a review of floating photovoltaic design concepts and
TRANSCRIPT
A review of floating photovoltaic design concepts and installedvariations
Friel, D., Karimirad, M., Whittaker, T., Doran, W. J., & Howlin, E. (2019). A review of floating photovoltaic designconcepts and installed variations. In 4th International Conference on Offshore Renewable Energy. CORE2019proceedings, Glasgow: ASRANet Ltd, UK, 30 Aug 2019 ASRANet Ltd.
Published in: 4th International Conference on Offshore Renewable Energy. CORE2019 proceedings, Glasgow: ASRANet Ltd,UK, 30 Aug 2019
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Download date:31. Oct. 2021
A REVIEW OF FLOATING PHOTOVOLTAIC DESIGN CONCEPTS AND
INSTALLED VARIATIONS
Dallán Friel, Queen’s University Belfast, UK / Letterkenny Institute of Technology, Ireland.
Madjid Karimirad, Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Trevor Whittaker, Queen’s University Belfast, UK
John Doran, Queen’s University Belfast, UK / Letterkenny Institute of Technology, Ireland.
Eamon Howlin, SolarMarine Energy, Mayo, Ireland,
Correspondence: ([email protected])
ABSTRACT In the present study a review paper is formulated which aims to outline technological variations in conceptual and installed
designs of floating photovoltaic ‘FPV’ installations by providing documentation on key technologies, provide a review of
literature conducted on FPV technologies, and documentation of some of the most recent, large and unique installations.
The nascent marine renewable energy technology ‘floating photovoltaics’ is notably growing in cumulative installed
capacities and number of installations; the industry first saw developments during the late 2000’s and since then the
cumulative installed capacity has been doubling in capacity year on year. Oceans, lakes, estuaries, natural basins and
floodplains for hydroelectric power stations cover vast surface areas throughout the world. Utilisation of these water
surfaces provides a promising opportunity for the installation of a relatively new technology, floating photovoltaic systems
‘FPVS’. Floating photovoltaic ‘PV’ arrays are devices that can utilize the mostly unused water surfaces and the abundant
solar energy from the sun. Systems comprise a large number of ‘photovoltaic’ panels, in combination with floatation tanks,
electrical power cables, inverters, a mooring system, and in some cases wave breakers, tracking systems and concentrators.
The use of concentrators, cooling and tracking mechanisms are described in the academic (research) literature and show
how energy output can be enhanced. Several companies have now begun implementing such features in their commercial
technologies. The capital expenditure costs of FPV are higher at USD 0.8-1.2 per Watt peak ‘Wp’, than that of an
equivalent land-based PV system due to the requirements of more durable components, floating modules, and mooring
lines [1]. Additionally, there are still a lot of unknowns regarding how FPV systems respond in nearshore locations, how
they should be designed to withstand the harsher marine environments and studies are limited with regards the
hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, coupled aero-hydro-elastic, dynamic modelling of FPV systems and environmental impact
assessments. The lack of design standards and best practice guidelines can be seen as a clear impeding factor for the
industry and progression of the emerging technology.
1. INTRODUCTION
The integration of existing photovoltaic
technologies with floatation systems has realised
the emerging technology ‘floating photovoltaics’.
The technology, initially installed to offset land
usage and dependence on conventional energy
sources in agricultural sectors, has seen substantial
developments in installed capacities in the past
decade. In a report published by the World Bank
Group, the global installed capacity is estimated to
be 1.1 GWp at the end of 2018 [1]. The Watt peak
unit is used traditionally to indicate the output
power achieved by a PV system under standard test
conditions. The environmental conditions can
influence the panel performance therefore, the
following standard conditions are used to compare
PV panel performance and is adopted herein: 1000
W/m2 solar irradiance, 25ºC temperature and a
clear sky. While the capital expenditure ‘capex’ of
floating photovoltaics is higher than that of
equivalent land based counterparts, which in
conjunction with the lack of design standards and
codes of practice for both the development of
inland and non-inland FPV technologies is believed
to be inhibiting an increased rate of cumulative
growth. Even though FPV systems have higher
initial investment costs, there are several factors
which can make the technology become more
viable than ground-mounted photovoltaic ‘GMPV’
which includes several advantages that the
technology offers, such as:
• Higher conversion efficiencies due to the
lessened effects of thermal drift, leading to
higher energy outputs,
• Higher power densities exist for FPV
technologies because there are fewer
restrictions on module spacing,
• A zero land requirement; land can be valuable
real estate for agricultural purposes and in areas
where there is an intense requirement for
electricity, such as cities and large towns,
• In conjunction with the previous point, many of
the largest cities have been built on coastal
locations, which may have an abundance of
potential sites to install on, and likely, a suitable
grid infrastructure nearby,
• Potentially, tracking mechanisms are easier to
implement when compared with ground-
mounted PV as much of the self-weight of the
FPV structure rests on the water and less
limitation with regards the number of panels per
mechanism [2],
• Easier and cheaper to implement cooling veil
and cleaning mechanisms due to the close
proximity of water, but this may be hindered in
salt water locations,
• Implementing such devices with existing
hydroelectric power stations complements
intermittent seasonality issues, reduces water
evaporation losses leading to further
performance benefits, and can utilise an
existing grid connection,
• As the technology covers a portion of a water
surface it provides the benefit of reducing water
evaporation losses, which is favourable in arid
or semi-arid locations, irrigation reservoirs and
hydroelectric reservoirs,
• Additionally, the covering of the water surface
can reduce photosynthesizing growth of
potentially harmful algal blooms.
Furthermore, for ground-mounted PV systems
ongoing research indicates that the Albedo effect
results in higher ambient air temperatures and
negative environmental consequences, whereas for
FPV the effects are reduced.
Several challenges face the floating
photovoltaic industry, such as: (a) The technologies
must become cost-competitive with land-based
counterparts through technological advancement to
further contribute to the cumulative growth trend.
(b) The technologies must create better investor
confidence or ‘bankability’ through the
introduction of and adherence to a realistic set of
design and operating standards. (c) The
development of marine grade systems and
marinisation of existing designs and concepts;
implementing more reliant components that can
withstand the high corrosiveness of salt water and
wave and wind induced forces is a difficult
challenge.
Many of the existing installations have mostly
been in small bodies of water, in places with small
fetch distances, thus limiting wave growth. Tina et
al., [3] classifies the inland basins where FPV
technologies exist and are suitable for installing on
as follows: Industrial basins, irrigation basins,
hydroelectric basins and natural lakes.
The common components found in existing FPV
technologies are:
• The floatation system. This provides the
buoyancy and the righting moments required to
maintain static and dynamic stability in the
body of water. Typically, ‘off-the-shelf’
cylindrical tubing, made out of high-density
polyethylene ‘HDPE’, have been tested and
used in commercial installations. Although,
many manufacturers have opted for ad-hoc
solutions, in particular, moulded polyethylene
floatation tanks.
• A structural system connecting the floatation
system and supporting the PV panels. This
provides the structural integrity of the array,
supporting the solar panels at the necessary tilt
angle and enabling walkways to be installed for
personnel. In some systems, where moulded
floatation tanks have been utilised, minimal or
no structural members are required, the modular
floatation tanks are designed so that they can be
inter-connected and also provide the necessary
tilt to the panels. In the majority of the existing
systems that have opted for structural members,
fibre-reinforced plastic ‘FRP’ or aluminium I-
beams have been tested/used for their
favourable mechanical properties.
• Electrical components. This includes inverters,
power cables and photovoltaic panels,
• The mooring system. This provides the station
keeping for the floating platform. Some
developers have opted for ‘shoreline’ mooring
arrangements in smaller, shallower basins and
where bottom mooring may pose a risk to
materials laid in irrigation reservoirs. Whereas
others have opted for bottom mooring
configurations.
Classification of FPV technologies is important
because it allows design codes registrars to properly
identify FPV systems. Here are two classification
methods proposed by others: Rosa-Clot and Tina
[4] categorised FPV systems as being: (a) PV
panels mounted on floatation tanks (b) Structures
built with polymers and galvanised steel, which are
then assembled to form a wide platform, (c)
Structures which are built entirely from polymers.
For Mittal et al., [5] FPV systems are distinguished
on the basis of the tracking system, or on the basis
of the type of floating system used. The tracking
system is divided into fixed or tracking type and the
floating system is divided into pontoon, flexible or
submerged.
The present work focuses on the current level of
development of existing and conceptual floating
photovoltaic systems, aims to provide the outlook
on the current level of technological advancement
based on the existing design variations, provides a
list of some of the most recent, largest and unique
installations and proposes a classification of FPV
systems. The paper does not address the
photovoltaic modules, inverters, electrical cabling
or control units used in existing devices, but focuses
on the mechanical and structural components. In
addition to the outlining of variations in conceptual,
installed designs and existing FPV installations,
this paper documents a review on the existing
studies regarding design, feasibility, structural,
hydrodynamics and aerodynamics, conducted on
FPV systems to date.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The following section presents a comprehensive list
of the various studies which have been completed
to date on the engineering design and analysis of
floating solar platforms, including those pertaining
to both numerical and experimental hydrodynamic
analyses and structural assessments. With the
proprietary nature of the FPVS and as the
technology is still in an early stage of development,
the literature available and technical data of designs
and installations is limited [6]. Moreover, the
hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, coupled aero-hydro-
elastic, mooring line design literature for such
structures is limited, and descriptions of dynamic
modelling extremely limited. Many of the studies
reported on floating solar systems are conducted as
technical feasibility analysis for the assessment of
electrical performance and optimization of
efficiencies with cooling, tracking and
concentrating mechanisms.
2.1 HYDRODYNAMICS
Borvik [7] investigated two scaled torus floatation
systems in a wave tank. One model is designed to
be elastic, while the other was rigid. Similarly,
Winsvold [8] performed scaled wave tank tests on
a single torus model and a concentric multi torus
model, applied regular wave theory for both
concepts and irregular wave theory for the multi-
torus model, measured the wave elevation, mooring
line tensions, and horizontal and vertical motions.
Kim et al., [9] documented a numerical analysis of
the fluid-structure interaction conducted on one of
the conventional fibre-reinforced plastic and HDPE
floatation tubes using the ADINA FSI software [10],
finite element and volume codes. Linear wave
theory is applied, and wave periods and heights
were varied. The computational fluid dynamics
analysis concluded that the structure influenced the
oncoming waves, and that the maximum effective
stresses occurred in the vertical and horizontal
structural members at the front edge locations and
when the crest of the wave passed the structure.
2.2 AERODYNAMICS
Redón-Santafé et al. [6] estimated the wind-
induced loadings on PV panels inclined at angles
up to 30º and analysed the variation of wind
loadings with respect to reservoir length and width
at the various inclination angles. The calculations
are in accordance with the European wind action on
structures standard UNE-EN 1991-1-4, [11]. The
maximum wind force exerted on the panels, for the
conditions found at the installation location in
Spain, the 400 m length reservoir and the 1.65 x 1m
solar panels, was at the 30º inclination
configuration and had a magnitude of 370 kN. Lee
et al. [12] applied 130 km/h static wind loadings
during a finite element analysis in accordance with
the IEC 61646 [13] standard. Rosa-Clot and Tina
[4] estimated simplified wind loadings on FPV
panels and note on the lack of meteorological wind
properties below a height of 10 m above water
surfaces. Which is an important thing to consider,
as all of the existing FPV technologies have vertical
heights lower than 10 m. Rosa-Clot and Tina also
used the Hellman Formula as means of
extrapolating the data which is available at the 10
m height down to sea level. The aerodynamic
loadings are, thus, estimated using the kinetic
energy associated with the wind velocity and a
shape co-efficient related to the panel geometry.
Figure 1 – Single Torus [7] Figure 2 – Multi Torus [8]
Choi et al. [14] conducted a scaled wind tunnel test
on the structural members during the design of a
tracking type FPV system.
2.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Across several papers the structural design of an
FPVS using fibre reinforced plastic ‘FRP’ members
is documented [12], [15], [16], [17]. A static finite
element analysis is conducted to predict the
required strength, stiffness and structural behaviour
of the structural members, joints and module
connections. The fabrication process of the FRP
members and results of the finite element ‘FE’
analysis are reported. Based on the results of the FE
analysis they produce FRP members and measure
the mechanical properties. Additionally, the papers
present the design of the module connections,
floatation system and experimental results of
displacements and strains measured from a field
test of the structure installed in a nearshore location
in Tongyeong Bay, Korea. A static 3D FE analysis
was conducted which included the wind, snow, and
ice loads applied in accordance with IEC 61646
[13]. From the results obtained, Lee et al. [16]
optimised the structure by reducing the material
requirement, increasing the panel capacity and the
number of floatation tubes, which was then
manufactured and tested. Yoon et al. [17]
documented the structural analysis and design of
the same structure presented by Lee et al. [16]. Choi
et al. [15] includes additional information on the
mooring system, floatation system and structural
member connections. The design method used for
structural assurance is the load and resistance factor
design method (LRFD), which may be considered
as one of the limit state design methods (LSD). Yoo
et al. [18] documented the structural design and
material suitability analysis for a vertical-tracking
FPV system using a finite-element modeller. The
design and fabrication method of the members are
reported together with the system installation
procedure. Choi and Lee [14] in a separate analysis,
conducted an FE analysis to analyse the main
structural components of the FPV structure.
Additionally, they measured the displacements
induced by static and dynamic, compressive and
tensile loads during experimental testing.
2.4 AERO-HYDRO-ELASTIC COUPLED
ANALYSIS
It is stated in the DNV-GL Recommended Practice
for Global Performance Analysis of Deepwater
Floating Structures DNVGL-RP-F205 2017 [19]
that a floatation system is an integrated dynamic
system consisting of a floater, risers, and moorings
responding to wind, wave and current loadings in a
complex way. Similarly, the floating modules,
mooring system, elastic response and multi-body
systemic nature of FPV systems form an even more
complex dynamic system. Additionally, the
majority of FPV systems utilise components made
from polymers, which sometimes have short elastic
response regions, and orthotropic composite
members, both of which may require non-linear
solvers in the analysis of the structural response.
This adds additional complexity to the analysis of
these systems.
Trapani and Millar [20] conducted a
computational fluid dynamics ‘CFD’ analysis
which assessed the aerodynamic and hydrodynamic
interaction between regular waves and a flexible
thin-film PV array. The thin-film concept flexes
with the oncoming waves and the energy transfer is
calculated based on this assumption. The energy
attenuation is calculated using the minimum energy
required to bend the structure to match the profile
of the oncoming wave. It is calculated for a regular
wave with length λ = 212.2 m and height H = 14.8
m, array with dimensions of 100 x 100 x 0.005 m
and material properties 𝐸𝑦 = 2.29 x 109 Pa and
Poisson ratio of 0.4. Energy attenuation was shown
to be negligible at 1 Joule. Morison’s Theory, for
calculating the wave forces on slender structures, is
used to determine the magnitude of any inertial
forces acting on the system, but for these conditions,
it is stated that the tide and wave inertial
components are negligibly small. Aerodynamic
force theory is presented, although no comments
are made on the forces obtained from this theory.
2.5 DESIGN, PERFORMANCE AND
FEASIBILITY
In one of the earliest works on FPV systems, Ueda
et al. [21] reported the design and compared the
technical performance of two 10 kWp FPV systems
with a nearby 10 kWp GMPV system. One device
is installed with an intermittent cooling system and
the performance variations are recorded for each.
The losses due to the thermal drift effect are
reduced from 17% to 7.4% in the month of August
2007. During the winter the gains are lower with
approximately 3% less thermal losses. Grech et al.
[22] designed and tested several small floatation
systems in Maltese sea waters and compared the
power outputs and relative costs to a nearby GMPV
system. Galdino and Olivieri [23] examined the
technical and economic advantages of inland FPV
systems in Brazil, whilst considering regional
properties that influence the performances of FPV
systems. Cazzaniga et al. [24] analysed various
design aspects of inland floating solar technologies,
including the floatation system, platform
configuration, cooling and concentrating
techniques. Additionally, Cazzaniga et al. studied
the implementation of an integrated compressed air
energy storage system, and field data captured from
two FPV research devices in Italy. In another paper
Cazzaniga et al. [25] reported test results from
several concentrator (reflector) configurations,
which have been implemented with a single-axis
tracking system and water veil cooling system on
two inland FPV devices in Suverto, Italy and Pisa-
Colignola, Italy. They measured the influence the
reflection angle had on the conversion efficiencies
of the FPV systems, found that the installation costs
was comparable with GMPV systems and potential
energy yield increases of up to 30 %. Luyao et al.
[26] developed a 3-D FE model of a PV module to
analyse the thermal drift phenomena, and thermal
differences between a PV module on-land and on-
water and hence, determined the efficiency gains of
an FPV system due to the cooling effects of water.
Heat transfer calculations are incorporated in the
form of convection and radiation, alongside a wind
speed variable, and are used as inputs to the FE
model. It was determined that for the properties of
the PV panel and for the assumed ambient
temperatures that the FPVS could potential benefit
from efficiency gains between 1.58 – 2 %. Rosa-
Clot and Tina [4] also documented the thermal drift
effect in terms of the variation of relative cell
efficiency with temperature of various types of PV
cells of submerged PV modules, but that is beyond
the scope of this paper. Tina et al. [27] theoretically
and experimentally analysed the electrical
performance of a floating, tracking, cooling FPV
system. With particular focus on the influence that
shadowing and PV cell connections had on
electrical performance. Choi [28] compared the
energy yield and generation capacity test results
between a 2.4 kW FPVS and a nearby GMPV
system, and both a 100 kWp and 500 kW FPVS
with a 1 MWp GMPV system in Korea.
Additionally, Choi used both the SMB method and
Wilson method to estimate the significant wave
height for a 700 m fetch and wind speeds below 10
m/s and concludes that the waves generated at that
location are negligible. The document also presents
lateral wind-induced motions of the 100 kW system
over a two month period and illustrates the
variation in solar irradiance capture with platform
motions.
Ferrer-Gisbert et al. [29] developed and
installed a prototype FPV system for water
irrigation purposes in the El Negret Reservoir,
Agost, Alicante, Spain. In this paper, the design and
analysis of a 20kW prototype system are presented.
A key objective is to reduce water-evaporation and
produce electricity. More emphasis is placed on the
design of the floater than in the proceeding paper.
Conventional methods were used to assess the
buoyancy characteristics of the floater and a
numerical FE model is used to assess the structural
behaviour in response to wind, self-weight,
maintenance and buoyancy forces. Redón Santafé
et al. [6] focused on the theoretical and
experimental analysis of a FPVS. The 300kW
system was installed due to the success of the
prototype in the previous paper and covered the
entire surface of the reservoir. In the design of the
FPVS they considered several aspects, which are:
• The orientation and inclination of the PV panels
to optimise energy output based on the latitude
and dimensions of the panels. The influence of
panel-tilt on the wind loading, shading, power
density and initial investment costs are
considered,
• The bathymetry characteristics of the reservoir,
noting on the limitation of some reservoirs, in
that their principal alignments may or may not
be optimal for maximum energy production
whilst in agreement of engineering design
needs,
• Floating module design; geometry, size and
material choice. It is outlined that the floater
modules must be versatile to accommodate the
variations in water depth and sloped
embankments. The floater design is also stated
as a key parameter in the technical design
requirements. An ad-hoc moulded polymer
floatation tank design, which allows two panels
to be mounted, has been adopted. This design
makes the following become easier:
manufacturing process, platform design and
configuration, assembly and launch, and
increases energy exploitation.
Additionally, a photovoltaic graphical information
system ‘PVGIS’ is utilised to assess the optimal
panel inclination, layout configuration and
maximise the power density and energy yield. An
economic analysis is conducted that utilises a
profitability ratio to estimate the initial investment
cost with respect to annual energy production. In a
different short communication paper, Redón-
Santafé et al., [30] discusses the same FPV system
design and implementation for water irrigation
purposes.
Mittal et al. [5] presented two feasibility studies
of a 1 MWp FPVS at two locations in Kota,
Rajasthan, India. Monthly energy yield, water
savings, reduction in CO2 emissions and the total
monthly savings, when compared with power
purchased from the grid, are calculated and
compared for both locations. Temiz and Javani [31]
conducted a feasibility study on a hybrid FPV and
hydrogen energy storage system to determine the
most feasible components to supply a specific
electrical load and manage the intermittent issues
associated with solar irradiance. Trapani et al. [32]
conducted a comparative techno-economic analysis
and assessed the economic viability of various
offshore renewable energy systems, including FPV
near the Maltese Islands. Trapani and Millar [33]
performed a techno-economic analysis that
analysed the integration of an offshore thin-film PV
concept with conventional fossil fuel power plants
on the island of Malta. In another paper Trapani
and Millar [34] conducted a techno-economic
analysis that considered a thin-film FPV system and
rigid crystalline PV system in conjunction with
diesel generators to supply 20 MWp to a mining site
in Canada. It was deduced that neither FPV systems
are a solution to all electricity requirements of the
mining site, but with the use of an energy storage
system the technology becomes more feasible. In a
similar study, Song and Choi [35] analysed the
following design parameters to optimise a potential
1 MWp FPVS on a mining lake in Korea: the array
spacing, panel incline and number of modules per
string. An economic analysis was conducted, and it
was found that the net present cost of the system
would be $ 897,000 USD with a 20-year lifespan
and 12.3 years payback period. The annual
greenhouse gas reduction, if the system were
installed, is estimated to be 471.21 t𝐶𝑂2. Campana
et al. [36] developed a techno-economic
optimisation tool, in particular a, multi-objective
optimisation algorithm is utilised to assess how
different energy management strategies, both for
on- and off-grid hybrid energy systems, and cooling
effects affect the selection of design variables such
as tilt angle, azimuth angle, and PV and battery
capacity. The study aimed at the decarbonisation of
a representative fish farm in Thailand. In the
algorithm the levelized cost of energy ‘LCOE’ is
set as the variable to be minimised whilst
maximising the energy systems reliability. Dizier
[37] conducted a techno- economic assessment of a
hybrid FPV diesel generator system to meet the
power requirement of a small island in Indonesia.
The energy requirements of the island are estimated,
and the energy output of various power rated hybrid
systems integrated with battery storage is predicted.
The LCOE is estimated for each variation and FPV
systems are found to be economically viable,
whereas the hybrid system is quite expensive. Fajry
et al. [38] conducted a techno-economic analysis of
a hybrid system, which consisted of a nearshore
FPV and wind turbine system. The size and cost of
the hybrid system is estimated to power a fish
storage cooling unit on a remote island. Teixeira et
al. [39] conducted a feasibility study on a hybrid
hydro FPV system at a hydroelectric reservoir in
Brazil. The study does not detail the floating
structure as it is restricted to the scope of economic
feasibility, but selects a 30% cost increase for an
FPV system, if compared with an equivalent
GMPV system. Using the open-source software
Homer, an optimisation and sensitivity analysis is
conducted that varies the FPV array, converter and
grid sale capacity, grid capacity, AC load,
maximum annual capacity shortage and several
costing variables. In a similar analysis, Vasco et al.
[40] utilised the Homer software to conduct a
feasibility study of a hybrid hydroelectric FPV
system at another dam in Brazil. The annual yield
of the hybrid systems are estimated in both studies.
Spencer et al. [41] utilised open-source
geoprocessing tools, National Inventory of Dams
(NID) dataset and a National Hydrography Dataset
(NHD) to assess the technical potential of floating
photovoltaic systems on man-made dam reservoirs
in the Continental United States (All US states
excluding Hawaii and Alaska). A filtering took
place of the 90,580 dammed water bodies and
24,419 of those are identified as being suitable for
FPV installation. It is estimated that if the suitable
bodies are utilised, the estimated installable
capacity would amount to 2116 GWp and produce
786 TWh of electricity per year. Perez et al. [42]
estimated the potential energy yield and water
evaporation reduction by covering 128 of largest
hydroelectric reservoirs in the United States with
FPV. The reservoirs are selected using a minimum
water volume requirement of 1 𝑘𝑚3 and they
estimated the total energy potential to be 1050
GWp. In a similar analysis, Kim et al. [43] assessed
the technical potential of FPV in Korea using 3401
reservoirs managed by the Korean Rural
Community Corporation ‘KRC’, geospatial data
and collective measurements of water depths
throughout 2017. A commercially available PV
module is selected and used to estimate the power
potential of each reservoir. A 1.43 USD/Wp
installation cost and an annual operation
expenditure (OPEX) cost of 10.37 USD/Wp is
adopted. Tina et al. [3] studied the ‘main world
areas’ and two FPV technologies in a geographic
and technical potential analysis. A technique used
to analyse GMPV was extended to assess the
technical potential of the two FPV devices on
inland water bodies. Small basins for wastewater
treatment and irrigation reservoirs were excluded in
the analysis. Additionally, Tina et al. provided an
advised percentage surface coverage for each of the
inland water body classes. An arbitrary 1% surface
coverage of the assessed water bodies is chosen
which amounts to 6.069TWh potential energy
generation. The PVSyst software is utilised to
predict the normalised annual energy yield values
for the two FPV technologies at varying latitudes
and tilts angles configurations.
At the SERIS FPV testbed in Singapore, Liu et
al. [44] reported measurements of operating
environments, system performances and issues
encountered whilst testing several systems.
Rahman et al. [45] provides a generic design
overview of FPV systems, the potential benefits
and estimates the potential energy yield of an FPV
system at Kaptai Dam, (Rangamati, Bangladesh).
Lee et al. [46] documented the development of a
real-time wireless monitoring and control system
for a tracking type FPVS. Azami et al. theoretically
proposes a 1.5 MWp FPV system for a
hydroelectric reservoir in Iran and estimates the
water evaporation losses with and without the FPV
device. The energy yield is estimated using the
System Advisor Model ‘SAM’ software [47]. Choi
et al. [2] documented the design of a 100 kWp
tracking type FPV system. Several tracking
mechanisms and a tracking algorithm that utilises
an optical sensor and sun location data to control
the tracking mechanism are discussed. Mittal et al.
[48] theoretically compares a 1 MWp FPV system
with a GMPV system at a location in India. The
FPV system is estimated to be 2.48% more efficient
and has 14.56% lower cell temperature. It is also
estimated that the FPV system is 50% more
expensive to install, but the author claims that over
the lifetime of the FPV system it will be more
financially beneficial due to its higher conversion
efficiencies and reduced water evaporation losses.
Cazzaniga et al. [49] proposes an isothermal
compressed air energy storage system integrated
with a FPV system. Steel floatation tanks replace
the conventional polyethylene tubing, and act as a
pressurised tank to store the compressed air. The
isothermal and adiabatic thermodynamic
compression and expansion cycles are analysed.
Two concepts are discussed, one which directly
compresses atmospheric air into the floatation tanks,
and another that utilises the two floatation tanks and
a hydraulic pump to provide the compression and
expansions processes. For both methods, the
component costing and potential energy storage is
calculated. Pašalić et al. [50] conducted a study on
the potential to install a 30 MWp FPV development
at 3 separate locations on the Jabalanca Lake in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. The systems are proposed
in 3 MWp modules and are designed to be
connected to the existing grid infrastructure at a
nearby hydropower plant and to minimise any
disruption to activities previously conducted at the
lake.
3.0 FLOATING SOLAR INSTALLATIONS
The following section presents a review of
literature that documents existing installations and
a list of some of the most recent, largest and unique
installations, which is illustrated in Table 1.
In addition to the techno-economic analysis,
Trapani et al. [32] discusses several of the first FPV
developments installed at inland locations in
California, Japan and Italy. A novel concept for an
offshore environment that utilises flexible PV
panels is introduced. The thin-film amorphous
panel material is contained in a buoyant marine
grade laminate. The concept is designed to undulate
with the oncoming waves, decrease loadings
exerted by wind and waves and rest on the surface
of the water. Trapani and Redón-Santafé [51]
documented 19 floating photovoltaic installations
between the years of 2007-2013 totalling a
cumulative installed capacity of 3581.5 kWp. Sahu
et al. [52] documented 10 additional installations
bringing the total cumulative installed capacity to
26.45 MWp. Kim et al. [52] documented 5 research
installations between 2009 and 2010 and 8
commercial installations between 2011 and 2014 in
Korea. The document highlighted the research and
development efforts in Korea, which had not
received any attention in previous publications. The
paper presents the properties of each installation
where applicable, including the structural materials,
design methods applied, installed capacities,
number of panels, and additional features (tilted,
tracking, cooling and concentrators). Mittal et al.
[5] documented four small (<10 kWp) FPV
installations in India, including the first Indian
installation in 2014, and the first to be constructed
with a concrete platform. Galdino and Olivieri [23]
reported two of Brazil’s first floating solar pilot
projects and a thin-film module FPV installation.
In 2018, Australia’s largest floating photovoltaic
system with an installed capacity of 100 kWp was
installed at a sewage water treatment plant in New
South Wales. In the fall of 2018, the first large
scale FPV system in France began construction,
which was also the first to utilise Ciel et Terre’s
Hydrelio® Air variation. The 17 MWp project,
namely O’MEGA1, is being developed by the
Akuo Energy company and was due to be
completed by March 2019. In 2019 the first FPV
installation in Cambodia was installed at a cement
plant reservoir. The 2.8 MWp project was also the
first to utilise the Hydrelio® Equato variation.
Recently, Singapore power company Sunseap
announced the planned development of a 5 MWp
coastal floating photovoltaic system [53]. This will
be the first large scale FPV system installed
nearshore. The system is due to be installed in 2019
along the Straits of Johor, Singapore.
4.0 FPV TECHNOLOGIES
The following section provides a list of some of the
existing floating photovoltaic technologies, the
authors disclaim that the list is comprehensive as
some of the technologies studied in other papers
have been omitted, including some found in the
extensive works documented by Kim et al. [52] and
Cazzaniga et al. [24]. A list of technologies
including an image and a discussion of the
technological features can be found in Table 2.
Different methods have been proposed to classify
FPV systems as outlined previously, the authors
feel these methods do not fully encapsulate some of
the technologies and features. A new classification
is proposed in Figure 3, it includes the types of
materials used, the floatation systems, platform
configurations, and mooring configurations. Other
additional technological features can be used to
describe the technologies such as: (a) Fixed-tilt or
tracking systems; dual or single axis, bow thrusters,
electric motors, or cable and winch, (b) Reflective
concentrators; gavel or parabolic mirror
configurations, (c) Active cooling systems; cooling
veils, (d) Wave attenuators, (e) Walkways for
assembly and maintenance.
In terms of the floatation systems utilised in the
existing inland technologies, Table 2. reveals that
polyethylene floatation tanks and tubing are a
ubiquitous component in these technologies. The
decisions to use high-density and medium density
polyethylene can be associated with the materials
favourable properties, such as: impermeable,
recyclable, large strength-to-density ratio, UV
resistant properties, mass producibility and
minimal processing requirements after moulding.
Many FPV manufacturers have opted for ad-hoc
blow, rotational or injection moulded polyethylene
floatation tanks. Others have opted for cuboid
polyethylene floatation tanks commonly used for
floating walkways, ramps and platforms. The
devices which use these types of floatation tanks
require additional fittings and rigid frames to allow
the PV panels to be attached. The other ‘off-the-
shelf’ polyethylene floatation devices that are used
are the cylindrical pipe type. The FPV systems
which utilise these devices commonly have
structural members attached to maintain spacing,
structural integrity and secure the PV modules in
the correct position. In other less common design
concepts, companies have implemented modular
ferrocement floatation tanks and wave attenuators,
a metallic structural frame with floatation tanks
attached to the substructure and a toroidal floatation
system that is commonly found in floating fish
farms. It can be seen in Table 2. that many of the
technologies that utilise structural members have
simple rigid frames made with anodised aluminium,
galvanised steel or glass fibre reinforced plastic.
Much of the FPV testing conducted by the
researchers at Hongik University and Gachon
University in Korea has been on FRP members and
they have found this material superior over
aluminium and steel for its lower density, resulting
in a smaller flotation system size requirement,
better corrosion resistance and adequate strength
properties. The data and literature on mooring
systems for FPV systems are limited, but of the
little available information it can be stated that
some technologies are utilising catenary mooring
systems, single or multi-point bottom mooring, and
multi-point periphery mooring. Karimirad et al.
[54] states that an appropriate station-keeping
system must be used for the safety of personnel,
stability of the structure and protection of the
environment and structure. An FPV mooring
configuration depends on the following parameters:
the bathymetry characteristics, environmental
loadings, size and weight of the floating system,
motion and load tolerance, and water level
variations. One company, namely Seaflex, are
known to have supplied several FPV installations
with elastic mooring lines, made of polyester and
rubber, that are capable of withstanding 10kN
tensions in each line.
Each of the FPV systems that have tracking
mechanism implemented also have metallic
structural components to accommodate the
elevated hydrodynamic, aerodynamic and
gyroscopic forces and moments induced by the
system motions. The forces on these platforms
change indefinitely with the stochastic
environmental conditions, and with the changing
panel configurations. During storm conditions,
some FPV systems with tracking have a method
that can reduce the aerodynamic loads. The devices
automatically alter the panel azimuth and vertical
tilt to a configuration which minimises drag and lift
forces.
With regards devices which utilise concentrator
features, developments indicate that these systems
require additional cooling mechanisms to cope with
the higher temperatures, but benefit from higher
yields, lower capital expenditure costs and require
less PV panels to convert an equal amount of
energy.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The nascent floating photovoltaics industry is one
which is growing rapidly, and the technology is
becoming a promising source of renewable energy.
There have been many novel concepts to date and
we are beginning to see trends in design concepts
suitable for inland water bodies, which is
illustrated in the paper alongside a review of the
literature conducted on FPV technologies and a list
of some of the most recent, unique and largest
installations. The papers written, and studies
conducted on these technologies features a small,
but growing, community of academic researchers,
independent researchers and companies. Much of
the work has been conducted with regards the
design, implementation and technical performance
of individual technologies and augmenting features
that provide additional performance benefits.
Several of the techno-economic studies lack the
Figure 3 - FPV Classification
consideration of cooling benefits of placing FPV
devices on water and should be implemented in
future studies. There is a lack of studies in the areas
of environmental impacts, dynamic modelling,
hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, mooring
configuration and coupled aero-hydro-elastic
modelling. Additionally, a lot needs to be
understood in terms of how to model these complex
multi-body systems in response to wind, waves and
currents, how to design these structures to
withstand the harsher marine environments, and
whether particular design concepts, such as rigid,
semi-rigid or flexible systems are more suitable
solutions for marine environments.
The list of technologies in this paper helps identify
the different types of technologies, variations in
components and properties, and aids industry
members, the public and possibly potential
investors to see what technologies are available
currently. Due to the proprietary nature and novelty
of floating photovoltaic systems, some design
properties are difficult to obtain. Of the
technologies presented in this paper, it can be
observed that many of the existing technologies
utilise high-density polyethylene floatation systems,
with some opting for medium-density polyethylene.
Those which utilise ad-hoc floatation tanks appear
to have higher packing densities and are ubiquitous
throughout the industry. The polyethylene
materials are resilient against UV light, do not
degrade easily, and are generally a compliant
material to install in waters. A select few have more
unique designs, particularly those designed for
nearshore applications. Not all concepts utilise
structural members but those that do tend to have
polyethylene floatation tanks or tubing. The
technologies that are designed for nearshore
applications all tend to have rigid or semi-rigid
structural frames, with the exception of the torus
devices. Few companies have developed tracking-
type FPV, concentrator and cooling mechanisms,
but given the studies conducted by other authors on
the potential performance benefits of these features,
we may see more companies implement these
features in the future. Many of the companies
having developed operational full-scale
deployments imply there are several TRL 9
technologies and we will find a competitive market
beginning to emerge.
The lack of design standards and best practice
guidelines for near- and off-shore environments is
a clear inhibitor for the industry, and studies should
be orientated to aid and encourage the development
of bespoke standards and codes for these
technologies. A new classification method is
proposed and the contribution of this research
towards the development of design standards and
best practice guidelines has the potential to increase
bankability by reducing uncertainty and hence risk
for investors and developers, this in turn, will lower
the cost of capital and hence will have a significant
contribution to lowering the LCOE.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research conducted here is funded by the EU’s
INTERREG VA 5048 Programme, managed by the
Special EU Programmes Body (SEUPB). The
Bryden Centre is an industry-led doctoral research
centre focusing on advanced marine and bio-energy
research. The authors would like to thank Eamon
Howlin of SolarMarine Energy, the industry partner
of the Doctor of Philosophy being completed. The
unlabelled figures in Table 2 have been reproduced
with the kind permission of the respective
companies and the authors would like to thank each
company for allowing permission.
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Table 1. List of Installations
Table 2 - List of Technologies and Discussion
All figures in Table 2. without an image source have been reproduced with the kind permission of the respective developers.
Table 2 - List of Technologies and Discussion
All figures in Table 2. without an image source have been reproduced with the kind permission of the respective developers.
Table 2 - List of Technologies and Discussion
All figures in Table 2. without an image source have been reproduced with the kind permission of the respective developers.