape-down from a reference point in a stilling well is a similar process, where a chalked steel measuring tape is lowered into the water, suspended from a reference point. It is then pulled up, the wetted mark is read, and then the reading is subtracted from the point on

the measuring tape that was held at the reference point. This calculation gives a distance from the measuring point to the water surface. This distance is then subtracted from the known elevation of the reference point to get the water surface elevation. Taping down from a reference point can also be done outside of stilling wells using a wetted chalk line on the tape, or simply by directly reading the distance on the tape itself to measure a reference elevation of the lake’s water surface. Electronic tape gages (ETGs) and manual tape downs from a reference point of known elevation are very similar methods and fairly accurate when used inside a stilling well. These are usually the type of reference gages used with a stilling well type gage. An ETG is a weighted, graduated metal tape on a reel that is mounted inside a stilling well and connected to a voltmeter and power source. When the bottom of the tape touches the water surface, the circuit is completed (activating an indicator) and a technician reads a depth (the length of the unspooled tape) and subtracts that value from the reference point to get the lake elevation.

Lake Capacity and Contents The capacity of a lake is determined by surveying the elevations of the land surface in the lake basin, both above and below the water line, up to the highest elevation the lake could potentially reach, and then using special software that converts that topographic data into volumes. The details of this process involve conducting a bathymetric survey, where technicians make many transects across the lake in a boat with survey-grade depth sounders and GPS instrumentation (Figure 6). The transects are spaced apart at approximately 1% or less of the longitudinal length of the lake. Depths are referenced to the known water surface elevation at the time of the survey. These data are then compiled and modeled in GIS software along with the best available topographic elevation data for the land in the basin above the water line, usually determined from Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) imaging. A contour map is produced and refined and a capacity table is computed from this model (Figure 7, Wilson and Richards 2006). The capacity and surface area


tables, with values of acre-feet (volume) and square feet (area) in the United States and indexed by stage in hundredths of feet, act as tools for making informed management decisions and conducting scientific studies. This nationally consistent and unbiased real-time lake elevation and contents data can be accessed from the main USGS water website at http://water.usgs.gov. From there, real-time streamflow, groundwater, and water quality data are available, as well as an abundance of information on work done by USGS Water Science Centers. Real-time water data can be found more directly by visiting http://waterdata.usgs.gov and searching by name, region, or category.

Uses of the Data: Water Management and Recreation One important use of accurate lake elevation and associated capacity (Figure 8) is flood mitigation and drought alleviation. In flood conditions, outflow from the lake is controlled to reduce flood damage, while still meeting other primary uses, such as drinking water supply or irrigation allotments. In times of drought, knowing lake elevation and capacity in real-time helps managers maintain minimum water releases, wherein the water for ecosystem health, recreational use, and existing water rights are not adversely affected downstream of the lake. Lake elevation and capacity are also vital to understanding the effects of sedimentation and the long-term capability of the lake to store water. As most lakes age, sediment deposition increases, causing reductions in capacity, depth, and surface area, which can lead to water shortages and loss of biodiversity (Miranda and Krogman 2013). Real-time turbidity data, sediment core sampling, bathymetric surveys, calculated residence time, and comparisons of historic area-capacity tables can give accurate assessments of the loss in capacity of the lake over time. For example, John Redmond Reservoir, near Burlington, Kansas, has experienced a great loss in capacity. From its completion in 1964 to 2010, 42% of the conservation pool capacity has been lost due to sedimentation, a deposition rate which is nearly double the rate predicted at the

Figure 6. Layout of a bathymetric study, depicting echo-sounder, target-point, and land-survey data at Sugar Creek Lake near Moberly, Missouri (Wilson and Richards 2006).

Figure 7. Bathymetric contour map computed from survey data at Sugar Creek Lake near Moberly, Missouri, and a portion of the corresponding area and capacity table (Wilson and Richards 2006).

0 500 1000 1500 2000 feet

0 250 500 meters

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0 250 500 meters

Elevation Surface Area Volume (ft) (acres) (acre-ft)

716 0.1 0.0 718 11.9 8.1 720 39.1 55.4 722 68.7 163 724 93.8 328 726 117 539


reservoir’s inception (Lee and Foster 2012). This study described an altered management scenario to assist lake managers in reducing sedimentation effects, including larger, rapid releases after large inflow events. Another significant use of lake capacity data is the determination of water residence time, which, according to Kalff (2002), is the average length of time required to refill a basin with water if it were to be emptied. Water residence time is a calculated variable that affects general limnological processes such as nutrient dynamics and biological community structure. More specific applications include predictions of harmful algal bloom (HAB) formation, models for the occurrence of the taste- and-odor compounds geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) (important to drinking water quality), and sedimentation rates (Journey et al. 2013, Lee and Foster 2012). For example, the taste-and-odor compounds geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) are most commonly produced by cyanobacteria and actinomycetes bacteria. Generally, cyanobacteria cause these compounds to occur during HABs when residence time is longer, where inflow amounts are low. Conversely, actinomycetes bacteria can generally cause the taste-

and-odor compounds to occur after inflow events, when actinomycetes bacteria are abundant and water residence time is short (Beussink and Graham 2011). Outside the realm of scientific studies and water management decisions, lake elevation and capacity play a significant role in recreation. Bathymetric contour maps, coupled with stage, can act as a guide for safe navigation and possibly indicate which parts of the lake would be good for fishing.

USGS Water Data Real-time lake elevation and contents data will continue to serve an essential function as water becomes a more regulated and scarce resource. For 125 years, the USGS has provided these impartial water data to meet a variety of water quantity and quality needs facing our nation and our communities. These data, collected at nearly 1.5 million sites in the United States, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, are available to the public online in the form of real-time or historical graphs, tables, samples, maps, and articles, from the main portal at http://water.usgs.gov.

Selected References Beussink, A.M. and J.L. Graham.

2011. Relations between hydrology, water quality, and taste-and-odor causing organisms and compounds in Lake Houston, Texas, April 2006 – September 2008. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011-5121, 27p. (also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2011/5121/).

Journey, C.S., K.M Beaulieu and P.M. Bradley. 2013. Environmental factors that influence cyanobacteria and geosmin occurrence in reservoirs. Current Perspectives in Contaminant Hydrology and Water Resources Sustainability, chap. 2, p. 27-28.

Kalff, J. 2002. Water Residence Time. In: Limnology: inland water ecosystems, chap. 9.1, p. 124.

Lee, C. and G. Foster. 2012. Assessing the potential of reservoir outflow management to reduce sedimentation using continuous turbidity monitoring and reservoir modelling. Hydrological Processes, 27: 1426-1439 (also published online at wileyonlinelibrary.com, 2012. DOI: 10.1002/hyp.9284).

Miranda, L.E. and R.M. Krogman. 2013. Fish habitat impairment in U.S. reservoirs. LakeLine, 33: 19-23.

National Atlas of the United States. 2012. Sauer, V.B. and D.P. Turnipseed. 2010.

Stage measurement at gaging stations. U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods, book 3, chap. A7, 45 p. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/tm3-a7/).

Wilson, G.L. and J.M. Richards. 2006. Procedural documentation and accuracy assessment of bathymetric maps and area/capacity tables for small reservoirs. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5208, 24 p. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5208/).

Anita Kroska is currently a hydrologic technician with the U.S. Geological Survey Kansas Water Science Center in Lawrence, KS, specializing in streamflow and reservoir monitoring. She graduated from the University of Wisconsin-River Falls, and has previously done hydrologic monitoring in Florida. c

Figure 8. example of real-time lake elevation and contents data (referenced to nGVD 1929, or national Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929) at USGS gaging station 07144790, Cheney Reservoir near Cheney, kansas, available at http://waterdata.usgs.gov.

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Cheney Reservoir Near Cheney, KS



Optical Sensors for Water QualityBrian A. Pellerin and Brian A. Bergamaschi

Shifts in land use, population, and climate have altered hydrologic systems in the United States in ways

that affect water quality and ecosystem function. Water diversions, detention in reservoirs, increased channelization, and changes in rainfall and snowmelt are major causes, but there are also more subtle causes such as changes in soil temperature, atmospheric deposition, and shifting vegetation patterns. The effects on water quality are complex and interconnected, and occur at timeframes of minutes (e.g., flash floods) to decades (e.g., evolving management practices). However, water-quality monitoring has historically focused on discrete samples collected weekly or monthly, and laboratory analyses that can take days or weeks to complete. Low-frequency data and delayed access hampers a timely response during events, limits the ability to identify specific causes or actions, and may result in poorly quantified effects on ecosystems and human health at local to regional scales. Recent advancements in commercially available in situ sensors, data platforms, and new techniques for data analysis provide an opportunity to monitor water quality in rivers, lakes, and estuaries on the time scales in which changes occur. For example, measurements that capture the variability in freshwater systems over time help to assess how shifts in seasonal runoff, changes in precipitation intensity, and increased frequencies of disturbances (such as fire and insect outbreaks) affect the storage, production, and transport of carbon and nitrogen in watersheds. Transmitting these data in real-time also provides information that can be used for early trend detection, help identify

monitoring gaps, and provide science-based decision support across a range of issues related to water quality, freshwater ecosystems, and human health.

State of the Technology One of the most promising advances in recent years is the increasing use of optical sensors for water quality studies. Optical sensors rely on the absorbance, fluorescence, or scattering properties of materials that are dissolved or suspended in water (Figure 1). Recent interest has focused on the ability to measure the concentration or type of some dissolved constituents through absorbance and fluorescence. Certain types of dissolved constituents such as nitrate and organic

matter (DOM) convert absorbed light into other forms of energy, and include the re-release of energy at longer wavelengths (e.g., fluorescence) by humic substances. The wavelength and amount of light absorbed and emitted provides important information on the type, size, and concentration of constituents in water. Field optical measurements related to the concentration and types of suspended particles in water have been around for more than 40 years, with turbidity – a measure of the relative clarity of water – perhaps the most common example. While the ability to make relatively simple and inexpensive optical measurements of DOM and nitrate in the laboratory has been known for even longer, advances in

Figure 1. Optical sensors make measurements based on the interactions of light from a sensor with particles or dissolved constituents in water. Certain types of dissolved constituents, such as nitrate and organic matter (DOM), convert absorbed light into other forms of energy, including the re-release of energy at longer wavelengths (e.g., fluorescence) by certain humic substances.


electronics and sensor technology over the past 20 years has led to the development of field-rugged, compact and low power optical sensors for direct measurements of these constituents in water. Nitrate and DOM have been the focus of much recent interest for optical sensor use and development and are further discussed here.

Optical Sensors for Nitrate On the forefront of new sensor technologies for water-quality monitoring in freshwater systems are ultraviolet (UV) photometers for continuous nitrate measurements (Figure 2). UV nitrate sensors have been used during the past few decades for wastewater monitoring as well as for coastal and oceanographic studies, but have gained broader use in freshwater systems only in the last few years. The current generation of UV nitrate sensors is now being designed specifically for freshwater applications with rugged housings, internal data loggers, built-in wipers, and data processing tools that better account for particles and other interferences common in rivers, streams, and lakes. Optical nitrate sensors operate on the principle that nitrate ions absorb UV light at wavelengths around 220 nanometers. Commercially available sensors utilize this property of nitrate to convert spectral absorption measured by a photometer to a nitrate concentration, using laboratory calibrations and on-board algorithms. This allows for calculating real-time nitrate concentrations without the need for chemical reagents that degrade over time and present a source of waste (Pellerin et al. 2013). Nitrate is the largest component of total nitrogen in most freshwater systems and, in many locations, represents the most significant concern for algal blooms and human health. One such example is in the Mississippi River Basin, where the addition of optical nitrate sensors at key U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) discharge gaging stations is providing new information about the sources and processes that deliver nitrogen to the coast. For example, USGS discrete and model data on nutrient loads from the Mississippi River basin to the Gulf of Mexico have been critical for understanding the role of nutrients in the formation of a low dissolved oxygen

Figure 2. Continuous UV nitrate sensors and other water-quality instruments deployed in the Mississippi River at Baton Rouge (USGS gage 07374000) allows for a better understanding of nitrogen dynamics at the rates in which changes occur.

“dead zone” during summer months. The recent deployment of UV nitrate sensors at key locations such as in the lower Mississippi River at Baton Rouge (Figure 3) allows for monthly loading estimates to be refined while reducing the uncertainty in those estimates, leading to a better understanding of the timing and magnitude of nitrate transport within the basin.

Optical Sensors for Organic Matter Fluorescence-based optical sensors also present an emerging opportunity to better understand organic matter in rivers, streams and lakes. Organic matter includes a broad range of organic molecules of various sizes and composition that are released by all plants and animals (living and dead) and have important implications for drinking water quality, contaminant transport, and ecosystem health. Measuring the fraction of dissolved organic matter (DOM) that absorbs light at specific wavelengths and subsequently releases it at longer wavelengths (e.g., fluorescence) is diagnostic of DOM type and amount. Studies have often used the excitation and emission at 370 and 460 nanometer (nm), respectively, to quantify the fluorescent fraction of colored DOM (referred to as FDOM). Sensors for FDOM have a long history of use in oceanography as an indicator of terrestrial organic matter entering the coastal ocean, but have only recently been adopted for use as water-quality monitors in freshwater systems. In situ FDOM sensors have been used in many different environments to provide a relatively inexpensive, high-resolution proxy for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations. This has been useful to understand the transport of DOC from watersheds, but has also been used to better understand the internal sources of DOC in drinking water reservoirs (Downing et al. 2008) and the ability to predict the formation of disinfection by products such as haloacetic acids following drinking water treatment (Carpenter et al. 2013). In some cases, other related biogeochemical

variables such as mercury concentrations are also strongly correlated with in situ FDOM measurements. For example, in situ sensors were deployed seasonally on Browns Island, a tidal wetland in the San Francisco Bay-Delta, to measure optical properties related to DOC and dissolved methylmercury (MeHg) across tidal cycles and seasons (Bergamaschi et al., 2011). In situ FDOM measurements explained almost 90% of the variability in dissolved MeHg concentrations across two channels and three seasons, allowing researchers to develop accurate and cost- effective flux estimates of MeHg in a highly dyamic tidal system (Figure 4).

State of the Art The advantages offered by in situ optical sensors over discrete sampling or other in situ approaches (ion selective electrodes and wet chemical sensors) are many – rapid sampling rates, low detection limits, low power consumption, no chemicals, easy field


Figure 3. Sensors capture data during all hydrologic events, which results in higher accuracy and lower uncertainty than modeled loads that are based on discrete samples. The data from the USGS site on the Mississippi River at Baton Rouge (USGS gage 07374000) demonstrates the complex relationship between nitrate concentrations and discharge, which reflects both the sources of nitrate within the basin and the accumulation of nitrate in soils prior to flushing.

Figure 4. Data from an instrument deploying at a tidal wetland (Browns island) in the San Francisco-Bay Delta. (a) the correlation between in situ FDOM sensor measurements and dissolved methylmercury concentrations from discrete samples. (B) Picture of the in situ sensor deployment package that includes FDOM and a variety of other optical sensors. (C) Time series data of methylmercury (MeHg) fluxes from Browns Island, indicating a net off-island flux across the spring-neap tide. High-resolution data also illustrate the influence of tidal cycles and wind events on MeHg flux in the San Francisco Bay-Delta system. See Bergamaschi et al. (2011) for more detail.

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servicing, and long-term deployment capability. Optical sensor technology is sufficiently developed to warrant their broader application, but generating data that meet high standards requires future investments into common methodologies and protocols for sensor characterization and data management. For example, optical nitrate sensors were originally developed for very different environments – coastal oceans with very low turbidity and color, versus wastewater treatment facilities with very high turbidity and color. Therefore, use in rivers, streams, and lakes requires careful consideration of instrument design, such as the appropriate optical path length and wipers or other anti-fouling techniques. Similarly, optical sensor measurements may be influenced by a variety of matrix effects including water temperature, inner filter effects from highly colored water, turbidity, and the presence of bromide (for UV photometers). Some in situ optical sensors require further characterization for interferences and correction schemes prior to widespread use in river, stream, and lake monitoring. For example, laboratory tests with standard reference materials demonstrated that measured FDOM values were strongly influenced by temperature, turbidity, and DOC concentrations in matrix conditions similar to those observed in many rivers and streams (Downing et al. 2012, Figure 5). However, these interferences appear to be predictable and corrections may be

possible across a wide range of turbidities and DOC concentrations. Interferences, matrix effects, and other challenges for collecting high quality water-quality data in situ will best be solved by continuing to work with manufacturers and the broader user community to fully characterize sensors and develop mechanical solutions and/or correction schemes that will work across the typical range of conditions encountered in rivers, streams and lakes. Similarly, continued development of common methodologies and protocols are critical to ensuring comparable measurements across sites and over time (Pellerin et al. 2012). Such investments will continue to increase the number of sites at which these technologies are used as well as increase the types of parameters that can be measured by sensors in real-time.

Evaluating the Need for Continuous Data Given the current costs to purchase optical sensors alone (approximately $2,000-5,000 for FDOM and $15,000-25,000 for UV nitrate) and the ongoing expenses related to instrument service and maintenance, potential users may want to carefully consider whether “continuous” data (for example, multiple samples per hour or day) are really needed. Although explicit guidance is not available, basic time-series analysis requires that the rate of sampling be greater than the

Figure 5. (a) attenuation of the FDOM signal in an optically clear standard solution (left), as well as a solution with DOM (center) and suspeneded particles (right). (B) The percentage of FDOM attenuated with several types of in situ FDOM sensors as a function of turbidity. See Downing et al. (2012) for more detail.

rate of change to observe the true time-dependence. Sampling bias can occur when constituent concentrations change significantly between samples, which can lead to overestimates or underestimates of watershed loads, inaccurate pollution assessments, and potentially obscured seasonal or long-term trends. Traditional monthly discrete sampling approaches may be particularly susceptible to bias in more dynamic freshwater systems such as streams and small rivers. There are many instances where high temporal resolution data are critical for understanding drivers of water quality and effects on human health, ecosystem function, or water management. For example, continuous measurements may improve upon nutrient load estimation techniques if discrete sampling does not fully capture the concentration-discharge range or where the concentration-discharge relationship is poor. However, not all freshwater systems are subject to rapid changes in water quality, and some monitoring or research goals may be sufficiently addressed with less frequent, discrete data collection. Potential users should assess existing discrete water quality data and continuous sensor data for other parameters (such as specific conductance and dissolved oxygen) to determine if a site would benefit from continuous measurements from an optical sensor. Temporary sensor deployments could also provide short-term data on the

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degree of variability before investing in a longer-term continuous measurement effort.

Looking to the Future The current generation of commercially available optical sensors will significantly improve the temporal resolution for measurements of nutrients, organic matter, and other parameters. However, a variety of new and improved sensors for applications in rivers, streams, and lakes are on the horizon. For example, recent improvements in LED technology in the lower UV range (e.g., 250-290 nanometers) will open up new avenues for the use of custom fluorometers for the detection of wastewater and other contaminants from urban and agricultural landscapes (Figure 6). Several wet chemical sensors also show significant promise for long-term, in situ monitoring of soluble reactive phosphorus and ammonium in freshwater systems. In addition, advancements in real-time data transmission and communication with sensors will provide numerous benefits including monitoring sensor performance, providing an early warning of water-quality issues, allowing for adaptive sampling, and increasing public awareness. The user community should also continue to work with software developers to continue development of tools for automating quality-assurance and quality-control (QAQC), storage and retrieval, and visualization of real-time in situ optical sensor data and statistics. Perhaps the greatest scientific “bang for the buck” lies in the development of inter-calibrated networks of water-quality sensors that provide information about water quality across the continuum from headwater streams to lakes, reservoirs, and ultimately coastal rivers and estuaries across the United States. The information provided by such a network would assist environmental and water-quality managers as an early warning of problems, help assess long-term trends, and provide data to evaluate the effects of management and mitigation actions across multiple scales. However, standardized sensor measurement protocols, data-collection strategies, and common QAQC approaches will be necessary to develop an inter-calibrated network of in situ optical sensors with different agencies and users.

ReferencesBergamaschi B.A, J.A. Fleck,

B.D. Downing, E. Boss, B.A. Pellerin, N.K. Ganju, D.H. Schoellhamer, A.A. Byington, W.A. Heim, M. Stephenson and R. Fujii. 2011. Methyl mercury dynamics in a tidal wetland quantified using in situ optical measurements. Limnol Oceanogr, 56(4): 1355-1371.

Carpenter K.D., T.E.C. Kraus, J.H. Goldman, J.F. Saraceno, B.D. Downing, G. McGhee and T.Triplett. 2013. Sources and Characteristics of Organic Matter in the Clackamas River, Oregon, Related to the Formation of Disinfection By-products in Treated Drinking Water: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5001, 78 p.

Downing B.D., B.A. Bergamaschi, D.G. Evans and E. Boss. 2008. Assessing contribution of DOC from sediments to a drinking-water reservoir using optical profiling. Lake Reserv Manage, 24: 381-391.

Downing B.D., B.A. Pellerin, B.A. Bergamaschi, J. Saraceno and T.E.C. Kraus. 2012. Seeing the light: The effects of particles, temperature and inner filtering on in situ CDOM fluorescence in rivers and streams. Limnol Oceanogr: Methods, 10: 767-775.

Pellerin B.A., B.A. Bergamaschi, B.D. Downing, J. Saraceno, J.D. Garrett and L.D. Olsen. 2013. Optical Techniques for the Determination of Nitrate in Environmental Waters: Guidance for Instrument Selection, Operation, Deployment, Quality-Assurance, and Data Reporting. USGS Techniques and Methods Report 1-D5, 37 pp.

Pellerin B.A., B.A. Bergamaschi and J.S. Horsburgh. 2012. In situ optical water-quality sensor networks – Workshop summary report. USGS Open-File Report 2012-1044, 13 p.

Brian A. Pellerin is a research soil scientist at the U.S. Geological Survey California Water Science

Center in Sacramento, California. Despite his title, most of his work actually takes place in water. He uses a variety of tools to better understand watershed biogeochemistry, but recent efforts focus on the application of in situ optical sensors for carbon and nutrient studies in rivers and streams. He can be reached at [email protected]. Brian A. Bergamaschi is a research chemist at the U.S. Geological Survey California Water Science Center in Sacramento, California. His current projects generally coalesce around the idea of using intrinsic organic geochemical properties – molecular, isotopic, and spectroscopic – as tracers of environmental processes occurring in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. He can be reached at [email protected]. c

Figure 6. Field testing a custom in situ fluorometer for detecting wastewater effluent near Madison, Wisconsin. Photo: Steve Corsi, USGS.



Using Remote Automatic Weather Stations to Determine Evapotranspiration

Kurt Nemeth

Efficient water management has become increasingly important as the world struggles to feed growing

populations and as climate change places increasing pressure on those regions that already suffer from water shortages and drought. The increased frequency of extreme weather events also contributes to the growing pressure on water resources such as lake and reservoir water levels and river discharge. According to the United Nations, water usage has grown at more than twice the rate of population increase over the past century. In 2006, it was calculated that more than 1.4 billion people live in river basins where water use exceeds minimum recharge levels. Around 70 percent of freshwater usage is for irrigation, 20 percent for industry, and 10 percent for domestic use. Globally, irrigated agriculture accounts for around 20 percent of cultivated land but contributes 40 percent of total food production (FAO 2012). The agricultural and horticultural industries consume enormous quantities of water, so the challenge is to use the correct amount of water to maximize production without waste. To achieve this, it is necessary to determine the volume of water that is required by a specific crop as it grows. This information can then be utilized to manage irrigation.

Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration is an important component of the water cycle (Figure 1). It is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation is the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, plant canopies, and water bodies. Transpiration is the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor through the stomata

Evapotranspiration

EvaporationTranspiration

Trees Grass

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Figure 1. Schematic showing evapotranspiration as the total volume of evaporation from surfaces.

in leaves. The energy that drives these processes comes from solar and terrestrial radiation. The rate is influenced by a complex interaction of many factors, including the topography, geology, and botany of the area, the moisture content of the soil, the moisture availability to vegetation, and the local weather. As many of these factors vary throughout each day and with the seasons, the rates are continually changing at any given site. This means it is not possible to measure evapotranspiration directly.

Conventional Evaporation Station An evaporation pan is a practical way to measure the loss of water from a small water surface. However, this is not a direct measurement of part of the natural evapotranspiration process. A conventional station consists of a Class A evaporation pan, a stilling well, a mechanical micrometer to record daily evaporation from a water-filled tank, an anemometer, and a floating water temperature sensor. In addition, precipitation is measured by a manual

Runoff


check gauge, which provides daily precipitation data for inclusion in the evaporation model (Figure 2). Evaporation rates from lakes, soil surfaces, and vegetation will be different from a pan and therefore have to be determined using empirical methods. For example, consider a pan of water in the middle of a lake versus a pan of water in the middle of a field or a parking lot. The moist air from the surrounding lake will decrease the diffusion gradient between the pan and the overlying air, when compared to the pan in a field with much dryer overlying air. The evaporation pan on land will overestimate the actual lake evaporation. To correct for this, a standard pan coefficient of 0.7 is multiplied times the pan evaporation to more closely approximate lake evaporation. Scheduled maintenance on conventional precipitation networks can result in data availability as low as 68 percent, whereas immediate reactive maintenance work can improve data availability to 85 percent. However, this means that 15 percent of the precipitation data would have to be interpolated from neighboring sites and maintenance costs would be relatively high. Frequent rain gauge maintenance is needed due to environmental deposits such as leaves, dust, bird excrement, and small animals penetrating the mechanism and/or blocking the funnel. For most lake associations working to determine a water budget for their lake, the conventional evaporation station as described above is often sufficient.

Compact Weather Sensor System It is possible to measure meteorological parameters automatically and to calculate evaporation based on the measured values for wind run, temperature, humidity, global radiation, and precipitation. The automatic weather station (for delivering the required data) consists of a 2m mast to measure wind, temperature, humidity, and global radiation, with a solar power package and a data logger with remote transmission unit (Figure 3). In addition, a precipitation gauge is equipped with a windshield to improve catching efficiency at low precipitation rates and to reduce the effect of wind.

Figure 2. example of a conventional measuring station: anemometer, rain gauge, and Class a evaporation pan with stilling well, mechanical micrometer, and floating water temperature sensor.

Figure 3. automatic weather station with Lufft sensor suite and adcon remote transmission unit, also showing OTT Pluvio2 rain gage with wind shield to improve catching efficiency.

The system consists of a Lufft WS501 meteorological sensor suite measuring wind direction and speed, air temperature and relative humidity, barometric pressure (optional), global radiation, and precipitation, connected to

an Adcon A753 datalogger with integrated GPRS communication, a base station A850 Telemetry Gateway (which can manage from one to 500 stations) and the software package addVANTAGE Pro 6.3, a data visualization, processing


and distribution platform. This station is designed to WMO (World Meteorological Organization) guidelines with a 2m tripod mast and can be operated in a variety of modes. If external power (by battery or mains power supply) is available, the WS501 unit can be freely configured to read wind speed up to ten times per second, delivering WMO-compliant wind gust and average readings. All other sensors would normally be read once per minute and the results aggregated into ten-minute averages. If no external power is available, and the whole system is being powered by the internal battery of the Adcon remote telemetry unit (RTU), which in turn is charged by a small solar panel in DIN A5 format, the Lufft WS501 will read all parameters once per minute and aggregate these readings over a ten-minute interval. These ten-minute aggregates, as stored by the Adcon RTU, are automatically transmitted to the A850 base station at user-definable intervals, for example, once every ten minutes or once per hour or once every four hours. The transmission interval is usually determined according to the availability of power. Data stored in the A850 are handled by the addVANTAGE Pro 6.3 software. This fully integrated, browser-based software package contains a variety of processing extensions, one of which calculates evapotranspiration according to the modified Penman-Monteith equation. A further extension is available to convert these figures through a wide range of crop tables into crop-specific evapotranspiration. The results of the computation can be displayed in tabular and graphical format (Figure 4), and can be accessed by web browser via a PC or through Livedata, a software module designed for smartphones. This module offers a wide variety of display options, ranging from a 24-hour to an annual view – as shown in the screenshots above.

Maintenance Issues In operational precipitation networks, there is a direct relationship between the uncertainty of measurements and maintenance issues: Relatively low levels of maintenance work lead to higher uncertainty in measured data. With low power consumption and a

Figure 4. evapotranspiration data can be displayed for different periods of time, such as 24 hours, seven days, or a year.

very low maintenance requirement, the OTT Pluvio² precipitation monitor addresses the problems associated with more traditional monitors. The addition of Pluvio² to a weather station with sensors for wind, temperature, humidity, global radiation, and barometric pressure substantially lowers maintenance costs and improves the suitability of the station for remote monitoring applications.

Conclusion In the past, real-time calculation of evapotranspiration has been limited by power, telecoms availability, a high maintenance requirement – or a combination of these. However, by combining Adcon communications and data management with computation in an automatic weather station complete with a low-maintenance OTT Pluvio² rain

gauge, farmers and horticulturalists will be able to make substantial improvements to the efficiency with which they manage irrigation water.

Kurt Nemeth is Business Development Manager (BDM) at OTT Hydromet GmbH in Germany and has more than 25 years of engineering experience in the field of meteorological technology. c

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Real-Time Water Quality Monitoring in Lake Maumelle, Arkansas

W. Reed Green and Paul R. Easley

Lake Maumelle – Central Arkansas’ Major Drinking Water Supply

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with Central Arkansas Water, the water-supply utility

serving 400,000 customers in the Little Rock, Arkansas, metropolitan area, has operated a real-time water-quality monitoring buoy, an “Environmental Sensing Platform” (LakeESP, Figure 1) since 2010 in Lake Maumelle, Central Arkansas’ major water-supply reservoir. The LakeESP is designed to collect high-frequency (up to every 60 seconds) meteorological and water quality data, from surface to bottom, to examine

changes over hours, days, weeks, seasons, and year-to-year. The LakeESP in Lake Maumelle measures air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and long- and shortwave radiation, and via an underwater-telemetry cable, water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations are measured at 12 depths (1 meter increments), every five minutes, 24 hours a day. Meteorological data can be used to drive mathematical (mass balance) hydrodynamic and water quality models and the temperature and dissolved oxygen data over depth and time can be used to calibrate and validate these models. Precision Measurement

Engineering, Inc. (http://www.pme.com/HTML%20Docs/LakeESP.html) manufactures the LakeESP.

Continuous Monitor Operations The LakeESP is anchored by two mooring ropes 100 meters on either side, with submerged buoys to keep constant tension on the ESP as the pool elevation changes during the wet and dry seasons (Figure 2; http://www.pme.com/HTML%20Docs/LakeESP_Mooring.html). Thermistors (Figure 3) are spliced into the underwater telemetry cable (T-Chain) one meter apart; the optical dissolved oxygen sensors (Figure 4) are

Figure 1. The Lake Maumelle real-time meteorological and water-quality buoy (LakeeSP). Photo: Reed Green.


Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing an example of a continuous water-quality monitoring system (LakeESP) with multiple fixed-depth sensors. Nine sensors instead of the 12 Lake Maumelle LakeeSP instrument sensors and the pressure transducer are shown for graphical purposes only. (Diagram courtesy of Precision Measurement engineering, inc., Vista, California.)

Figure 3. Thermistor (metal rod) spliced into the telemetry cable. The car key is shown for scale. Photo: W. Reed Green.

“pig-tailed” into the telemetry cable. A ten-meter length of cable with no temperature or dissolved oxygen sensors is looped between the section suspended from the surface and that suspended off the bottom by a subsurface float, so the cable will not be pulled off the bottom when the pool elevation is extremely high. A pressure transducer located one meter above the bottom is used to measure water depth (Figure 5). A thermistor and dissolved oxygen sensor is also located one meter above the bottom.

Continuous Monitor Data Data are transferred (via mobile Wi-Fi) hourly from the LakeESP to a computer on the shore where files are transferred through file transfer protocol (FTP) to the USGS Arkansas Water Science Center computer. Each constituent time series is plotted individually (Figure 6) on the USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) web site (http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ar/nwis/uv/?site_no=072632995), and individual unit values can be downloaded through the USGS NWIS database (Table 1). Water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations are further post-processed from NWIS data retrievals into contour plots, depth over time, to observe and interpret trends over the past seven days (Figures 7 and 8). Each year during winter (typically January or February), the instrument is removed from the lake and sensors are returned to the factory for recalibration. The instrument is redeployed before the onset of thermal stratification in the spring (typically late March or early April). Water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations are checked against a second, calibrated multiparameter data sonde at a frequency of every four to six weeks during deployment. At this time, underwater sensors and cable are removed from the water, cleaned, and redeployed.

Continuous Monitor Applications The LakeESP in Lake Maumelle is located at the east end of the lake near the dam and Central Arkansas Water’s intake structure (Figure 9). The lake is about 12 miles long from west-northwest (upper end) to east-southeast (lower end). When sustained winds blow from the east to the west during thermal


Figure 4. Face of the optical dissolved oxygen sensor (two-inch diameter). Photo: W. Reed Green.

Figure 5. Pressure transducer, thermistor, and dissolved oxygen sensor suspended one meter above the anchor at the bottom of the telemetry cable. Photo: W. Reed Green.

Figure 6. example of the USGS national Water information System website – dissolved oxygen concentrations, august 01 through 07, 2013, 1.5 meter below the surface. each water temperature and dissolved oxygen sensor, and each meteorological parameter are plotted individually.

stratification, warm water stacks up at the surface in the shallow western end, squeezing cooler hypolimnetic water near the bottom toward the deeper eastern end of the lake. The cooler, more dense water is pushed west to east along the bottom slope of the lake, eventually hitting the dam wall and welling up to the surface. Continuous monitoring of dissolved oxygen and temperature by the LakeESP captures these upwelling events (Figures 7 and 8). The anoxic hypolimnetic water in Lake Maumelle is rich in dissolved iron, manganese, and other metals that are soluble under anoxic/suboxic conditions (Green 1993). Central Arkansas Water staff can use the real-time data (wind speed and direction, time and depth contours of water temperature, and dissolved oxygen concentrations) to properly treat the elevated iron and manganese concentrations that can occur during these upwelling events. Prior to the LakeESP installation, these iron and manganese spikes were considered “random” events. Data provided by the LakeESP allow a better understanding of


Table 1. Example of a Data Table Produced for Viewing on the USGS NWIS Website. (Data can also be selected for output and imported into Microsoft Excel or other software programs.)

USGS 072632995 Lake Maumelle at Natural Steps [PROVISIONAL DATA SUBJECT TO REVISION]

08/18/2013 00:00 CDT 6.9P 7.1P 5.6P 6.3P 6.5P

08/18/2013 00:03 CDT 6.9P 7.1P 5.6P 6.3P 6.5P

08/18/2013 00:08 CDT 6.9P 7.0P 5.6P 6.3P 6.5P

08/18/2013 00:13 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.6P 6.5P 6.5P

08/18/2013 00:18 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.6P 6.3P 6.4P

08/18/2013 00:23 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.5P 6.2P 6.2P

08/18/2013 00:28 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.6P 6.3P 6.1P

08/18/2013 00:33 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.5P 6.3P 5.9P

08/18/2013 00:38 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.6P 6.3P 6.0P

08/18/2013 00:43 CDT 6.8P 7.0P 5.7P 6.4P 6.0P

P = Provisional data subject to revision.

Dissolved oxygen, mg/L,

0.5m below surface

Date / Time


1.5m below surface


2.5m below surface


3.5m below surface


4.5m below surface

Figure 7. Time and depth contour plots of water temperature (top) and dissolved oxygen concentration (bottom), august 26, 2012 through September 10, 2012. notice the upwelling of the hypolimnetic water, low in dissolved oxygen concentrations, mixing and reaching the surface around august 31 and again around September 7. Lake bottom designated by black-shaded area on the x-axis. Underwater thermistors and dissolved oxygen sensors were pulled out of the water, cleaned and redeployed September 7.

the mixing dynamics in Lake Maumelle and the phenomena that drive them. The LakeESP can also be used to drive quasi real-time two- and three-dimensional mathematical hydrodynamic and water-quality models. Wind speed and direction mix the lake water in the models; air temperature, relative humidity (evaporation), and solar radiation heats and cools the lake water. Thermistors suspended in the water column can be used to validate density driven lake water dynamics and the suspended dissolved oxygen sensors can be used to validate both biological and water-quality processes. Updating and validating models in this way, from real-time data gathered by the LakeESP along with inflow and outflow data from real-time stream gaging stations would allow the models to be updated daily, 24 hours at a time, or more frequently, if needed. This would allow water-resource managers the ability to follow lake conditions almost up to the minute, hour, or day to assist in making informed management decisions.

ReferencesGreen, W.R. 1993. Water quality

assessment of Maumelle and Winona reservoir systems, central Arkansas, May 1989-October 1992: U.S.

Lake Maumelle Water Temperature (c)

Lake Maumelle Dissolved Oxygen Concentration (mg/L)

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Figure 8. Time and depth contour plot of water temperature (top) and dissolved oxygen concentrations (bottom), September 4, 2012 through September 24, 2012. notice the gradual disintegration of the anoxic hypolimnion as the lake thermal structure breaks down through September 24, 2012. Lake bottom designated by black-shaded area on the x-axis. Underwater thermistors and dissolved oxygen sensors were pulled out of the water, cleaned and redeployed September 7.

Figure 9. Lake Maumelle (and Winona) study-area map. Lake Maumelle LakeeSP located at station number 072632995 at the eastern end of Lake Maumelle.

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 93-4218, 42 p.

Hart, R.M., W.R. Green, D.A.Westerman, J.C. Petersen and J.L. De Lanois, 2012. Simulated effects of hydrologic, water quality, and land-use changes of the Lake Maumelle watershed, Arkansas, 2004–10:

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5246, 119 p. (Revised February, 2013.)

Reed Green is a hydrologist (limnology) with the U.S. Geological Survey Arkansas Water Science Center, and has monitored and assessed water quality in lakes and reservoirs his entire career, often applying hydrodynamic and water-quality models to aid

in water-quality diagnostics and forecasting. Reed is also an adjunct faculty member in both the Biology and Earth Sciences Departments at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, and in his spare time helps mentor students, teaches an occasional class, and has a laboratory he uses to identify and enumerate phytoplankton for various projects. You can reach Reed at: [email protected].

Paul R. Easley is the Director of Water Quality at Central Arkansas Water (CAW). Mr. Easley is responsible for managing the activities of the analytical laboratory, water quality, and watershed management programs. CAW’s watershed and lake management efforts help provide high-quality drinking water to approximately 400,000 people in central Arkansas. You can reach him at: [email protected]. c

Lake Maumelle Water Temperature (c)

Lake Maumelle Dissolved Oxygen Concentration (mg/L)

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Developing Predictive Models forCyanobacterial Blooms in Western Lake Erie

Timothy Moore, Mike Twardowski, and Corey Koch

Western Lake Erie (WLE) suffers from widespread microcystis blooms in late summer to early

fall (Figure 1). These blooms can produce toxins that severely impact fisheries, recreation, and drinking water sources. Sea-Bird Scientific, in collaboration with Dr. Timothy Moore at the University of New Hampshire, was funded by the National Institute of Health and the National Science Foundation, to optimize statistical ecological niche models to develop predictive models for cyanobacterial blooms. Toward this end, in collaboration with the NOAA Center of Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health run by the Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, a suite of in-situ sensors was deployed to continuously monitor water quality, nutrients, and algal blooms.

Sample Design The sensor suite, called a LOBO – which is short for Land Ocean Biogeochemical Observatory – was pioneered by Dr. Ken Johnson’s group from Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (Figure 2). The platform uses high-quality Sea-Bird sensors for measurement of conductivity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll fluorescence (WQM), phycocyanin fluorescence (ECO), turbidity, and phosphate (Cycle-PO4) (Figures 3 and 4; others parameters such as nitrate are available; http://sea-birdcoastal.com/lobo). These parameters were chosen to understand the relationships between physical forcing, phosphate, and microcystis development. The Erie LOBO is seasonally located

Real-time monitoring of in-situ phosphate and phycocyanin fluorescence in Western Lake Erie to develop predictive models for cyanobacterial blooms.

Figure 1. Mycrocystis bloom in Western Lake erie (WLe).

next to the Toledo Light #2 on Maumee Bay, which is often a hot spot for cyanobacterial blooms (http://algae.loboviz.com/, Figure 5). Blooms are thought to begin here fueled by nutrients brought to the surface by wind mixing, although the spring nutrient input from the Maumee River plays a significant role in pre-determining overall nutrient levels. Usually in the hypolimnetic Great Lakes systems, PO4 is very low, but anthropogenic pulses from runoff cause PO4 spikes and subsequent phycocyanin fluorescence indicative of mycrocystin blooms. Phycocyanin is an algal pigment common to microcystis. Fluorescence,

using an LED to excite pigment emission of light, facilitates semi-quantitative estimations of pigment concentration, which is related to biomass and algal health.

Results Preliminary results from the first seasonal deployment in summer of 2013 monitored surface phosphate pulses from wind mixing in WLE. As phosphorus was consumed by the phytoplankton and its concentration decreased, phycocyanin fluorescence spiked in conjunction with blooms observed from ships and satellite imagery (Figure 6). Understanding this


Developing Predictive Models forCyanobacterial Blooms in Western Lake Erie

Timothy Moore, Mike Twardowski, and Corey Koch

Figure 2. LOBO platform. Float and telemetry are visible; sensors are submerged.

Figure 3. Cycle-PO4, in-situ phosphate sensor. note colored reagent cartridges for in-situ wet chemical analysis and mussel fouling which did not impact data quality.

Figure 4. Underside of LOBO buoy, showing bio-optics and CTD. note that copper surfaces and optical wipers keep measurement surfaces free of fouling.

relationship could permit nutrient and water quality monitoring to predict blooms days in advance. This early warning will help resource managers minimize the impact to recreation and water treatment facilities. The LOBO will be deployed again in the 2014 summer season, remaining vigilant for water quality drivers and bloom responses. Extensive field sampling is also being conducted, including phytoplankton cell identification/counts and toxin (mycrocystin) analysis. Continuous monitoring data, results from field campaigns, and detailed optical studies will be combined with remote sensing data to develop bio-optical and predictive models to enhance our understanding of bloom dynamics and provide for early


warning of harmful conditions. Detailed optical studies with Sea-Bird sensors include high-sensitivity hyperspectral absorption measurements (ACS), evaluation of particulate scattering from 0-180° to determine the volume scattering function (MASCOT), and using lasers to generate holographic images of microscopic particles such as plankton formations and inorganic particles (HOLOCAM).

Dr. Timothy Moore is a research scientist at the University of New Hampshire. He has over 15 years of experience working with remote sensing data related to the analysis of ocean color and primary productivity. Dr. Moore’s work involves breaking the world into ocean color “provinces” for applying regionally tailored bio-optical algorithms. Algorithms are used to relate what is actually measured in the water optically to what the satellite imagery is producing, and then assign uncertainties to them so that scientists can reliably gauge how accurate these satellite-derived physical/biological data are.

Figure 5. Preliminary, real-time, continuous monitoring data from WLe LOBO. in-situ phosphate concentration is shown in purple, with phycocyanin fluorescence in green. A pulse of phosphate into the system results in a bloom three to four days later, demonstrating the predictive capacity of continuous nutrient monitoring.

Michael Twardowski is Director of Research at Sea-Bird Scientific. His research interests are inherent and apparent optical properties, relationships between particles and optical properties, the design of optical instrumentation, and using optical sensing techniques such as backscattering and remote sensing as proxies to investigate the biogeochemistry of natural waters.

Corey Koch is a biogeochemist and Associate Product Manager at Sea-Bird Scientific. His research focuses on in-situ chemical sensor development, miniaturization, and environmental chemistry. His interests lie in nutrification, biogeochemistry, oil spill science, fate and transport, microfluidics, reagent chemistry, spectroscopy, and instrument design. c

800-432-4302 • www.vertexwaterfeatures.com

Vertex aeration helps:Lower nutrients that feed algae

Grow bigger, healthier fish Reduce bottom muck

Restore Lakes NaturallyRestore Lakes Naturally

Next Issue – Summer 2014 LakeLineOur next issue will feature “Lake Associations.” Lake associations

accomplish some truly remarkable things, often with limited

resources. We’ll highlight some of these lake association

accomplishments from maintaining the dam on a Maine reservoir, to

organizing homeowners on one of Canada’s largest lakes, to a small

lake association in Minnesota that rose to the challenge.

c

http://www.vertexwaterfeatures.com/



The Journey to Automation:A Glen Lake Story

Cal Killen

This is the story of how the Glen Lake Association (GLA) applied modern technology to their management

of Glen Lake’s water level. The results are more accurate water level control at substantially less cost, while making it safer and easier for our water level committee members. Along the way, they learned facts about the watershed system never known before.

Background Glen Lake is one of Michigan’s finest lakes. Actually a set of five connected lakes (Big Glen, Little Glen, Big Fisher, Little Fisher, and Brooks) in northwest lower-Michigan, it covers about 6,000 acres at depths reaching 130 feet. The output of Glen Lake is the source of the Crystal River, which meanders five miles before emptying into Lake Michigan, only one mile away. The flow into the Crystal River is controlled by a dam 18 feet wide with two independent swinging gates (Figure 1). Atypical in Michigan, this dam is not controlled by a drain commissioner, but by volunteer members of the GLA, and it has been that way since the dam was built many years ago. So the GLA formed the Water Level Committee (WLC) in 1955 to manage the Glen Lake level and Crystal River flow as much as nature would allow. Lawsuits over the years have resulted in a court-ordered set of rules for both the upper/lower bounds of Glen Lake’s water level and the Crystal River’s water flow minimums. This means that lake-level/river-flow management is not a hobby for the GLA; it’s a legal mandate. A court- appointed Technical Committee keeps close watch on the lake-level/river-flow operations and reports status to the court annually. To accommodate the legally mandated limits, the Technical Committee Figure 1. Crystal River dam.

has approved a daily target lake level within a narrow tolerance. The days of summer have a relatively high lake level target (good for boating, enjoying the beach, and supplying water to the river during drought periods) and winter days have a low lake level target (to mitigate ice damage and minimize beach erosion). The spring and fall days have targets that are a gradual transition between summer highs and winter lows. Regardless of lake level, the river flow must be kept above a certain minimum water flow so as not to adversely affect the ecology of the river downstream.

Determining Lake Level The first requirement in lake level/river flow management is to be able to determine the actual elevation of the lake

level, and understand how it changes over time due to the various water inputs and outputs. Only after having that information does one have a chance to manage the balance of lake-level and river flow through dam gate settings. For determining lake level, a set of three staff gauges were placed at strategic positions around the lakes to determine water levels (Figure 2). These gauges were surveyed so the actual elevation of the water, relative to sea level, can be calculated. One of the staff gauges is the standard used for determining legal lake level. Another is used as a backup. The third is used to measure the water level at a location just upstream of the dam – where the water level can vary several inches lower than that at the other gauges. Water levels are supposed to be measured


and recorded at these points at least twice a week – more often when weather events dictate. It is not always possible to read the gauges, however. Sometimes windy conditions generate waves that make it impossible to take a precise reading of the staff gauge. At other times, ice and snow obscure the markings on the staff gauge, making it equally impossible to determine an exact reading. Often, the times when lake level knowledge is most important are the times when weather conditions are at their worst. Going out to read the gauges during storms (especially in winter) can be a challenging task for the WLC members.

Automation Begins Partly due to the fact that all the WLC members are dedicated volunteers who want precise measurements and partly because many of them are engineers and “tinkerers,” it was decided in 2010 to install an automatic lake level sensor (Figure 3). The sensor was installed very close to the staff gauge used to determine the legal lake level elevation, and about three feet below the water’s surface. Using a 100-foot underground cable, the sensor was attached to a communication station that contained a data-logging device, a cellular modem, a battery and a solar cell. The sensor is an accurate pressure transducer that reads water depth, not elevation. The sensor is compensated for atmospheric pressure changes. Every 15 minutes the data logger records the “depth” of water over the sensor. Every hour the modem is automatically turned on so a remotely located computer server can upload the latest depth readings. The actual elevation of the sensor has been determined through comparison with the staff gauge readings, so this elevation can be added to the depth reading to get the actual lake level. Using automatic sensors to gather lake level data proved to be very accurate and reliable. The sensor is accurate to 1/8-inch and any fluctuations in the lake level due to wind gusts or waves are eliminated by averaging over time. The WLC realized the advantage right away; the technique gave them accurate information on an hourly basis. And with a new website, the information was available to all members without leaving their homes.

Figure 2. a typical staff gauge.

Figure 3. Solar-powered sensor station housing.

The Website Begins Turning “raw data” from both the automatic and manual gauges into “information” that can be used to make decisions was solved by the introduction of the WLC website. Many thousands of lines of code were written to generate graphs and tables that make it easy to know things like:

•Is the lake level on target?

•Is the lake level trending in the right direction?

•How long will it take before the lake level is in (or out) of target tolerance?

•How much did it rain last night?

The WLC soon developed a wide set of charts and graphs on the website that answered these questions quickly and accurately (Figures 4 and 5). What’s more, the information led to the discovery of facts about the lake never known before. For example, the WLC discovered a resonance between Big and Little Glen – water sloshes back-and-forth under the Narrows Bridge about every 40 minutes. Besides water level, the sensor also records water temperature. Soon we were updating the GLA public website every hour with a posting that reflected current conditions (Figure 6).

The sensor also records battery voltage in the station. If the voltage goes below 12v. the website automatically alerts the WLC with an email warning. Most of the time this means someone has to brush the snow off of the solar cell.


Determining River Flow A fourth staff gauge (called a “stream gauge”) was installed years ago in the Crystal River just downstream from the dam (Figure 7). This gauge was used in conjunction with a U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)-provided rating table to estimate Crystal River water flow. This is a very common method for calculating river flow; the principle being that the higher the water level in the river, the higher the waterflow. One reads the stream gauge in the river and refers to the rating table, which then yields an estimated river flow. But as nature would have it, the conditions of the river are always changing, and changes degrade the accuracy of this method. Small effects can be due to natural changes in the river bed and growth of vegetation on the banks of the river. Larger effects can be due to trees and branches falling into the river (downstream or upstream), ice/snow in the river, and canoes banging in to the stream gauge. One of the most common reasons for inaccurate river flow estimations was found to occur after a large rain event or snow melt. Water flows into the river from various places below the dam, which swells the river and causes this method to overestimate the flow over the dam by as much as 20 percent. Because conditions continually change, regular re-calibration of the adjustment factor applied to the stream gauge readings was required. With a flow device, the USGS manually measured water flow in the river at a cross-section just below the dam, taking measurements every foot at various depths. These measurements were summed to produce an accurate river flow for that point in time. Comparing that actual flow to the estimated flow from the rating table produced an adjustment or “shift” value for the WLC to use. After a calibration, the WLC members could get an accurate river flow measurement at the dam by reading the stream gauge, adding or

Figure 2. a typical staff gauge.Figure 4. Lake level data for a one-week period showing lake level target elevation.

Figure 5. Water temperature data showing a typical autumn decline.

subtracting the “shift” and then applying that value to the rating table. Since the WLC wanted to be very precise on measuring water flow – especially at low flows when we were close to the court-mandated minimum – calibrations were done five times a year at a cost of $3,000 every year to the Glen Lake Association Unfortunately, the accuracy of the re-calibration proved to be short-lived. As soon as the re-calibration was completed, the river would change. When the WLC would get a new shift, especially one that was a significant change from the previous shift, they knew that they had been recording imprecise river flows for some unknown time and

Figure 6. early lake data read-out.

amount. In addition, reading the stream gauge in wintertime was a chore at best and a safety hazard at worst. WLC volunteers had to walk a distance through unfavorable terrain, and stand on a

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Figure 7. Reading the stream gauge.

sometimes ice-covered bank to read the stream gauge ten feet out in the river. The WLC started thinking about a better way to do business.

Making Dam Gate Adjustments The Crystal River dam was first built in the early 1900s and was originally adjusted by adding or removing boards across the dam. The dam was remodeled in 2002 to allow for easier and finer adjustments. Two 7.5-foot-wide gates were added side by side, hinged at the bottom and adjusted by winching them up or down (Figure 8). The gates travel just under 24” from fully open to fully closed. To make a dam adjustment, one WLC member cranks the winch wheel while another WLC member measures the vertical distance between the gate and a reference point on the side of the dam. A specially calibrated “yard stick,” complete with a leveling bubble, is used to make sure the measurements are accurate. Eight rotations of the winch wheel results

in about one inch of vertical movement of the gates, which affects the dam flow anywhere from three to ten cubic feet per second (CFS). After making an adjustment, the river needs some time to settle into its new level. So after waiting 20 minutes to allow for this settling, another reading is taken of the stream gauge, another calculation of the dam flow is made from the rating table, and additional adjustments are made as needed. All of these measurements and adjustments are recorded and the data kept for years.

Automation Continues Enthused with the results of the automatic sensor installed the year before, the WLC decided to take the much bigger step of fixing the problems related to calculating dam flow.

There were four parts to this solution:

Figure 8. Dam gate adjustment.

1. install another automatic sensor 25 feet in front of the dam;

2. develop a weir equation that calculates dam flow given the gate setting, water level, and dam geometry;

3. regularly compare river flows (using several manual methods) to the weir equation spanning a year and over a wide range of flows to “tune” the equation; and

4. report process and findings to the Technical Committee regularly.

Given the physical characteristics of the Crystal River dam, the standard rectangular weir equation was applied:

Q = CE Ÿ W Ÿ H 1.5

Where: “CE” is a constant (around 3.3), which was empirically determined by comparing manually determined water flow to calculated results. “W” is the width of the dam gate. Since the dam has two gates, the weir equation needed to be used twice, once for each gate. The values are summed for the total river flow. In this way, the gates can be set at far different elevations and the flow is calculated correctly. “H” is the “head,” or difference in elevation between the water level above the dam and gate setting. Note that calculating the head requires a modeling of gate setting to gate elevation.


In the fall of 2011, this automatic sensor was installed and calibration of the weir equation started. Over the next year, using many manual river flow measurements from the USGS and the WLC at a broad range of flows, the weir equation was calibrated and found to be far more accurate than the stream gauge estimating method. In the summer of 2013 the Technical Committee was convinced of the accuracy of the weir equation. With their support, the court recognized the advancement and gave the WLC permission to use the weir equation for making dam setting decisions.

The Website Expands The backbone to the WLC operations and automation is the website and the programming behind it. The website now included graphs, charts, manual input data, calculators, team information, photos, and documents. Besides the website, there are programs on the computer server that run automatically to update data, check for certain conditions, and send email alerts. With these advancements in the website programming we updated the posting on the GLA public website to include river flow and precipitation events (Figure 9). Now that the website has been running for several years capturing data every 15 minutes, enough data exist to do some statistical analysis. One of the calculators on the website allows the user to enter two of three values (river flow, lake level, dam setting) and it will produce the statistical plot of the third value (Figure 10).

Results With the fine efforts of many WLC members, lake level management has been made easier, safer, and more accurate. It also pays for itself. Since the flow

Figure 9. Updated lake data read-out.

And with the capability of adding additional sensors to the system, the WLC can learn even more about water quality and the effects of different weather events. We highly recommend using these methods for other lakes.

After working for 30 years at IBM and Unisys managing software development at several laboratories around the world, Cal Killen retired from corporate life and moved to Glen Arbor to pursue his own business ventures. After successfully launching an online company that tutors high school students across the world via the Internet, he and his partner founded TIA Software, the company behind Lake-Man.com – a web-based solution for lake and dam management. c

Figure 10. Typical statistical analysis of monitored parameters.

estimating method is no longer used, there is no need for the USGS to make river flow re-calibrations. By canceling that contract the WLC recaptured the expense of an automation station in a single year. But there is more to be learned. Now that data exist to be “mined,” the WLC can learn things like:

• amount of groundwater in and out of the lake system

• evaporation values

• daily lake level targets to maximize water level and minimize shore erosion

• methods to minimize flooding of Crystal River

• etc.



The Global Lake Ecological ObservatoryNetwork (GLEON)[Compiled from published GLEON Materials]

Lakes globally are under pressure from water extraction, modified catchments, eutrophication, fishing

pressure, and invasive species. These pressures are unlikely to diminish as human populations grow, demand for water resources increases, and climate change modifies the drivers of lake ecosystems. The Global Lake Ecological Observatory Network (GLEON) (www.gleon.org) combines an array of lake sensors deployed around the globe to address local issues for individual lake ecosystems, but also to document changes in lake ecosystems that occur in response to different land use, latitude, and climate. Because many of the modifications to the landscape and climate will be expressed first in lake ecosystems, these systems offer a unique opportunity to monitor, analyze and predict future landscape and climate change. By understanding the implications of these changes at a global level the expected ecosystem change can be predicted and planned for. Planning for future lake management and adaptation to meet community needs and expectations will be compromised without knowledge of how lakes respond to natural and anthropogenic forcing. Planning for the future relies on prediction of the outcome of landscape modification, rain and mixing events, and climate change. Simulation of these events enables this prediction, but it is necessary to inform the development and calibration of models in a range of climatic zones to ensure predictions are broadly valid. GLEON offers an unequalled opportunity to develop and test lake models in a range of climates. The inventory of lakes in GLEON spans broad gradients in limnological characteristics, landscape, and climate

settings. As GLEON grows, this wealth of lake data will increase and provide opportunity for interpretation at broader space and time scales. Comparison of lakes across latitude will provide significant insight into how lake ecosystems are likely to be shaped by climate change. Lessons learned on one lake can be applied globally to ensure sustainable lake ecosystems into the future. “Lakes are the canaries in the landscape.” Lake ecosystems are sensitive indicators of catchment modification and climatic conditions. Because lakes integrate across landscape, hydrology, and climate, ecosystem change in aquatic systems is often observed more quickly than in adjacent terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, changes to catchment or climate may be expressed in lake ecosystems before they are evident in other ecosystems. Early warning of significant ecosystem change and knowledge of the likely consequences enables communities to respond and adapt to the change. However, to detect changes in lake ecosystems it is necessary to monitor sensitive indicators at appropriate timescales. Events that drive lake ecosystem processes occur at a range of timescales from short-term, such as rain event inflows to seasonal changes, and longer term features, such as El Niño and climate change. Real-time, high-frequency measurement of local climate, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and phytoplankton chlorophyll fluorescence by stations deployed on lakes captures many of the important ecosystem drivers and responses at timescales necessary to resolve the features of interest. These measurements can then be used to inform risk assessment of pathogen fate and

transport, cyanobacterial growth, and the impact of catchment or lake derived carbon on lake metabolism and ecosystem health.

“David Buoy” Among the many floating instrument clusters associated with the worldwide GLEON network is one located on Lake Mendota in Madison, WI affectionately called “David Buoy.” This buoy was first deployed in 2008. It is put out each spring and taken in before the lake freezes up in early winter (Figure 1). The buoy measures atmospheric and lake conditions, including:

• wind direction and speed

• air temperature

• dew point/relative humidity

• vertical profile of water temperature

• dissolved oxygen

• chlorophyll

• phycocyanin

Since the first deployment, it has spent, sum total, over three full years out on Lake Mendota. It has recorded wind gusts above 80 miles per hour, surface water temperatures over 30 degrees Celsius (86°F), and has made 50 million individual observations of water temperature and meteorological conditions. The data collected by the buoy (some available online at: http://metobs.ssec.wisc.edu/buoy/) will help researchers at the UW Center For Limnology better understand what drives the health of Lake Mendota and how human activities affect its waters. c


The Global Lake Ecological ObservatoryNetwork (GLEON)[Compiled from published GLEON Materials]

Figure 1. “David Buoy” is prepped for its season-long job of data collection on Lake Mendota in 2012. Photo: Ted Bier.

http://www.aquarius-systems.com/


Nancy Serediak Student CornerThe Value of a Good Long Look

Imagine a grainy picture. The resolution on this picture is so low it is difficult to tell what is in the picture. You can

sort of see that it is an image of a lake and some surrounding landscape, but it is hard to see how high the land is or how low the water is. You can tell that the water has no ice and might have a bit of green color, but the picture is too grainy to see what is creating the color. Now imagine you have to make decisions about how to get rid of the green despite an uncomfortable feeling that there is not enough information in the picture. Is the green color everywhere in the lake or only at one point? Is the green from small algae or big plants? Is the green there every year or has it only

recently appeared? How can the picture be improved to provide answers? And are there other pictures taken at different times available for comparison?

What is the Most Reliable Way to Get a Better Image? Long-term monitoring is one way to improve the resolution and shrink the uncertainty of not knowing what is in the picture. There is always uncertainty, both in nature and in the measurements we take of it: The sampler may be cold and tired, the equipment may not have been calibrated, collected samples may arrive to the lab late afternoon before a long weekend, the river was in flood, the lake was very dry.

Long-term data collection is a record that incorporates both natural variability and inherent uncertainty, and data collected repeatedly over time can show trends that are not apparent when sampling only lasts for two or three years. It is far better to have more detail in the picture than too little (Figure 1). There is an old saying that if all the economists in Washington were lined up end-to-end, they would all point in different directions. Ask lake dwellers their recollections on water levels or water quality and the answers might be similar, even from neighbours on the same lake. Memory is an inconsistent friend. It is far better to have a sampler with a neutral opinion recording unbiased details. Taken

Figure 1. Long-term monitoring puts sampling efforts in context. is an algal bloom in a lake (a) usual for the system, (B) a one-time, point source event, or (C) part of an increasing trend?


over time, the information collected provides an invaluable archive of physical history that is not based on fuzzy recollection. What much of science does is to infer things from limited information. When information improves, so does interpretation.

Putting Lakes in Perspective Using Data If a researcher wishes to develop a predictive model to let water users know the quality of their systems in advance, long-term data sets are often required on which to base the model. It is how forecasting works for things such as floods or weather: Given conditions recorded in the past, a picture is formed of what can be reasonably expected under the same conditions in the future. All models require at least some form of good, reliable, accessible measurements, and usually the more taken over the longest, unbroken time period the better. Missing data cannot be replaced, only estimated. For time-series analyses and forecasting efforts, continuous data sets are pure gold (Figure 2).

When Things are Less Than Perfect Contrary to the original sentiment, it is very possible to miss what you never had (Thompson 1990). For one piece of my Ph.D., I was tasked with determining critical load levels for poorly buffered lakes in northern Wisconsin. Calculating a critical load sort of involves solving an equation in reverse: First, the buffering capacity of the lake is determined and then working backwards from that value, an estimate is made as to how much acid input the lake can safely handle. Putting limits on acid loading helps prevent

Figure 2. a modeller’s love for data cannot be overemphasized. image source: Piled Higher and Deeper by Jorge Cham, http://www.phdcomics.com, accessed February 2014.

Figure 3. The ideal data set would be a solid ribbon with no dips in frequency between years or sample type. This graph represents actual data availability of 168 observations from seven lakes over a 20-year period.

acidification. In order to set the limit, the critical load must be established. The process is tedious but reasonably straightforward . . . in theory. In practice, however, I discovered the difference between 20 years’ worth of data, and data collected over 20 years. The in-lake long-term record had more holes than good Swiss cheese, and the data set varied in both sampling intensity and parameters collected (Figure 3). In addition, water levels had only been measured during three of the 20 years, tied to a temporary benchmark. Although there are many tested models available for calculating critical limits, they almost universally require a lot of data in order to have them run properly. I had poorly buffered lakes on which management decisions had to be made, but little data on which to determine how much acid loading they could tolerate.

Long-term Monitoring to the Rescue Two positive things eventually allowed a very simple model to be estimated. First, at least some data had been collected from the lake itself. Second, there is a remarkable system of permanent long-term monitoring sites throughout the U.S. These sites are part

of the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (Lamb and Bowersox 2000), which makes routine collections of data on wet deposition, precipitation pH, mercury, ammonia and other air quality measurements. They are visited once every week by U.S. Forest Service staff and the data are screened, warehoused, and freely available for public use. The fantastic thing about this network is not just that it exists, but that it has been in place and maintained for upwards of 30 years at some sites. Very few data are missing and the data that exist are standardised and reliable. It is something of which citizens should be very proud (Figure 4). From some of these data, an additional open access tool has been constructed that allows users to make point estimates of temperature and precipitation. The PRISM (Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model; PRISM Climate Group 2012) website permits users to enter geographic coordinates and select an available time-frame from which to obtain data. It is remarkable, and it exists because the long-term data needed to construct it exist (Figure 5).


Although in-lake data were limited, because long-term monitoring existed elsewhere, a simple model could be constructed based on distance weighted values (the PRISM interpolation is more elegant than simple distance weighting but the point is the same). Using all the available data and a few suitable statistics, the final model that worked best suggested that the sampled lakes are vulnerable to acidification from direct deposition in very wet conditions and from certain watershed sources in very dry conditions. Evaluating a critical load for each situation requires considering different scenarios of lake chemistry and acid inputs. Teasing the two conditions apart with only the limited in-lake data would have been uncomfortably close to impossible. Long-term monitoring can be expensive and tedious to establish and maintain, sometimes with no apparent reasons to justify continuation. However, their existence is invaluable. They allow researchers to differentiate between typical, seasonal, a blip of variation, or a trend. These are important distinctions for anyone involved in managing natural systems. The two long-term data products described above were invaluable for my research. May there be many more like them.

References CitedLamb, D. and V. Bowersox. 2000. The

national atmospheric deposition program: An overview. atmosph environ, 34: 1661-1663.

Thompson, H.S. 1990. Songs of the Doomed. New York, Summit Books. 384 pp.

Nancy Serediak is a Ph.D. candidate in the faculty of natural resource management at Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada, currently adding the last keystrokes to her dissertation. In addition to statistics and water chemistry, she loves family, sewing, baking, and robust data sets. c

Figure 5. The PRiSM website provides open access data downloads of precipitation and temperature from carefully constructed long-term data sets. PRiSM Climate Group, Oregon State University, http://prism.oregonstate.edu, accessed Feb. 2014.

Figure 4. The naDP website should be bookmarked as a point of pride on every ecologist’s browser: http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/.


Affiliate News

Florida Lake Management Society (FLMS) The Florida Lake Management Society is excited to announce it will be hosting its 25th annual technical symposium on Hutchinson Island in Stuart, Florida, June 16 to 19, 2014. Our program theme is “Florida’s Water Resource History and Future.” Abstracts are currently being sought and interested contributors should contact Dr. Jim Griffin at [email protected] to submit. Visit our website at FLMS.net for full symposium information. FLMS is also looking forward to being the host affiliate for NALMS 2014. This year’s NALMS conference will be held this November in historic Tampa, Florida. We look forward to seeing everyone there!

Submitted by: Maryann krisovitch

Georgia Lakes Society (GLS) Georgia Lakes Society (GLS) conducts Lake University events to educate lake aficionados across the state. This latest Lake University event of 22 February was facilitated by GLS in cooperation with the fine folks of the Warnell Continuing Education Program – an extension of the Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources at The University of Georgia (UGA). The Workshop, staged in the woodsy Flinchum’s Phoenix Pavilion near Athens, GA, was designed to educate land and pond owners and professionals by helping

them improve their scientific knowledge on a variety of lake-water issues. With over 40 professionals in attendance, the workshop was a great success! Attendees of the morning session experienced expertly presented subject matter in water quality, aquatic plant control, and nutrient management. Following a catered, savory lunch, the afternoon session provided opportunities for “hands-on” and “through-the-scope” learning demonstrations in identification of aquatic plants and harmful algae. Additionally, the workshop program, led by Dr. Susan Wilde and presented by fellow UGA system professors, offered Continuing Education Credits for Pesticide Applicator re-certification in multiple States, Forestry Education, and Logger Education.

GLS thanks its workshop attendees and presenters for contributing to this latest lake education success in Georgia! And yes, GLS is already contemplating the next workshop for 2014, so stay tuned for more GLS news! If you need professional help with management of your lake or pond, please consider consulting the expertise at UGA’s Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, other UGA resources, and expertise found among GLS members. A PDF file of the GLS February Lake University Workshop can be viewed at the GLS website, www.georgialakes.org.

Submitted by: Tony Dodd

Figure 1. Lake University Workshop participants learn to identify algae. Photo: Mickey Desai.

http://www.flms.net/

http://georgialakes.org/


Indiana Lakes Management Society (ILMS) Like much of the nation, Indiana has been blanketed by a thick covering of snow for much of the winter. While we are starting to thaw out, we cannot help but celebrate great winter events like the Annual Frozen Lake Run hosted at Lake Shakamak by the Roots Running Club (Figure 2). The annual Indiana Lake Management Conference is quickly approaching for the Indiana Lakes Management Society. This year’s conference will be held in Bloomington, Indiana, and will focus on connecting Indiana lake residents and users with their favorite body of water and its watershed. Our new format will present introductory workshops followed by a full day of concurrent presentations. Each year, ILMS recognizes contributions to lake and watershed science by students studying or working

within the state. This year’s winner is Aaron Marti. Aaron studies Eurasian watermilfoil impacts to Indiana reservoirs at Ball State University. Aaron competed against four other students to win a scholarship as well as ILMS’ membership and conference travel expenses.

Submitted by: Sara Peel

New England Chapter (NEC-NALMS) NEC-NALMS hosted its 21st annual regional lakes conference in beautiful Standish, Maine, overlooking Squam Lake. Saint Joseph’s College was a perfect venue for the 2013 conference, with Friday’s workshops capitalizing on the site by offering a lakeside water monitoring demonstration. Other workshops included algal ID and ecology, crayfish ID and ecology, invasive aquatic plant ID, and preparing herbarium sheets,

as well as learning about Maine’s Invasive Plant Patrol. The annual affiliate meeting was followed by an evening dinner cruise on board the Songo River Queen touring Long Lake. The cruise was highlighted by narration from Maine Lakes Environmental Association’s Peter Lowell on the good, the bad, and the ugly of lakeshore development. Saturday was kicked off by an outstanding plenary presentation by Dr. Steve Norton, professor emeritus from the School of Earth and Climate Sciences and Climate Change Institute, University of Maine, on “Phosphorus Availability in Lakes, from Deglaciation to the Present,” which focused on the impact of climate change on the “ferrous wheel” or cycling of

phosphorus relation to iron and aluminum via weathering and sedimentation. His presentation gave us all something else to think about with these complex lake and watershed systems undergoing disturbance due to increased development and climate change (great . . . ). The plenary was followed by a great lineup of sessions including such diverse topics as Citizen Lake Monitoring – an international exchange (U.S. and Canada), and Trouble in Lake auburn – Signs of Things to Come? Lunch was a traditional Maine Lobster Bake, “lobsta” bibs and all, with Sebago Lake as our backdrop – who could ask for more? We wrapped up the weekend with sessions on Sebago Lake analysis, Volunteer Lake Monitoring Programs, Lake and Watershed Management and Hg Dynamics, and Phosphorus Regulation, Shoreline Protection and Videos. The 2013 conference had a strong Maine flavor, both in terms of foods and sessions, which drew a lot of local folks as well as a strong contingent from throughout the region. With the Connecticut Federation of Lakes and Connecticut Department of Energy and Environment hosting the 2014 conference, we expect to focus on southern New England issues in 2014. The 2014 New England Lakes Conference will be held June 13-14, 2014 at the University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. Our theme is, “Green Ideas for Blue Lakes.” For more information, check out our website: https://sites.google.com/site/necnalms/.

Submitted by: elizabeth Herron

New York State Federation of Lake Associations, Inc. (NYSFOLA) Several members of the New York State Federation of Lake Associations, Inc. enjoyed a trip to sunny San Diego for the 2013 NALMS International Symposium and are looking forward to more sunshine in Tampa this year. Ah, but warm weather is overrated, right? So, we invite you all to New York for the 2015 symposium to be held in the greater Adirondack region. Hotel negotiations are still underway so we

Figure 2. annual Frozen Lake Run hosted at Lake Shakamak. Photo: Julie Johnson

http://www.indianalakes.org/

https://sites.google.com/site/necnalms/

http://www.nysfola.org/


can’t tell you the exact location yet, but we hope that you’ll plan to make a trip to the Empire State. In 2013, NYSFOLA worked closely with the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, and Upstate Freshwater Institute to make Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring an integral part of the Citizens Statewide Lake Assessment Program (CSLAP) for the second year. The information collected by volunteers was incorporated into the state’s new Harmful Algal Bloom Notification Program. In 2013, approximately 900 mid-lake samples and 200 shoreline bloom samples were collected from all regions of the state. Thirty-five percent of CSLAP lakes had confirmed blue-green algae blooms during at least one point in the year. Many had toxin levels exceeding the World Health Organization guidelines for recreational contact. Overall, 60 lakes statewide had confirmed blue-green algae blooms, including lakes not represented in CSLAP. Many thanks to Dr. Gregory Boyer and his students for running and reporting so many samples! NYSFOLA will hold its 31st annual conference, “Embracing Lake Stewardship,” May 2-4, 2014 at White Eagle Conference Center, on the shores of Lake Moraine, in Hamilton, NY.

Figure 3. nYSFOLa President George C. kelley at Town and Country Resort.

SolarBee put the sparkle back in our raw water reservoir

Medora Corporation • Dickinson, ND • 866-437-8076 • www.medoraco.com

Unsightly and unhealthy blue-green algae blooms in Hatcher Reservoir were costing Pagosa Springs Sanitation District a fortune in copper sulfate and activated carbon filters. The District installed SolarBee® SB10000 mixers and saw immediate improvement. The blooms disappeared, as did levels of source water TOCs. The District installed SolarBee mixers in the water tanks, too — where thorough mixing virtually eliminates temperature stratification and water stagnation. SolarBee mixers eliminate something else, too: Customer complaints about water taste and odor.

Put the sparkle back in your raw water reservoir.

Read our case studies: www.medoraco.com/rawwater

Brands of Medora Corporation

Art Holloman, Water SuperintendentPagosa Springs (Colorado) sanitation district

“Since SolarBee got a hold of the lake, the water quality improved dramatically. Our lakes are clear, our tanks are clean, our water is great!”

Medora Corp.’s proven mixing technology for lakes and ponds is now offered in GridBee® electric mixers.http://lakes.medoraco.com

MED-376.indd 1 2/1/13 3:54 PM

Pennsylvania Lake Management Society (PALMS) The 24th Annual PALMS Conference – “Healthy Lakes, Healthy Communities” – will be held March 19-20, 2014, at the Ramada Conference Center in State College, PA. The conference is

offering another awesome line-up of speakers on a variety of topics including algae and aquatic plant management, fisheries management, a panel discussion, and results of recent BMP projects to name a few! The Keynote Speaker will be Dr. Ann Rhoads, recently retired from the Morris Arboretum.

Submitted by: kerilynn Frey c

PA

Submitted by: nancy Mueller

http://www.medoraco.com/

http://www.palakes.org/


Bill Jones Literature Search

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic SciencesLudsin Stuart, A. 2013. Nutrient inputs versus piscivore biomass as the primary driver of reservoir food webs. Can J Fish aquat Sci, 70(3): 367-380.

Environment, Development and SustainabilitySun, Y., S. Tong, M. Fang and Y.Yang. 2013. Exploring the effects of population growth on future land use change in the Las Vegas Wash watershed: an integrated approach of geospatial modeling and analytics. environ Develop Sustain, 15(6): 1495-1515.

Environmental Monitoring and AssessmentCunha, D., M. Carmo Calijuri and W. Dodds. 2014. Trends in nutrient and sediment retention in Great Plains reservoirs (USA). environ Monitor assess, 186(2): 1143-1155.

HydrobiologiaDembkowski, D. and L. Miranda. 2014. Environmental variables measured at multiple spatial scales exert uneven influence on fish assemblages of floodplain lakes. Hydrobiol, 721 (1): 129-144.

International Journal of Remote SensingSchaeffer, B.A., K.G. Schaeffer, D. Keith, R.S. Lunetta, R. Conmy and R.W. Gould. 2014. Barriers to adopting satellite remote sensing for water quality management. internat J Remote Sensing, 34(21): 7534-7544.

Journal of Insect ConservationHerbst, D., S. Roberts and R. Medhurst. 2013. Defining salinity limits on the survival and growth of benthic insects for the conservation management of saline Walker Lake, Nevada, USA. J insect Conserv, 17(5): 877-883.

Journal of PaleolimnologyVermaire, J., M-H Greffard, E. Saulnier-Talbot and I. Gregory-Eaves. 2013. Changes in submerged macrophyte abundance altered diatom and chironomid assemblages in a shallow lake. J Paleolimnol, 50(4): 447-456.

Journal of Wildlife ManagementWindels, S.K., E.A. Beever, J.D. Paruk, A.R. Brinkman, J.E. Fox, C.C. Macnulty, D.C. Evers, L.S. Siegel and D.C. Osborne. 2013. Effects of water-level management on nesting success of common loons. J Wildlife Manage, 77(8): 1626-1638.

Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management Canfield, D.E., D.J. Pecora, K.W. Larson, J. Stephens and M.V. Hoyer. 2013. Stocking wild adult Florida largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides floridanus): An additional fish management tool. Lakes & Reserv: Research and Manage, 18(3): 239-245.

Limnology and OceanographyBachmann, R. W., M. V. Hoyer and D. E. Canfield, Jr. 2013. The extent that natural lakes in the United States of America have been changed by cultural eutrophication. Limnol Oceanogr, 58: 945-950.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management Barnett, H.K., D.K. Paige and W.C. Belknap. 2013. Impact of reservoir elevation during the spawning season on the distribution of bull trout redds. n am J Fish Manage, 33(5): 917-925.

Society and Natural ResourcesRudestam, K. 2014. Loving water, resenting regulation: Sense of place and water management in the Willamette Watershed. Society nat Resour, 27(1): 20-35.

Transactions of the American Fisheries SocietyDamstra, R.A. and T.L. Galarowicz. 2013. Summer habitat use by lake sturgeon in Manistee Lake, Michigan. Trans amer Fish Soc, 142(4): 931-941.

Kapuscinski, K.L. B.L. Sloss and J.M. Farrell. 2013. Genetic population structure of muskellunge in the Great Lakes. Trans amer Fish Soc, 142(4): 1075-1089.

Water Resources ResearchFinger, D. A. Wüest and P. Bossard. 2013. Effects of oligotrophication on primary production in peri-alpine lakes. Water Resour Res, 49(8): 4700-4710.

Water Environment ResearchAlam, R.Q., S. Dufreche, A. Hayatdavoudi and D.D. Gang. 2013. Nonpoint source pollution. Water environ Res, Literature Review, 1715-1733. c


Go ahead...take your best shot!

YOU could be the winner of the 2014 NALMS Annual Photo Contest.

This year, two winning images will be selected, a Member’s Choice winner selected by Symposium attendees and an Editors’ Choice winner selected by the editor and production editor for the entry that will make the best LakeLine cover. We have secured sponsorship for the Photo Contest so a $250 gift card will be awarded to each winner.

Your favorite lake or reservoir photo could grace a cover of LakeLine!

Entries will be judged during the 2014 NALMS Symposium . . . in sunny Tampa!

Only electronic submissions will be accepted. You must be a NALMS member to submit an entry.

Photos should be of sufficient resolution to print from (approximately 300 dpi at 8.5” x 11”).

Maximum of one submission per person.

Entries must be received by October 15, 2014.

Send your entry to:Bill Jones, Editor [email protected]

http://www.phycotech.com/


NALMS BookStoreInteractive Lake EcologyThis workbook, created by the New Hampshire Dept. of Environmental Services, introduces students to elements of a lake ecosystem, including basic scientific concepts of water, the water cycle, how lakes are formed, food chains & watersheds and introduces students to problems facing lakes. The workbook also looks at monitoring lakes for water quality.

Appropriate for grades 5-8, but adaptable to lake associations and volunteers.

Student Workbook: $4 NALMS Members / $5 Non-Members Teachers’ Reference: $6 NALMS Members / $7 Non-Members+ $4 Shipping & Handling Receive 1 free Teachers’ Reference with each order of 20 Student Workbooks

Managing Lakes and ReservoirsThird edition of a manual originally titled The Lake and Reservoir Restoration Guidance Manual, this 382-page edition builds on and updates the material in the original to include new state-of-the-art information on how to manage lakes and reservoirs. Many of today’s experts in the field of lake management authored chapters in this book.

$45 + $6 shipping & handling

Your Lake & You!This tabloid size NALMS publication has been described as “simply incredible.” The 8-page publication explains how homeowners can do their part to protect their lake. It is also loaded with descriptions of resource publications.

75¢ per copy Bulk rates available. Contact the NALMS Office for details.

How’s the Water?One of the top issues facing our lakes involves recreational use conflicts. With an increase in use comes a growing concern with the quality of the recreational experience. This informative 306-page manual from the Wisconsin Lakes Partnership addresses the relevant issues and research on water recreation and related activities. This text was created as a tool to assist in the process of building a healthy lake and river ecosystem and a strong lake community.

$18 NALMS Members / $22 Non-Members + $6 shipping & handling

Through the Looking Glass...A Field Guide to Aquatic PlantsThis book from the Wisconsin Lakes Partnership contains detailed and highly accurate information needed to identify aquatic plants. This 248-page guide contains over 200 original illustrations of North American aquatic plants. The precise pen and ink drawings that grace these pages combined with detailed descriptions, natural history and folklore of many aquatic plants found in North America make this guide one of a kind.


The Lake Pocket BookThe Lake Pocket Book is a 176-page guide that provides explanations of aquatic chemistry; lake ecology and biology; collecting lake information and how to use it; developing lake management plans and organizing a lake association–all presented in plain English. This easy-to-understand style combined with its in-depth information has made The Lake Pocket Book an extremely popular publication among citizen lake lovers.


Remote Sensing Methods for Lake ManagementRemote sensing holds great promise for lake assessment. While remote sensing cannot, in all cases, replace on the ground sampling it can serve to complement existing sampling programs and often allow for broader extrapolation of existing information. This manual provides detailed explanations of the various platforms currently in use, discusses preferred applications, limitations, costs and other factors that will assist those who are considering the use of remote sensing to select the platform that best suits their data needs.

Manual: $49 + $6 Shipping & HandlingCD w/PDF of Manual: $15 + $3 Shipping & Handling

LAKELINELakeLine Magazine is NALMS’ quarterly lakes information and education

publication. Each issue contains news, views and interesting information on lakes and reservoirs, and their watersheds and tributaries, from around your

neighborhood and around the world.

Lake and Reservoir ManagementLake and Reservoir Management is NALMS’ peer-reviewed journal, which includes

papers on the latest lake and reservoir research issues, as well as case studies reflecting NALMS’ commitment to applied lake management.

Visit www.nalms.org for complete information on back issues of NALMS’ two quarterly publications...


NALMS BookStoreInteractive Lake EcologyThis workbook, created by the New Hampshire Dept. of Environmental Services, introduces students to elements of a lake ecosystem, including basic scientific concepts of water, the water cycle, how lakes are formed, food chains & watersheds and introduces students to problems facing lakes. The workbook also looks at monitoring lakes for water quality.

Appropriate for grades 5-8, but adaptable to lake associations and volunteers.

Student Workbook: $4 NALMS Members / $5 Non-Members Teachers’ Reference: $6 NALMS Members / $7 Non-Members+ $4 Shipping & Handling Receive 1 free Teachers’ Reference with each order of 20 Student Workbooks

Managing Lakes and ReservoirsThird edition of a manual originally titled The Lake and Reservoir Restoration Guidance Manual, this 382-page edition builds on and updates the material in the original to include new state-of-the-art information on how to manage lakes and reservoirs. Many of today’s experts in the field of lake management authored chapters in this book.

$45 + $6 shipping & handling

Your Lake & You!This tabloid size NALMS publication has been described as “simply incredible.” The 8-page publication explains how homeowners can do their part to protect their lake. It is also loaded with descriptions of resource publications.

75¢ per copy Bulk rates available. Contact the NALMS Office for details.

How’s the Water?One of the top issues facing our lakes involves recreational use conflicts. With an increase in use comes a growing concern with the quality of the recreational experience. This informative 306-page manual from the Wisconsin Lakes Partnership addresses the relevant issues and research on water recreation and related activities. This text was created as a tool to assist in the process of building a healthy lake and river ecosystem and a strong lake community.


Through the Looking Glass...A Field Guide to Aquatic PlantsThis book from the Wisconsin Lakes Partnership contains detailed and highly accurate information needed to identify aquatic plants. This 248-page guide contains over 200 original illustrations of North American aquatic plants. The precise pen and ink drawings that grace these pages combined with detailed descriptions, natural history and folklore of many aquatic plants found in North America make this guide one of a kind.


The Lake Pocket BookThe Lake Pocket Book is a 176-page guide that provides explanations of aquatic chemistry; lake ecology and biology; collecting lake information and how to use it; developing lake management plans and organizing a lake association–all presented in plain English. This easy-to-understand style combined with its in-depth information has made The Lake Pocket Book an extremely popular publication among citizen lake lovers.


Remote Sensing Methods for Lake ManagementRemote sensing holds great promise for lake assessment. While remote sensing cannot, in all cases, replace on the ground sampling it can serve to complement existing sampling programs and often allow for broader extrapolation of existing information. This manual provides detailed explanations of the various platforms currently in use, discusses preferred applications, limitations, costs and other factors that will assist those who are considering the use of remote sensing to select the platform that best suits their data needs.

Manual: $49 + $6 Shipping & HandlingCD w/PDF of Manual: $15 + $3 Shipping & Handling

LAKELINELakeLine Magazine is NALMS’ quarterly lakes information and education

publication. Each issue contains news, views and interesting information on lakes and reservoirs, and their watersheds and tributaries, from around your

neighborhood and around the world.

Lake and Reservoir ManagementLake and Reservoir Management is NALMS’ peer-reviewed journal, which includes

papers on the latest lake and reservoir research issues, as well as case studies reflecting NALMS’ commitment to applied lake management.

Visit www.nalms.org for complete information on back issues of NALMS’ two quarterly publications...

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