a qualitative study of participation motives in physical...

A STUDY OF PARTICIPATION MOTIVES IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND

PHYSICAL SELF-CONCEPT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

IN HONG KONG

BY

CHUNG LEI KWAN

12020834

AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ARTS

IN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

APRIL, 2015

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

24th, APRIL, 2015

We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Miss Chung

Lei Kwan entitled “A study of participation motives in

physical activity and physical self-concept of secondary

school students in Hong Kong” be accepted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Arts

Honours Degree in Physical Education And Recreation

Management.

______________ ______________

Dr. Liu Jingdong Dr. Huang Yajun

Chief Adviser Second Reader

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this honours project “A study of

participation motives in physical activity and physical

self-concept of secondary school students in Hong Kong”

represents my own work and had not been previously submitted

to this or other institution for a degree, diploma or other

qualification. Citations from the other authors were listed

in the references.

Chung Lei Kwan

24th, April, 2015

ACKNOWLEDMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my chief

advisor, Dr. Liu Jingdong, for his valuable advices and entire

support throughout this study. His advices were really helpful

and keep the project in track.

In addition, I would also like to give special thanks to

Dr. Huang Yajun for being my second reader to review this

project. Finally, appreciation was given to all participants

who had given the essential data in this study.

___________________

Chung Lei Kwan

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

Date: 24th April, 2015

ABSTRACT

In Hong Kong, much emphasis is placed on academic

achievement. Those who succeeded academically are perceived

to have a bright future. Burdened with much stress on studying,

students in Hong Kong rather have less time to participate

in physical activity. It is undeniable that students fail to

fulfill the recommended requirement of participating in 60

min or more of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)

every day. Participation in physical activity would bring

about tremendous benefits. Therefore, the purpose of this

study was to investigate the exercise motivation of secondary

school adolescents, compare the differences in physical

self-concept between students with different levels of

motivation and how the subscales of exercise motivation affect

their physical self-concept. In this study, 212 subjects

completed the short version of Physical Self-Description

Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) and Exercise Motivation Inventory-2

(EMI-2) to assess the physical activity motivation and

physical self-concept. Significant gender differences

flavoring male students were found in physical self-concept.

Significant differences in the mean score of PSDQ-S for the

subscale of “Body Fat/Global Esteem” between students who have

low and high mean score in the subscale of “Weight

Management/Stress Management” in EMI-2 were found. In

response to the results, it is suggested that enhancing the

participation motives in physical activity could improve

physical self-concept of secondary school students in Hong

Kong.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1.INTRODUCTION.......................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ............................ 4

Null Hypotheses ..................................... 4

Definition of Terms ................................. 6

Delimitations ....................................... 7

Limitations ......................................... 8

Assumptions ......................................... 9

Significance of the Study ........................... 9

2.REVIEW OF LITERATURE................................. 11

Physical Activity Pattern of Adolescents ........... 11

Significance of Physical Activity to Adolescents ... 14

Gender Difference in Physical Self-Concept ......... 19

Motivation and Physical Self-Concept ............... 21

Summary ............................................ 25

3.METHOD............................................... 26

Sample of Selection ................................ 26

Measuring Instrument ............................... 27

Collection of Data ................................. 29

Statistical Data Analysis .......................... 30

4.ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................... 32

Demographic Information ............................ 32

Reliability of the 14 scales of EMI-2 .............. 35

Reliability of the 11 scales of PSDQ-S ............. 37

Independent sample t test of PSDQ-S score between sex group

................................................... 38

Independent sample t test of “Health” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Positive Health” in

EMI-2 .............................................. 39

Independent sample t test of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Weight Management”

in EMI-2 ........................................... 40

Independent sample t test of “Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S

between students with low and high score in “Stress

Management” in EMI-2 ............................... 41

Discussion ......................................... 42

5.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.............................. 50

Summary of Results ................................. 50

Conclusions ........................................ 52

Recommendations for Further Study .................. 52

REFERENCES............................................. 55

APPENDIX............................................... 66

Questionnaire on Physical Self-Concept and Motivation in

Physical Activity .................................. 66

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Gender distribution of all participants................33

2. Mean age of male and female subjects...................35

3. Reliability of the 14 scales of EMI-2...................36

4. Reliability of the 11 scales of PSDQ-S..................37

5. Independent sample t test of PSDQ-S score

between sex group.....................................38

6. Independent sample t test of “Health” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Positive Health” in

EMI-2................................................39

7. Independent sample t test of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Weight Management” in

EMI-2................................................40

8. Independent sample t test of “Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S

between students with low and high score in “Stress

Management” in EMI-2..................................41

1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Current international recommendations for physical

activity and health promotion and disease

prevention ,especially for children, suggest that school-age

children should participate in 60 min or more of

moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) every day that

is developmentally appropriate, enjoyable, and involves a

wide range of activities (Strong et al., 2005).

However, Hong Kong secondary schools have always been

putting much emphasis on academic results. As a result,

students rather prefer spending time on studying instead of

engaging in physical activity. Researchers have found that

the physical activity level of children in Hong Kong was low

(Hui, Chan, Wang, Ha, & Hong, 2001). Based on the Final

Summary Report of Healthy Exercise for All Campaign – Physical

Fitness Test for the Community, 44.7% of the participants are

2

classified as “some active” in physical activity with at least

10 minutes but less than 60 minutes moderate-or-above

intensity in a week.

Regular physical activity will extensively bring about

multiple physical and mental benefits, thereby improving

overall health (Haskell et al., 2007). It serves as a crucial

socializing role in facilitating physical, mental and social

development during childhood and adolescence (Ricciardelli

& McCabe, 2004). Department of Health, The Government of the

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (2008) stated that

regular physical activity helped to reduce the risk of heart

disease, diabetes, feeling of anxiety and depression and

promote psychological well-beings. This implies that

participating in physical activity would be favorable to

students. Numerous studies have found that physical

inactivity may induce physical illnesses, yet the impact on

psychological health is being less understood (Annis, Cash

3

& Hrabosky, 2004; Schwartz & Brownell, 2004).

Although secondary school students in Hong Kong tend to

spend less time on exercise, they still spare their time in

participating in physical activity. There must be a rationale

behind. Maltby and Day (2001) described both extrinsic and

intrinsic motivation will contribute to exercise adherence.

A research has found that weight management, performance

motives and general health motives were mainly the factors

which boost them to physical activity (Kilpatrick, Hebert&

Bartholomew, 2005). Nguyen-Michel, Unger, Hamilton &

Spruijt-Metz (2006) also proposed that physical activity

would be an approach in managing stress.

In time of puberty, adolescents will undergo a number of

physical and psychological changes (Ganiban, Saudino,

Ulbricht, Neiderhiser & Reiss, 2008). Physical self-concept

is then perceived as a good indicator of both mental and social

4

adjustment during puberty. Relationship of physical activity

and physical self-concept in youth is indicated positive

(Babic, Morgan, Plotnikoff, Lonsdale, White & Lubans, 2014).

Study of the relationship between participation motives in

physical activity and physical self-concept for secondary

students in Hong Kong would help enhance physical activity

atmosphere among adolescents.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to investigate the exercise

motivation of secondary school adolescents, compare the

differences in physical self-concept between students with

different levels of motivation and how the subscales of

exercise motivation affect their physical self-concept.

Null Hypotheses

The null hypotheses of this study were as follows:

1. There would be no significant mean difference in the mean

5

score of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ-S)

between males and female students.

2. There would be no significant difference in the mean

score of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) for

the subscale of “Health” between students who have low and

high score in the subscale of “Positive Health” in Exercise

Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2).



the subscale of “Body Fat” between students who have low and

high score in the subscale of “Weight Management” in Exercise

Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2).



the subscale of “Global Esteem” between students who have low

and high score in the subscale of “Stress Management” in

Exercise Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2).

6

Definition of Terms

Adolescents

According to World Health Organization (2015), adolescents

are defined as people aged 10-19 experiencing the human growth

and development after childhood and before adulthood.

Secondary School

In this study, secondary school refers to the government

subsidized co-educational grammar schools providing

full-time schooling in Hong Kong.

Physical Activity

Physical activity is defined as the bodily movement via

skeletal muscles that will require energy expenditure. Energy

expenditure can be measured in kilo-calories. It varies from

low to high continuously. Physical activity is positively

correlated with physical fitness (Caspersen, Powell &

Christenson, 1985).

7

Motivation

As defined by Rabey (2001), motivation is the internalized

drive towards the dominant thought of moment.

Physical Self-Concept

Physical self-concept is defined as the perceptions of oneself

formed through experience with and interpretations of one’s

environment related to one’s physical domain. It is also the

response of a person to situations (Shavelson, Hubner &

Stanton, 1973)

Delimitations

The delimitations of the present study were list as the

following:

1. The selected samples were delimited to the students from

one government subsidized co-educational grammar school in

Hong Kong.

2. The selected samples were delimited to adolescent students

8

who aged between 12 and 19.

3. The use of the Exercise Motivation Inventory – 2 (EMI-2)

to measure exercise motivation.

4. The use of the short version of Physical Self-Description

Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) to measure physical self-concept.

5. All data were distributed and collected by the researcher

in February 2015.

Limitations

The following limitations were established for this

investigation:

1. The subjects were limited to one secondary school which

cannot provide a good generalization as the subjects were

limited mainly because of convenience sampling and from one

school only.

2. Convenience sampling method was used. Biased sample may

occur.

9

Assumptions

1. It was assumed that all subjects would answer the

questionnaire honestly.

2. It is assumed that all subjects complete the questionnaire

individually without others’ influence and consultation.

3. The medium of instruction of the school was English. All

the participants were supposed to have a good English

standard which enabled them to understand the each

questions adequately.

Significance of the Study

It is patently obvious that engaging in physical activity

would have physical and mental benefits to adolescents,

especially when puberty brought about tremendous

physiological and psychological changes. Therefore,

adolescents would be encouraged to actively involve in

physical activity so as to promote overall health.

In Hong Kong, rarely would secondary school students spare

10

time extra time in physical activity. It is of utmost

importance to examine the factors that might contribute to

students’ likelihood of being physically active. Examining

the participation motives in physical activity would be vital

to investigate their physical self-concept. At the same time,

understanding their motives in physical activity would pave

the way for initiating their participation in physical

activity and thereby help improving their physical

self-concept.

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Physical Activity Pattern of Adolescents

World Health Organization (2015) suggests that

adolescents should at least participate in 60 minutes of

moderate to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) on

a daily basis. However, with reference to the recommendation,

around 81% of 11-to-17-year-old adolescents were physically

inactive in 2010. The problem of physical inactivity is

globally influential to adolescents. Adolescent females were

found less physically active (84%) than that of adolescent

males (78%).

In the United States, a more developed country, Centers

for Disease Control (2011) reported only 18% of American

adolescents achieved the recommend 60 minutes of physical

activity each day. For a less developed country, Iran,

research has been done to examine the physical activity level

of adolescents within the country. Among those 402

12

participants in the study, as reported, only 22.1% of them

engaged in 60 minutes or more of physical activity every day.

Behjat, Majlessi, Montazeri, Nedjat, Rahimi, Djazayeri &

Shojaeezadeh (2013) pointed out the mean time of moderate and

vigorous physical activity time (MVPA) of Iran adolescents

was approximately 44.64 MET min/day. They were far from

meeting the recommended physical activity time. Both

researches revealed neither more developed countries nor less

developed countries adolescents could attain sufficient

physical activity level.

For the current situation in Hong Kong, it is reported that

the frequency of adolescents in engaging in physical activity

at least 4 times a week steadily increased from 10.8%, to 14.4%

and 16.6% during 2008-2010. However, it dropped drastically

to 10.9% in 2011 (Bacon-Shone, 2014). Hong Kong as a

knowledge-based society with a highly competitive atmosphere,

pressures and expectations from family on academic

performance were high among adolescents (Ng & Wong, 2012;

13

Salil, Lai & Leung, 2004). Secondary school students will

thereby voluntarily or involuntarily spend more time on

achieving better academic result so as to become a successful

person to ensure a bright future. Time spent on physical

activity would likely be reduced.

Even though Hong Kong secondary school students will get

involved in at least two physical education lessons per week,

in total approximately 70-80 minutes, their intensity of

physical activity were still relatively low (Hong Kong

Curriculum Development Council, 2002). A research has been

done to examine the physical activity intensity among

secondary school students in Hong Kong. 6 months were spent

in observing grade 7-12 physical education classes. Result

showed that student spent only 35% of lesson time in MVPA

(Chow, McKenzie & Louie, 2009).

Besides the over-emphasis on academic result, the low level

of physical activity among Hong Kong secondary school students

can be explained by technology-based sedentary behavior

14

(Cheung, 2012). Jordan (2010) television-viewing would be one

of the determinants which prevent people from physical

activity. Reduction in time for television-viewing may be a

solution to an increase in physical activity.

Significance of Physical Activity to Adolescents

As defined by Caspersen, Powell & Christenson (1985),

physical activity is any bodily movement produced by skeletal

muscles and resulting in energy expenditure. Numerous

researches believed that physical activity is vitally

important to adolescent in terms of short term and long term

benefits. Kong et al. (2010) stated that adolescence would

be a critical period for developing and forming the habits

with substantial tracking of lifestyle. It serves as a

foundation in prohibiting cardiovascular risk in adulthood.

Besides, Kristensen, Møller, Korsholm, Wedderkopp, Andersen

& Froberg (2007) evaluated that not only would physical

activity bring about immediate health benefits to adolescents,

15

yet more importantly, it had direct linkage to adulthood

health.

Physical activity contributes to both physical and mental

health (Stoll & Alfermann, 2002). For physical health, Morrow,

Tucker, Jackson, Martin, Greenleaf & Petrie (2013) found out

developing habits in physical activity earlier in life would

be one of the factors in increased fitness. For instance,

aerobic capacity, muscle strength and endurance, flexibility

would be improved and enhanced only if adolescents were able

to meet the international recommended requirement for

physical activity. A cross-sectional study was done to examine

the adolescent development in physical fitness and health.

2859 Spanish participants were involved in the study (Ortega

et al, 2007). Cardiovascular fitness is inversely associated

with cardiovascular disease factors such as total and

abdominal adiposity are related to blood pressure with low

cardiovascular fitness. Negative relationship between bone

mineral status and cardiovascular disease was resulted as well

16

(Farhat & Cauley, 2008).

Multiple researchers (San Juan et al., 2007) had carried

a study to examine the relationship with cardiovascular

fitness and cancer. 7 children with Leukemia received a 8-week

training program. 3 sessions of strength training involving

major muscles groups, ranging from 90 to 120 minutes.

Throughout the 8 weeks, oncologists would closely monitor

their progress. Positive results were shown to prove the

improvement in muscle strength and endurance.

Moreover, another similar study (Marchese, Chiarello

& Lange, 2003) was done with a group of children aged 4-15

with acute lymphoblastic leukemia by receiving a 16-week

physical therapy treatment. Significant improvement in ankle

dorsiflexion active range of motion and knee extension

strength was recorded. This is a strong proof physical

activity in dealing with cancer. It is obvious that on one

hand physical activity can help improve cardiovascular

fitness. On the other hand, it may help prevent cardiovascular

17

diseases if secondary school students start develop their

physical activity habits in adolescence.

Viewing on another perspective, mental health is also

significant because of the participation in physical activity

for adolescents. Mental health, as defined by Bhugra, Till

& Sartorius (2013), is an integral and essential part of

overall health. Reynolds and Juvonen (2012) stated that

adolescence is a period of biological, social and

psychological change in individuals’ lives. Psychological

distress might be heightened. Increased level of physical

activity was found to have a positive effect on psychological

well-beings such as emotions and behaviors, especially to

physical self-concept (Donaldson & Ronan, 2006; Esnaola &

Zulaika, 2009). Thus, physical activity would help

adolescents in overcoming psychological changes and improving

mental health.

A study was carried out by Ekeland, Heian & Coren (2005)

to investigate if exercise interventions could improve

18

self-esteem among children and young people. Participants who

were healthy, with learning disabilities and/or emotional

disturbances and low self-image received 4-20 weeks

intervention. Result showed that when compared with the

control group, participants receiving interventions were

likely to have a higher self-esteem mean score (18.5) than

that of the control group (17.67).

Besides, Asci, Nazan Kosar and Isler (2001) carried out

a study to examine the physical self-concept in relation to

physical activity. Results had shown that both high physical

activity males and female have higher global self-concept

means scores (60.58 and 64.72 respectively) than that of males

and female who had lower global self-concept mean scores

(60.43 and 62.44 respectively). This implied that adolescents

engaging in higher physical activity level would likely to

have better global self-concept.

19

Gender Difference in Physical Self-Concept

Positive physical self-concept is regarded as playing an

important role in human development. Gender differences in

physical self-concept among elementary and secondary school

students were investigated. In elementary school, the

competence self-perceptions of boys in mathematics and sports

were higher than that of girl. Yet girls’ competence

self-perceptions in music were higher than the boys (Eccles

and Wigfield, 1993.) Domain-specific physical self-concepts

were significantly different among gender. This might be

caused by the traditional sex stereotype indoctrinated by

their parents that boys are masculine and girls are feminine

(Marsh, 1989). Small gender effects which were favorable to

boys were found but consistent differences were resulted

(Hayes et al., 1999; Marsh, 1989).

In secondary school, generally speaking, males had scored

higher in physical self-concept than females. Adolescents at

that time are experiencing puberty, which may extensively

20

bring about rapid biological changes that are comparatively

mature in cognitive. In the period of adolescence, body fat

of females and leanness of males in physical self-concept were

found to be different (Klomsten, Skaalvik & Espnes, 2004). Yet

in late adolescence after puberty, gender differences were

found significantly large in the appearance, body fat,

endurance, strength and global physical scales. Besides,

overall speaking, several studies have shown that female

adolescents reported more negatively towards their physical

self-concept than males did (Demarest and Allen, 2000; MaÔano,

Ninot & Bilard, 2004). Klomsten, Skaalvik and Espnes in 2004

have done a research about gender differences between gender.

The result indicated that among all the subscales in physical

self-concept, males only scored lower in the subscale

flexibility when compared with females. For global and

specific physical self-concept, males performed positively

than females. Besides, gender differences might also be caused

by the self-congratulatory responses of males to physical

21

self-concept items than females (Maehr & Nicholls, 1980).

Gender differences flavoring males were found in physical

self-concept.

Motivation and Physical Self-Concept

Motivation is the internalized drive towards the dominant

thoughts of moment (Rabey, 2001). Physical Self-Concept is

defined as the perceptions of an individual formed through

experience with and interpretations of one’s environment

related to one’s physical domain. It is also the response of

a person to situations (Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1973).

It is known that an individual’s motivation can guide and

regulate his or her behavior, which acts as a determinant in

promoting the experiences of achievement (Moreno-Murcia,

Hernández, Vaillo & Camacho, 2012). In addition, Pintrich and

Schunk (1996) reported that an individual’s self-concept is

strongly related to his or her motivation and competence. It

is thereby believed that there is a strong association between

22

motivation and physical self-concept. Students who feel they

lack the ability in performing a task and think their ability

could not be improved by continuous practice and efforts,

would further worsen the situation and refuse to participate

in the tasks (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). Therefore it is

predicted that if students are motivated to participate in

physical activity, they are likely to improve their physical

self-concept.

Everyone’s participation motive in physical activity

differs. Davis, Fox, Brewer & Ratusny in 1995 proposed that

motives of physical activity might be diversified due to

personality, age and gender. Positive relationship was found

between age and health management motives in physical activity.

Older people would have higher motivation in physical activity

because of health awareness. Sabiston, Crocker &

Munroe-Chandler (2005) in their research showed that females

had the highest motives in physical activity because of

fitness and health reasons. This could probably be explained

23

because of the high publicity of the relationship between

health and physical activity. However, a previous study has

found that college students were more motivated to participate

in physical activity with the aim of achieving positive health

benefits (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew, 2005). Therefore,

positive health motive would be examined to see how important

it would be to secondary school students.

It is commonly found that adolescents engage in physical

activity mainly because of weight control for appearance

purposes and physical attractiveness (Ingledew & Sullivan,

2002; Sabiston, Crocker, & Munroe-Chandler, 2005). Men are

likely to participate in physical activity for weight

management reasons when they find themselves overweight and

that of women would more likely because of the dissatisfaction

with their body size, no matter whether they are actually

overweight (Ingledew & Sullivan, 2002). Weight-related

motives for exercise are positively associated with people

who are dissatisfied with their body shape (Cash, Now & Grant,

24

1994). Weight management is also known as being able to reflect

the extrinsic motives of physical activity.

A negative correlation was found between stress and

self-esteem (Hubbs, Doyle & Bowden, 2012). Moreover, the

correlation was found to be high in both men and women as well.

Pritchard, Wilson & Yamnitz (2007) found that low self-esteem

was associated with low emotions. Increased stress was

indicated. Therefore, it is believed that improving the

participation motives in physical activity helps them manage

stress properly and thereby enhancing their physical

self-concept.

It was found in a research that stress management, positive

health and weight management were significantly important to

females (Pauline, 2013). Females were then predicted to have

higher concerns over their well-being in health and especially

in their weight. Therefore, in this study, positive health,

weight management and stress management in Exercise

Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2) were employed as an indicator

25

to see how they generally affect the physical self-concept

of secondary school students in Hong Kong.

Summary

From the review of literature, benefits from physical

activity were conspicuous. The physical inactivity pattern

in Hong Kong had drawn much of the public attention and this

must be taken into consideration. There was no doubt that

enhancing a better physical activity atmosphere was important.

Thereby, participation motives in physical activity were

picked to investigate the current situation of the physical

self-concept of Hong Kong secondary school student.

26

Chapter 3

METHOD

The method of the study was presented in the following

sections: (a) Sample of selection, (b) Measuring instrument,

(c) Collection of data and (d) Statistical Data Analysis.

Sample of Selection

The subjects selected for this study were the secondary

school students from a full-time government subsidized

co-educational grammar school, which were S.1 to S.6 students

in the academic year 2014-2015. One class of students will

be randomly selected from each form. The purpose of this study

will first be explained to the subjects. Then individuals will

be asked if they would be willing to voluntarily participate

in this study without any advantage or penalty. In total, there

were 100 males and 100 females participating in this study,

from S.1 to S.6.

27

Measuring Instrument

The questionnaire is composed of three parts. Part 1 was

the acknowledgement of the voluntary completion of the

questionnaire. Part 2 was the Exercise Motivation Inventory-

2 (EMI-2) developed by Markland & Ingledew (1997) to examine

the exercise motives of secondary school students. Part 3 was

the short version of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire

(PSDQ-S) developed by Marsh, Martin & Jackson (2010). Part

4 was the demographic questions about their gender, age, form

of study.

In Part 2, subjects were required to complete a set of 47

items. The questions were classified accordingly into 11

subscales – Action, Appearance, Body Fat, Coordination,

Endurance, Flexibility, Health, Sport, Strength, Global

Physical and Global Esteem. The 14 subscales could be grouped

into appearance/ weight, social engagement, health/fitness

and enjoyment indicators (Ingledew, Markland & Ferguson,

2009). Each item is a simple declarative statement based on

28

a 6 point Likert Scale, ranges from “1” indicating Mostly False,

“2” indicating More False than True, “3” indicating More True

than False, “4” indicating False, “5” indicating Mostly True

and “6” indicating True. Each subscale is represented by 4-5

items, in which 12 out of 47 statements are negatively worded

(#8, 11, 17, 19, 22, 25, 29, 30, 33, 39, 46, 47).

In Part 3, subjects were required to complete a set of 51

items. These questions were developed based on 14 subscales,

which involve stress management, revitalization, enjoyment,

challenge, social recognition, affiliation, competition,

health pressures, ill-health avoidance, positive health,

weight management, appearance, strength and endurance and

nimbleness to examine the physical self-concept of the

respondents. Response items range from 0 to 5, with 0

indicating “not at all true for me”, 1 indicating “not quite

true for me”, 2 indicating “not a bit true for me”, 3 indicating

“a bit true to me”, 4 indicating “quite true to me”, and 5

indicating “very true to me.” There are altogether 14

29

subscales for scoring in this part. For each subscales, it

is comprised of 3 to 4 questions. Each subscales would reflect

a different motivational reason for participating in physical

activity. Subscale scores would be obtained by calculating

the mean score of appropriate items. Questions were randomly

arranged and listed. Subscales would not be shown to subjects

so as not to affect their judgment while they were completing

the questionnaire.

In Part 4, demographic information was collected from the

subjects. Subjects were required to write down their gender,

age, class and participation of school sports team.

Collection of Data

212 students were selected from a secondary school. One

class is randomly selected from each form by convenience

sampling. Participants were first asked if they were willing

to complete the questionnaire voluntarily. After obtaining

their consensus, explanation of this study and the

30

questionnaire were introduced. The distribution of

questionnaire was carried out during the home period in the

morning. Participants were given 30 minutes to complete the

questionnaire.

Statistical Data Analysis

For the data analysis, the Statistical Package for Social

Science (SPSS, version 20.0) was used. After the data

collection and data entry into the computer, reverse scoring

was done for some of the questions in Physical

Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) before doing any data

analysis. The analysis done in the following were based on

the alpha level of 0.05.

The statistical analysis for descriptive statistics would

be done. This provided a wide and basic understanding of

secondary school students in Hong Kong. For instance, their

gender, age and participation in sports teams were collected.

The independent t test was to be done to compare the mean

differences of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire

31

(PSDQ-S) for the subscale of “Health/Body Fat/Global Esteem”

between students who have low and high score in the subscale

of “Positive Health/Weight Management/Stress Management” in

Exercise Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2). The grouping of low

score and high score students was referred to the study of

Biddle & Wang in 2003. Students with high score in the subscales

of Exercise Motivation Inventory-2 (EMI-2) were the top 30%

highly motivated by the reasons “Positive Health/Weight

Management/Stress Management” while the low score students

were the bottom 30% lowly motivated by the reasons “Positive

Health/Weight Management/Stress Management”.

The mean difference among gender on physical self-concept will

also be analyzed by independent t test.

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

In this chapter, the analysis of data was presented in the

following ways: (a) demographic information (sample size,

gender and age), (b) reliability of the 14 scales of Exercise

Motivations Inventory-2, (c) reliability of the 11 scales of

Physical Self-Description Questionnaire-S, (d) independent

sample t test of PSDQ mean score between gender, (e)

independent sample t test of “Health” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2,

(f) independent sample t test of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between


EMI-2, (g) Independent sample t test of “Global Esteem” in

PSDQ-S between students with low and high score in “Stress

Management” in EMI-2

Demographic Information

Sample Size

In total, there were 212 participants (n= 212) who had

33

completed the questionnaires on exercise motivation and

physical self-concept were distributed. All cases were

returned and all of them were found completed and answered

appropriately.

Gender Distribution

Table 1 showed the gender distribution of all participants.

Out of 212 participants, 39.6% were males (84 out of 212) and

60.4% (128 out of 212) were females.

Table 1

Gender distribution of all participants

Frequency

(n)

Percent

(%)

Valid

Percent

(%)

Cumulative

Percent

(%)

Male 84 39.6 39.6 39.6

Female 128 60.4 60.4 100.0

Total 212 100.0 100.0

34

Age Distribution

Figure 1 showed the age distribution of all participants.

According to Table 2, the mean age of the participants was

14.91 years old. The mean age of male and female students were

14.75 years old and 15.02 years old respectively. The minimum

and maximum age of all participants were 12 and 19 years old

respectively.

Figure 1 Age Distribution

35

Table 2

Mean age of male and female subjects

Gender Mean n Std.

Deviation Minimum Maximum Range

Male 14.75 84 1.735 12 19 7

Female 15.02 128 1.770 12 19 7

Total 14.91 212 1.757 12 19 7

Reliability of the 14 scales of EMI-2

The test of the scale reliability was conducted.

Cronbach’s Alpha was adopted in the test. The reliability of

the 13 scales of EMI-2 were found to have Cronbach’s Alpha

larger than 0.70 as listed in Table 3, which meant a relatively

high internal consistency (Cronbach, 1951). Only one subscale

was to have an acceptable internal consistency.

36

Table 3

Reliability of the 14 scales of EMI-2

Subscale Cronbach’s Alpha No. of questions

Stress Management 0.876 4

Revitalization 0.778 3

Enjoyment 0.910 4

Challenge 0.883 4

Social Recognition 0.871 4

Affiliation 0.893 4

Competition 0.913 4

Health Pressures 0.664 3

Ill-Health Avoidance 0.810 3

Positive Health 0.859 3

Weight Management 0.862 4

Appearance 0.746 4

Strength & Endurance 0.853 4

Nimbleness 0.816 3

37

Reliability of the 11 scales of PSDQ-S

All the reliability of the 11 scales of PSDQ-S were found

to have Cronbach’s Alpha larger than 0.70 as listed in Table

4, indicating all the subscales had a high internal

consistency (Cronbach, 1951).

Table 4

Reliability of the 11 scales of PSDQ-S

Subscale Cronbach’s Alpha No. of questions

Action 0.792 4

Appearance 0.875 4

Body Fat 0.708 4

Coordination 0.907 5

Endurance 0.850 4

Flexibility 0.788 4

Health 0.873 5

Sport 0.924 4

Strength 0.848 4

Global Physical 0.870 4

Global Esteem 0.793 5

38

Table 5 showed the result of the independent sample t test

of the PSDQ-S mean score between male and female students.

There were significant differences in the mean score of PSDQ-S

between male and female students (t= 2.495, p= 0.013) at 0.05

level of significance, in which rejected the null hypothesis.

In addition, the PSDQ-S mean score of male students (Mean=

3.257, SD= 0.608) was greater than that of female students

(Mean= 3.046, SD= 0.598). Thus, male students had a higher

PSDQ-S mean score than female students.

Table 5

Independent sample t test of PSDQ-S score between sex group

Group n Mean Standard

Deviation t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Male 84 3.257 0.608

2.495 210 0.013

Female 128 3.046 0.598

39

According to Table 6, the result of the independent sample

t test of the mean score of “Health” in PSDQ-S between students

with low and high score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2 was shown.

The result showed that there was no significant difference(t=

-1.179, p= 0.241) in the mean score of the subscale “Health”

in PSDQ-S between students who have low and high mean score

in “Positive Health” in EMI-2, at 0.05 level of significance.

In addition, the mean score of PSDQ-S subscale “Health”

of students with lower mean score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2

(N= 65, Mean= 3.760, SD= 0.842) were lower when compared to

those students with higher mean score in the “Positive Health”

in EMI-2 (N= 55, Mean= 3.952, SD= 0.949).

Table 6

Independent sample t test of “Health” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2

Group n Mean Standard

Deviation t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Low Score 65 3.760 0.842

-1.179 118 0.241

High Score 55 3.952 0.949

40

In Table 7, it indicated that there were significant

differences (t= 6.099, p= 0.000) in the mean score of PSDQ-S

for the subscale of “Body Fat” between students who have low

and high mean score in the subscale of “Weight Management”

in EMI-2, at 0.05 level of significance.

The score of PSDQ-S subscale “Body Fat” of students with

lower mean score in “Weight Management” in EMI-2 (N= 64, Mean=

3.297, SD= 0.978) was significantly higher when compared to

those students with higher mean score in the “Weight

Management” in EMI-2 (N= 65, Mean= 2.254, SD= 0.965).

Table 7

Independent sample t test of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between


EMI-2

Group N Mean Standard

Deviation t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Low Score 64 3.297 0.978 6.099 127 0.000

High Score 65 2.254 0.965

41

In Table 8, it showed that there were significant

differences (t= -3.249, p= 0.001) in the mean score of PSDQ-S

for the subscale of “Global Esteem” between students who have

low and high mean score in the subscale of “Stress Management”

in EMI-2, at 0.05 level of significance.

In addition, the score of PSDQ-S subscale “Global Esteem”

of students with higher mean score in “Stress Management” in

EMI-2 (N= 69, Mean=3.829, SD= 0.873) were higher when compared

to those students with lower mean score in the “Stress

Management” in EMI-2(N= 74, Mean= 3.349, SD= 0.893).

Table 8

Independent sample t test of “Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Stress Management” in

EMI-2

Group N Mean Standard

Deviation t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Low Score 74 3.349 0.893 -3.249 141 0.001

High Score 69 3.829 0.873

42

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate the exercise

motivation of secondary school adolescents and how the

subscales of exercise motivation affect their self-concept.

In this section, the discussion would be divided into the

following parts: (a) Results of PSDQ-S mean score between sex

group, (b) Results of “Health” in PSDQ-S between students

with low and high score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2, (c)

Results of“Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between students with low and

high score in “Weight Management” in EMI-2, (d) Results of

“Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S between students with low and high

score in “Stress Management” in EMI-2.

Results of PSDQ-S mean score between sex group

From the results of the research, significant mean

differences (t= 2.495, p= 0.013) of the PSDQ-S between male

and female students were shown. Male students were found to

have a higher mean score (Mean= 3.257, SD= 0.608) than female

43

students (Mean= 3.046, SD= 0.598). The mean difference of PSDQ

score for male and female students was 0.211. The results had

shown significant gender difference in the physical

self-concept score. This could be supported by Moreno-Murcia,

Hernández, Vaillo & Camacho (2012) analyzing nearly a thousand

secondary school students (Mean age= 14.8, SD= 0.91) in Spain

towards their self-concept in physical education classes.

Male students would have scored higher mean values than

females students in all the subscales. Small gender effects

which were favorable to boys were found but consistent

differences were resulted (Hayes et al., 1999; Marsh, 1989).

In this study, the same result was found. Not only would the

traditional gender stereotype caused the gender differences

(Marsh, 1989)., but also by the self-congratulatory responses

of males to physical self-concept items than females (Maehr

& Nicholls, 1980).As a result, it is predicted that male

students generally has a better physical self-concept than

female students.

44

Results of mean score of “Health” in PSDQ-S between students

with low and high score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2

In this research, no significant difference (t= -1.179,

p= 0.241) was found in the mean score of “Health” in PSDQ-S

between students with low and high score in “Positive Health”

in EMI-2, at 0.05 level of significance. Moreover, the mean

score of PSDQ-S subscale “Health” of students with lower mean

score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2 (N= 65, Mean= 3.760, SD=

0.842) were lower when compared to those students with higher

mean score in the “Positive Health” in EMI-2 (N= 55, Mean=

3.952, SD= 0.949).

This implied that students with lower motives in physical

activity for maintaining a healthy body, they had a lower

physical self-concept. According to the Self-Determination

Theory by Deci and Ryan (1985), identified regulation would

cause an individual to value the advantages of physical

activity and start performing it when they know it would be

beneficial to their physical, psychological and social health.

45

For students having lower “Positive Health” in physical

self-concept, it could be the reason that they did not know

the benefits of physical activity. Once they know how physical

activity would be beneficial to them physically,

psychologically and socially, they tend to have higher motives

in physical activity. Engaging in physical activity more often

is believed to be one of the possible ways to enhance an

individual’s physical self-concept.

Although no significant difference was shown, a positive

relationship between the mean score of “Health” in PSDQ-S


in EMI-2 was shown.

Results of mean score of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between students

with low and high score in “Weight Management” in EMI-2

In this research, significant differences (t= 6.099, p=

0.000) were found in the mean score of “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S

between students with low and high score in “Weight Management”

46


score of PSDQ-S subscale “Body Fat” of students with lower

mean score in “Weight Management” in EMI-2 (N= 64, Mean= 3.297,

SD= 0.978) were significantly higher when compared to those

students with higher mean score in the “Positive Health” in

EMI-2 (N= 65, Mean= 2.254, SD= 0.965).

This implied that students who felt good about their waist

and body shape participated in physical activity not mainly

because they wanted to lose weight, but because of other

reasons behind. Yet for those who were unsatisfied with their

body shape, they had larger motives to engage in physical

activity because they wanted to lose weight. Distorted body

image is believed to be a significant factor for weight

management among adolescents (Yang, Turk, Allison, James &

Chasens, 2014). People who would like to improve their

This could explain why people who had poorer physical

self-concept about their body shape would have higher

motivation in participating in physical activities.

47

Results of mean score of “Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S between

students with low and high score in “Stress Management” in

EMI-2

In this research, significant differences (t= -3.249, p=

0.001) were found in the mean score of “Global Esteem” in PSDQ-S

between students with low and high score in “Stress Management”


score of PSDQ-S subscale “Global Esteem” of students with

higher mean score in “Stress Management” in EMI-2 (N= 69, Mean=

3.829, SD= 0.873) were higher when compared to those students

with lower mean score in the “Stress Management” in EMI-2 (N=

74, Mean= 3.349, SD= 0.893).

According to Brown & Marshall (2006), global esteem, or

namely self-esteem, refers to a personality variable that

represents the way people generally feel about themselves.

It is also the overall positive or negative feeling

Of an individual. Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach & Rosenberg

(1995) proposed that global esteem was related to the measures

48

of psychological well-being. A negative correlation was found

between stress and self esteem (Hubbs, Doyle & Bowden, 2012).

That means as stress increases, global esteem would likely

decrease. By then, physical self-concept would be affected

as well.

It is also found that higher frequency of physical activity

is closely linked with less stress and higher self-esteem

(Moksnes, Byrne, Mazanov & Espnes, 2010). Therefore, in this

study, for students who had less motives in participating in

physical activity because of reducing stress, they had lower

ability in managing stress and therefore resulted in a lower

global esteem. They tended to have more negative thoughts on

themselves. As global self-esteem is influential to

motivation, career aspirations, educational success and

health (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003), those

who failed to manage their stress in various aspect tended

to have lower global esteem. Since it was believed that their

physical self-concept would be improved if they would have

49

more motives in managing stress to engage in physical activity,

developing a habit of consistent participation in physical

activity would help increasing perceptions of self-mastery

and self-efficacy, in addition distracting people from

negative thoughts (Desha, Ziviani, Nicholson, Martin &

Darnell, 2007).

50

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of Results

This study was to investigate the exercise motivation of

secondary school adolescents, compare the differences in

physical self-concept between students with different levels

of motivation and how the subscales of exercise motivation

affect their physical self-concept.

Altogether there were 212 participants in this study. Among

them, 84 were boys and 128 were girls. Their age ranged from

12 to 19 years old. They were all selected from a government

subsidized co-educational grammar school in Hong Kong.

The Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for

window 20.0 version computer program was used to collect the

data. Independent sample t test was used to determine the

differences in the mean score of physical self-concept between

male and female participants. Independent sample t test was

used to compare the mean differences of“Health” in PSDQ-S

51


in EMI-2, “Body Fat” in PSDQ-S between students with low and

high score in “Weight Management” in EMI-2 and “Global Esteem”

in PSDQ-S between students with low and high score in “Stress

Management” in EMI-2. The researcher assigned a significance

level of 0.05 to all data.

The results of this research were summarized as below:

1. There were significant differences in the mean score of

PSDQ-S between male and female students.

2. There was no significant difference in the mean score of

the subscale “Health” in PSDQ-S between students who have

low and high mean score in “Positive Health” in EMI-2.


PSDQ-S for the subscale of “Body Fat” between students who

have low and high mean score in the subscale of “Weight

Management” in EMI-2.


PSDQ-S for the subscale of “Global Esteem” between students

52

who have low and high mean score in the subscale of “Stress

Management” in EMI-2.

Conclusions

From the above results, we found that gender difference

existed in physical self-concept. Male students generally

had a better physical self-concept than female students.

Furthermore, some scales of physical activity

participation motives were found to have strong association

with the physical self-concept of Hong Kong secondary school

students. Yet from the results, we would conclude that

physical activity would be beneficial to secondary school

students towards their physical self-concept. In this study,

the physical and mental participation motives in physical

activity were investigated.

Recommendations for Further Study

Based on the above results and discussion, the recommendations

of further study were listed in the following:

53

1. To better understand the relationship participation

motives in physical activity and self-concept of secondary

school students, the intensity and the amount of time spent

on physical activity could also be examined so as to reflect

the whole picture of the association between physical

activity and physical self-concept.

2. The promotion of physical activity motives should be

enhanced since it would help build up the physical

self-concept, physical and mental health of adolescents.

3. The sample size could be enlarged so as to ensure the

validity of the study.

4. A more focused research on age difference and gender

difference on participation motives in physical activity

and physical self-concept could be carried out as a useful

research on physical self-concept of Hong Kong secondary

school students.

54

5. When promoting physical activity, the quality and

motivation- specific design could be considered so as to

arouse adolescents’ interests.

55

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APPENDIX

Questionnaire on Physical Self-Concept and Motivation in

Physical Activity

Part 1 Acknowledgement

This questionnaire is conducted for the honours project of the Degree of Bachelor of

Arts in Physical Education and Recreation Management (Honours). This is about the

motivation of doing exercise. This questionnaire is voluntarily completed without any

benefit or disadvantage to the PE class.

Part 2 Physical Self-Concept

Please indicate your answer by circling a number.

Not at all true for me �…� Very true for me

1. I feel confident when doing coordinated movements. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

2. Other people think I'm good at sports. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

3. I am attractive for my age. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

4. I am a physically strong person. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

5. I am quite good at bending, twisting and turning my body. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

6. I can run a long way without stopping. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

7. Overall, most things I do turn out well. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

8. I usually catch whatever illness (flu, virus, cold etc.) is

going around.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

9. Controlling movements of my body comes easily to me. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

10. I often do exercise or activities that make me breathe hard. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

11. My waist is too large. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

12. I am good at most sports. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

13. Physically, I am happy with myself. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

14. I have a nice looking face. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

15. I have a lot of power in my body. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

16. My body is flexible. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

17. I am sick so often that I cannot do all the things I want to

do.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

18. I am good at coordinated movements. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

19. I have too much fat on my body. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

20. I am better looking than most of my friends. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

21. I am stronger than most people my age. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

67

22. My body is stiff and inflexible. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

23. I can perform movements smoothly in most physical

activities.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

24. I do physically active things (e.g. jog, dance, bicycle,

aerobics, gym, swim) at least three times a week).

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

25. I am overweight. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

26. I have good sports skills. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

27. Physically, I feel good about myself. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

28. I think I could run a long way without getting tired. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

29. Overall, I am no good. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

30. I get sick a lot. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

31. I find my body handles coordinated movements with ease. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

32. I do lots of sports, dance, gym, or other physical activities. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

33. My stomach is too big. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

34. I feel good about who I am and what I can do physically. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

35. I am good looking. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

36. I would do well in a test of strength. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

37. I can be physically active for a long period of time without

getting tired.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

38. Most things I do, I do well. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

39. When I get sick, it takes me a long time to get better. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

40. I do sports, exercise, dance or other physical activities

almost every day.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

41. I play sports well. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

42. I feel good about who I am physically. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

43. I think I would perform well on a test measuring

flexibility.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

44. I am good at endurance activities e.g. distance run,

aerobics, swim, cross-country, ski.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

45. Overall, I have a lot to be proud of. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

46. I have to go to the doctor because of illness more than

most people my age.

1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

47. Nothing I do ever seems to turn out right. 1… 2… 3… 4… 5… 6

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Part 3 Exercise Motivation

Please indicate your answer by circling a number.

Not at Very

all true true

for me for me

Personally, I exercise (or might exercise) …

1 To stay slim 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 To avoid ill-health 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 Because it makes me feel good 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 To help me look younger 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 To show my worth to others 0 1 2 3 4 5

6 To give me space to think 0 1 2 3 4 5

7 To have a healthy body 0 1 2 3 4 5

8 To build up my strength 0 1 2 3 4 5

9 Because I enjoy the feeling of exerting myself 0 1 2 3 4 5

10 To spend time with friends 0 1 2 3 4 5

11 Because my doctor advised me to exercise 0 1 2 3 4 5

12 Because I like trying to win in physical activities 0 1 2 3 4 5

s

69

Not at Very

all true true

for me for me


13 To stay/become more agile 0 1 2 3 4 5

14 To give me goals to work towards 0 1 2 3 4 5

15 To lose weight 0 1 2 3 4 5

16 To prevent health problems 0 1 2 3 4 5

17 Because I find exercise invigorating 0 1 2 3 4 5

18 To have a good body 0 1 2 3 4 5

19 To compare my abilities with other peoples’ 0 1 2 3 4 5

20 Because it helps to reduce tension 0 1 2 3 4 5

21 Because I want to maintain good health 0 1 2 3 4 5

22 To increase my endurance 0 1 2 3 4 5

23 Because I find exercising satisfying in and of itself 0 1 2 3 4 5

24 To enjoy the social aspects of exercising 0 1 2 3 4 5

25 To help prevent an illness that runs in my family 0 1 2 3 4 5

26 Because I enjoy competing 0 1 2 3 4 5

70

Not at Very

all true true

for me for me


27 To maintain flexibility 0 1 2 3 4 5

28 To give me personal challenges to face 0 1 2 3 4 5

29 To help control my weight 0 1 2 3 4 5

30 To avoid heart disease 0 1 2 3 4 5

31 To recharge my batteries 0 1 2 3 4 5

32 To improve my appearance 0 1 2 3 4 5

33 To gain recognition for my accomplishments 0 1 2 3 4 5

34 To help manage stress 0 1 2 3 4 5

35 To feel more healthy 0 1 2 3 4 5

36 To get stronger 0 1 2 3 4 5

37 For enjoyment of the experience of exercising 0 1 2 3 4 5

38 To have fun being active with other people 0 1 2 3 4 5

39 To help recover from an illness/injury 0 1 2 3 4 5

40 Because I enjoy physical competition 0 1 2 3 4 5

71

Not at Very

all true true

for me for me


41 To stay/become flexible 0 1 2 3 4 5

42 To develop personal skills 0 1 2 3 4 5

43 Because exercise helps me to 0 1 2 3 4 5

burn calories

44 To look more attractive 0 1 2 3 4 5

45 To accomplish things that others are incapable of 0 1 2 3 4 5

46 To release tension 0 1 2 3 4 5

47 To develop my muscles 0 1 2 3 4 5

48 Because I feel at my best when exercising 0 1 2 3 4 5

49 To make new friends 0 1 2 3 4 5

50 Because I find physical activities fun, 0 1 2 3 4 5

especially when competition is involved

51 To measure myself against personal standards 0 1 2 3 4 5

72

Part 4 Demographic Information

Please circle when appropriate.

Gender: Male / Female

Class: ______

School Sports Team Member: Yes / No

If yes, please indicate:_______________________

Thank you for completing this questionnaire