a report on the sugar industry in queensland

A report on the sugar industry in QueenslandAuthor(s): Roth, Henry LingSource: Bristol Selected Pamphlets, (1880)Published by: University of Bristol LibraryStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/60243198 .

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BY

HENRY LING EOTH.

PUBLISHERS : GORDON and G-GTCH, BRISBANE, SYPXET, MELBOTJBNE, AND LOKDOA.

MDCCCLXXX.

50846

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mERCHANT TAILOR,

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GENTLEMEN'S

HOSIER, GLOVER, AND

HUNTING BREECHES MAKER,

A.ND IMPORTER,

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ADVERTISEMENTS

Warwick & Sapsford,

ytzwNTiiz stationer,

ACCOUNT BOOK MANUFACTURERS,

PAIPffiffi IRIUILIEISSf

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-^ PRINTERS & LITHOGRAPHERS. ®f

^fMQ^AVIJNQ DOJME 0^ THE pF^EJVIipEp.

DESIGNS AND ESTIMATES ON APPLICATION.

FIRST-CLASS WORK & MODERATE CHARGES.

204, QUEEN STREET, BRISBANE.

PRINTERS OP "QUEENSLAND PUNOH."



ADVEBTISEMENT.

Queensland Crown Land Alienation Act of 1876.

How Persons Arriving in Queensland can

Acquire Ereehold Land.

f\THE Laws relating to the alienation of Crown JL Lands in Queensland offer every facility to

persons desirous of acquiring Ereehold Land.

The following explains in a cursory way v hat these great facilities are w hich the Government offer to those who wish to settle in this Colony, and aid in developing its vast resources.

Eroni time to time, as required, the Minister for Public Lands throws open Lands for Selection, and notice thereof is given in the Queensland Govern¬ ment Gazette, as well as in all the local papers. Anyone—male or unmarried female—who has at¬ tained the age of eighteen, can acquire Ereehold Land.

There are several ways of acquiring land. It is done by what is called Selection. A Selector is the

person entitled for the time being to any land

selected, whether by conditional purchase or as a Homestead.

1. A Selector may obtain by Cc nditional Purchase not more than 5120 acres, or not less than 40 acres (in certain districts not quite as much as 5120 acres can be taken up).



ADVERTISEMENT.

2. A Selector can take up land under Homestead Selection, but the maximum amount to be taken

up is fixed at 160 acres. No one is bound to take up the maximum amount, but the maximum amount limited by law cannot be exceeded.

The various forms of application to be filled up in the selection of land are readily obtainable at

any of the Land Offices in the Colony, where also

every advice and assistance is given to the Selectors.

The Price of lands to be taken up on Simple Con¬ ditional Selection is fixed by proclamation when the lands are thrown open, and is not less than five

shillings per acre. The payments are made in ten annual instalments, each equal to the first year's payment, but in certain circumstances the last seven instalments may be paid in a lump sum at the end of the third year. Eor Homesteads the price is fixed at 2s. 6cl. per acre, to be paid in five annual instalments of sixpence.

In case of competition for the land, it is put up to auction, and the instalments are then naturally at the higher rate bid at the auction.

There are certain small fees to be paid for Survey, Deeds, &c, which amount to only a few pounds altogether.

Certain conditions to be fulfilled by the Selectors. The chief condition in the case of simple conditional

purchase is bona fide residence, either of the Selector or his bona fide .Bailiff during the term of the lease.

During the term of the lease, that is in ten years, the Selector must spend insubstantial and permanent improvements on the land a sum equal to the whole of the purchase money, only he need not spend more than ten shillings per acre. Houses of all kinds, whether residences, stores, stables, or barns, &c,



ADTEETISEltENT.

yards, fences, wells and other water storage, clearing, cultivation, plantation of trees or artificial grasses, ring-barking, and "

any building, erection, con¬

struction, or appliance being a fixture," are allowed to pass as Improvements. The above conditions

being fulfilled to the satisfaction of the Land Com¬

missioner, the Selector can obtain a Certificate of Fulfillment of conditions after the expiration of three years, and if he then chooses to pay up his balance of rents in a lump sum he can claim his deed of grant and becomes absolute owner of the soil.

The Chief Condition to be observed in the case of the Homestead Selector, is bona fide residence of the Selector himself for five years. He must also spend ten shillings per acre on Improvements during his five years' tenure, after "n hich he becomes absolute owner of the soil.

Eacilities are also offered in case the Conditional Selector changes his mind and wishes to transfer his

land, or requiring money, wishes to raise a mortgage on his selection. In case of death the law is favor¬ able to the heir, and in case of insolvency or debt, favorable to the Selector.

In certain cases, Unalienated Lands are put up to auction at a fixed upset price "n ithout any con¬ ditions, but that the land be paid for in cash down.

Eurther information can be obtained at the offices of the Agent-General for Queensland, Charing Cross, London; from the Commissioners of the Queensland Court at the Melbourne Exhibition; or at any of the Land Offices throughout the Colony of Queensland.



140

EXPLANATION.

I NORTHERN LIMIT OP FUTURE EXTENSION OP SUGAR-CANE

II CARDWK1L DISTRICT. III. MACKAY DISTRICT IV. & AND b CENTRAL DISTRICT V a TO b SOUTHERN DISTRICT

(VI NEW SOUTH WALES DISTRICT)

142 prr" s<"uts

144

S" E

WARWICK & SAPSFOP



WITH THE AUTHOR'S COWLIMEXTS

A REPORT

ON the

SUGAR INDUSTRY

IN

QUEENSLAND.

BY

1IENEY LING ROTH.

PUBLISHERS: GORDON and GOTCH, BRISBANE, SYDNEY, MELBOURNE, AND LONDON.

MDCCCLXXX



ISrtsbnnc: Printed by Warwick & Sapseokd, 204, Queen Street.

X-fO- / Lf-Z Ogi> - *7



PREFACE.

Of late years Queensland has attracted much atten¬

tion at home, and not least amongst its attractions

for men of capital has been the continued growth of

the manufacture of Sugar.

A short time ago I was commissioned by some

English capitalists to investigate and report on the

Sugar Industry in Queensland. I was requested to

direct my attention more especially to its commercial

features, to ascertain "nhether the Industry was

possessed of the elements of commercial success.

My Report was sent home, and since then I have

obtained permission to publish it.

In laying the report before the public, I am

necessarily obliged to cut out all descriptions of the

many Sugar plantations I have visited; this, although it slightly lessens the interest, will not in any way detract from the value of the report, since it is based

on notes collected during those visits.

Since the report was written I have to add:—The

crops for 1879 (31st April, '79, to 31st March, '80) amounts to about 18,200 tons, or about 4500 tons



IV.

above that of the previous year. The approximate

output of the four Sugar Districts is :—

Southern District 2200 tons (about). Central „ 5750 „

Mackay „ 9500 „ Cardwell „ 750 „ (about).

Eor 1880 the output is estimated at 21,000 tons; this estimate is low, as although the acreage to be

crushed has been largely increased, the very excep¬ tional dry weather experienced in November and

December, '79, has made the crop rather short.

Amongst the new processes coming into use during the present crushing season, I may mention Mac¬

kenzie and Maclaren's Patent Ejector Vacuum Pan, and Sutton & Co.'s Atmospheric Evaporator, of

which several are in course of erection, and nearly

completed.

Eaith in Sugar as one of the staple products of

Queensland is firmer than ever. In all the districts

planters are extending their area under cultivation

for cane, and increasing the capabilities of their

mills. On the Herbert River two medium-sized

mills will shortly be erected, bringing the output there up to about 1600 tons. In the Central District, at Bundaberg, a new small mill is also in course of

erection. On the Johnstone River (about 40 miles

north of Cardwell), in lat 17° 30' S. and long. 150° 6' E., Mr. T. H. Eitzgerald, the original pioneer

planter of Mackay, with several others forming a

company, has just started Sugar-growing. The soil



T.

there is said to be very rich, but little is known of

the climate, which, however, probably resembles that

of the Lower • Herbert. At Cairns the canes are

growing well, but as yet no mills have been erected.

At Mackay next season a 1500 ton mill is to be put

up, the clearing of the land for which, and the

planting of the cane are now going on.

HY. LING ROTH.

Brisbane, May 30, 1880.

Note.—Since tabulating the Rainfall of the Sugar Districts, I have made the disagreeable discovery that the published Government Returns for the

Mackay rainfall in the early days are incorrect.

Consequently the value of Table R. VIII. (Rainfall

during Crushing) is vitiated, and in lieu of Table

R. IV. (Mackay Rainfall), the reader will kindly substitute the table of Rainfall at Alexandra Plan¬

tation (J. Ewen Davidson, Esq.), Mackay, placed at

the end of the book.

H. L. R.



CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

The Sugar-growing Districts in Queensland.—The Four Districts—Their Position.

CHAPTER II., The Geology and Soils of the Sugar-growing Districts.—Formation of the

Soils—Chief Characteristics—Comparison with Sugar Lands of Deme- rara and Trinidad.

CHAPTER III.

Tlie Rainfall, See., of the Sugar-growing Districts.—Rainfall due to Trade Winds—Comparison of Rainfall of the Four Districts—Comparison with that of other Sugar-growing Countries—Rainfall during Crushing Season—Droughts—Frosts, Damage they do—The Heat, its effect on man and beast—General Healthiness of Australia—Tables I. to VIII. of Rainfall—Table giving Rain Curve at Mackay—Temperature at Mackay.

CHAPTER IV.

The Progress of the Sugar Industry in Queensland.—Mr. Thomas Scott- Start in New South Wales—Start in Moreton Bay (Queensland)— Sugar-cane at International Exhibition of 1862—Buh6t, the first to make Sugar in Queensland—Captain L. Hope—Coxen's Resolutions— Start at Maryborough—Start in Mackay—Wane of Cotton Culture— Demand for Cane—The Rush for Sugar Plantations—Demand for Mills—Further Progress—Rust—Present Output—Tables I. to IV. of Land under Cultivation, Acreage Crushed, number of Mills and Sugar Produced.

CHAPTER V. The Black Laoor employed in the Industry.—South Sea Islanders—Coolies

—Government Opposition—Canadian Negroes—'Act to import Coolies —Captain Towns and the "Don Juan"—Popular Opposition—Poly¬ nesian Laborers' Act—Select Committee of Inquiry into Alleged Abuses — Food — General Treatment—Further Opposition—Party Question—Expense of Kanaka Labor—White Labor—Reliability of Kanaka Labor— Statistical—New Caledonia — Fiji—Recruiting — Prevention of Abuses-



Tir.

CHAPTER VI. Central Factories.—Price paid for Cane—The Yengarie System—Division

of profits—Complaints of Small Settlers—Press Interference—Want of Capital—Martinique Factories—No standard for Queensland—The Establishment of Central Factories—Profits on same—Tables I. and I [,, showing Profits of Martinique Factories.

CHAPTER VII. Small Mills.—The Victor Mill and Cook's Evaporator—Incapability of

Mills—No Commercial Basis—The Evaporator a Concretor—The Peak Mountain Successes—The Agent's Loss of Faith in Small Mills.

CHAPTER VIII. Cultivation, cfc.—Early Cultivation Rude—Bad year, 1875—Present Culti¬

vation— System—Time to Ripen—-Varieties—Stools—Tops—Fertilis¬ ing—Waste of Megass—Application of Megass—Other Losses to Soil—Purchase of Cane—Polariscope versus Saccharometer—Mr. W. H. Hyne—Crushing Power—Processes—Pans—Drying-—Sugars in De¬ mand—Queensland Sugars—Gallons to the Ton—Carriage—The Expeiimental Farm— Cane-borer—Pou-a-p6che-blanc.

CHAPTER IX. The Production of Sugar.—Average yield per acre—Causes of low return

—Density—Comparison with other countries—Future yield—Table of average yield.

CHAPTER X. The (%-calhd) Rust-disease.—The Bourbon Cane—Season 1875—Results

of Investigations—Cause—Future appearance—Excess of Bainfall. CHAPTER XL

Failures and their Causes.—The rush for Sugar plantations—Number of Failures—Percentage of Success - Causes of Failure—Rust—Be¬ haviour of the Money-lenders.

CHAPTER XII. Rum.—Whish and Trevelian—Excise Duty—Cost of Production—General

Output—Total Production—Consumption—Pleystowe Rum—Tables I. and II., Production and Trade.

CHAPTER XIII. The Colonial Sugar Tariffs.-—Queensland—New South WTales—Victoria—

South Australia—Western Australia—Tasmania— JJew Zealand. CHAPTER XIV.

The Cost of Production.—Early dilhculty—Cost of Production—Large Mills versus Small Mills—Demeraia Mills—Decrease in Cost—Effect of Competition—Returns,



vni

CHAPTER XV. Future Fields— Queensland—Northern Territory, (S. A.) —Western Aus¬

tralia—Queensland. CHAPTER XVI.

Future Prospects.—Effect of Duty—Opposition to Industry—Beet in Victoria and New Zealand—Sorghum—New Caledonia—Fiji—Effect of European Market.

CHAPTER XVII. Consumption of Sugar.—In Australia—In Great Britain—Tables.

CONCLUSION.

ERRATA.

Page 14, line 5, for " Solite" read Oolite.

Page 47, line 14, for "mention" read mentions.

Page 51, 4th line from bottom, for " as agricul¬ tural" read an agricultural.

Page 58, line 5, substitute a comma for the "period" after the word "boulders."



CHAPTER I.

The Sugar-growing Districts of Queensland—the Four Districts—Their Position.

TnE Sugar-growing districts of this Colony are situated on the coast, extending from the New South Wales border, lat. S. 28°, to Cairns, lat. S. 17°. _ They are divided by the Chief Inspector of Distilleries into four districts : (1) The Southern District, extending from Nerang Creek near the border to Maroochie Creek. (2) The Central or Wide Bay District, from about Marootchie to Bundaberg. (3) The Mackay District, in lat. 21° 10'; and (4) the Cardwell District.

The Southern Sugar-growing District is most scattered, the plantations being chiefly situated on the richest portions of the soil, often side by side, and at other places miles apart. Thus to begin at the southernmost portion, there is Nerang Creek with three Sugar mills, then the Pimpama, now abandoned, the Coomera river with several mills ; further north the Albert and Logan lower rivers, whose banks

produce almost nothing but Sugar-cane, the chief centre being Beenleigh. Mount Cotton stands some¬ what isolated; then on the coast we have Redland

Bay and Cleveland, and following up the coast, Hemmant, on the mouth of the Brisbane river, opposite to which is Eagle Earm. A few miles to the west of Brisbane city, and up the river, we have

Indooroopilly, Oxley, and Sherwood, about 25 miles inland, with a sugar mill each. Continuing up the coast, we have Bald Hills, on Pine River, Burpen- gary Creek, the Caboolture River, Mooloolah and Maroochie Creeks.

The Central Sugar-growing District commences where the Southern District terminates, namely,



io

north of Maroochie Creek, but there are no Sugar plantations until we come to Tiaro, about 16 miles inland, in the neighborhood of which stands Antigua plantation, and where also another plantation with mill is in course of formation; a few miles further on are several mills on Tinana Creek and the Mary River, until close up to Maryborough township. There is then an absence of Sugar estates until we arrive at Bundaberg, in the proximity of which there are three mills and plantations.

Mackay District is a compact locality, with sixteen mills working close to one another, chiefly on the banks of the Pioneer River, the existence of which, by the way, was not known until the year 1861.*

In the Cardwell District, there are two plantations on the banks of the Lower Herbert River.

At Cairns, in November last year (1879), a plan¬ tation was started, which will most likely make this a new sugar district.

On the island of St. Helena, in the mouth of the Brisbane River, Mr. M'Donald, the Superintendent of the Penal Settlement, has organised a small sugar plantation, worked by the convicts.

* It was discovered by a man called " Red" Mackay, a Scotch sailor, who had turned butcher and then bullock driver. He is supposed to have lost his life in the South Sea Islands.



CHAPTER II. The Geology and Soils of the Sugar-growing Districts*—Formation of the

Soils—Chief Characteristics—Comparison with Sugar Lands of Demerara, Mauritius, and Trinidad.

I. THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT.

This district is extremely scattered, and the

geological differences which it presents are very varied. Beginning at the southernmost portion we have:

Nerang Creek.—The plantations here are situated on narrow slips of land along the creek, consisting of alluvial deposits brought down by the river from the slate ranges at the back. The soil immediately behind these strips is very inferior, except such localities as are covered with scrub (jungle). The lower rock consists of rather poor Devonian slate, a few parts including Calcareous slate (of the same

geological formation). The Coomera River.—The formation the same

here as above; the soil also on which the plantations have been established have the same peculiarities as the Nerang Creek alluvials.

The Logan and Albert Rivers (Beenleigh the

centre).—All the plantations are situated on the alluvial drift from the Basaltic ranges at the head of the rivers, and is consequently very rich and suit¬ able for agricultural purposes. The alluvium, however, only exists in the pockets of the rivers and in narrow slips along the banks, so that like at

Nerang Creek, the soil beyond these strips is com¬

paratively poor, but further back the land is Basaltic. The greater part of the alluvium was at the outset covered with scrub. On the Lower Logan River,

* For my geological information I am indebted to Mr, A. C, Gregory, the Explorer and Government Q-Qologieal Surveyor

B*



12

there is an alluvial swamp, partially drained. The lower rock still remains Devonian slate.

The Rimpama, lying between the Coomera River and Albert River, is a large tract of alluvial swamp. The sugar plantations have all been broken up in this locality.

Cleveland and Redland IB ay.—The greater part of the soil belongs to a thin top bed of Cretaceous

deposits. At Redland Bay the excess of oxide of iron makes it only a very moderately fertile soil.

Mount Cotton.—Very poor Devonian slate, only the gullies where the drift has accumulated are of

any value. Doughboy Creek (Hemmant).—The soil consists

of low alluvial basaltic drifts, brought down by the Bulimba waters. The lower rock is an inferior sandstone. The land is very flat, and only drainage has made it workable.

Oxley.—The soil has been formed by the deposits made by the Brisbane River, and contains a propor¬ tion of decomposed Basalt. This drift is mainly to be found in the pockets created by the twists of the river, and in narrow scrub-covered belts along the same. The lower rock appertains to the Carboni¬ ferous Coal measures.

Bald Hills (Pine River).—A small patch of

Tertiary Basalt.

Rurpengary and the lower Caboolture River.-—The soils of the plantations in these localities are pecu¬ liarly constituted, their existence having been

brought about partially by the alluvial drift carried down by the waters of the creeks, &c, from the

upper lands, and partially by marine shells and mud, deposited there by the sea. The site of the land cultivated by the planters was originally a bay. At the Caboolture, all plantations but one have been abandoned, owing to unsuitability of position and saltness. Originally the land was partially open.



IS

II. THE CENTRAL DISTRICT. This district is also much scattered.

The Lower Mary River and Tinana Creek.—The

plantations are situated on belts of agricultural soil, on the banks of these waters. Their richness is due to their being alluvial drifts from the Upper Mary, the rocks of Avhich, although chiefly Devonian slate, are interspersed with outbursts of igneous rocks

(basalt and traps). A large part of this soil is

occupied by small settlers, who do not grow sugar. At the outset it was thickly covered with scrub.

According to Professor Liversidge,* there appears to be a quantity of manganese present in these soils. There is also a bright red and open soil on some

portions of Tinana Creek, t Bundaberg (mouth of Burnett River).—The soil

of the " Barolin Scrub " is chiefly due to the decom¬

position of basaltic rocks. The other soil, forming a light sandy alluvial flat, is derived from drift from the Upper Burnett, from granite, Devonian slate, carboniferous sandstone, and tertiary basalt.

III. MACKAY DISTRICT.

This Sugar-growing district is very compact, not¬

withstanding the diverse character of the soils. " The basin of the Pioneer, Sandy Creek, St.

Helen's Creek, the Andromache and Proserpine rivers, from Repulse Bay to Cape Palmerston, is surrounded by a range of Granite formation, with

outlying masses of Metamorphic rock : there are a few traces of Cambrian rocks (slates), but none that I have yet seen of Silurian or Devonian; we have, however, a continually recurring outcrop about mid-

* Professor Liversidge : " Disease in the Sugar-cane, Queensland" (Sydney, 1876).

t " Cropping up here and there are seen fragments and blocks of a vari- gated red and grey Trachyte, a rock of igneous origin, from which, by- decomposition, the soil has been derived."—Ibid,



14

way between the range and the sea, of the carboni¬ ferous strata, shoAving itself in shales with charac¬ teristic fern fossils, fireclay, and limestone. Nearer the coast Ave haA^e Sandstone, most probably Trias and Limestone seams of the Solite."*

So much for the general stratification. " The alluvial plains lying on the south side of

Pioneer River, are the modern detritus from the Granite and Metamorphic ranges. " On the north side the country is much broken through volcanic agency, and the valleys are formed of the Basaltic soil similar to that of the Darling DoAvns; the boulders lying on the surface of the more rounded hills of this nature, are of Trap origin, and there are several Trap dykes running across the Pioneer. Some of the outlying hills are Primary Granite, others entirely of Trap rocks."

IV. CARDWELL DISTRICT.

As yet the only Sugar-groAAdng portion is: The Lower Herbert River.—The cultivated soil

is an alluvial drift, deposited by the river on its banks. The composition of the soil is derived from the Granite and Basalt ranges, which rise abruptly to a great height about tAvelve miles from the coast. The river leaves these ranges and makes a curve round to the coast, passing originally through a SAvamp, AArhich, by its deposits, it has converted into rich agricultural land, having raised the land ad¬ jacent to its banks several feet above the original level.

At Cairns the soil is an alluvial drift, for the greater part thickly covered with vinous scrub.

It will thus be seen that, taken all round, the

* No geologist appears to have visited Mackay yet to report on its geology. For the above information I am indebted to a gentleman, who at the same time, intimates that it is not so thoroughly correct as he could wish.



15

soils of the several districts are much alike in

character, and for agricultural purposes, may be deemed of very fair average fertility. * Occasionally men who have started as planters, and knew nothing about agriculture, have chosen sandy or otherwise

poor soils, yet generally speaking the sugar estates are all situated on very productive soils.

* In Demerara, the land on which the plantations are situated, has been described as follows: " The coast land and cultivated districts of the colony, consist of an extensive mudflat, or alluvial deposit, composed chiefly of blue clay, impregnated with marine salt, and rich in decomposed vegetable matter. The back country consists for the most part of granite, quartz, sandstone, &c, and their various modifications " Catalogue of Contributions transmitted from British Guiana 11 the International Exhibition of 1862, p. 30 and 31. In Trinidad the plantations are situated on lands consisting of calcareous and argillaceous soils, or calcareous sands and clays, on the alluvial banks of the rivers, and on some stiff ferruginous clays. See p. 82, The Geology of Trinidad, by Wall and Sawkins. In Mauritius the soil is volcanic.



CHAPTER III.

The Rainfall of the Sugar-growing Districts.—Rainfall due to trade-winds— Comparison of rainfall of the four districts—Comparison with that of other Sugar-growing countries—Rainfall during crushing season— Droughts—Frosts—The heat—General healthiness of Australia— Tables of Rainfall—Table of Rain Curve—Temperature at Mackay.

The Sugar-growing districts, being situated be¬ tween the coast and the range of hills, which run the whole length, within a few miles of the coast, of Eastern Australia, are but little affected by the

droughts and floods which play such havoc on the Downs, and in the interior of the continent. The rainfall of the coast is almost wholly due to the

regularity Avith which the south-east trade-Avinds blow.

The smallest annual rainfall at any of the Sugar- growing districts occurs at Maryborough, where the mean for eight years (1871-8) is 50"13 inches, the mean number of clays on which rain falls being nearly 91. At Beenleigh, which may be taken as the centre of the scattered Southern District, the mean rainfall for the same period amounts to nearly 5-^ inches more, being 55-66 inches, while at the same time the number of days on Avhich rain falls is less by nearly seven, being only 83f. At Mackay the mean annual rainfall is 67'36 inches for the same period, that amount falling during a mean of nearly 91 days. At the Lower Herbert the rain¬ fall exceeds that at any other station in Queensland, the mean being no less than 96"24 inches, and rain falling for 128 days, or above one-third of the year.

The excessive rainfall of the last-named station is probably due to the peculiar abruptness with which the range rises at the back, whereby the moisture- laden south-east winds are apparently caught, and



17

deposit the rain. At Beenleigh and Maryborough the land is comparatively flat, but at Mackay the immediate neighborhood is very hilly, and which

probably has its influence on the rainfall. It must be borne in mind that the Southern

District stretches along the coast for some 80 miles, so that the rainfalls at the various plantations most

probably vary to a certain extent. At Maryborough also, the plantations are situated one to seven miles distant from the town; and for Bundaberg, which lies about 50 miles to the north, there are no returns for the rainfall. At Mackay the plantations are all within a feAV miles of the toAArn, side by side. On the Herbert the rainfall is taken on Messrs. Neames'

plantation. Compared with other Sugar-growing districts of

the world, Mackay holds the most medium position (See Table R, vii).

The crushing season commences towards the end of June, and closes generally about the middle of December, the density of the cane being at its best from September to November. It being absolutely impossible to crush during wet weather, that district

necessarily, which has the least number of days on which rain falls during those months, can carry on its crushing with the least drawback, and on exami¬ nation of Table R, viii., it Avill be found that, taken as a Avhole, from June to December Mackay has a less number of days on which rain falls than any other district. Mackay has also the least amount of rainfall during these seven months, A\rhich might be considered an unfavorable climatic fact, but Sugar planters find the rainfall during those months suffi¬ cient for the young canes planted at that time of the year, as also to keep the canes to be crushed sufficiently succulent. Beenleigh has about 36

rainy clays during that period, Maryborough nearly 40, and the Lower Herbert nearly 52 rainy days.



18

Once only in the course of eight years has there been an absence of rain during the crushing season, which has lasted sixteen weeks at Mackay, and twelve on the Herbert. These districts, however, being close to the coast, the question arises whether in consequence of this proximity to the sea, there is not in spite of this rainless interval a sufficient

evaporation of moisture from the ocean to supply the canes with the required quantity of humidity. No

hygrometrical observations having, to my knowledge at least, been made, this conjecture must remain unanswered, although appearances are in its favor.

Considering that the above figures are the results of observations taken for eight years at the three

districts, and seven years at the Herbert, during which time the climatic vicissitudes through which Australia has struggled have been extreme, the coastal climate of Queensland, as far as rainfall is

concerned, may be looked upon as thoroughly favor¬ able for Sugar-growing.

Frosts.—Erosts have been a sort of bugbear to the planters of the Southern and Central Districts ever since Sugar-growing was started. They appa¬ rently occur every three or four years. ToAvards the end of the winter of 1878, they were in both the above-named districts especially severe, causing heavy losses. Of course all plantations do not suffer alike, as the nature of the surrounding country, such as a belt of tree, the lay, &c, exerts its influence, so that Avhile on some plantations the frost is heavy, at others close by the frost passes aAvay without any evil consequences arising. But as a whole, these two districts must be considered subject to this dis¬

advantage.* At Mackay light frosts have been once or twice, but neArer so severe as to cause any damage to the canes, so that as far as their effects

* I do not hereby mean to deny the existence of several fine plantations in these Districts.



19

go, Mackay and localities northward are practically free from them.

The Heat at times is very great, but is a very bearable and not an unhealthy one. Daintree* remarks how little people seem to feel it. This is further tolerably well proved by the fact that all the ploughing at Mackay is clone by the whites, and it rarely happens that the heat is so great as to prevent the ploughmen doing their work. The

agricultural horses are not of such a heavy stamp as those Ave see employed in farming at home, they are nevertheless of fair draught proportions, and can stand 10 hours work per day without injury, except in the very hottest weather, when the heat of course becomes tAvo much for them.

* Queensland, p. 16. The healthiness of Australia is proverbial. The mean death-rate for

this continent is 16'32 per 1000 of the mean population; Queensland, owing to her tropical position, is less healthy, having a death-rate of 17-25 per 1000. Compare this with the West Indies and other Sugar-growing countries:

Mauritius 1876 British Guiana 1875 Barbadoes 1876 St. Vincent 1872-6 Antigua 1875-6 Dominica 1875-6 Trinidad 1876 Montserrat 1874-5

From • Hayter's Victorian Year Book, 1878-9," p p. 104, 106. The success of a coming crop is principally determined by the following

variations in the weather: — 1. The amount of rain which falls in November and December. In the

former month a small amount of rain is necessary to help on the young plants, and as the temperature has already begun to rise, this rain is necessary to counteract the greater evaporation going on. To counteract the same increased rise in temperature, more rain is also needed in December, and the cane generally gets it.

2. During the months of January, February, and March, the heat is

27-50 per 1000. 36-38 „ 21-76 31 it 28-00 13 a 32-87 It it 15-95 1) it 30-50 tj »t 20-44



20

very great, and during those months the greatest rainfall is recorded (at Mackay the average is 42 inches), and every inch of it is needed. Fortunately for the Sugar-planters, the whole coast is visited by heavy rains during these months.

3. The weather during April is generally considered favorable, if after a few inches of rain warm weather sets in, before any appreciable decrease m the temperature n.akes itself felt. During April the tem¬ perature falls rather suddenly (and thenceforward decreases until June and July), and planters fear cold in that month when it imme¬ diately follows upon rain.

Generally speaking, the planters have no fault to find with the climate it certainly is, taken all through, more regular and more reliable than that of most agricultural countries.



Table It. I.

Table of Rainfall at GRAFTON (N. S. Wales).*

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total

Indies. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.

1872 8-20 737 5-01 0-33 0-00 097 059 o-oo 1-87 2-36 3-81 4-73 35-258

1873 404 4-61 5-48 1-99 0-05 9 99 1-77 2-06 0-14 0-88 3-07 8-82 42-911

1874 5-28 3-41 1-03 6 41 0-27 0-51 3-84 1-34 283 1-32 2-20 2-55 31-002

1875 2-60 8-88 5-04 0-04 5-43 3-42 379 0-26 0-50 0-87 1-18 0-49 36-500

1876 434 3.39 2-71 3-06 697 209 3-15 073 2-40 3-15 2-35 1-36 35-700

1877 5-81 0-72 o-oo 264 0-73 0-89 400 1-60 0-90 2-87 2-24 o-oo 22-400

1878 3-96 12-59 662 0-77 1-94 0-63 0 50 1-20 2-39 1-02 0 00 7-08 3S-700

Mean. 4 89 5-85 3-70 2.75 2-20 2-64 2.52 1.03 1-58 1-79 2-12 3-58 34-64

to

* From the returns given, me by Mr. Eussel, Government Astronomer of N. S. "Wales. Grafton may be taken as the centre of the N, S. "Wales Sugar-growing district.



Table Ifc. II. Table of Rainfall at BEENLEIG-H.*

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. J une. July. Aug. Sept Oct. Not. Dec. Total. -Tear. Wet Eaii)

Days Fall No. In. Wet Eain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Eain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Kain 3 Fall

In. Wet Eain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall

In. Wet Eain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall In.

Wet Day No

Earn Fall, In.


Wet Day No

Eain Fall In.

Wet Bain Days Fall No. In.


1871 12 1010 7 4-00 8 390 6 8-82 4 1-10 4 1-42 4 2-70 2 0-80 2 2-14 5 2-30 9 3-91 6 6-3G 69 47-25 1872 7 6-59 13 10-04 14 7-71 2 0 68 2 0-23 3 170 4 3-12 3 1-45 6 1-90 2 0-53 11 6-60 10 6-94 77 47-49 1873 12 4-47 10 462 12 9-46 7 2-83 6 2-49 11 13-77 2 0-86 4 2-67 1 0-52 4 2-64 9 6-13 9 7-41 87 57-87 1874 10 7-40 5 383 8 5-16 7 6-70 4 0-80 6 1-20 8 2-60 1 0-22 3 0-80 6 0 85 6 1-59 7 2-05 71 33-20 1875 7 5-39 18 34-00 18 11-75 10 6 94 7 10-36 4 1-83 11 6-23 2 0 61 4 1-28 10 5-51 6 3-71 7 4-63 104 92-24 1876 14 11-61 10 801 6 3-91 7 4-24 21 23 60 5 6-94 3 5-67 1 0-32 4 1-98 6 5-74 2 072 5 4-21 84 76-95 1877 14 10-50 1 153 15 5-16 11 253 5 1-64 8 2-25 10 2-34 2 1-25 6 1-35 5 0-90 5 8-20 7 3-50 89 41-15 1878 8 2-82 14 14 35 13 6-50 8 1-32 9 4-26 2 0 17 1 0 16 2 2 46 6 5-57 4 1-70 6 2-01 13 7 83 86 49-15

Mean 10i 7-36 9§ 10 05 llf 6 69 7-L 4-26 7i 5 56 51 3 66 of 2 96 2* 1-18 4 1-94 5J 2-52 6| 4-11 8 5 37 83f 55-66

b2 bo

Compiled from the returns of Mr, Macdonnell, Government Meteorological Observer.

I^JWMBj



Table U,. III.

Table of Rainfall at MARYBOROUGH.*

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Not. Dec. Total. Tear. Wet Eain

Days Fall No. In.




Wet Pain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Bain s Fall

In Wet Eain Days Fall No. In.


Wet Earn Days Fall No. In.



Wet Day No

Eain s Fall

In. Wet Earn Days Fall No. In.

1871 14 10 23 6 1-35 11 5-45 10 2-41 6 0 91 2 o-io 4 1-08 4 0-12 4 1-32 9 5-54 11 3-09 8 2-95 89 34-55

1872 15 19-20 22 954 13 4-27 5 0 97 11 1-86 6 1-66 8 1-84 5 2 05 5 0-97 7 2-42 13 4 69 12 6.81 122 56-28

1873 22 433 15 10-88 14 8 72 9 2-76 5 2-00 12 10-25 3 0 55 7 4-69 5 1-43 2 1-46 10 7-50 8 7-36 112 61-93

1874 15 11-82 7 3-22 13 4 96 14 5 92 4 1-19 6 2-27 13 3'52 4 1-88 3 2-56 8 1-18 3 1-80 4 2-51 94 42-83

1875 3 3-74 16 25-43 18 16 51 5 2-46 6 6-50 5 2-14 11 4-67 3 0-39 2 0-57 9 6-36 6 6-60 6 3-78 90 79-15

1876 8 4-17 3 2-96 7 2 23 12 7-10 17 11-30 5 2-79 6 320 2 0-86 1 0-04 4 2-99 3 0 34 8 4-98 76 42-96

1877 14 11-48 4 0-29 10 5-75 6 1-50 3 0-63 3 1-84 7 4-23 7 3-60 4 2-82 6 4-00 2 5 05 5 1-78 71 42-97

1878 9 3-58 12 9 63 12 3-16 3 0-85 8 4-73 2 2-05 1 0-05 3 0-60 5 2-32 0 0-00 5 2'29 12 1110 72 40-36

Mean 12J 8-57 lOf 7-91 12$ 6-38 8 3-00 7% 3'64 5i 2-S9 61 2-39 4f 1-77 3f 1-50 5J 2-99 6f 3-92 7* ' s 516 90? 5013

CO

Compiled from returns of Mr. Macdomiell, Government Meteorological Observer.



Table Jtt. JTV.

Table of Rainfall at MACKAY.*

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July, Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Year. Wet Eain

Days Fall No. In.



Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall

In. Wet Eain D»ys Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall

In. Wet Eain Days Fall No. In,

Wet Dav Nb

Eain s Fall

In. Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall In.

vVet Eain Days Fall No. In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall

In. Wet Day No

Eain 8 FaU In.

Wet Days No.

Eain FaU In.

1871 12 30-02 14 4-05 16 8-01 11 3-56 5 2-15 7 2-41 o o-oo 7 0-75 4 2 27 12 7-00 12 3-85 10 4-72 110 68-79

1872 20 13-33 16 11-22 7 3-41 5 1-44 6 2-64 3 1-48 2 0-46 2 0-44 2 0-20 1 0-05 12 4-63 15 11-77 91 51-07

1873 12 15-83 9 4-97 10 7-56 8 4-91 12 2-21 11 3-89 5 1-55 3 1-26 1 0 83 2 0-22 2 0-22 10 8-72 85 52-17

1874 21 14-78 17 10-56 9 13-10 8 1-05 6 6 28 4 2-04 6 3-42 0 0 00 1 2-02 7 2-60 4 1-45 10 1-64 93 58-94

1875 13 20-18 22 19 31 9 7-10 5 25-53 5 9-24 6 4 05 5 1-30 1 0 07 1 0-10 0 o-oo 2 0-12 7 3-50 76 90-50

1876 8 11-74 11 5-85 11 16-27 6 3-95 12 8-73 7 5 62 4 0-60 0 o-oo 0 o-oo 5 2-45 3 1-27 8 6-09 75 62-57

1877 16 5-91 14 12 02 25 31-90 15 3-95 0 o-oo 7 2-59 5 0-74 1 0 32 3 0-67 1 0-15 1 5-36 6 4-83 94 68-44

1878 15 396 10 7-05 29 41-68 6 1-74 6 4-83 5 5-90 3 0-37 3 0-52 8 1-86 2 3-14 5 3-64 11 11-69 103 86-38

Mean 14f 14-47 1U 9-38 14J 16-13 8 5-77 64 4-51 6} 3-50 3| 105 24 0-42 24 0-99 3} 1-95 54 2-57 91 6-62 90| 67-36

* Compiled from returns of Mr. Maodonnell, Government Meteorological Observer.



Table IS, "V.

Table of Eainfall at LOWER HERBERT RIVER (Cabdwell Uisteict).*

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Year. Wet Bain

Days Fall No. In.


Wet Eain Days Fall No In.


Wet Eain Dais Fall No. In

Wet Day No

Bain 3 Fall

In. Wet Daj No

Bain s Fall

In. Wet Day No

Eain a Fall In.

Wet Eain Days FaU No. In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 FaU In.

Wet Day No

Eain 3 Fall

In. Wet Earn Days Fall No. In,


1872 25 35-76 14 17-53 12 6-60 14 3-11 12 4-37 9 2-00 5 0-94 7 1-35 6 020 6 4-47 14 14-66 12 9-13 136 10012

1873 26 4637 16 25-89 15 9 90 10 2-50 15 5-81 10 4-21 8 0 89 10 1-10 3 0-94 4 0-63 7 102 15 16-59 139 115-85

1874 17 917 19 26-69 10 10-86 15 18-80 7 4-06 11 2 36 14 5-98 0 o-oo 0 o-oo 17 6-52 2 0-12 17 8-77 129 93-33

1875 14 17-48 24 39-63 18 11-76 16 20-24 12 5-67 9 1-59 5 0-60 6 1-11 3 0-36 2 o-io 3 1-35 14 3-39 126 103-28

1876 14 1360 13 14-36 16 16-72 11 4-29 12 713 18 8-61 10 1-81 2 0-14 3 0-15 3 0-23 5 1-70 8 10-60 115 79-34

1877 16 13-57 23 3203 25 39 31 16 4-82 3 0 81 7 1-75 9 1-15 0 0 00 9 1-33 6 1-09 2 0-19 4 0-55 120 96-60

1878 14 4-51 8 10-78 25 26-33 16 10-40 10 7-40 9 7-29 8 1-84 8 3-66 8 2-47 7 1-48 8 1-61 10 7-38 131 85-15

Mean 18 20-07 16f 23-84 l7f 17-35 14 917 10}- 5-04 10f 3-97 8f L-89 4f 1-05 4| 0-78 6? 2-07 5f 2-95 11-? 8-06 128 96-24

ba

Compiled from returns of Mr. Macdonnell, Government Meteorological Observer.



Table Ifc. "VI.

Table of Mfan Rainfall of the Sugab-Ghowing Distbicts of QUEENSLAND.

Latitude South. Longtitude East.

Miles from

Sea Coast. Number of Years.

January. Feb. March. District. Wet Eain

Days FaU No. In.



Beenleigh (Southern District) Maryborough (Central District) Mackay District Iiower Herbert River (Cardwell District)

27° 49' 25° 35' 21° 10' 18° 25'

155° 8' 152° 43' 149° 5' 146° 6'

10 18 6 5

8 8 8 7

104 7-36 124 8-57 14| 14 47 18 20-07

9f 10-05 lOf 7 91 144 9-38 16f 23-84

llf 6-69 124 6-38 144 1613 I7f 17 35

OS

April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean Annual. District. Wet Eain

Days Fall No. In.

Wet Eain Days FaU No In.








Wet Eain Days Fatt No. In.

Beenleigh Maryborough Mackay lower Herbert...

74 4-26 8 3 00 8 5-77

14 917

74 5-56 74 3 64 64 451

104 5-04

5| 366 54 2-89 64 350

lOf 3-97

5f 2-96 6$ 239 3J 1-05 8f 1-89

24 1-18 4f 1-77 24 0-42 4f 105

4 194 3f 1-50 24 0-99 4f 0-78

54 2-52 54 2 99 3f 1-95 6f 2-07

6f 4-11 6£ 3-92 54 2-57 5f 2-95

8 5-37 71 5-16 9f 6-62

llf 8-06

83f 5566 90f 50-13 90| 67-36

128 96-24



^S^L

Table IS,. VII. Table of Eainfail of some of the pbincipal Stjgab-Geowing Distbicts of the Wobld

(fob compaeison with that of Attstealia).

District. Jau. In.

Feb. Dj.

Mar. In. April. In. May. In.

June. In.

July. In. Aug. In. Sept. In. Oct. In.

Nov. In.

Dec, In. Annual.

Pernambuco* 6-09 2-01 8 23 25-24 16-21 25-26 16-11 315 1-04 1-13 0-29 1-31 106-07 Paramaribo (Surinam)* 18-78 16-58 20-79 2110 23-27 15-98 5-87 178 0-54 1-46 3 00 13-56 142-71 St. Vincent* 4-08 3 67 310 2-32 5-20 10'17 8 94 8-83 7-66 9-25 8-36 6-59 78-17 Antigua* 1-83 1-62 2-97 1-77 3-59 5-47 4-99 5-49 6-82 5-85 3-61 3-84 47-85 Barbadoes* 4-15 4-28 1-88 5-90 9-29 5 73 4-09 6-02 7-06 5-82 10-52 7-27 72-09 Havanna*... 498 3 08 4-08 2-28 10-12 25-29 593 6 91 1114 11-01 4-74 1-83 91-39 Georgetown (Demerara)+ 688 5-82 7-30 7 41 1413 13 93 11-46 7-89 2-62 2-46 5-61 10 74 96-25 Rio Janeiro* 6-51 4 75 751 4-06 3-48 1-80 1-35 1-67 4-62 4-99 5-96 6-34 53-04 Key West (Florida)* 2-86 1-38 4-21 1-55 2-58 8-29 3-35 4-95 7-79 6-38 1-18 3-13 47-65 New Orleans* 5 09 305 3 31 4 88 2 01 4-60 5-46 5 09 5-35 1-78 298 3-50 46-10 Madras* 1-05 019 043 0 53 2 16 1-53 3-24 4-86 4-82 10-29 13-35 6-45 48-90 Calcutta* 0 71 0 71 013 2 57 456 12-88 14-12 16-08 9 76 4 98 0-85 0-52 67-87 Singapore* 12-07 6-36 559 7 67 6-98 5-60 6-08 6-23 5-57 11-86 9-32 6-42 89-75 Noumea (New Caledonia)J 2 92 2-41 513 631 3-71 375 410 2-28 166 2-96 1-97 319 40-39 Bua (Fiji)§ 26-06 16-97 22-50 9-80 5-07 2-48 1-97 4-88 3-87 613 5-42 8-09 113 24 Grafton (New South Wales) || 4-89 5-85 3-70 2-75 220 2-64 2-52 103 1-58 1-79 2-12 3-58 34-64 f Beenleigh (Queensland)** 7 36 10-05 • 6-69 4 26 556 3 66 2-96 1-18 194 2-52 4-11 5-37 55-66 \ Maryborough (Queensland)** 8-57 791 6-38 3-00 3 64 2 89 239 1-77 1-50 2 99 3-92 516 5013 1 Mackay (Queensland)** 14-47 9-38 1613 5-77 4-51 3 50 1-05 0 42 0 99 1-95 2-57 662 67 36 \ Lower Herbert R. (Q'nsland)** 20-07 23-84 17 35 9-17 5-04 3 97 1-89 105 0-78 2-07 2-95 8-06 96-24

* From " Xloeden's Handbuch der Physis&hen Geographic." t P. Sandeman's Observations 1846-57. t From Cli. Lemire's work : " La Colonisation en Nouvelle Caledonie." Paris, 1878. § Mr. Holmes' Observations, Bua, Fiji. || Compiled from the returns given me by Mr. Kussell, Government Astronomer of N. S. "Wales. ** Compiled from the statistics of Mr. Macdonnell, Government Mcterological Observer of Queensland.

-a



Table It. VIII.

Table of Rainfall of Sixgab-Growing Distbicts of QUEENSLAND during Oettshing Seasons

(June to Decembeb), 1871-8.

Beenleigh (1871-8). Maryborough (1871-8). Mackay (1871-8). Lower Herbert Eiver (1872-8).

Month. Wet Days Eainfall

No. In. Wet Days EainfaU

No. Da. Wet Days Bainf all

No. In. Wet Days Rainfall

No. In.

Jnne 43 29-28 41 23-10 50 2798 73 27-81

July 43 23-68 53 1914 30 8-44 59 13-21

August 17 948 35 1419 17 3-36 33 7-36

September 32 15-54 29 12-03 20 7-95 32 5-45

October 42 2017 45 23-95 30 1561 45 14-52

NoTember 54 32-87 53 31-36 41 20-54 41 20-65

December 64 42-93 63 41-27 77 52-96 80 56-41

Mean 35f 21-74 39J 20-63 334 17-10 5L& 20-77

CO



Table H. IX.

CURTE OF THE EaINFALL AT ALEXANDRA PLANTATION, MACKAY.

Inches. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apu, May. June July. Aug Sept Oct. Nov Dec.

OT 19 IS A 17 A 16 / \

15 / v

i* / V 13 / \ 12 \ / II \ /

10 \ / 9 \ 8 \ / 7 \ / 6 /

5 \ / 4 \ / 3 / 2 1 ^_^/

Table of Eainfail. Table of Temperature.

Month. Inches. Mean Maximum-

Mean Minimum.

January... 18-38 95-2 68-7 February 13 37 90-2 68-1 March 10-67 88-0 60-5 April 7-16 86-3 59-0 May 5-81 78-5 54-6 June 2-44 77-3 46-8 July 2-10 75-5 47-6 AllgU9t 0-88 77-6 39-5 September 119 819 47-3 October 2-52 88 0 54-6 November 302 88-8 56-8 December 8-39 88-9 63-5

Mean... 75 93

to as

Average of eight years, 1868-1875 inclusive. Observations taken by J. Ewen Davidson, Esq. Alexandra gauge is 6i miles distant inland from the Government rain-gauge in town.)

(The



CHAPTER IV.

The Progress of the Sugar Industry in Queensland—Thos. Scott—Si in N. S. Wales—Start in Moreton Bay (Queensland)—Sugar-cane Intercolonial Exhibition of 1862 — Buhdt, the first to make Sugai Queensland—Captain L. Hope—Coxen's Resolutions—Start at M borough—Start in Mackay—Wane of Cotton culture—Demand Cane—The rush for Sugar plantations—Demand for Mills—Uuri progress—Rust—Present Output—Tables of land under cultivat acreage crushed, mills, and Sugar produced.

As far back as 1823 the late Mr. Thomas Sec of St. Lucia had under the patronage of Thomas Brisbane successfully grown Sugar, a had succeeded in making 70 tons in 1827 at P'

Macquarie, in New South Wales. This venture was made with the aid of convi

labor placed at Mr. Scott's disposal by the Govern but on the removal of Sir Thomas the Sugar esti lishment was broken up. Ever since that time s

to his death Mr. Scott worked with a will to pre that Sugar from Sugar-cane could be manufactui to advantage in New South Wales. He did i

simply confine himself to the practical work, 1 ventilated the subject in the local newspapers, g ing conscientiously the results of that work, time this bore fruit. Several years afterwards, - wards 1847, others took up the matter and tried] establish the Sugar industry, doing so more or 1

profitably. In 1849 a Mr. Bowden for the fi time proposed the formation of a Sugar Compn in South Brisbane, but the project fell through. 1850 there was I believe a small plantation in 1

neighborhood of Eagle Parm, on the Brisbane ~Rh but whether any Sugar was made there I am una to state. j

Throughout Moreton Bay, previous to its sepa tion in 1859 from New South Wales and its forn tion into Queensland, Sugar-cane was cultivated



31

the gardens of several people so that there was little doubt as to the possibility of its culture. Eor some

years after separation the local papers teemed with articles on the profitable nature of the Sugar indus¬

try, together with opinions of Mauritius and West Indian planters on visit, who were said to consider the climate and soil of Queensland far superior to that of their respective countries, and who said the cane grown was fully equal to any grown in the Mauritius or elsewhere. In 1861 Sugar-cane was exhibited at the first Queensland Exhibition, as also a good quality of rum manufactured from the same. In November of that year a "

complete Sugar-cane crushing machine" arrived at the wharves in Bris¬ bane, but lay there for a long time untouched. Visitors to the London International of 1862 may remember seeing specimens of Sugar-cane and sam¬

ples of rum from the then infant colony Queens¬ land, and at the same time Dr. Lang and Mr. Jordan were then in England lecturing on the benefits of

emigration to this colony; but while laying great stress on advantages of cotton culture they seem to have totally ignored the claims of Sugar.

The first Sugar known to have been produced in Queensland was made by Mr. Buh6t, of Barbados, from cane grown in the Botanic Gardens, Brisbane —this was in May, 1862. Later on the Caboolture Cotton Company started Sugar growing; but in October of the same year the Honorable Captain L.

Hope,* to whom the palm is conceded of having first placed the Sugar industry on a commercial

footing, began to prepare his first twenty acres at Cleveland and by the end of November had already planted fifteen acres. At the same time the ques¬ tion as regards a bounty on the production of Sugar was proposed, but it met with no response. The

industry has progressed so far when the Acclima- * The Q-overnment later granted him 2500 acres for his pioneering.



82

tisation Society woke up, and, from the importal of theoretically useful animals, began taking ac

steps to secure some thousands of Sugar canes time for the next season's planting. While Sn was thus making its first efforts in Queenslai Captain Cole had been growing Sugar-beet in

neighborhood of G-eelong (Victoria), but after spc- ing some £300 or £400 in attempts at manufaci he failed to extract Sugar. In the north-west coi

too, of N,ew South Wales, the farmers were aliv the capital to be made out of Sugar, and sev tentatives were made to grow the cane.

In 1863 Captain Hope had 20 acres under c with more to follow, and in his wake followec the small settlers who needs must also have t

patch of cane. During the whole of this year c;

growing spread, and the London Society of j offered as an inducement a medal for the first of Sugar made in the colony.

1864 saw the motion still progressive ; some

says were published, but as they were written

planters from other countries, who had not learnt to understand the new conditions of clir and soil Avith which they had to deal, their es cannot be considered of much value. Morec several of these men began quarrelling amo themselves as to which was the best method of tivation and planting, every planter maintaining system alone to be the best; and as they were

sparing of abuse, the settlers, who had all to learn a rough time of it. But this year is chiefly rem able in the annals of the Sugar industry for a chi in this colony's land laws, Avhich, by giving great lities for the alienation of the crown lands, gave industry a tremendous impetus. Hitherto the culty the new arrival experienced in obtaining was due to the then existing squatting mono1 A Mr. Coxen, however, Avho like nearly all his



3d

low colonists of the time being, was bitten by the

Sugar mania, brought a motion forward in the

Legislative Assembly embodying certain resolutions

by which land to be cultivated for sugar or coffee was to be alienated from the crown in a manner

favoring the industry by the simplicity and facility with which settlers could take it up. The motion

passed both Houses with nigh no dissentient voice on the 17th September, and that day maybe looked upon as the birthday of the Sugar industry in Queensland. The second resolution Avhich is of the greatest im¬

portance states—" That the Government be em¬

powered to lease any lands selected for the above

purpose, in blocks of not less than 320 or more than 1280 acres, for the period of three years (such lease not to be renewed) at the rate of Is. per acre per annum, with a right to purchase to the said lessee,

provided that an amount of not less than 20s. per acre in the aggregate shall have been expended on the land so selected, and not less than one-twentieth of the said land shall have been planted with cane or coffee." As may be imagined these facilities for

acquiring land were much abused, and finally in 1868 they Avere Avithdrawn.

In April of this year (1864) a meeting had been held in Brisbane Avith the purpose of starting a

Sugar Company; in October another one with a like

object was held in Maryborough; and at Mackay, which had barely been known to the outside world for more than a few years, Mr. Spiller led the way with the first planting of Sugar-cane. He was

quickly folloAved by Mr. J. Ewen Davidson, who erected the first mill.

The folloAving season (1865) may be said to have foreshadowed the wane of cotton raising, for several

plantations which had hitherto grown cotton now

began to plant cane in lieu thereof. Shipments of cane Avere made to Sydney for the New South Wales



34

farmers; and in June of that year a second S

Company was floated in the Maryborough Dis where the farmers were hard at work tilling planting. On the Albert River (in Septen some 200 acres were under cane. The facilitit the new land regulations were largely availei for by July 18,290 acres had been taken up that by 23 persons only.

These early stages of the industry were al

entirely devoted to the production of the cane, the extension of the land under cultivation foi same; the cane being no sooner ripe than ft cut down, sold, and replanted. At the same so great was the demand for canes that in th(

ginning of 1866 there Avas actually a scarcil canes to plant. This Avas not the only drawl for a hitch occurred in the manufacture of

Sugar; there was a total of three mills in

colony, a number perfectly incapable of crus the cane which was ready, and while waiting deteriorating in quality; but so imbued wer< settlers and planters with the value of the el dc

they had alighted upon that they continue extend the cultivation to its utmost limits, was the hurry to proceed that many embark* the ptirsuit without actually knowing what wi do, they had rushed into the enterprise with a v confidence that it would come out right; some

began planting on the Darling Downs in the

unlikely localities, and the results may be b

imagined than described. One Sugar Compan; to learn twelve months after it had started time of year Avas the most preferable to plan- cane, another that a swamp was unsuitable while at a meeting it was publicly stated, allowed to pass unchallenged, that frost does injure the cane. One gentleman up north st a plantation and was doing well when a flood <



35

down and swept away house, fields, cane and all.

By the end of 1867 there were nearly 2000 acres under cultivation for cane; and the six mills in existence manufactured 168 tons of Sugar. Through¬ out 1868 the mills were not able to keep pace with the farmers; but in 1869 they put on a spurt, for at the close of that season there were 28 mills at work, crushing the cane from 1230 acres out of over 5000 acres under cultivation. Nevertheless there was still an insufficiency of mills in the Southern and Central Districts, Avhich caused heavy losses to the farmers, while at the same time it was most

profitable to the millowners, who could purchase any amount of cane at the rate of 4s. per ton.

The industry continued to prosper, eA~ery year seeing more land brought into cultivation and more mills erected—steam mills quickly superseding the

antiquated cattle and horse power erections. Mat¬ ters thus went on until 1875 when the season turned out very bad, the cane, being nearly drowned in wet, became unhealthy and died, giving next to no re¬ turns. This so-called disease (they called it rust) fell like a thunderclap amongst the planters, for to the most of them it meant utter ruin. The greater part of the capital invested was borrowed, and whatever profits had been made had also been re-sunk in such extension and improvement, which are of annual recurrence with those who have not the adequate means to start with—the planters pay¬ ing 10 to 15 per cent, interest. The money-lenders or Banks (it matters little what they are called) became alarmed and sugar estates stood at a dis¬ count, they suddenly stopped all overdrafts and foreclosed mortgages. HoAvever, planters were too

energetic to let the estates go to ruin, and those who were able to inspire confidence in the money¬ lenders started afresh; but the greater part of the plantations changed owners, while many remained



36

in the hands of the Banks, who put in ove

manage them. The evil effects of 1872

away the Sugar industry has since, and u

present moment, been more or less a succe The output for 1879 will probably have 1

15,000 tons for the whole colony; this is a amount that Demerara exported in 1803. Guiana has been about one hundred and fi a cultivated colony; it is only twenty yt Queensland has been brought under cu

Twenty years ago Maryborough (Central was just making a start; and Mackay, w last year produced over 9000 tons of Si unknown to civilised man.



^ Sn O P B *S<I EtS" CO CO ~—' - m CD OS

Table I*. I. Progress of the Sugae Indtjstby of Queensland—Land ttndeb Cultivation foe Sugae-Cane.*

District. 1864. 1885. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871.

Southern District... Central „ Maekay „ Cardwell „ Other Localities

A. B. P. 80 3 0 12 3 26 0 0 8

A. E. P. 316 0 20 112 2 34 20 0 0

0 3 12

A. E. P. 230 3 36 248 3 0 55 0 0

73 1 2

A. E. P. 1137 0 22 456 1 0 267 0 0 10 0 0

125 0 1

A. E. P. 2028 3 36 807 2 0 414 2 0 93 0 0 52 3 0

A. B. 2840 0 1261 0 919 0 90 0 55 0

p. 0 0 0 0 0

A. B. 2583 0 1495 0 830 2

p. 0 0 0

A. B. P. 3797 2 0 2068 2 0 2211 2 0

Total 93 2 34 449 2 26 607 3 38 1995 1 23 3396 2 36 5165 0 0 4908 2 0 8077 2 0 CO

District. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878.

Southern District Central „ Mackay „ Cardwell „

A. E. P. 4619 0 0 2417 2 16 3321 0 0

A. B. 3667 0 2562 3 4231 3

p. 0 2 0

A. E. P. 3668 0 0 3733 1 0 5132 2 0 425 0 0

A. 2643 3407 5336 465

A. 3577 3266 5636 365

A. 3223 4021 5633

A. 4314 4799 6527 350

Total 10,357 2-16 10,461 2 2 12,958 3 0 11,851 12,844 12,877 15,990

* Compiled from the Statistical Registers of the Colony.



Table F. II. Progress of the Sugae Industry in Queensland—Aceeage Crushed 1869 to 1878 (31st Maech, 1879).*

Year. Southern District. Central District. Mackay District. Cardwell District. Total.

A. B. P. A. B. P. A. B. P. A. B. P. A. E. P.

1869 560 2 0 393 2 0 284 3 0 1238 3 0

1870 1125 0 0 525 0 0 538 0 0 2188 0 0

1871 1281 0 0 911 1 0 880 2 0 3072 3 0

1872 1769 0 0 1376 1 18 1857 3 0 15 0 0 5018 0 18

1873 1599 2 0 1386 2 2 2278 3 0 115 0 0 5379 3 2

1874 2013 0 0 1818 0 0 2909 2 0 238 0 0 6978 2 0

1875 2464 0 0 1313 0 0 3490 0 0 401 0 0 7668 0 0

1876 1731 0 0 1899 0 0 3615 0 0 400 0 0 7645 0 0

1877 1353 0 0 2501 0 0 4189 0 0 8043 0 0

1878 2497 0 0 3211 0 0 4644 0 0 350 0 0 10702 0 0

Total 16,393 0 0 15,334 2 20 24,687 1 0 1519 0 0 57,933 3 20

CO- 00

Compiled from the Statistical Registers of the Colony.



Total 16,393 0 0 15,334 2 20 24,687 1 0 1519 0 0 57,933 3 20

* Compiled from the Statistical Registers of the Colony.

Pbogeess of the Sugab Industey in Queensland—No. of Mills at Wobk in the Colony foe Eveey Teas feom 1866—1878 (31st Maech, 1879).*

District. 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878

The Southern District. 5 19 27 35 38 34 37 32 34 28 33

„ Central „ 3 7 8 10 12 14 14 14 16 15 17

„ Mackay „ 1 2 4 10 14 15 17 17 17 16 16

„ Cardwell „ 1 3 3 3 3 2 2

Total.. 3 6 9 28 39 55 65 66 71 66 70 61 68

CO¬ CO

Compiled from the Statistical Registers of the Colony.



Pbogbess of the Sugae Industby in Queensland—Sugab Produced from Commencement to 1878

(31st Mabch, 1879).*

Tear. Southern District. Central District. Mackay District. Cardwell District. Total Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts.

1866 200 1867 3360 1868 4760 5420 2200 12,380 1869 10,350 11,590 7860 29,800 1870 25,590 15,120 16,380 57,090 1871 30,790 17,880 26,580 75,250 1872 43,490 31,080 50,000 760 125,330 1873 44 980 43,930 65 040 5800 159,750 1874 66,880 56,520 109,600 9160 242,160 1875 44,500 16,640 51,540 13,760 126,440 1876 41,260 50,280 68,240 4500 164,280 1877 38,100 65,160 138,010 3600 244,870 1878 51,180 68,770 138,560 12,000 270,510

Total 401,880 382,390 674,010 49,580 1,511,420

O

Total amount of Sugar produced in Queensland (to 31st March, 1879)—1,511,420 Cwts. @ 25s. The value o£

the Sugar crops to Queensland has been £1,889,275. * Compiled from the Statistical Registers of the Colony.



CHAPTER V.

The Black Labor employed in the Industry—South Sea Islanders—-Coolies —Q-overnment Opposition—Canadian Negroes—Act to import Coolies —Captain Towns and the " Don Juan "—Popular Opposition—Poly¬ nesian Laborers' Act—Select Committee of Inquiry into Alleged Abuses—Food—General Treatment—Further Opposition—Party Question—Expense of Kanaka Labor—White Labor—Reliability of Kanaka Labor—Statistical—New Caledonia — Fiji—Secruiting— Prevention of Abuses.

The cultivation of the cane, and the manufacture of the Sugar, are carried on by the help of black labor from the South Sea Islands.

The introduction of colored labor had been mooted

long before Sugar was ever expected to become a

staple export. In 1842 an association was formed in Sydney for the introduction of coolies, but the Governor was adverse to the project; a couple of

years later several Indian coolies were bimight into New South "Wales by a private individual, and in 1845 Mr. Ben. Boyd, an enterprising but rather

speculative colonist, made his first attempt at Poly¬ nesian immigration. He introduced a shipload of Islanders into Sydney, and sent them on to various stations in the neighborhood, but the Government entertained strong objections to any such importa¬ tion, and passed a law, still in operation, withdrawing all pagans from the operation of the Masters and Servants' Act, and this had the " desired effect," the result being that the greater part of the Islanders had to be shipped home again.

After Separation, when the Queenslanders were

vainly striving to force the establishment of the cotton culture, the expensive labor of the whites caused the colonists to again direct their attention to the question of black labor, but the Australian Cotton Association in New South Wales was the



42

first to attempt the importation of s the insertion of advertisements in

papers, calling for one hundred negrc offered were a free passage, and £21 pe rations.*

About the same time Captain Robert the most remarkable pioneers Austral

proposed the introduction of Negroes, Indian Coolies, and later on, the corre tween the Governor of Queensland (Sir and the Home Colonial Secretary ultim to regulate the introduction of Indiai into Queensland, was published; but i

very distasteful to the people, and j throughout 1862 was very hot and 1

subject. The community would p: have stated its objections so strong! fact of news arriving, together with I of the kidnapping of Polynesians by Pe Some of these vessels were captured b Government, and their masters convic

escaped ; later on it was discovered leaders in these abductions were an ] the name of Byrne, who was wantec in Melbourne and Natal, and an Am Clarke who had been an insolvent ini former city.

On the 15th of August, 1863, the schooner arrived in Brisbane; she 1 80 Kanakas, and was the first recru the trade. The name of Captain Tc cotton plantation they were consignee cient guarantee that these Islanders I recruited, and would meet with hon As Sugar plantations increased, it b< that black labor was a necessity, and the Polynesian arrivals increased yeai

* Illustrated London Xiews, January 4,1862.



43

was but to be expected in the absence of any gov¬ ernment regulations, the traffic was greatly abused, and many men who were more interested in the introduction of white labor, commenced an agitation against the introduction of black labor. Even the

press, which ought at least to have been impartial, took up the question, the Courier commenced in

September, 1867, a series of articles in its columns

condemnatory of Kanaka importation, and general indignation meetings were called.

However, the spurt that Sugar was giving to the

Colony, the capital invested in the industry, and the fact that without the Polynesians this would go to the wall, was the cause of a resolve on the part of the Government to bring forward a bill to regulate and control the introduction and treatment of Poly¬ nesian Laborers, and an Act to that effect was passed in March, 1868. This Act provides for every possible contingency from the date of the Kanaka's putting foot on board the recruiting vessel, to the moment he leaves her on expiry of his three years agreement. The Act also leaves sufficient scope for the Governor- in-Council to adopt further measures for carrying it out, should he find it to be necessary. Since then there have been two enquiries into its working, one in 1869, and one in 1876. In both cases the Select Committee appointed came to the conclusion that the allegations made against employers for maltreat¬ ment of Polynesians, were not proved, and stated themselves satisfied with their investigations; the first Committee had, however, made certain recom¬ mendations for improving the working of the Act, to insure the impossibility of abuse. The Select Committee of 1876 sat under an adverse government, and consisted of seven members, four of whom were

opposed to Polynesians, and two of whom were favorable to Polynesian immigration, and the Chair¬ man, who had no interest either way.

D*



44

The food the Kanakas receive accord is as follows : Bread or flour one j mutton one pound (or fish two pound of molasses or sugar (de facto as n as they choose), two pounds of veget: an ounce and a-half of tobacco, and salt, and four ounces of soap per we also clothed at the expense of their em Kanakas thrive on this treatment, is the fact that whilst on arrival they skinny, they leave the Colony in stroi condition. But we have also furth

prima facie evidence of the general § they receive at the hands of the plar do they improve physically, but the;; in large numbers, as for some years

'

cruiting vessels returning from the back a large proportion of "boys" served their time, and wish to do sc have also gardens, in which they \ yams, sweet potatoes, &c.

The general cry against the employ nesians seems to be dying out to a in consequence of their finding worl small settlers. The opposition cam the lower classes, who disliked the int

purely selfish motives. Their antago belief that Kanakas would oust the

reality the black " savages

" have op field of labor to the whites. Take

example. Were it not for Sugar, th still in all probability consist of a cc and a "

pub " or two, with a popula

to twenty souls, and the land in th

squatters, for its port* was too bad ever becoming an important outlet, auriferous back country to induce se

* See pages 63 and 64.



45

if only of a temporary nature. See what it is now.

Mackay, though small, is one of the richest, the most thriving towns in Queensland. As a rule there is on a plantation one white man to every five or six blacks, and at Mackay about 2200 Kanakas are

engaged, thus giving employment to a whole army of mechanics, overseers, ploughmen, &c, who other¬ wise would not be there at all.

Storekeepers, however, were quite as selfish in their opposition as the working men—an ironmonger for instance prefers to see lots of whites with their families about them, to whom he can sell his wares, and it is easy enough for him in consequence to

spout in grandiloquent language on the " iniquity

of slavery," " nefarious practices," &c, &c, to an

audience, who are only too willing to be led by the nose. This antagonism extended very far. It was made a party question. At former elections many Members of the Legislative Assembly owed their seats to their anti-Polynesian proclivities, but at the last elections (1878-9), though several candidates

again attempted to make it a political cry, they failed to do so. It is nevertheless but fair to state that besides the above-mentioned obstructionists, there were several men of position, entirely disin¬ terested in the question, who raised their voices

against this sort of immigration, purely for the sake of preventing the traffic degenerating into slavery, or to secure fair play for the Kanakas. Fortunately all this obstruction has only helped to ventilate the

subject so thoroughly, and made the Government so alive to any abuses which might arise, that no ill- treatment can occur. The enquiry into the " Jason "

(kidnapping) case led directly to the employment of Government Agents, who now accompany every recruiting vessel, and this step may be said to have dealt the death-blow to kidnapping, which, until then (1869 undoubtedly existed,



46

Outsiders who have interfered

frequently told the planters that be was cheap, therefore it "was poor firstly, a high-class labor is not wan

Polynesian labor is not by any m<

planters have to pay every Kanak

wages, to give him food and clothi to pay his passage to the Colon

journey, besides the Government which amounts to £21-23 per Kai] that is to say, the labor is dear. ] which accrues to the planter from

very different nature, and one not stood.

Whenever the question of Chin class labor into the northern porl is mooted, the working men imn that there is no necessity for such

capitalists wish to grind them dow that any Anglo-Saxon is perfectly as great a heat as any Chinaman, willing to do so. Well, granted withstand the heat and work in Chinaman or Negro, the fact reim do it. In the early clays of the ii was it must be remembered mor Southern and Central Districts, not so great, white men were ever

they had a fair trial but did not t? as soon as the planter was in the i when every moment lost meant mc the men struck for higher wagei reliable. A few of the planters f reason than their adherence to t

solely White laborers. At presen

* In New Caledonia, according to M. Oh. L< Malabar Indians who work on the estates, is 10s



47

four plantations which make use of white labor, the owner of one of these mills told me distinctly that he barely made his wages ; another employer of hitherto white labor only, has, since my visit, substituted black labor for white, and why because Kanaka labor is reliable.

According to statistical returns, since Captain Towns first introduced them, 13,933 Kanakas have landed on the shores of Queensland, of whom 5570 have returned home ; the estimated number remain¬

ing being 6669. In the early days before supervision, many must have left the colony or died, without

being recorded, so that as the Immigration Agent mention, the latter number " must be considered as a book-muster only," yet this number must be very near the mark. Out of the above number intro¬ duced, there were only 349 females, so that, apart from the fact that for obvious reasons the proportion of males to females is too great, during their stay in the colony their increase is almost at a standstill.

Opponents to the system have consequently raised the question as to whether matters, being as

they are, the time may not come when the Sugar industry will languish for want of this labor. The answer is that in the islands the males greatly exceed the females in numbers.* In New Caledonia, certainly the Kanaka population is rapidly decreas¬

ing^ but in the Eijis it appears to be increasing— the system of taxation adopted in the latter group of islands being one most undoubtedly calculated to

preserve the race. In other groups, an increase or decrease in population is not easily ascertained.

As regards the future of Polynesian recruiting, abuses are almost out of the question; interpreters are numerous, and the Kanakas fully understand

* This, on further enquiry, I find doubtful, f Oh. Lemire, pp. 127 and 233.



48

the nature of the services required oi the supervision of the Queensland G New Zealanders* are watching even Seas with a jealous eye, the Imperii cruisers are always on the alert, and < the movements of the recruiting v most assuring guarantee against kid] other maltreatment, lies in the presen Gordon, Commissioner for Western is certainly a man not to be trifled t\

One fact undoubtedly advisable is medical attendance in case of sicknes on the plantations, every plantation s once a week or fortnight by a medi same to be paid at a fixed rate, say 1( annum, as is the case in the West I coolies.

* See petitions sent home.



CHAPTER VI. Central Factories—Price paid for cane—The Tengarie system—Division

of profits—Complaints of small settlers—Press interference—Want of Capital—Martinique Factories—No standard for Queensland— Establishment of Central Factories—Profits on same—Tables showing Profits of Martinique Factories.

There are no Central Factories properly so called in Queensland, where the planter can bring his cane to the mill-owner who will crush it, dividing the profits, but there are central mills whose pro¬ prietors buy the cane from the small settlers, or

planters, and make up the Sugar on their own ac¬ count. Many of the larger plantations also buy cane from the neighboring farmers.

At Mackay last year (1879), the mill-owners paid lis. per ton of cane at a density of 10° Beaume, the mill-owner cutting and carting, or 10s. per 100 gallons at 10° B.; in one part of the Southern District a mill-owner was paying 13s. per ton of cane 7-8° B., and 15s. above 8° B. (a high price), the farmers cutting and carting; at Nerang a mill- owner was giving £12 10s. per acre for one-year old cane, he to cut and help carting ; a mill-owner near Brisbane gives £13 to £30 per acre, the former price being thiefly for one-year old cane, and the latter price for two-year old. A firm at Beenleigh gave in 1879 £17 to £22 per acre for two-year old cane, they doing the cutting and carriage, while in the neighbor¬ hood settlers were receiving 10s. per ton, they doing the cutting and carting—the cane not to have a less density than 8° B. Eroni these figures it will be seen that the price varies exceedingly, being regu¬ lated, over and above seasonal influences, by the proportion of available crushing power of the mills to the number of settlers in their immediate neighborhood.



50

At Yengarie Refinery (Maryboroug is brought from the neighboring mi.

punts, partly in pipes, as the greater n mills crush the cane only (the juice is rate of 151bs. to every 100 gallons of

Refinery gives the planters, for one gi at a density of 10s B., one pound o

every degree, more or less, 10 per cen deducted—and paid them last year (1 ton of Sugar (in 1878 £22 10s.), that

every 2,240 gallons of juice at 10s B., Yengarie, the planter receives £21.

planters are of opinion that it pays t] sell their juice thus, but the larger they can make the Sugar more profitabl

In the early days a system of divisioi a certain limit was tried by the planters cane from the settlers, but it was foi cause of much dispute and was finall;

Many of the small settlers compla are badly treated by their neighbors the but results do not bear out the justice plaints, for these small settlers (amonj many Germans) who grow Sugar-cane mills, belong to the most prosperous in the Colony. Besides their large ai numbers do not tend to confirm their 1878 there were 68 Sugar-mills at woi

land, inclusive of central factories, be. owners or firms, and which, besides wor own crops of cane, crushed also that settlers living in their neighborhood, a

Of 262 small settlers in the Southern I „ 31 „ „ Central „ 29 „ at Mackay „ 33 „ on the Lower He

which is at the rate of 5 small settle cane to every one mill.



51

Unfortunately some portions of the Press, with¬ out knowing anything at all about the relation

existing between mill-owner and settler, or of the

economy of the manufacture, either out of mistaken zeal or imbued with a false idea of the principles of Industrial Science, are in the habit of running down the capitalist in favor of the small settler, and thus causing a large amount of heart-burning, ill-

feeling, and general discontent, which, it is needless to say, the industry, as well as the community, would do very much better without.

I know for a fact that several of the Mackay planters are in the habit of buying corn (maize) from the settlers above the price at which shippers import it, simply in order to give the small men of the District a helping hand.

Ever since the industry was started the talk has been great about the establishment of central factories, to be owned by an association of planters who should collectively send their cane to their mill, the profit arising therefrom to be divided amongst them. But whenever a new man with capital has

appeared on the Sugar arena, he has invariably pre¬ ferred to set up a small mill for himself, to going into an extensive partnership. Eurthermore, owing to the youth of the industry and its early vicissitudes, there has not yet been a sufficient accumulation of

capital locally to enable the small sottlers to com¬ bine and establish such factories.

Much has also been written about the creation by capitalists of other central factories, like those ex¬

isting in some of the Erench West India Islands, which should purchase the cane from the planters or settlers, and make up the Sugar on then own account—thus making as agricultural and industrial distinction in the production of the Sugar.

During the time of the Philadelphia Exhibition, Queensland's Commissioner, Mr. Angus Mackay,



52

went to the West Indies and visited' other islands where such last-mer factories are in full swing with v( results. On the Commissioner's reti the Government published his repor most highly of the advantages there c

offer, both to the capitalists who bui the planters who supply them wi1 Commissioner bears out his stateme duction of figures which, however, c lead one to the conclusion that the tories are by no means such profital —at least they may be considerei

Martinique, but hardly so in Quee C. E. I. gives an extract of the Qi missioner's figures, and in Table C found the deductions I have made

going table. The results show that i

factory in Martinique on an averag< to produce one ton of Sugar, that th is only £5 per ton, and that the net

capital invested is only 12^- per cent, the above authority quotes money at since in Queensland, any capitalists c 10 per cent, on first-class mortgages, here usually charge 10 per cent, for c it is not so very long ago since priv making money advances at 15 per ce

property, any capitalist can emplo, greater advantage than sinking it ii

tory, with the attendant risks, for an of a little above 12 per cent. M

* The money market in Queensland, as well as in is in a very anomalous position. While the Banks cl and more for loans, and on the discounting of bills, & ledged good paper they do not give more than 4 moneys left on deposit.



53

therefore not serve Queenslanders as an example for the establishment of central factories.

I do not say, nor am I of opinion, that the estab¬ lishment of a central factory, in any central district where the small settlers are numerous, will not be¬ come a remunerative investment, for with the rapid strides with which the Colony is advancing, capital is accumulating, even the low return of Martinique factories of 12 per cent, on the moneys laid out may become a fair profit, but at present when there is still so much available land along the coast, not even taken up, but held by the Crown, the likeli¬ hood is great that it will pay a capitalist better to launch out wholly on his own account. The only objection, but at the same time a serious one, to a

capitalist starting thus in a new district consists in his having to encounter all the difficulties which beset a pioneer.

I am only acquainted with four central factories in Queensland, two of which are in the hands of the banks—and why Not because there exists any want of a commercial basis in this method of work¬

ing the industry (though perhaps frosts in their

particular neighborhood may have exerted an un¬ favorable influence), but because their proprietors both started with insufficient capital, and were not

possessed of the adequate experience requisite in their trade. Another central factory was opened lately and will most likely come to the same end for the same reasons.

Erom my investigations into the profits of the industry, I believe that a central factory at Mackay, which at present, as I have previously shown is the most favorably situated district, or probably any dis¬ trict to the north of it, would return somewhat near 20 per cent, on the capital invested, or about 5 to 10

per cent, less than a large mill.



Table C. F. 1.

EXTBACT FBOM TABLE ShOWINS ACTUAL "WoBKING EXPENSES OF SIX AVEBAGE MaETINIQUE CeNTEAI. E'ACTOBIES, (AS PUBLISHED BY QUEENSLAND'S COMMISSIONEB AT THE PHILADELPHIA EXHIBITION).

Factory. Capital of Factory.*

Sugar made. Tona.

Average selling price of Sugars.

Total paid for cane. Working

Expenses. Total Beturns for

Sugar.

Simonfi

Trois Bivifires

Bobert

IJamartin

Dielon

St. Marie

£

32,000

43,000

64,000

120,000

110,000

62,000

1,507

938

1,624

3,976

1,736

1,576

£ s. d.

24 18 6

26 2 3

25 11 9

24 19 2

24 15 5

26 11 9

£

17,089

9,754

19,492

51,182

20,914

21,424

£

9,383

8,362

9,396

32,811

15,038

12,859

£

37,562

24,575

41,557

99,228

43,091

41,912

* Presumably inclusive of working capital.—H. L. E.



Table C. F. II.

Deductions made (bi me) feom fobegoing Table.

Nett return on capital.

Cost to produce one ton of Sugar. Profit per ton.

Total "Working Expenses.

Factory. Total paid 1 "Working for cane. | Expenses Profit.

Simone*

Trois Bivieres

Eobert

Lamartin...

Dielon

St. Marie

15-02 per cent.

19-79

12-69

6-49

12-30

£ s. d.

19 6 3

17 15 10

21 2 6

20 14 2

21 15 0

£ s. d.

6 17 8

7 15 11

3 16 8

4 2 2

4 16 9

£

18,116

28,888

83,993

35,952

34,283

£

6,459

12,669

15,235

7,139

7,629

Mean 12-31 „ 21 8 10 4 19 9

Ox

• The figures for this factory have not teen calculated, there being probably an error as to the actual capital; the figure given is so very small for the amount of Sugar produced when compared with others.



CHAPTER VII.

Small Mills—The Victor Mill and Cook's Eva] these Mills—"So Commercial Basis—The I Peak Mountain Successes—The Agent's Loss

When the Victor Mill was first

ently before the public, apparen philanthropy, by the agent of the i was thought the Mill was about the present system of producing S when the nature of the machim known it fell in public estimatic level.

The Victor Mill is a small horse

experience has proved that horse- fitable in Queensland. It is claim can be worked by one horse, but pr more than one at least is necessary Mill does not thoroughly extract tl loss; it appears to be able to crust 40 per cent.,* being really a Sor£ used in America for producing syn rator is a poor imitation of the besides its own faults suffers from 1

peculiar to all open-pan arrangeme The two together may perha'

worked in distant localities, such tain,f to supply their immediat( with sugar, but owing to the defects they cannot compete wit] To these the small settler can sel then perfectly free to work his

profit; whereas, if he has a Vic

* Maryborough Chronicle, October 14, 1879. + Queemlander, 9th August, 1879- Description

mills.



57

part of his time, which is required on the farm,, will be taken up with Sugar-boiling, &c, &c.

The plea put forward for the Victor Mill that it can be easily shifted and re-set is unpractical. Fancy an Australian, above all men, humping a Mill about with him like the itinerant Sugar manu¬ facturers of India and China

The agent is not so sanguine of the success of the Mill as he was when he started the first trial at

Beenleigh in July last (79), he having gone home to bring out "

specially combined plants for steam as well as horse-power." His original idea was that

horse-power mills were to supersede the steam mills. The result of statements made at a late meeting

of the Agricultural and Pastoral Society of Southern

Queensland show that the hopes entertained of the Victor Mill are not borne out by facts.*

* Queenslander, 31st December, 1879.



CHAPTER VIII.

Cultivation, S(c.—Early Cultivation Kude—Bad year, 1871 vation— System—Time to Bipen—Varieties—Stools ing—Waste of Megass—Application of Megass—C curred by Soil—Purchase of Cane—Polariscope vers —Mr. W. H Hyne—Crushing Power—Processes- Sugars in Demand—Queensland Sugars—Gallons riage—The Expeiimental Farm—Cane-borer—Pou-t

Owing partly to the fact that the pj not agriculturists, and partly to the f, lands newly taken up for Sugar at the ment were chiefly scrub and forest, or c boulders. The cultivation at first wai and in many places yet, Avhere the so for the first time, the cultivation still

Generally speaking it did not pay tin clear the land right away. The trees and burnt or otherwise removed, the st left to rot in the ground; the hardw had to be burnt or grubbed out. To

impossible, and the hoe had to be u,

By means of the hoe small holes are

ground, and the plant canes placed th was likely to stagnate in such holes, an ral drainage was bad; moreover, the st fered with cleaning the fields, because with the hoe is dearer than horse-lal

always j)rofitable. To this sort of culti fessor Liversidge attributes much of which attended the bad season of 1875. however, faults incidental to pioneeri appear with time and success. Prom the plantations, and I have visited the £ I conclude that taken as a whole the cu itself is fair, while on some plantatioi good indeed, In consequence of the



59

of coast on which Sugar-growing is carried on the systems of cultivation and planting naturally vary exceedingly ; for instance, a time of year for plant¬ ing which would suit the south does not always suit the north, and so on. The south ratoons for many years, while in the north, generally speaking, only three crops (one plant and two ratoons) are taken from a field, after which it is ploughed up and re-planted. In the Southern District, like in New South Wales, hitherto a great part of the Cane did not ripen under 20 to 24 months; but during the last few years early ripening varieties have been largely introduced. A good deal depends, of course, on the time of planting; thus, while 10-month's cane at Mackay is often ripe for crushing, yet gene¬ rally, owing to the time of planting or cutting, 12 to 15-month's cane is crushed.

Up to 1875 the varieties of Cane grown for crushing could almost be counted on one's ten fingers. Bourbon was the great favorite, and only three or four planters troubled themselves about varieties. At the present moment, so infinitely great is the number of varieties of Cane in cultiva¬ tion—since the above fatal year the demand for them has been steady—that there is not a Sugar¬ cane growing country in the world "«Inch will not find representatives of its Cane in cultivation in Queensland.

Stools dug up and re-planted, as is frequently done in Demerara, is very rarely resorted to here. Tops are chiefly planted.

As regards fertilising the lands, or the proper application of megass as a fertiliser, the planters have a great deal to learn yet; but what is worse, they do not appear to be aware of the importance of this part of the cultivation. The planters crop the land until it begins to show signs of weakness, which by-the-bye has only happened in a few cases,



60

and then they begin to fertilise with re instead of striving from the first to natural fertility of the soil, or attem] prove it. The lands being originally for the most part show signs rather of i than otherwise; but where deterioratic in the planters fertilise with rotten m has long lain exposed to the weathe

years, and which has lost the best pa stance by repeated washings out by the

quite a sorry sight to see the heap! wastefully rotting away and losing it the Mills.*

The wonder at this.waste is the gi that megass can be applied in so man or less advantageously, according to can be applied in the form of stable

compost, as ash (after burning as fuel) carted into the fields and burnt there c to rot; the oniy way in which it cannc a fertiliser is to plough it in green, sii of the practical difficulty there is in s

generally speaking it is liable to opei much Some of the planters imagine 1 mise fuel by burning megass is a wast matter if they wish to fertilise their fi is perhaps needless to add, depends i

they possess, for if the soil is rich in or the addition of ash will probably be mc than increasing that organic matter: stiff soil it may be better to buy fuel ;

megass for fertilising. Cattle-penning, as practised in Jai

known in Queensland. The fields are also terribly robbed in

to the stills of the molasses, which cc 12 per cent, of mineral matter that

* See also Liversidge's Disease in the Sugar Cane.



61

returned to the soil; the same may be said of the scum from the clarifiers, &c.

In the purchase of their Canes those planters not

growing a sufficiency do not show that sound sense which distinguishes commercial men. It is slowly dawning on the minds of a few that to buy Cane

by the quantity of juice, having regard to the den¬

sity, is a more equitable method of purchase than

by the mere weight of the Cane, or according to its

appearance as a standing crop, and they are just now beginning to act accordingly.

The relative merits of the (Beaum6's) Sacchar- ometer and the Polariscope are also not thoroughly understood; the former is in general use, whilst the latter is only known by hearsay. The Polariscope will no doubt shortly come into use, for the Sac- charometer is a very relative indicator of the actual amount of Sugar present in the juice, when we

compare it with the exactness obtainable by the other instrument.

I may here perhaps be allowed to call attention to the usefulness of scientific knowledge in con¬ nection with agriculture. Englishmen are, as a rule, inclined to sneer at it; but the possession of scientific knowledge in the Sugar industry in Queensland is well proved by the fact that one of the most successful, if not the most successful, of

planters here is Mr. W. H. Hyne, of Meadowlands

(Mackay), who is a gold medallist of the Cirences¬ ter Agricultural College (England).

The process in use for obtaining the largest amount of Sugar from the juice, or making a high quality, are manifold. As I have already men¬ tioned, the crushing power throughout is defective. The following is a summary of those processes at

present in use:—Sixteen Mills are provided with Dr. leery's Monosulphite of Lime apparatus ; this

process appears to succeed well with open pan



62

Sugars, but vacuum pan owners be successful in its application. 0.

District) makes use of an adaptati namely, Monosulphite of Magn (Southern District) uses bag-filtei thern District) applies Eathorne

Apparatus. A Mill at Mackay n mal charcoal. Fryer's Conoretor

plantation (Southern District), :

Refinery (Central District) Bofv Sucrate of Hydro-carbonate of I use. Only one Mill makes use heater.

The number of vacuum pans in the number of open pans at the sa

ing. There are at present fifteen the colony :—Three in the Souther the Central, seven at Mackay, and bert. In 1878 there were but se

colony. No plantation Avith less i Cane to crush annually possesses An old idea in a new form appei come into use, and may supersede pans, but it has no show with t] called (Sutton's) Atmospheric principle of evaporation consists

compressed air through the liqu blast. It is a good pan in its line

The Sugars are all centrifugalec drained from hogsheads. Gener

Sugars are washed in the centrifu or two plantations they are steami

centrifugals provided with the hoi in Demerara.

The general demand is for a rat

white-grained Sugar and yellow probably two-thirds of the Sugar! into direct consumption and no1



63

fineries. But the Queensland Sugars lack that

brightness, that " bloom " which is considered the criterion of a good Sugar in Demerara, for they are generally dull, probably owing to defective clarification. Erom what I hear of Java, the

Queensland Sugars must very much resemble those

produced in that Dutch colony. Of course, were the demands of the market for the same class of

Sugars as Demerara produces, the Mills would doubtless soon supply them. As it is the Queens- landers have considerably altered the Australian market by the introduction of their whites, previous to which the Sugars generally in consumption were of a very inferior description. The consump¬ tion of Loaf Sugars is excessively small, and it is very seldom, never in Queensland, that one sees loaf sugar on the table.

It is a common, though very questionable, statement in Queensland that 1500 gallons of juiec will give one ton of Sugar! Now, in Demerara where there is superior crushing power, and where without any doubt the most improved appliances are in use, together with higher cultivation than in any other Sugar-cane growing country in the world, the average number of gallons to one ton of

Sugar is 1600. This figure I have from one of the

largest and best managed plantations on the East Coast there, where the juice has a density higher than that at Mackay. Queenslanders must be mistaken

One solitary advantage which many plantations in other parts possess over those of Mackay is that

they are able to send their produce by water to town, whilst at Mackay planters are obliged to cart the

Sugar to the wharves. At the present moment, too, Mackay is an indifferent shipping port, the bed of the Pioneer river being not only tortuous but also shal¬ low, with sandy bars, which make its navigation



64

rather difficult; yet it is not so V. difference in freights or insuran

large sum of money was voted f o- Were the Mackayites more unani tion the river would have been in as there are but four to five rr attending to. At Maryborough worse, because the distance from coast is much longer. In fact al rivers are more or less delicate to

Although in the Southern and the greater part of the carriage ii on by water, there is nothing in any way to that grand syste which characterises British and Di in a very few cases is the Cane j

In the matter of transport at a fresh departure has been ma who has successfully laid down for the conveyance of Cane to h planter is about to lay down an 1 with wooden rails.

Various experiments with Sugi carried out near Brisbane on an The results obtained must be co for it stands to reason that exper a tropical plant, in a part of the >

suitability of the climate is quesi of any scientific value, and there

practical utility. Moreover, should be under the supervisio Hyne or Mr. Davidson, who a and are well grounded scientifica

The Cane-borer has been knc for some time past; it has not in to the Canes, but according to th parently also coinciding with IV views, although the Canes are for



T/

i



CLASS.

1. White or Yellow

2. Green - -

3. Green Ribbon

4. Pink or Rose

5. Pink Ribbon

6. Red -

7, Red Ribbon

8. Yiolet or Purple{

9. Violet Ribbon -{

10. Purple to Black

NOMENCL

BOURBON TABOR LttEUT TABOR OTAHEITE OTAHEITE GREEN AND YELLOW

YELLOW MAURITIUS WHITE CANE BIG YELLOW SMALL YELLOW SALANGORE PENANG

TIBBOO CAPPOR TRIMOTU

CHINESE OTAHEITE CREOLE GREEN DIARD LILIEN MALABAR DJKENG0JIO2NG OEEEK RIBBON ROSE DIARD ROSE BAMBOU RAPPOE PINK CANE BROWN PINK PINK RIBBON TSCHIEMIE BLACK JAVA OR GNERIBOE CHICACA

MAPOU MMA C/NE TIBBOU ETAM

RED CANE TABOR HURRA BELOUCUET TABOR BATTAVEE TO UTE SMALL RIBBON STRIPED BOURBON BIO RIBBON CALEDONIA R. GINGHAM TABOR SOCRAT

TRANSPARENT It. RAPPOE, VAR, NO, 1 DO, DO, NO, 2 MEERA CHAMAR

PABIAH OUATAMITE RAPPOE, VAR, NO, 3

TROOE



65

the borer chiefly attacks the ^^-skinned ones.* The Pou-a-p6che-blanc is also known in Queens¬

land. As yet, as far as I can ascertain, no known or appreciable loss has been sustained ; but plan¬ ters being forearmed with Mr. Bancroft-Espart's experience and advice will probably have ousted the louse before any damage will have been in¬ flicted, f Eor the accompanying Tabulated List of varieties of Sugar-cane grown in the Mackay Dis¬ trict I am indebted to Mr. J. Ewen Davidson, by whom it was compiled, and who originally had it

printed for private circulation only. * See Eathorne G-ill on the Cane-borer—Sugar-cane, Vol. XL, No. 121. t Sugar-cane, Vol. X., No. 109, and Vol. XL, No. 124.



CHAPTER i:

The Production of Sugar—Average yield per —Density—Comparison with other cour of average yield.

The average yield of Sugar p land for the ten years ending 31

which, therefore, includes the n follows*:—

For the Southern District

„ Central „ „ Mackay „ Oardwellf „

„ Queensland „

At first sight this average aj one, but on taking into conside have affected it, this yield is on t a good one. It is above the Demerara up to 1862,$ before was resorted to, and it is much h

Sugar-growing countries at pres< The soils are all virgin soils

greater part rich in organic m

large percentage of nitrogen, win at the expense of Sugar, for i

genous organic matter into the r extraction of Sugar in the cour

* Several planters have informed me that reliable; why planters should make false re unable to answer, but from figures shown me i satisfied they are generally correct.

t It is hardly fair to compare this average n tricts as there are only two Mills on the Herbe

% It was then 20001bs. per acre. (See transmitted from British Gruiana to the Interns



67

more difficult.* It will take some years before this richness is reduced by liming, or thorough cultiva¬ tion to a lower and better level. As it is, in not a few cases through good cultivation, the planters have already increased their yield. It must also be borne in mind that the oldest piece of Sugar-land under cane in Queensland has barely been cultiva¬ ted fifteen years, and at Mackay barely eleven years. Eurthermore, on the belts of rich land in Southern Districts, the planters have allowed the cane to ratoon for many years in succession, the soil in consequence is not so thoroughly worked as in the north, and tends to lessen the general average yield.

The want of efficient drainage is also antagonistic to a good yield, but then men with restricted capital cannot be expected to arrange a thorough system of

drainage at the outset; besides it takes some time to find out where drainage is wanted, and even where

drainage is properly carried out it requires a few

years to pass before its beneficial effects are felt.f

Through the number of small mills which have not the appliances for so complete an extraction of the Sugar as the larger mills, and where, owing to the open pan processes, a great loss is incurred in

crystallisable Sugar, a considerable decrease is caused in the average return. Even the large mills are not

provided with so complete a crushing-power as is

* For further particulars on this subject, see a Rapport analytique sur la Cultivation du Sucre a Tjipiring, Genoe and Poegoe par M. M. Fr., Van den Brock and Ch. Bouchet, Batavia, 1879.

t It may be interesting to Queensland planters to know that tile drain¬ ing in Demerara is a failure, although men experienced in such drainage at home were introduced to superintend the laying of the pipes, &c. Ap¬ parently the cause 'of failure was that the water did not drain through quick enough, that the cane grows better in beds, &c. In Demerara the rainfall is never so great in the twenty-four hours as is common enough in Queensland, where 6 to 9 inches rain in 24 hours is no extraordinary occurrence.



68

essential for the thorough extr Moreover, next to no fertilis

generally none whatever, so tha ed from the pure natural ferti] lowance must also be made i

completely annihilated the 187j that of 1876; the average yield being about 15 cwt. to the acre] Queensland varies from 7i° to c

ing from a mean of under 8" an to above 10Q B. in Mackay, on<

expect a higher yield than hit difficulties have been overcoml know something about their bu

Compare now the Queenslani that of other countries, in whii follows :—

COTJNTBY. Avi

Demerara 4

Louisiana * 1

Mauritius * 3

Jamaica* 1

Philippine Islands * 2

India t

Kio Janeiro (Quissima) J 2

Java (about) 3

According to Porter, || virgii 5000 lbs. of Sugar per acre; a

* Simmond's Tropical Agriculture, pages 1 t From Produce Market Review (quoted by S J Sugar-cane, Vol. IX., No. 101. § According to the Sugar-cane, Vol. XL, I

only 1680 lbs. || " On the Sugar-cane," page 199. ;



69

History of the West Indies,* speaks of soil in Jamaica which, with plant cane, will produce 2\ tons

(5600 lbs.) of Sugar to the acre. Now in Queens¬ land 3-| tons and over, or above 7840 lbs. per acre, have occasionally been obtained from soils newly broken up, but such a yield is exceptional.

The fertility of the land is thus tolerably well

proved, and when planters find that the present rate of yield does not pay them, the use of artifi¬ cials will doubtless increase the yield to that of Demerara, where Sugar-cane is more highly-culti¬ vated than in any other part of the world, t

* Vol. IL, page 241. (Edwards was a Sugar planter). f According to the Statistics of N.S. Wales, the average yield is there

nearly 3 tons to the acre which return certainly does not agree with density of the cane there, nor with the crushing power of the numerous small mills ; though of late the crushing power has considerably improved.

A ccording to the Special Commissioner of the Town and Country Journal (of Sydney), under one ton of Sugar per acre is obtained in the Clarence District the chief centre of the industry in iS'ew South Wales. (See Number for 7th February, 1880).



70

C3 CO

W

3

co CO

o Sri 03 CO 00

o Ph m rt o «J aj si

IS

o n M

H H a> »

ere. LBS. 03 03 IN N <l ^ Q ft CO

0> O N O rH P © bo d J-i 1) d5 * -* 1> O •4 IN IN IN 03

d 0) CI 3 O O O O T3 IN 1^ r-l 00 Pro E-i

O r-^ 03

to GO rH1

03 U31

3 o> t~- 1> * 03 03 CO b£ fl w

a rf o O o O rg in 3 B o « r-l O O o CO * 1^ 03 bn O 03 00 e3 -4 03 03 CO "^ u cc" in *" r-? < r-l t-4 IN

: : •

+- ict >> i—i a CO o fl m u cS <D >>

.H 'en 0 u Ci OJ 03 4^ -3 T1 s a) cs

5 a 1



CHAPTER X.

The (Vo-called) Rust-disease.—The Bourbon Cane—Season 1875—Eesults of Investigations—Cause of Rust—Future appearance—Excess of Rainfall.

During 1875 a so-called disease ran through the

Sugar-cane in Queensland, and for that year almost annihilated the crop, reducing the total amount of

Sugar produced to about two-sevenths of what it had been in the previous season.

Until that year nearly all the Sugar-cane planted belonged to the Bourbon variety; other varieties such as Black Java, Bappoe, Bibbon, &c, were only to be met with exceptionally. This Bourbon cane

appears to have been the favorite from the outset; being a soft cane it was easy to crush, and if the

density was not so high as some of those more lately introduced varieties, the quantity of the juice made

up for the slight want in quality. The year 1875 opened with abnormally heavy

falls of rain, after which, planters suddenly noticed

yellow rust-like spots appear on the leaves; the leaves withered, the cane dried up leaving the barrel, as it were, almost completely devoid of juice. This hap¬ pened from one end of the Sugar-growing Districts to the other.

Many theories were immediately started to ac¬ count for this diseased state of the cane. Professor

Liversidge of Sydney,* Dr. Bancroft, and others studied the matter, and published the results of their

investigations. Erom these it would appear—firstly, that this diseased state of the cane had been known for some years past, but not having caused any serious loss hitherto, had been allowed to pass un¬ observed ; and secondly, that to call this state of

* " The disease of the Sugar-cane in Queensland s" Sydney, 1876.



72

unhealthiness a specific disease of terms.

It is pretty well conceded no-v condition of the cane, which consummation is due to inferior

unsuitability of some of the ch suitable cane having been selec and the extreme unfavorable Weakened by these antagonistic suffered from the attacks of a s a fungus. It is noticeable that, ^

years this fungus does not spre; degree, when the cane was so adverse atmospheric and low ditions above-named the fungi fullest extent.

It is not to be expected that 1 to which, however, the cane rem

again make its appearance in destructive manner as it did in count of the improved cultivai

consequence of the continuous varieties! of cane from various

growing world, and also because to grow on unsuitable soil.

The year 1870 showed a g] 1875, and yet this diseased sta not observed, probably because t more seasonable, which would t( actual excess of moisture alone

* Many planters are, however, still very unc rust.

t Some years ago a Chinese manager of s finding the cane grown there very hard to ci skinned varieties, other planters followed 1 year the canes became diseased, and the pi: their old hard-skinned friends.



CHAPTER XI.

Failures and their Causes—The rush for Sugar plantations—Number of Failures—Percentage of Success -Causes of Failure—Rust—Be¬ haviour of the Money-lenders.

Human nature is the same all the world over. What Herbert Spencer says of men at home may be equally well applied to the men who started

Sugar-growing in Queensland: "They stand hesitat¬

ing until some one sets the example, and then rush all one way, like a flock of sheep after a leader."* When cotton was found to thrive in Queensland there was such a rush, this was before Sugar- growing commenced; but while, fortunately for

Sugar-planters, the Sugar industry contains in itself the elements of commercial success, unfortunately for the cotton-growers the cotton-culture apparently does not.

As near as I can possibly ascertain almost exactly 114 mills (or mills and plantations together) have been started in Queensland! ; that is to say that 79 mills were originally established, of which 29 failed, changed hands and were re-opened, this making my total of 114 investments. Of this number 68 mills are at work at the present moment, about 17 have been totally abandoned, so that altogether there have been approximatively 46 failures. The last four seasons (1876 to 1879) have been very favor¬

able, so that at least two-thirds of those at work

may be considered to be working profitably; the

rest, with one or two exceptions, being still hampered

* Social Science, page 19. f This is the result of my own enquiries, probably a few of the small

mills of the early days may have been omitted; as can be imagined, change of hands and locality are obstructive factors in the collection of such data.



u

by heavy mortgage interest. We hi cent, of failure, 40 per cent, of sue cent, of cases which still hang in tli

The failures are due to the folio"'

Ignorance of the industry, and mc of the very elements of agriculture This is shown by the unsuitable pos: chosen by some of the pioneers, business habits, starting without p and with very sanguine expectatior to work with an idea that howevei

they might act the profits must come ment has caused many to obtain ] Bank or money-lenders; but that i the sooner to ruin, for an industry n tablished and understood before it c, to pay as mere interest 10 to 15 per c

say has it even 20 per cent). Erost in the two lower Districts

not a few, as has also the employ labor as already mentioned.

The bad season of 1875, howeve the want of capital, has "cooked" than any other cause—close upon those who failed must have succurabe named disadvantages. The followi

* " The process being apparently simple, propensity natural to the busy and inquisitive part almost irresistable propensity to engage in it. In th other enterprises, whose success depends in any degr and prudence, though perhaps not more than one ma fortunate, every sanguine adventurer takes for gran that one. Thus his system of life becomes a course if ruin should be the consequence of his rashness, fortunes to any cause, rather than to his own want sight." Edward's West Indies, Vol. II., page 306. these remarks made 60 years ago apply to the early land Sugar Industry).



75

this clear : At Mackay nearly £350,000 had been invested in this industry, and of this sum about two- thirds, £230,000, was borrowed capital paying 10 per cent, interest; when, therefore, in that bad season, with plantations at a discount, a planter suddenly had his overdraft (which was invested in plant, machines, land, &c.) cancelled, and was told to pay up—how could he possibly do so He naturally went to the wall. Many of the early planters who were work¬

ing with borrowed capital were also in too great a

hurry to extend, they were constantly spending the returns in breaking up fresh land, increasing mill-

power, &c, instead of reducing their debt, thus when a bad season came and money-lenders were panic- stricken, they had no reserve to fall back upon.

When Banks do land-mortgage business it gene¬ rally comes about this way. The constituent gets a small overdraft, which, gradually increasing, the Bank asks for the deeds, and then often the over¬ draft is run up several thousands more, apparently without limit—unlike the transactions of a land-

mortgage company who fix upon a certain sum up to which they will lend after duly valuing the es¬ tate. Any tightness of money, or panic, causes the Bank to intimate that the overdraft is to be reduced, and not being previously warned the constituent, often like most colonials of a sanguine temperament, finds himself in a fix. It may with justice be added, why did not the constituent provide against any such emergency The fact is a Bank makes pro¬ mises which it has not the slightest intention of ful¬

filling. Should matters turn out inconvenient it has no compunction in breaking its word. I know of several cases where Banks have pledged their word to give a certain time for the re-payment of loans and afterwards repudiated the same.

In one case 1 know of a Bank which, having al¬ lowed its constituent to overdraw to a large amount



76

on certain securities, became afraid and demanded a certain security whi tuent did not like giving up. The I after giving him thoroughly to unch had no intention of declaring him ins that as long as the interest was paid and that it would ask for no furthe

present, obtained the desired securi matter of form. Three clays later tl insolvent. In another case a Banl a written promise that a constituei fair warning before he should be n

up. The Bank suddenly wanted m no warning; the constituent present promise of the Director to the Local

laughed at the greenness of the cor

promise was an invalid one not bear the Bank. So much for the integrit;

It is reasonable to suppose that if have as above to Sugar-planters, they manner to men carrying on other in

way of transacting business greatly traduction of further capital into the talists in England judge things by res

they see industries, supposed to 1 receive sudden checks, they ascribe th soundness instead of to the unbusinc- in which the Australian Banks manag

* See Edward's warning concerning Money-lendei Vol. II., page 303.



CHAPTER XII. Rum—Messrs. Whish and Trevelian—Excise Duty—Cost of Production—

General output—Pleystowe Rum—Tables of Trade in and Production of Rum.

The manufacture of this by-product of the sugar- mills has made the same rapid strides as that of the

Sugar. In the early days while the establishment of

sugar-plantations was only just beginning to

occupy attention, the experiments in sugar-making becoming unsuccessful, the product was converted into rum. Messrs. Whish and Trevelian of the Caboolture River (which, by the way, has fallen

tremendously as a Sugar-producing locality) were the first Queensland rum distillers; they commenced

operations at their distillery in July, 1867, and

although other stills were started in quick succession

they.were the first to bring the spirit into the market. Since then the distillation of rum has kept even pace with the manufacture of Sugar.

The Excise duty on distilled spirits in Queensland is two-thirds of that on spirits imported, but accord¬

ing to the Chief Inspector of Distilleries the distiller in Queensland is enriched by the deferential excise

duty of three shillings and f ourpence only to a very slight extent.* It certainly appears that rum dis¬

tilling is not a very lucrative industry. Apparently it does not pay to buy the molasses though it pays a large planter with a still to make rum if he have

plenty of molasses of his own. The total expenses (including freight, storage,

&c.,) of making rum average £4 per hogshead of 50 to 52 gallons, the margin for profit this leaves is small, as the price of rum approximates 2/2 the

gallon; for a nett return of a few hundred pounds it is questionable whether it is worth the planter's time and money.



78

The prices netted by Mr. J. Ewen Alexandra Plantation, Mackay, are as

Tear Ne 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878

The greatest quantity of rum proi year was in 1875, (31st March to 31st'.

Owing probably to the diseased state

large quantity of superflous molasses 1 able for the fourteen stills of the cole that year distilled 343,244 proof gallons more than in the previous season, whi( had up to that time been the larges that bad Sugar season told on the stills the mills, nearly all of which were at

sugar-mills. At present there are el

operation; 3 at Mackay, 5 in the Cei and 3 in the Southern District, Cardw no still.

The total production of rum since 1 1,842,322 proof gallons. Up to 1876 at the rate of over 2 gallons of molass to 1 proof gallon of rum distilled. Ec at the rate of l4/5 to 1, and in 1878 at t 1, thus:— 1877 Southern District, 2 gallons molasses p<

„ Central a 21 11 11 „ Mackay jj U 11 11

1878 Southern 21 „ Central » H „ Mackay )j If 11 11

' See Ninth Annual Eeportof Chief Inspector of Distill



79

At Mackay more skimmings are used than in the other districts. The Inspector in his ninth Annual

Report is inclined to attribute this greatest yield from the molasses at Mackay, "partly to the greater attention bestowed upon the vats, &c," and the lesser

yield at Maryborough, "to the extensive use of lime" at one of the mills there to which a still is attached. Since 1866, the year before rum was first distilled 329,089 proof gallons of rum have been imported, and 216,598 proof gallons have been exported., with the quantity distilled in the colony we arrive at a

consumption in Queensland of 1"04 proof gallons of rum per head of the population.

It would be a mistake to conclude this paper without a comment on the still of Messrs. A. Hewitt & Co., of Pleystowe, at Mackay, where, on account of the softness of the water, and the extreme care bestowed on the distillation of the rum, the result has been the production of a superior class of spirit altogether. It is well known by the "Anchor"

brand, and is in good demand. The rum produced at

Ageston Plantation Still is also of a fair quality but not equal to the former,



Production of Bum in QUEENSLAND.*

SOUTHERN DISTRICT. CENTRAL DISTRICT MACKAY DISTRICT. TOTAL.

Year. No. o£ Proof No. of Proof No. of Proof No. of Proof Stills at Work. Gallons. Stills at "Work. Gallons. Stills at "Work. Gallons. Stills at work. Gallons.

1867 2 12,045 2 12,045

1868 4 19,612 i 9,841 1 6,146 6 35 599

1869 5 35,532 2 29,051 1 9,900 8 74,483

1870 5 58,104 4 42,576 1 23,985 10 124,665

1871 5 44.780 4 46,282 1 21,917 11 112,979

1872 2 43,181 5 58,915 2 59,377 9 161,473

1873 2 31,837 5 82,762 3 49,814 10 164,413

1874 2 36,892 4 99,723 4 81,086 10 217,701 1875 5 96,590 5 112,701 4 134,034 14 343,325

1876 3 47,346 5 53,613 3 82,284 10 183,243

1877 4 45,662 4 54,440 3 95,899 11 196,001

1878 4 74,019 2 46,819 3 95,557 9 216,395

Total 545,600 636,723 659,999 1,842,322

00 o

* Prom the Reports of the Chief Inspector of Distilleries.



The Traffic in Rum in Queensland # Bum 1866 to 1878.

Year. Imports Proof Gallons. Exports Proof Gallons.

1866 1867 1868

67,429 64,156 51,569 42,117 21,142 1,326 6,639 9,278

11,821 13,684 15,065 14,594 10,269

90,' 87,< 39,]

47 295 156

Imposts 329,089 peooi" galls.

Manupactubed 1,842,322 „ „

1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874

2,171,411 „

Exports 216,598 „ „

1875 1876 1877 1878

A Total of 1,954,813 „ „

CONSUMED nSf QUEENSLAND.

Total 329,089 216,598 -

00

From the Reports of the Chief Inspector of Distilleries. The Sugar year ends 31st March.



CHAPTER XIII

The Colonial Sugar Tariffs—Queensland anc Colonies.

Every Australian colony has it

owing to the jealousy which the towards one another it has not be< to establish a uniform Intercoloni the date of its establishment is by distant. The duty on Sugars in however, not likely to undergo an acts not only as a protection to tl but is also a source of considerab]

colony. The Tariffs are:

I. QUEENSLAND. C Refined Sugar

Import \ Raw Sugar Duty, j Molasses

[Bum... C Spirits distilled within tlie colo"

_ \ duty of two-thirds of the dul cise j upon spirits of a like desci V, the colony.

II. NEW SOUTH WA]

C Refined Sugar Import ^ Raw Sugar Duty, j Molasses

(.Bum... C On spirits made or distilled vs

Excise < Sugar which has paid Cu, gallon.*

* I have reason to believe that in the re via Tariff now taking place, their import and excise raised,



83

Import Duty.

III.

'Candy Sugar Glucose Raw Sugar Refined Sugar Molasses Rum

VICTORIA.

IV. SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Import \ ^^Bses and"Treaei'e' DuTT- I Bum

Import Duty.

V. WESTERN AUSTRALIA..

("Sugar -j Molasses and Treacle LRum

VI.

» »

-/2 per lb. 3/- per Cwt. 8/- 3/- 3/-

10/- per Gall.

3/- per Cwt. 3/- „

10/- per Gall.

3/- per Cwt. 3/- „

14/- per Gall.

TASMANIA.

fRum 12/-per Gall. Import \ Loaf and crushed Sugar, nett -/I per ib Duty. 1 Other Sugars, nett 6/- per Cwt.

(.Molasses, nett 3/6 „ A nd so in proportion for all Sugars or Molasses for any greater

or less quantity than one cwt. not being less than 28 lbs.

VII. NEW ZEALAND.

j f Glucose -p. -j Sugar and Molasses

l^Rum...

|d. per ft. *d. „

12/- per Gall.



CHAPTER XIV. The Cost of Production—Early difficulty—Cost of Prod

versus small mills—Demerara mills—Decrease Competition—Eeturns.

Until the industry settled down per until experience showed that it poss commercial basis, one great obstacle success and extension was the dil existed of ascertaining correctly the c tion. Figures put forward were not be unreliable until their want of i

proved by the failure of the party who ward. The extreme cheapness with said Sugar could be produced caused to make the attempt at planting to

disappointment. It requires approximatively £14 t

ton of Sugar. The largest mill in Qn produced its output at the rate of unch after making allowance for the rum, ing the rum, at the rate of about £11 other mill, as far as my enquiries g( such a low figure in its cost of prodn perience goes to prove, like in most i the larger the manufacture the cheap tion. The smallest mill I have con which produces about 30 tons per leaves the proprietors any profit. P

firmly convinced that the greater t] less it will proportionately cost them

continually increasing the area un< where this has not hitherto been pos cane from the neighbouring settlers,

consequently that the cost of producti becoming less.

In Demerara the smallest mill will 900 tons annually, but the cost of pro



85

as compared with that of Queensland, is greater, because all the cultivation is done by hand labor, whilst in Queensland by far the greater portion is done by horse labor. This is without doubt a great advantage and materially helps to keep down the

expenditure. While the cost of production is thus decreasing,

competition at the same time has not reduced the

price to any appreciable extent. This is due to several causes; from amongst them may be men¬ tioned the comparitive small amount of Sugar hitherto produced, the late failure of the beet crop in Europe, the expected withdrawal of the Prench bounties, &c.

The returns of a large Sugar plantation are very fair, but in consequence of the many little mills the

general average is greatly reduced. Of six mills with which I am acquainted the nett price realised, after deducting charges, commission, freight, .&c, has averaged for the last five years between £22 and £23 per ton. This is the figure which I am inclined to believe is very much in accordance with the general average of the whole colony. Some mills turning out good whites naturally realise

higher prices. This average is low however, not

merely because of the quality of the Sugars, but in

consequence of many of the small men being pushed for funds, they are obliged to sell whether the mar¬ ket suits them or not.

The prices netted by Mr. J. Ewen Davidson, of Alexandra, Mackay, are as follows

Year. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873

Hett return per ton £32 0 0

31 14 0 28 16 0 25 19 9 25 5 10 24 0 0



86

Tear. He 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878

In the early years Mr. Davidson pi tection, but when Queensland began balance of Sugars manufactured abo"v consumed the price fell to its value market.

The largest return any mill has m? season is 33 per cent, on its capital, of course cannot be expected to give ]

The above figures are quoted from



CHAPTER XV. Future Fields—Queensland—Northern Territory, (S. A.)—Western Aus¬

tralia—Queensland. 1. QUEENSLAND.

In any foreshadowing of the future areas to come under Sugar, districts like the Southern and Central must be left out of consideration, for although no doubt the room for Sugar to spread there is ample, yet no man of business, unless induced by other favorable circumstances, would think of starting a

Sugar plantation where there is any risk of frost. To start with Mackay therefore. This District

has 180,000 acres of freehold and leasehold land fit for agricultural purposes, of which about 12,000 are under cultivation for cane and other crops at the present moment. Of the remaining 168,000 about *70,000 may be considered available for Sugar grow¬ ing, that is to say Mackay is capable of producing, without in any way taxing its resources, about seven times as much as it does at present, *. e., of turning out about 65,000 tons, or at a stretch even 8 to 10,000 above that.

Prom Mackay northward the deposits at the mouths of creeks and rivers are all more or less suit¬ able for cane; vinous scrubs are indicators of good agricultural land. The lands at the mouth of the Burdekin River are fair for Sugar growing. The small rivers on the coast between the Herbert River and the Endeavour River (Cooktown) are of a similar character to the Herbert, their courses are very short, they descend from abrupt ranges and have generally rich alluvial flats on their immediate banks.

In the neighbourhood of Cairns, a few miles south of Cooktown, Sugar has made a start, Messrs. Leon

* I have this on the authority of a gentleman thoroughly conservant with the District—for no other district have I been able to obtain data.



88

& Co. being engaged at present i:

ting 640 acres of scrub land. 1 is plentiful, the banks and po< creeks consisting of nearly sen firm are making a new depar Chinese instead of Kanaka la succeed they will have become tl

Sugar district.* As to the rainf no statistics.

Beyond the Endeavour River, of the first 50 or 60 miles, tl

country is poor and sandy. The whole of the Gulf Count

Sugar culture, chiefly on accot

drought and wet.

2. NORFEERN TERRITORY (of At Port Darwin and neighbt

moderately good, derived chiefly limestone, where it is worth while to grow Sugar-cane. Por son

government have offered a bonr first 500 tons of Sugar produce Northern Territory, but hitherto

any one to make a trial. The off but the government are ready tc on the same terms should a pion< Messrs. Spence Bros, have obtain sion of land for the purpose of g Port Darwin. "Excellent Suga the Government Gardens, Porl

paper, t but according to that se mate is unsuitable. However, a

Sugar-canes for planting at Porl bane early in 1879.

* Por the chances of success with Chinese the Chinaman make a G-ood Colonist," by C Review, for January, 1880.

t South Australian Register, September 6, 18



89

3. WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

North of the North-West Cape there are lands much of the same character as the Port Darwin series, which might be exploited for Sugar. South of the Cape there is no chance for Sugar. The insoluble character of the silica in the granite (and where there is no granite there is sand) precludes the formation of a suitable soil; moreover, in the absence of any regular winds which bring or precipitate rain the climate must be considered unsuitable.

It will thus be seen that beyond Queensland there will be little or no extension for Sugar culture. In Queensland however the quantity of available and suitable land is too great to enable any estimate of its probable extension to be made.*

If Queensland planters will be able to continue to produce Sugar as cheap as they can now they will soon produce enough to supply the whole of the Australias, and consequently oust foreign pro¬ ducers.

* In New South Wales I know next to nothing of the present state of the Sugar industry, but I hear there is very little room for further exten-



CHAPTER 1

Future Prospects—Effect of Duty—Opposite toria and New Zealand—Sorghum—Ne European market.

It will have been seen that has risen to its present pro] merits. The extraneous aid it 1

exceedingly small. The impro of 1864 helped agriculture in g> as they did Sugar in particular. £5 per ton is the duty Quee legacy from New South Wales been in force there many yea still in operation in both coloniei commenced exporting her own \ character of the duty disappeai facturers no longer profit by Wales, hoAvever, where Sugar is

duty imdoubtedly remains a pr revenue derived from that so The duty in Queensland may t looked upon as protective, in the refineries of the southern c

ing the Colony with their proc command of the market—tho event of there being no duty tl able speculation is open to que is in existence in Queensland t refine in bond. Yengarie (the < itself of this Act, and that,

Bonuses on exports of Sugar but beyond their proposal no done to introduce them, and n<

sary. In 1868 the Queensland quested to build and work Sug vian system; for a while it held



91

eventually however the question dropped out of sight. (The Batavian Government is annually backing out of the Sugar industry, which in another two years will be totally in the hands of private individuals.)

In former times the salesmen of Queensland Sugars in Australia met with much opposition amongst the old importers of foreign (and other

colonial) Sugars, which fact of course re-acted on the profits of the planter. Sugar-beet culture has been tried in Victoria and failed,* moreover the

government there met with no response to its offer of bonuses on the production of Beet-Sugars. In New Zealand, after all the inquiries of the "Joint Committee on Colonial Industries," it has been decided not to support the cultivation of Sugar-beet in that colony by government grant or otherwise. Beet-culture in New South Wales is not to be looked forward to, chiefly on account of the Sugar-cane industry already there established. Sorghum for the production of Sugar specially has been attempted at Wagga (N.S.W.), but did not succeed.

Presh attempts in the above, coupled with success, might at any time be made, but judging from the

past it is not likely, and in that direction therefore Queenslanders need have no anxiety as to compe¬ tition.

New Caledonia does not seem likely to become a

Sugar-producing country, the industry there as far as trials have been made, having suffered severely from the periodical invasion of locusts.*

As to the Pijis, on the other hand, I am informed on good authority by men who know these islands, that Sugar, as well as other cultures, is thriving there.

The ramifications of the Sugar-trade, like all others, are so great at the present day that any rise or fall in the European markets at once makes itself felt in

* See Ante. G*



92

Australia. This Avas conspicuou ber last year (1879) when the inf c the bad beet harvest on the Conti of Sugars by several pounds pei mediate cause of the rise in Au the fact that a rise in European less distant growers like Mauriti

Sugars to Europe instead of to A lition of the Prench bounty woi

deep and lasting effect on the j

Sugars rising in Europe would dc and the increased profits of the pi further investment in this inclus

* See Ch. Lemire's Nouvelle Caledonie p. 2



CHAPTER XVII. The consumption of Sugar in Australia.—Consumption in the various

Colonies—In England—Probable causes of high rate per head- Large consumption favorable to Queensland.

The mean consumption of Sugar and molasses in the Australasian colonies as given in the accompany¬ ing tables is one extending over a period of fifteen

years (with the exception of Western Australia, the mean for which extends over six years only).* The

consumption in Australasia is greater than in any other part of the world. England has always been considered the greatest consumer of this commodity, her consumption of Sugar and molasses for 1878 having been at the rate of 62^ lbs. per head.f Australasia, however, consumed 78"7 lbs. per head, or above 16 lbs. per head more than England did. Of the colonies Queensland is the greatest consumer, and South Australia the smallest consumer, their consumption being 92-13 and 71'31 lbs. respectively. Whether the fact that there are many Germans in the latter colony is the cause of the comparatively small consumption of Sugar there I am unable to

say. The general high rate in Australasia is doubtless

in a measure due to the scarcity of paupers in these colonies, to the average superior condition of the

population, and to the custom of giving rations

(almost universal) as part payment of wages, which

* Owing chiefly to want of uniformity in the collection of statistics in the earlier colonial days, the statistics I quote are not perfectly exact, though they are as accurate as I believe it is possible to make tkem

f In 1878 England consumed 939,300 tons of Sugar and molasses, with a population of 33,800,000 persons, this gives 62£ lbs per head of the population, Produoe Markets Review, quoted by The Sugar-cane, Vol XI., No. 117.



94

rations always include Sugar and

may be the great waste a\ hich mi where the transport inland is 1 losses on account of the primiti roads, to the destruction in stoi who commit much havoc in th and lastly, perhaps to the waste tricts, where extravagance and w verbial.

Australia draws her supplies fi of the 91,500 tons which went i 1878, one-sixth is produced by Q twelth by New South Wales, or a of the Sugar consumed in Aus in Australia itself. The rema are imported chiefly from Java

supplemented by dribblets froi

Sugar-producing countries in th is thus ample room for an increas< duced in Queensland.



QUEENSLAND.

Year. Imports * Sugar and Molasses. Cwts.

Exports * Sugar and Molasses. Cwts.

Sugar f Manufactured. Cwts.

Molasses f Manufactured. Gallons.

Population * 31st December.

1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878

55,646 64,795 67,382 69,370 66,092 60,819 42,250 32,456 27,523 31.845 18,997 31,695 28,247 13 651 9 355

1,047 183 81 55

101 429 372

11,286 24,642 32,229 90,175 58,355 16,755

122,580 88,279

3,360 12,380 29,800 57,090 75,250

125 330 159,750 242,160 126,440 164.280 244,870 270,510$

13,100 68,622

137,598 177,656 219,694 357,619 442,253 651,259 438,950 416,415 490,260$ 570,301

74,036 87,804 96,201 99,849

107,427 109,897 115,567 125,146 133,553 146,690 163,517 181,288 187,100 203,084 210,510

Total 620,151 446,569 1,511,220 3,983,727 2,041,669

* Statistical Registers of Queensland. t Reports of Chief Inspector of Distilleries iu Queensland. t To 31st March, 1879.

CO



Consumption op Sugar and Molasses in QUEENSLAND, 1864 to 1878.

Imports Suf,ar and Molasses Cwts. 620,151 Sugar Manufactured „ 1,511,220 Molasses „ „ 497,965*

Sugar and Molasses available for Consumption... Cwts. 2,629,336 Exports Sugar and Molasses Cwts. 446,569 Molasses converted into Bum )t 460,581f Sugar and Molasses non-available t> 42,700$ CO

OS Sugar and Molasses withdrawn from Consumption 949,850

Total Sugar and Molasses consumed 1679,486

The sum of the Population on 31st December of each year, amounts to 2,041,669 persons, giving as consumption 92-13 lbs. per head.

* Calculating Molasses at 141bs. to the gallon. t JSTo "Returns available: the amount quoted is that which tallies with the quantity of Molasses requisite for the out-put of Rum for those years, at the rate of 2 gallons of Molasses to 1 of proof Rum. Jibe official Sugar year ends on 31st March; fully one-eighth of the 8ugar is still in the Mills on the 31st December, allowance has, therefore, to be made. As the figures extend over many years it is otherwise not considered necessary to take stocks into account.

^^IgJBM



WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Consumption of SUGAR and MOLASSES in Western Australia.

1872 to 1878, Total Imports

„ Exports » >»

„ Consumption

Cwts. 152,603

376

152,227

CD

The sum of the average Populations for those years amounts to 186,322 persons, giving as consumption per head in Western Australia, 91i lbs.*

* For the above information I am indebted to Mr. H. H. Hayter, Government Statist of Victoria.



NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sugar Sugar Molasses Molasses Sugar* Molasses* Population 31st December. "Year. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. Manufactured. Manufactured. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts.

1864 309,450 83,395 2,463 356 2 ~l f 392,589 1865 362,580 104,544 127 3,528 40 411,388 1866 463,161 120,294 35 20,286 51 431,412 1867 447,329 110,119 10,907 158 !> 17,500f J 447,620 1868 402,025 90,616 18,986 1,203 466,765 1869 401,813 76 075 81 16,929 29,142 485 356 1870 476,362 • 54,871 63 16,740 13,574 502,861 1871 424,326 68,746 52 24,912 35,836 14,143 519 182 1872 318,821 71061 51 37,215 34,207 17,974 539,190 1873 504,461 33,177 31,465 14,400 5,278 560,275 1874 434,632 31,163 38 36,924 137,104 52,945 584,278 1875 444,562 68,557 69 26,050 96,910 54,771 606,652 1876 482,979 112,365 170 13,274 93,960 34,185 629,776 1877 465,154 90,446 1,284 14,008 150,844 43,192 662,212 1878 553,442 94,573 1,134 16,163 163,203$ 66,607$ 693,743

Total 6,491,097 1,210,002 5,567 287,743 770,534 306,595 7,933,299

No Returns for Imports overland. * The Returns are incomplete. (See Statistical Eegisters of N. S. Wales). t Estimated; there are no Returns. i To 31st March, 1878 only.

CD GO



Consumption of Sugar and Molasses in NEW SOUTH WALES, 1864 to 1863.

Imports Sugar and Molasses Sugar Manufactured Molasses „ Sugar and Molasses estimated (31st March to 31st December, 1878)

Sugar and Molasses available for consumption Exports Sugar and Molasses Sugar and Molasses converted into Rum

Sugar and Molasses withdrawn from consumption

Total Sugar and Molasses consumed

Cwts. 6,496,664 770,534

„ 306,595 181,500*

Cwts. 1,497,745 223,032f

Cwts. 7,755,293

1,720,777

CO CO

6,034,516

The sum of the Population on 31st December each year, amounts to 7,933,299 persons, giving as consumption 85-19 lbs. per head.

* The official Sugar year in N.S.W. ends on 31st March ; the amounts given above are only up to March, 1878. I have, in consequence, made an estimate based on the foregoing year for the 9 months, April to December, 1878, say 130,000 cwt. Sugar and 51,600 cwt. Molasses. t See Statistical Registers.



Consumption of Sugar and Molasses in VICTORIA, 1864 to 1878.

Total Imports

Exports

Consumed

Cwts. 10,341,949*

1,911,148*

8,430,001* ©

The sum of the Population on 31st December of each year, amounts to 11,137,896 persons, giving as consumption 84'76 lbs. per head.

* For these figures I am indebted to Mr. H. H. Hayter, Government Statist of "Victoria. This gentlemen calculates the consumption by the s am of tb c mean population for those yearB, which is 11,010,830, giving as consumption 85| lbs per head. This is, of course, the more correct method, but for the sak*> of uniformity I have been obliged to adopt the other method of calculating by the sum of the population on 31st December of each year



TASMANIA.

Year. Sugar Imports. Cwts. Sugar Exports. Cwts. Molasses Imports. Cvits. Population 31st December.

1864 1865 1S66 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878

43,934 51,564 78,257 65,436 67,025 58,586 58,791 75,432 70,790 87,150 88,891 76 758 l 80,242 77,993

105,175

8,522 4,316 2,220

400

2,690 60 31

372 940

2 28

308 77 24

165 200 84 42 75

334 167 292 411 160 304 516

93,307 95,201 97,368 98,455

100,706 101,592 100,765 101,785 102,925 104,217 104,176 103,663 104,573 107,104 109,947

Total 1,086,024 19,581 3,159 1,525,784



Consumption op Sugar and Molasses in TASMANIA.

Imports, Sugar „ Molasses

Total Imports

Exports Sugar (no Molasses)

Sugar and Molosses consumed

Cwts. 1,086 024

3,159'

Cwts. 1,089,183 ©

19,581

tt J-J 1,069,602

The sum of the Population on 31st December of each year amounts to 1,525 784 persons, giving as consumption

78-51 lbs. per head.



NEW ZEALAND.

Sugar Imports. Molasses Imports. Sugar Exports. Molasses Exports. Population Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. 31st December.

1864 108,150 185,591* 1865 135,070 201,712 1866 207,425 208,682 1867 139,390 990 668 220,123 1868 192,890 914 1791 227,810 1869 168,989 2948 2823 238,269* 1870 160,989 1060 248,400 1871 173,289 1396 802 266,986 1872 187,972 3267 735 279,560 1873 200,939 3017 529 295,946 1874 227,819 3398 1054 341,860 1875 247,625 3570 375,856 1876 200,659 H. o. 3871 399,075 1877 196,179 h. o. 3500 H. c. 417,662 1878 265,379 H. o. 3500 h. c. 432,519

Total 2,812 764 31,431 8402 8 4,340,051

© CO

* Prom 1861, to 1869, inclusive of military and followers.



Consumption op Sugar and Molasses in NEW ZEALAND, 186'4 to 1878.

Imports, Sugar"... „ Molasses

Cwts. 2,812,764 31,431

Total Imports

Exports, Sugar

Sugar and Molasses consumed

Cwts. 2,844,195 o „ 8,402

2,835,793

The sum of the Population on 31st December of each year amounts to 4,340,051 persons, giving as consumption 73*18 lbs. per head.



w SOUTH AUSTEALIA.

Sugar Imports. Molasses Imports. Sugar Exports. Molasses Exports. Population Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. 31st December.

1864 97,159 763 7,056 4 147,341 1865 88,938 1569 10,414 17 156,605 1866 91,696 2395 7,596 26 169,153 1867 118,211 687 6,265 14 172,860 1868 91,727 321 4,450 176,298 1869 120,135 871 6,357 181,146 1870 59,501 1385 4,790 2 183,797 1871 127,750 819 5,015 187,851 1872 135,227 1300 15,126 3 192,223 1873 126,231 3355 3,716 88 198,075 1874 173.499 2560 919 204,623 1875 127,332 1646 259 210,442 1876 196,373 2187 11,121 225,677 1877 157 910 3228 15,8f.8 236,864 1878 241 421 2499 38,191 246 248,795

Total 1,953,110 25,585 137,133 400 2,891,750

©



Consumption op Sugar and Molasses in SOUTH AUSTEALIA 1861 to 1878.

Imports, Sugar „ Molasses

Exports, Sugar „ Molasses

Total Imports

Total Exports

Sugar and Molasses consumed

Cwts.

it 1,953,110

25,585

Cwts. 1,978,695

137,533

Cwts. 137,133 400 106

„ 1,841,162

The sum of the Population on 31st December of each year amounts to 2,891,750 persons, giving as consumption 71-31 lbs. per head.



# Consumption of Sugar and Molasses in AUSTRALASIA.

Name of Colony. Population 31st December, 1878. Consumption per Head (mean for the years)

Consumption per Annum (calculated by Population of 31st December, 1878).

Queensland. 210,510 Persons. 92 13 11 s. 1864 to 1878 Cwts. 173,163 Western .Australia 28,166 91-50 „ 1872 to 1878 „ 23,010 New South Wales 693,743 85 19 „ 1864 to 1878 „ 527.333 Victoria 879,442 84-76 „ i, 587,697 Tasmania 109,947 78 51 „ 77,071 New Zealand 432,519 73-18 „ 282,605 South Australia 248,795 71-31 „ 158,407

Australasia 2,603,122 78 7 lbs. as per population 31 Dec '/8. 1,829,286



C(

In the foregoing ] and give in an imps bear upon the Suga has been made com] now.

Queensland begai tations, it soon sue market and is now

securely every year neighbouring coloni as far as the producti the markets are so c but that Queenslan Sugar-growers as it to do. The field 1 further extension, t

Sugar manufacture the investment of fn the past, will not be

I have called ati

starting with insufB.

requisite amount o unless a would-be-} £30,000 to back hi

industry alone, and" if he fail he not alon also—failures sprea cesses, and Ms failui mind of a would-be the latter from emb

profitable business. There remains n<

swered, and that is;



109

most favorably situated for the production of Sugar The facts gathered, and which I have quoted, lead me to the conclusion that Mackay stands foremost on the list in every respect. Oardwell may be placed next; that district compared with a good Sugar district fails in the matter of rain, which besides

being slightly excessive falls also inopportunely; moreover, the district has little available land and that little is held by men who have not sufficient cap¬ ital to make a start in Sugar or anything else. The Central District holds the third place, having the

advantage over the Southern District of a lower lati¬ tude, but both being subject to frost must be considered more or less unsuitable. Of the other available and suitable but untried districts, it is pre¬ mature to say anything too decidedly. The chief facts which in my estimation place Mackay foremost, are: The climate, which has shown itself in every way suitable; the large amount of available and suitable land in the neighbourhood; but above all the fact that planters have been more successful at

Mackay than elsewhere.



Kainfaxl at ALEXANDRA PLANTATION, (J. Ewen Davidson, Esq) MACKAT.

Tear. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total In. In.

20-00

In.

612

In.

2-96

In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. Inches.

1868 l-50(?) 11-23 1-41 4-57 0 62 o-io 0.89 1-28 4-72 55-40 1869 5-96 12-27 21 37 8-37 4-53 2-31 0-47 0-81 0 63 0 54 2 03 5-97 65-26 1870 29-63* 21-82* 17-62* 11-68* 2-01 194 214 2-39 1-70 4-67 6-26 614 108-00 1871 28 47 7-10 10-93 1-99 190 2 92 0-27 2-75 9-12 4-23 10-62 80-30 1872 15-40 12-13 2.07 2-95 0-60 0 35 0-75 0-48 0-07 4-47 6-87 46-14 1873 21-53 6-18 8-64 4-44 2-39 5-24 1-38 132 0-68 0-19 2 25 14 82 69-06 1874 19-14 6-99 14-42 6 05 5-12 3-58 4-14 2 89 4-65 1-50 14-38 82-86 1875 1833 33-97 1-49 26-70 12-63 1-54 3-75 0-89 0-35 0-05 2-12 3-60 105-42 1876 860 6-50 13-42 2-25 8 57 3-74 2.26 016 0-15 1-39 1-91 4 06 53-01 1877 9-42 14 01 32-39 4 35 0-06 3-88 0.82 013 0-88 0-84 1-66 3-80 72-24 1878 5-95 5-69 42-95 1-00 3 74 5-05 0 27 0-49 2-00 3-14 3-69 11-49 85 46 1879 19-38 8-56 20-25 11-24 1-56 1-68 1-21 3-63 1-71 4-74 0 09 0-83 74 88

Mean 15-28 12 96 15-96 6-75 4-72 2 82 178 0-96 1-19 2-52 2-62 7-28 74 84

©

* The total for the months of January, February, March, and April in 1870 amounted to 80.75 inches; the glass was broken and a mean had to be calculated for eve^y separate month. (J. E. D.)



INDEX

Albert River Acclimatisation Society Alexandra Plantation, Rainfall at Alexandra Plantation, Temperature at Alluvial Soils Andromache, R Antigua, Plantation Antigua, Rainfall at Australasian Tariffs (see Tariffs) Australia, Healthiness of Australian Cotton Association Bald Hills Banks Barbadoes, Rainfall at Basalt Formation Beenleigh Beenleigh, Rainfall at Beet Sugar Black Labor (see Polynesians) Bonus on Sugar Borer, The Bourbon Cane Boyd, Benj Bowden, Mr Brisbane, City Brisbane, Sir Thos Brisbane, South, Sugar Co. British Q-uiana Bulimba, The Buh6t, Jno Bundaberg Burnett, R Burpengary Byrne, The Kidnapper Caboolture Cotton Co. Caboolture, R.

Page 9, 11, 34

31 29, 110

29 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 87

13 10 27

19 41

9, 12 35 74, 75, 76

27 11, 12, 13, 14

11 16,17, 22, 26, 27, 28

32

90 64 71 41 30 9

30 30

64,68 12 31

9, 10 13

9, 12 42 31

9,12, 77



Cairns Calcareous Slate Calcutta, Rainfall at Cambrian Rocks Canes, Cost of Canes, Experiments with Canes, Faulty purchase o Canes, Purchase of, how

• Canes, Time of ripening Canes, Varieties of Canes, Want of Cape Palm erstou Capital, Borrowed Capital Required to Start Capital, Want of Carboniferous Formation Cardwell District, The Carriage on Plantations Central District, The Central Factories Central Factories in Mart Central Factories in Mart] Central Factories in Queei Central Factories in Queer Centrifugals Chinese Labor Clarke, The Kidnapper Cleveland Cole, Capt Coolies Cook's Evaporator Coomera, The Concretor, The Cotton Cotton, Mount Coxen, Mr., M.L.A.... Cretacious Deposits Crushing Season Cultivation Darling Downs Darwin, Port... Davidson, Mr. J. Ewen



113

Demerara Demerara, Soils of Donsity of Cane Juice Devonian Slate Disease (see Rust) '*Don Juan," The Doughboy Creek Drainage Duty (see Tariffs) Eagle Farm Eathorne Grill's Process Eathorne Gill on the Borer Endeavour, R. Evaporation of Sea Water Evaporator, Atmospheric Evaporator, Cook's European Market, Effects of Exise Experiments with Cane Failures, Number of Failures, Cause of Fertilisers Fertility of Soils Fiji, Bua, Rainfall of Fiji, Sugar culture in Fire-clay Fossils Brosts Future Fields for Sugar ia Australia Future Fields for Sugar in Queensland Future Prospects of the Sugar Industry... Geology and Soils Georgetown (Demerara), Rainfall at Grafton (N. S. Wales), Rainfall at Granite Formation Gregory, A. C, (Explorer and Geologist) G-ordon, Sir A. Gulf Country, The Havannah, Rainfall at Healthiness of Australian Climate Heat in Australia Hemmant

63 Page 66, 69

15 63 68

11 12 13

42 12 67

..9, 30 62 64

87 88 18 62 56

91, 92 77 82

64 73 74

59 60 15 59

27 91 14 14

18,34 53 87 87 87

•

90, 91 10 27 27

•

13 14 11 48 88 27 19 19

.9, 12



Herbert, R. (Lower) Herbert, R. (Lower), Form Herbert, R. (Lower), Raini Hope, Hon. Capt. Louis Hyne, W. H. Icery's, Dr., Process... Indooroopilly... Interest in Martinique Interest in Queensland Java Sugars Jordan, Mr Juice, Gallons to ton of Suj Juice, Density of Juice, Purchase of, at Yen< Key West (Florida), Rainfr Kidnapping by Peruvian ve Land Difficulty Land Regulations Lang, Dr Limestone Liversidge, Prof Loaf Sugars Logan, R. Louse (Pou-a-p6che-blanc). Mackay, Angus (Commissic Mackay District, The Mackay, Formation of Soil i Mackay, Rainfall at... Mackay, "Red" Macquarie, Port (N. S. Wa Madras, Rainfall at... Manganese Maroochie Martinique, Central Factori Martinique, Profits on Cent Maryborough Maryborough, Rainfall at Mary, R Mauritius, Rainfall at Mauritius, Planters Medical Attendance to Poly Megass, Application of



115 Page

Megass, Waste of 60 Metamorphic Rocks 13, 14 Mills, Large 84 Mills, Small 56 Mills, Want of 34,35 Molasses to one gallon of Rum 78 Money-lenders 35,74,75,76 Money Market in Queensland 52 Monosulphite of Lime Process 61 Monosulphite of Magnesia... 62 Mooloolah 9 Moreton Bay 30 Neames, Plantation of Messrs., Rainfall at 25,26,27 Negroes, Advertisement for 42 Nerang Creek 9, 11 Nerang Creek, Formation of Soil 11 New Caledonia 46,47,91 New Orleans, Rainfall at 27 North-west Cape 89 Northern Territory ." 88 Noumea (New Caledonia), Rainfall at 27 Oolite 14 Oxley 9, 12 Output of Sugar in 1879 Preface and 36 Palmerston, Cape 13 Parimaribo, Rainfall at 26 Peak Mountains 57 Pernambuco, Rainfall at 27 Pimpama 9 Pine River 9,12 Pioneer River 10,63 Plantations, No. of Solvent 73 Polariscope, The 61 Polynesians •. 41 Polynesian abuses, Prevention of 45,48 Polynesians attacked by Press 43 Polynesians, Food 44 Polynesians, Government Regulations 45,48 Polynesian, Immigration 47 Polynesians, love of Plantation Life 44 Polynesian Laborers, Proportion to Whites 45 Polynesian Masters'and Servants'Act 41



Polynesians, Medical Att Polynesians not a Cheap Polynesians, Opposition Polynesian Select Commi Press Interference Processes in use Profits Progress of Sugar Indusi Progress of Sugar Indust Proserpine, R. Protection in N. S. Wales Queensland Money Mark Queensland Sugars, Earl; Queensland, Yield cf Sug Rainfall Redland Bay... Redland Bay, Formation Red Soil Repulse Bay Rio Janeiro, Rainfall at Rum, First Distillation o Rum, Cost to Produce Rum, Consumption of Rum, Price netted Rum, Production of... Rush for Sugar Plantatio Rust Disease.... Rust Disease, Cause of Rust Disease. Effect of Rust Disease in Java Saccharometer, The... St. Helena St. Helen's Creek St. Vincent, Rainfall at Saltness of Soil Sandstone Formation Sandy Creek Scientific Knowledge Scott, Thos Select Committee on P0I3 Settlers, Small Settlers, Small, Complain



117 Page

Settlers, Small, Complaints unjustified 50 Settlers, Small, No. of Q-rowing Cane 50 Sherwood 9 Silurian Formation 13 Small Mills 56 Society of Arts (London) Prize 32 Soils 11-15,66,67 Soils in Demerara 15 Soils in Trinidad 15 Sorghum in N. S. Wales 91 South Sea Islanders (see Polynesians) Southern District, The ...9,11,78,85 Spence Bros. 88 Spiller, John 33,64 Stools, Replanting of 59 Success of Crops, How determined 19 Success, Where greatest 109 Sugar, Bonuses on 90 Sugar, Class of 62 Sugar, Consumption of 93,107 Sugar, Cost of Production 84 Sugar, Duty on (see Tariffs) Sugar, Extension of Sale of 108 Sugar, Future Fields for 87 Migar, Future Prospects 90 Sugar, Production of 66 Sugar, Output in 1879 Preface and 36 Sugar, Prices netted 85 Sugar, Progress of Industry 30-40 Sugar, Yield of 66,68 Sugar-land Regulations 33 Sugar-land, Rush for 33,34 73 Sutton's Lvaporator 62 Tariffs, Colonial Sugar 82 Tiaro 10 TinanaCreek 10,13 Towns, Capt Robt 42 Thachyte 13 Trade in Rum 81 Trade Winds 16 Trias 14 Trinidad, Soils in 15



Vacuum Pan, No Victor Mill Western Australi West Indian Plai Whish and Treve White Labor, Caj White Labor unre Yengarie Process Yengarie, Purcha Yengarie, Refinin Yield of Sugar in Yield of Sugar in Yield of Sugar, C



A CURIOUS FACT.

It is a strange fact that the inhabitants of countries where Sugar-cane is apparently indigenous, should be unacquainted with the extraction of crystallised Sugar therefrom. The South Sea Islanders knew not what crystallised Sugar was until the white people showed it to them. The same in Sumatra, where " The Sugar-cane is very generally cultivated, but not in large quan¬ tities, and more frequently for the sake of chewing the juicy reed, which they consider as a delicacy, than for the manufacture of Sugar (Marsden's History of Sumatra, 1811, p. 86)." Further, in Java "

They are unacquainted with any artificial method of expressing from it the saccharine juice, and, consequently with the first material part of the process by which it is manufactured into Sugar. Satisfied with the nourishment or gratification which they procure from the plant as nature presents it, they leave the complicated process to be conducted exclusively by the Chinese (Raffles' History of Java, 1871, Vol. ii, p. 124)."

In India the native processes are very primitive and defective. All nations agree in enjoying a suck at the Sugar-cane, but in J ndia the sale of cane for this purpose seems to be a special trade. At Cawnpore,

" Sugar-cane is also grown to a small extent, to be

used green, and brings ££0 an acre and upwards. It grows thick on the ground, and 10 to 12 feet high. The cane, when ready, is cut into little squares, and eats like a pleasant sweetmeat, for which there is a ready demand (Vaird: India—Land and People— INlNETEEHTH. CeETTJBX", Vol Xxix p. 126)."

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