a review of studies on saraswati (central ground water board, dec., 2014)

8/9/2019 A Review of Studies on Saraswati (Central Ground Water Board, Dec., 2014)

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Central Ground Water BoardMinistry Of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation

Govt. of India

December 2014

A Review of Studies on

Vedic River Saraswati


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A Review of Studies on Vedic River Saraswati

Contents

1. Introduction 1-2

2. Review of Vedic Literature 3-4

3. Review of Modern Literature 5-31

A. 1800-1900 A.D. 5

B. 1901-2000 A.D. 8

C. 2001-2014 A.D. 21

4. Review of Studies Carried out by Various Organisations 32-68

4.1 Archaeological Studies 33

4.2 Study carried out by CGWB 39

4.3 Study carried out by ONGC 52

4.4 Study carried out by NRSC 56


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1

INTRODUCTION

Rivers, since time immemorial have been the lifeline of human civilisation. There are

many testimonies that ancient civilistaions flourished along the rivers. India, a land of many

rivers (Fig. 1) is no exception. Of all the rivers, the Saraswati which has been incessantly praised

in the literature of the Vedic period is believed to be in existence and a great civilisation

developed on the banks of this Vedic River Saraswati. There is plethora of literature starting

from the Vedic period to the recent years that deal with various aspects of the Vedic River

Saraswati. This report embodies a review of literature regarding existence, evolution and

disappearance of Vedic river Saraswati.

The review in this report is divided into three sections. i. Review of literature of the Vedic

Period, ii) literature of the modern period, which includes review of literature spanning over

three centuries and iii) a review of findings of studies carried out by various organisations.

Considering the volume of literature available on the subject, this review cannot be claimed to be

complete, however, care has been taken to cover literature from all possible areas


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Fig.1.1: Major Rivers and river basins in India


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2REVIEW OF VEDIC LITERATURE

Often enough it seemed as though, like the river Saraswati, thelost stream of the old Sapta Sindhavas, the river of Indianthought had disappeared beneath the surface or had become lost inshallow marshes and morasses...But, sooner or later, we see thestream reappear, and then old ideas resume their way

H.H.Gowen in History of Indian Literature (1931)

Vedas are considered the oldest texts available to the mankind. It is considered a phenomenon oforal communication that ancient texts of 20000 verses were preserved through all these years of

history. The credit goes to the scholars who against all odds preserved the texts with the right

phonetic accents and accuracy to this day. Later many scholars

have scripted the traditional text of the Vedas (Ref. The Holy

Vedas by Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar, clarion Books, 1983).

There are four Vedas Rigveda, Samveda, Atharva Veda and

the Yajurveda.

As summarised by Danino, 2010, in forty five of its hymns, the

Rigveda showers praise on the River Saraswati; her name

appears 72 times and three hymns are wholly dedicated to her.

In one of its very rare geographical descriptions, the Nadistuti

Sukta, a hymn (sukta) in praise of rivers, invokes turn by turn

nineteen major rivers of the Vedic world.

O Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri (Sutluj), Parushni

(Ravi), hear my praise! Hear my call, O Asikni (Chenab),

Marudvridha (Maruvardhvan), Vitasta (Jhelum) with

Arjikiya and Sushoma.

Fig. 2.1 : Cover page of the book‘Holy Vedas’ by PanditSatyakam Vidyalankar, clarionBooks, 1983


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First you flow united with Trishtama, with Susartu and Rasa and with Svetya, O

Sindhu (Indus) with Kiubha (Kabul) to Gomati (Gumal or Gomal), with Mehatnu

to Krumu (Kurram), with whom you proceed together.

(10.75.2-6: As translated by Danino, 2010)

It describes major rivers from east to west. Here and as per other descriptions of rivers including

Saraswati, it appears that the Rgiveda clearly states ‘Sarasvati Flows between the Yamuna and

Sutlej’ . In addition to above there are other descriptions referring Sarasvati. Based on rigvedic

description, a reconstruction of the rivers is given in Fig.1.2.

Fig.2.2 :

Reconstruction of

possible hydrography

of the SaraswatiBasin during the

Vedic periods

(adapted from

Danino, 2010)

Testimony of Disappearance of Saraswati in Ancient Literature

There are unmistakable testimonies of disappearance of Saraswati in the Ancient Text. As

discussed above, the Rig Veda talks incessantly about the Great Saraswati River with reference to

the river in other texts like the Mahabharata, Bramhanas. It is also evident in the folklore.

However, the later Vedas (Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda) do not add significantly to the

description of Saraswati except the Yajurveda, which describes Saraswati as having five

tributaries. Probably this indicates that the river flow was insignificant during this period.

Bramhanas, the next generation of the Vedic literature are also part of the Hindu Sruti Literature

that was preserved only though oral communications. The Panchavasma Bramhana tells us that the

river Saraswati disappeared into the desert. In the Bramhanas it is mentioned that the river

disappears at a place called Vinashana.


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3REVIEW OF MODERN LITERATURE

There are many scientific literature in the form of books, publications in Journals, Conference

volumes, Scientific reports etc dealing with the Vedic River Saraswati. In the last two centuries

lots of researches have been carried out on this intriguing river Saraswati, covering various

aspects like civilisation existed along its course; its palaeo course; the source and debouching

points or the most intriguing part i.e. the reason of disappearance of the river. A Survey of

Literature is present below.

A. 1800-1900 A.D.

1. HH Wilson (1840) who translated the Vishnu Purana mentioned that the Holy land of Manu

and the Puranas was between the Drihsadwati and Saraswati Rivers and that various adventure of

the first princes and most famous sages occurred in this vicinity

2. Max Muller (1859), in his History of Ancient SanskritLiterature suggested that the Vedic description of ‘land of

seven Rivers referred to seven rivers ‘the Indus, the five

rivers of the Punjab and the Saraswati. The five Rivers being

Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, Chenab and the Jhelum. In his

opinion the Saraswati in the east and the Indus in the west

thus bracket the Land of the Seven Rivers- the Vedic

heartland.

3. CF Oldham (1874) :

An anonymous paper published in the Calcutta Review in

1874 is attributed to C F Oldham. RD Oldham in his paper

in 1887 as detailed below refers to this anonymous paper,

which he informs is by C F Oldham, a surgeon-major in the Indian Army. The idea that the

Fig.3.1 : Scanned cover of the booktitled A history of ancient SanskritLiterature by Max Muller, 1859.(Adapted fromhttps://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessedon 20th Dec 2014 )

https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed%20on%2020th%20Dec%202014


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Hakra- Nara had been the Sutlej’s original bed had been borrowed from this anonymous paper by

C F Oldham.

4. M Monier-Williams (1875), author of a Sanskrit-

English dictionary, endorsed the description of SaptaSindhava given by Max Muller as described above.

5. Marius Fontane (1881), in a book in French

Language titled Inde Vedique (Vedic India) along

with description on views of indologists of the time

included a map of the Land of seven rivers, where

saraswati was clearly identified with the Ghaggar

(Fig. 3.3)

6. RD Oldham (1886)

Oldham as a deputy superintendent of the Geological

Survey of India surveyed the area from Bahawalpur

region to the Hissar district. In his paper in the

Journal of Asiatic Society of

Bengal, he rejected theories of the

days that attributed the loss of the

Saraswati to diminished rainfall,

pointing out that this would have

affected all rivers equally. Instead

he proposed that the ‘Lost Riverof the Indian desert was none

other than the Sutlej, and that it

was ‘lost’ when the river turned

westwards to join the Beas. Oldham also suggested that the Yamuna after leaving the hills

Fig. 3.2 : Scanned first page of theanonymous paper published in CalcuttaReview as described under point 3.

Fig.3.3 : Sapta Sindhu, as depicted by Marius Fontan(1881) in a book in French Language titled Inde Vedique(Vedic India). Noteworthy is that the Saraswati is shown tflow between Yamuna and Sutlej and it is identified witGhaggar.


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divided its waters and that the portion which flowed to the Punjab was known as the Saraswati

while that which joined the Ganges was called the Yamuna.

7. H G Raverty (1892)

Raverty in his paper made a few conclusions relevant to

the Saraswati i.e. i. Sursuti is the name of a river, the

ancient Saraswati ii. Sutlej was a tributary of Hakra and

flowed down to Rann of Kachchh through the Eastern

Nara. iii. The Hakra’s drying up, which according to

Raverty took place in the fourteenth century CE,

reduced a vest extent of once fruitful country to a

howling wilderness, and this several flourishing cities

and town became ruined or deserted by their inhabitants.

8. C F Oldham (1893)

C F Oldham in his paper titled ‘The Saraswati and the

Lost River of the Indian Desert mentioned that the one of the hymns of Rig Veda clearly places

the river Saraswati in between Yamuna and Sutlej. He had no doubt, that the lost Rig Vedic river

flowed in the bed of today’s Ghaggar . The paper also included a map, which clearly shows that

Fig.3.4 Scanned first page of the paper by RD Oldham as described in point 6


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B. 1901-2000 A.D.

9. A A Macdonell and A B Keith (1912) in their authoritative index of Vedic names mention that

the Saraswati comes between the Jamuna and the Sutlej.

10. F E Pargiter (1922) in his book titled Ancient Indian Historical

Tradition, which records a landmark study of Indian’s ancient

history derived from the dynasties listed in the Mahabharata and the

Puranas provides a reconstruction of the Saraswati River (Fig. 3.7)

11. H H Gowen (1931) in his book History of Indian Literature

also mentions Saraswati and that it was a river that has disappeared.

12. Louis Renou (1947) in his book

on classic India mention that

Saraswati as the true lifeline of Vedic geography and that it is

assumed to be found in the Sarsuti, located between the Sutlej and

Jamna. Renou provides several maps. One of them as reproduced

from Danino, 2012 is shown in Fig.3.8

Fig 3.7 : Map of rivers by F E Pargiter, 1922

Fig. 3.5: Scanned cover page of the book byMacdonell and Keith

Fig. 3.6: Scanned cover page of the book byPargiter, 1922


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13. Thomas Burrow (1963): in a paper titled

‘On the significance of the term arma -,

armaka- in early Sanskrit Literature’ published

in the Journal of Indian History mentioned

that the Ghaggar is the ancient Saraswati.

14. Arthur L Basham (1966) in his book

‘Wonder That Was India points out that the

during the Rig Vedic period the focus of the

Aryan Culture was along the upper course of

Saraswati. Saraswati as described by Basham

is now an insignificant scream losing in the

desert of Rajasthan, but then (in Vedic times)

it flowed broad and strong.

15. Jan Gonda (1975), an expert of Vedic

literature mentions that most of the hymns seem to have been composed in the country around the

River Saraswati. He also mentioned that to the east the Aryans had not expanded beyond theYamuna.

16. Ghose et al. (1979, 1980): Based on the study of aerial photography and LANDSAT

imagery, they have suggested that the Saraswati River flowed along NE-SW through the

Rajasthan desert and that the Luni was one of its tributaries. The authors invoke this hypothesis

to explain the present valley segment of the Luni between Pachpadra and the Rann of Kachchh.

The river later shifted westward, severed its connection with the Luni and flowed through

channels through the desert terrain in Jaisalmer district. Only later the river occupied the Hakra-

Nara-Wahind-Raini course. The authors observe that the Saraswati was forced to shift its course

westward at least four times by aeolian sand encroaching on its southerly course to flow to the

west. These courses are-

The oldest course was Nohar-Surjansar- Samrau-Pachpadra

Fig.3.8 : map of Saraswati by Louis Renou as

given in his book on Classic India (1947).

(reproduced from Danino, 2012)


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The Second course was Sirsa-Lunkarnansar-Bikaner-Samrau-Pachpadra The third course was Nohar-Rangmahal-Suratgarh-Anupgarh-Skhi-Hakra-Nara The fourth course was Jakhal-Sirsa-Hanumangarh-Pilibangan-Suratgarh-Anupgarh-

Sakhi-Hakra-Nara

The fifth course was the shift at Anupgarh-Fort Abbas to join the Indus drainage basin

rather than drain independently into the Rann of Kachchh.

17. Yash Pal et al ., (1980) provided detailed sketch of the palaeo channels of Sutlej, Yamuna,

Ghaggar, Drishadvati, Chautang and other river systems originating in the Himalayan foot hills

and flowing through Rajasthan to meet Rann of Kachchh. Authors opined that Sutlej formed part

of Sarasvati river system, in the past, as evidenced by the presence of a palaeo channel of Sutlej

near Ropar that further down joined Ghaggar at nearly right angle near Shatrana. They also

traced three palaeo channels Yl, Y2, Y3 of palaeo Yamuna (Drishadvati). The first two channels

joined Ghaggar at Shatrana and Suratgarh, and the third joined Chambal past Bharatpur. They

opined that Yamuna probably joined Sarasvati before joining Ganga through Chambal.

Fig.3.9 : Detailed delineation of the present rivers and the palaeochannels of the Sutlej

and Yamuna joining the old bed of the Saraswati (After Yash Pal et. al., 1980)


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18. Bryson R A and Swain AM (1981) Holocene variations of Monsoon rainfall in

Rajasthan. Quat. Research, 16, 135-145

The study reports that the climate was very wet in the period roughly 8500 – 4000 years

BP in Rajasthan. This is evident from the prolific growth of plants whose pollens lie

buried in the sediments of the Didwana and Lukaransar Lakes. The terrain was covered

by Savannah Trees.

19 . Kar and Ghose (1984): They traced the former courses of Drishadvati, a major

tributary of the Saraswati. Starting from the Siwalik, its course was traced through the

Markanda up to Gadauli and in the vicinity of Jagdhauli and then it followed the course

of the Chautang up to Jind and Narnaund. Thus, it flowed through the Hansi-Hakra

Fig. 3.10: Variations of rainfall in Rajasthan during the Holocene Period (Bryson and

Swain, 1981)


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branch of the Western Yamuna Canal up to Hisar. Numerous channels, possibly

representing shifting courses, connect it to Nohar, Bhadra and Hanumangarh. At

Hanumangarh, most of the old courses join the Saraswati. However, some of these

courses show the Drishadvati traversing the Thar Desert in north-south direction. Authors

were able to trace only segments of these courses on band 7 of LANDSAT MSS imagery

as all these courses are buried under recent deposits including Aeolian sand. According to

the author’s occurrence of s ub-surface water at shallow depth enabled deciphering of the

courses. The easternmost course of the Drishadwati is traced through the districts of

Churu, Sikar and Nagaur. It flowed through the present dry valley of the Jojri through

Khedulil and Mokala up to Plundla. From Plundla, the Jojri is traceable up to its

confluences with the Luni through Pipar and Risalpur but is completely an under fit

stream. Upstream of Plundla, the valley is fairly wide but at many places blocked byheavy drifts of aeolian sand in the form of dunes and sheets. They have cited litho logs of

well sections at four selected sites along the courses of the Drishadvati at Sardarshahar

and Churu (Churu district) and at Marwar and Degana Railway Station (Nagaur district),

which show the presence of thick alluvium underlain by coarse riverine material. The

author’s noted that a number of tributaries arising from the Aravalli joined the

Drishadvati during its course through the desert, northern most being the Kantli, which

joined it, either near Raigarh or near Dudwa Khard. As the Drishadvati moved westward,

it lost the supply of the Aravalli streams, which got choked up by the advancing aeolian

sands and got lost on the way. Kar and Ghose (1984) opined that the imbalance between

load and stream capacity were responsible for dwindling supply and the adverse climatic

changes in the past which were the main cause for desiccation of the Drishadvati River.

20. V S Wakankar (1987): Excerpts from Manthan (March 1987) published by

Deendayal Research Institute, New Delhi in Radhakrishna BP and Merh S S (eds) Vedic

Saraswati-Evolutionary History of a Lost River of North-western India.

It is a misconception that Vedic Aryans came from Central Asia and entered and

occupied Punjab and then spread over the whole peninsula. Based on recent findings

regarding various species of human beings, he believes that the upper Sarasvati region

forms the nucleus of human evolution. Other major conclusions of his analysis are as


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follows.

1. The Harappan and pre-Harappan civilizations developed along Sarasvati andhence instead of calling it Indus-Harappan, it should be called as the VedicSindhu-Saravati culture.

2. Most of the Rishi Ashrams traditionally known to us through Mahabharata,were lined along Sarasvati and the antiquity of these connected sites goes backto Harappan and pre-Harappan periods.

3. Shatachidra Kumbi (perforated pottery jar) is connected with the Vedic ritualto worship Vedic deity Suniwali and Vedic god Rudra . They are found at allsites along the Sarasvati.

4. Fire altars or Yajnya Kundas found at Kalibangan, Harappa, Mohen-jo-Daro,Lothal, Surkotada and other Harappan sites, indicate close association withVedic ritualism.

5. Horse remains in the form of bones and terra cotta, have been found fromancient mounds on the bank of Saravati.

6. Vedic culture started with Mesolithic settlements with hunting-gatheringeconomy, which further developed into rural agricultural communities ofVedic times.

7. These rural settlements, because of fertile soil and irrigation channels,developed into the urban centres of the Harappan period.

8. There was a narrow sea right up to Bikaner, which disappeared in Vedictimes.

9. The site of Harappa is connected with the battle of ten kings and the Vedicclan of Chayamanas was ruling during Harappan times.

10. The very first agricultural activity to grow barley, started in the VedicSarasvati region; the Kalibangan (Bikaner) pre-Harappan cultivated fields

prove that.

11. The pre-Harappan settlements in upper Yamuna River show that it had itsclose relationship with Sarasvati region and witnessed the decline of Harappansettlements as Sarasvati lost her mighty water supply.

21. Raghav and Grover (1991) have delineated three palaeo-courses of the Kantil River

in parts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar districts using LANDSAT TM imagery and aerial

photographs. The river Kantli rises from the Khandela hills (Sikar district). At present, it


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flows over a distance of 100 km only in rainy session through the district of Sikar and

Jhunjhunu. It enters Churu district and lost in the Sandy terrain. It used to flow in SW-NE

direction and was once a tributary of the Yamuna (the Drishadvati) before the latter

joined the Ganga system. Ganeshwar, where large copper hoard of probably pre-

Harappan period have been found is located along the Kantil River in Sikar district.

Several tectonic lineaments observed in the area seem to have controlled shifting of the

channels.

22. Ramasamy et al. (1991): The authors used LANDSAT MSS and TM data and

observed that the river Saraswati flowed close to the Aravalli hill ranges, met the Arabian

Sea in the Rann of Kachchh. It gradually drifted towards northwest and then finally lost

in Anupgarh plains. The authors suggested that the upheaval along the trace of Aravallihills to the foothills of Himalaya would have made the Saraswati drift along north-

westwards from its earliest course along the Aravallis. Subsequent Luni – Sukri

cymatogenic arching would have accelerated the north-westerly drift. If the Saraswati

was flowing into the Hakra – Nara bed, the westward shift of the Indus might have also

led to the disorganization of the Saraswati system and its final burial in Anupgarh plains.

Other observations made by the authors include-

The meanders of Yamuna in Agra and Dehradun area coincide with the Luni-Sukri

graben, suggesting control by Pleistocene tectonism on river migration. Yamuna seems to

have migrated 40 – 100 Km towards east due to rise in Aravalli hills.

Shifting of courses by main rivers leads to the disorganization of the tributaries.

The rivers like the Sahibi, the Banganga and the Kantli, which were tributaries of

the Yamuna in north-eastern Rajasthan, now fail to reach Yamuna. Now these

rivers flow in a disorganized manner and often cause flood havoc.

The Indus has migrated towards northwest in the northern part and towards the

west in central and southern parts.

The authors also confirmed the findings of Yash Pal et al. (1980) and Sood &

Sahai (1983) that tectonism was primarily responsible for the drying up of the

mighty Saraswati.


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23. Singvi A K and Kar A (Eds) 1992, Thar Desert in Rajasthan- Land Man and Environment,

Geol Soc. Of India Bangalore

As reported in this paper succession of sediments in the floodplains of the Saraswati River

revels, among other things, a history of tectonic movements that overtook the land and caused

drastic changes in the drainage and in the pattern of sedimentation. The study showed presence

of Himalayan- derived sediments in the Ghaggar channel upstream of Kalibangan. Clay deposits

in the upper part of the succession i.e. in the terminal phase of the Saraswati, represent the

ponding of the river.

24. S. Kalyanaraman ( 1997)-SARASVATI RIVER (circa 3000 to 1500 B.C.), Sarasvati Sindhu

Research Centre, Chennai (1997)

Fig.3.11: Succession of sediments in the floodplains of the Saraswati River (Singvi and Kar,

1992)


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The Book provides salient aspects of the Vedic River Saraswati. One of the rare books which

describes the belief of Saraswati in Allahabad. As mentioned in the book “Yamuna captured

Sarasvati at PaontaSaheb and carried her to Prayag, Allahabad to join the Ganga; hence the

myth of the sangamam of the three rivers, Sarasvati, Yamuna and Ganga. ”

25. Radhakrishna BP and Merh S S (1999) : Vedic Saraswati-Evolutionsry History ofa Lost

River of Northwestern India. It is a compilation of papers presented in the seminar on Drainage

Evolution of Northwestern India with particular reference to the Lost River Saraswati.

The papers presented at the Sminar, together with information from published literature having a

bearing on the problem, have been assembled together in this volume and are arranged in three

major sections:

i. Vedic Antecedentsii. Drainage Evolution

iii. New Approches

Edotorial comments on each section highlight the

importance of each contribution. Papers are so selected as

to provide a good cross section of prevailing views.

26. Nair AR, NAvada SV and RAo SM (1999) Isotope

study to investigate the origin and age of ground water

along palaeochannels in Jaisalmer and Ganganagar

districts of Rajasthan. In Radhakrishna B P and Merh S S

(EDs) Vedic Saraswati: Evolutionary History of a Lost

River in Northwest India, Geological Society of India,

Bangalore.

The study shows that the stable isotope composition of

the fossil water is different from that of the local meteoricwater. It suggests that the water encountered in the palaeochannel has its source at some distant

place. In addition to this, low concentration of tritium rules out any recent recharge.

Fig. 3.12 :Scanned cover page of theGeological Society Memoir 42edited by Radhakrishna and Mehr


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Fig.3.13. Isotopic composition of water in the palaeochannels (Nair et al., 1999)


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27. Malik JN, Merh S S and Sridhar V., 1999 palaeodelta complex of Vedic Saraswati and

other ancient rivers of North-western India. Memoir Geological Society of India

As per the above paper, the northern part of the Great Rann, comprises delta of not just one river

(Indus/Nurat) but also the site of three deltaic river mouths. The three deltas of the Great Rann

relate to those of Proto-Shatadru (Hakra), Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers. At present only a

part of the original delta complex has survived.

28. A V Sankaran (1999): (Saraswati-the ancient river lost in the desert, Current Science vol 77, No. 8. Pp.1054-1060) The paper reviews the views of different authors from various disciplines.It summarises the studies as follows

Fig. 3.14 : Schematic map showing formation and deposition of the delta complex at around 4000

Ka with gradual withdrawal of high sea of the Mid Holocene (6 to 4 Ka) by the major rivers that

extended upto the Kachh Mainland (Malik et. al., 1999)


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Saraswati emerged as a mighty riverduign the warm spell that succeeded the Pleiostoceglaciations some 10,000 years ago. After glorious existence for some 4000 years, the riverdeclined and gradually vanished. Spells of intermittent tectonic activities associated with the riseof Himalayas, neotectonicsm in the Cutch region, climate chage and desertification induced byvariations in earth’e orbit and tilt, diminishing supply of waters diue to river piracy, all appear tohave had vital roles in the downfall of Saraswati River.

Fig 3.15 . Geological and Climatologic evenets (Sankaran 1999)


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29. V M K. Puri (2000): In a book titled Discovery of Source of Vedic Saraswti In the

Himalayas published by Akhil Bhartiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana has conluded that ‘ Drainage

analysi, basin identification, glaciological and terrace studie suggest taht Veic SAraswati

originated from a group of glaiers in Tons fifth order basin at Naitwar in Garhwal Himalaya (Fig.

3.16)

Fig. 3.16 : Origin of vedic Saraswati River from Himalaya (after Puri, 2000)

In early stages, it occupied the present day drainage of Tons river upto Paonta Doon and took a

westerly swing after receiving nourishment from Aglar, Yamuna and Giri. wWeest of Paonta, it

followed a westerly and southwesterly course along Bata valley and entered plains at Adi Badri.

It continued to follow almost southwesterly course and traversed through Haryana, Rajasthan

and Gujarat for nearly 1000 Km and joined the Arabian Sea.


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C. 2001-2014 A. D.

30 . B B Lal, 2002, The Saraswati Flows on – the continuity of Indian Culture-Aryan Books

International, New Delhi. The book provides a detailed account of archaeological evidences that

point towards existence of a great civilisation along the Vedic river Saraswati.

31. K S Valdiya (2002). Saraswati, The River that Disappeared, ISRO and Universities Press

(India) Limited Distributed by Orient Longman Private Limited.

The book provides a complete account of River Saraswati including different evidences that

indicate that the palaeochannels of the Vedic Saraswti exist in the North Western India. It also

includes detailed model depicting the probable causes of disappearance of River Saraswati. The

probable causes of disappearance of River Saraswati as described by Valdiya (2002) is described

with the figures 3.18 A, B and C. Descriptions are given in the figure captions.

Fig. 3.17 : As described by Valdiya (2002) the configuration of present river channels and river

channels in the Vedic Time are as depicted in this figure. The changes in river courses due to

various tectonic activities resulted in disappearance of the Vedic River Saraswati.( Valdiya

,2002 )


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Fig. 3.18A: A NNW-SSE-trending fault passing by Paonta Sahab tore apart the Siwaliks causing

the Eastern block to move north relative to the Western Block. This tectonic disturbance possible

forced the Tons headwaters of Saraswati to deviated southwards from its earlier westerly course

in the Siwaliks. .( Valdiya ,2002 )


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Fig. 3.18 B: Northern Branch of Chambal River started extending upstream followingaccentuated headward erosion eventually leading to capture of the flow of the SW flowing

branch of Saraswati. This is the present day Yamuna, which joins Ganga .( Valdiya ,2002 )


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Fig. 3.18 C . As the Aravalis kept on rising and as the land to the west sank, the Satluj changed

its course abruptly, making a sharp U-turn at Ropar. This further decreased the flow in the

Saraswati .( Valdiya ,2002 )

32. Gupta et al., (2004) studied satellite imagery of North Western region and arrived on a veryinteresting conclusion that river Sarasvati flowed eastward more or less parallel to the river Indus

and shifted its course within a much narrower zone of less than 40 km. The major (western most)

channel of river Sarasvati remained more or less constant and unchanged and is considered to be

the actual Rig Vedic Sarasvatiriver. They further reported that river Sarasvati never took a course

to join river Luni. Luni has been from time to time joined by other streams/rivers (of much

lower significance than Sarasvati, e.g. Drishadvati) which drained along the Aravalli hills. Also

river Sarasvati never shifted its courses drastically and continuously from east to west, as

suggested by some of the earlier workers. Their study would be helpful in providing a logical

solution for the existing controversy regarding continuous west-ward shift of river Sarasvati from

initial position near Aravalli hills to final position along the Hakra-Nara (closer to north-western

Indian border).


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33. S. Kalyanaraman 2008 Vedic River Saraswati and Hindu Civilization Saraswati Research

and Education Trust, Chennai , Aryan Books International, New Delhi It is a compilation of

multidisciplinary papers presented at the Conference held from 24 th to 26 th October 2008 on

‘Vedic River Saraswati’ and Hindu Civilisation based on researc h and studies carried out during

the last 50 years which throw a new light on the origins of civilisation and accounts remarkable

cultural continuum in India, exemplified by Hindu civilization as a linguistic area.

34. A R Chaudhri (2008): Civilisation along the

Saraswati River- A Scientific Approach, in

Kalyanaraman S (eds), Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu

Civilisztion, Aryan Books international and Sarasvati

Research and education trust.The authors, on the basis of sedimentological

investigations report three significant signatures of the

presence of palaeochannels along the Vedic tract of the

esstwhile Saraswati River. I) Water oozing out of Kapil

Muni temple sarovar ii) Chyavan Giti Kund at Kalayat

in Jind and iii) presence of buried river bed

at Bhor Sayidan in Pehowa district. (Fig. 3.20). He

estimated the width of the river to be nearly 2 Km.

Fig.3.20 : Buried river bed at Bhor

Sayidan near Kurukshetra. The

estimated width of this river is

over 2 Km. (After Chaudhri, 2008)

Fig. 3.19 : Scanned cover page of theBook by S Kalyanaraman (2008)


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35. Bhadra et al., (2009) Based on study of satellite data and topomaps coupled with other

evidences arrived at the conclusion that Saraswati Nadi of Haryana is the tributary to the Vedic

Saraswati River. Climatic and tectonic changes coupled with decreased rainfall and

anthropogenic interventions / encroachments of the river course have been the major reasons for

desiccation and obliteration of SaraswatiNadi of Haryana. Factors such as (a) continuity of

drainage lines of SaraswatiNadi up to the Somb River in topomaps, (b) low topography and little

height variations of the area where AdiBadri and Rampur Herian village (the origin place of

SaraswatiNadi) are located, (c) the configuration of tributaries of Somb River, (d) strong N-S

trending image anomaly, protruding southward from AdiBadri area to Rampur Herian, indicate

towards feasibility of upstream drainage of River Somb to join with SaraswatiNadi. All these

evidences indicate that higher reaches of AdiBadri as the source (origin) place of SaraswatiNadi

sometimes in the past (historic/pre-historic period).

Fig.3.21: Location of pilgrim sites along the palaeochannel of Vedic River Saraswati

(Bhadra 2009)


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Fig.3.22 : IRS P6 LISS III image ofFeb2004 showing Markanda-Batadivide and its mis-fit wide valley

around Paonta Sahib. Movemetalong the NNW-SSE trendingYamun Tear Fault was possiblyresponsible for the diversion ofYamuna towards South.

36. Saini et al (2009). H. S. Saini, S. K. Tandon, S. A. I. Mujtaba, N. C. Pant and R. K. Khorana.

Reconstruction of buried channel-floodpalin systems of the northwestern Haryana Plains and

their relation to the Vedic Saraswati. Current Science, Vol 97 No. 11 pp. 1634-1643.

Based on the collection of subsurface lithofacies data from well logs, this study attempts to map

the buried channel-floodplain systems of a part of the northwestern Haryana Plains and provides

evidence of buried major sand bodies at various depths; these belong to at least two separate

phases of fluvial activity. The younger phase of fluvial activity includes the previously mapped

palaeochannel segment between Tohana and Sirsa that was considered as a part of the ‘lost’

Saraswati1. The recognition of major palaeochannel belts in the subsurface provides definite

proof of the presence of a strong fluvial regime sometime in the past. Based on OSL dating, it is

inferred that these relatively older palaeochannel belts pre-date the Last Glacial Maximum and

are related to the later part of the wetter MIS 3; and the younger fluvial activity, recognized in a

limited part of the area, is dated between ~6.0 and ~2.9 Ka BP. The analysis of these subsurface

data suggests the existence of integrated drainage networks in the northwestern Haryana Plainsin the 20 – 30 Ka time interval.


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Fig. 3.23: The subsurface reconstruction of northwestern Haryana plains showing the identifiedcourses of buried channels (BCH-1, 2 and 3) and the associated floodplains (FP-1 and 2).Locations of sections with number of samples (in parentheses) dated by OSL are also shown.

(After Saini et al., 2009)

37. Danino M (2010) The lost River-On the trail of the Sarasvati, Penguin Books, Mumbai.

The Book based on findings of different researches from different fields, attempts to popularise

the findings of these studies


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Fig.3.24: Closer view of the ten main channels in the Ghaggar System (their Seasonal waters are

today largely diverted to irrigation) (Danimo, 2010)

38. Saini and Mujtaba (2010): Luminescence dating ofthe sediments from a buried channelloop in Fatehabad area, Haryana: Insight into vedic sarawati river and its environment.Geochronometria, 37 pp. 29-35

Optically Simulated Luminescence (OSL) dating is a dating technique used to estimate ages of

ancient material including sediments. In this paper Geomorphology and sedimentary

composition of an archeologically important palaeochannel segment of the Vedic Saraswati

River in northwestern Haryana have been evaluated and its temporal relation with the

surrounding upland examined with the help of OSL dating. Sediment composition and OSL ages

suggest that the channel received enough water supply between 5.9 and 4.3 ka ago, and even

before. Several lakes and ponds had developed during this period in the surrounding areas. It was

a wet phase in this area as well as in Rajastahn. After ~4.3 ka, the river got starved of regular

water supply, became sluggish and finally dried up. Reduced water supply, indicative of


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30

decreased rainfall, occurred between 4.3 and 3.4 ka ago. The environmental history of the

channel might have influenced the Harrapan archeology of the area.

39. Sinha, R., Yadav, G. S., Gupta, S., Singh, A. and Lahiri, S. K ., 2012 Geo-electric

resistivity evidence for subsurface palaeochannel systems adjacent to Harappan sites in NW

India. Quaternary Int. , doi:10.1016/J.Quaint.2012.08.002.

The study included geophysical instigations and provided characteristics of sedimentation along

the palaeochannels of Saraswati.

Fig. 3.25: Block Diagram by Sinha et al., 2012 showing the palaeochannels of the Saraswati-

including the one abandoned by the Satluj and the extent of fluvial sediments filling their

channels. (After Sinha et al., 2012)


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40. Sanjeev Sanyal (2012) Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography, Penguin BooksIndia Pvt. Ltd.

To quote the author in this book ‘Early history o India has

two parallel sources, but there is a greatdeal of

disagreement about how they fit together. On onehand

there is the archaeological evidence ofsophisticated cities

of the Harappan Civilisation (also called Indus Valley or

Indus Sarasvati Civilisation), on the other hand there is the

literature of the vedic tradition. Not withstanding the

difference, the two sources agree on the drying of a great

river that the Rgi Veda calls Saraswati.

The book also mentions that while the rigvedic text speak

incessantly aboyt Saraswati, the texts of next generation

repeatedly mention how the Saraswati Dried up. The

Pachvasma Brhman tells that the river disappeared into the desert. There are many legends and

foll tales about how the river dried up or sank underground. The author also goes on to add that

physical surveys and satellite photographs confirm that the Sutlej and the Yamuna were once

tributaries of the Saraswati.

Fig. 3.26 : Scanned cover page ofthe Book by Sanjiv Sanyal, 2012


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4REVIEW OF STUDIES CARRIED OUT

BY VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

Many studies have been carried out by different organisations mostly with regard to specific

aspects like Palaeochannels, archaeology, geology, ground waer prospects/movement etc.

Following is a list of organisations which have carried out study in some or the other form

related to palaechannels of the vedic river Saraswati.

(i) Space Application Centre (SAC)/ISRO – Ahmedabad.(ii) Regional Remote Sensing Centre (RRSC-W)/ISRO – Jodhpur, Rajasthan.(iii) Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) - Jodhpur, Rajasthan(iv) Ground Water Department (GWD), Govt. of Rajasthan - Jodhpur(v) DefenceLabarotary – Jodhpur, Rajasthan.(vi) State Remote Sensing Application Centre (SRSAC) – Jodhpur, Rajasthan.(vii) J.N.V University – Jodhpur, Rajasthan.(viii) Haryana State Remote Sensing Centre (HRSAC) – Hissar, Haryana.(ix) SaraswatiNadiShodhSansthan – Jagadhri, Haryana(x) Sarasvati Sindhu Research Centre – Chennai, T.N.(xi) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) – Mumbai(xii) Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Government of Rajasthan(xiii) Geological Survey of India, Western Region – Jaipur, Rajasthan.(xiv) B.M. Birla Science and Technology Centre – Jaipur, Rajasthan.(xv) Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Western Region – Jaipur, Rajasthan.(xvi) Institute for Sustainable Development Research Studies – Jaipur, Rajasthan.(xvii) Institute of Environmental Studies – Jaipur, Rajasthan.(xviii) Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) – Jodhpur and Dehradun(xix) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai(xx) Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad(xxi) Geological Society of India, Bangalore(xxii) M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat(xxiii) Department of irrigation Govt of Haryana(xxiv) Water and Air, Pollution Control Board Haryana(xxv) Tourism Department Haryana.(xxvi) Development Boards (Kurukshetra and Pihowa)(xxvii) HUDA (Haryana Urban Development Authority)

Summaries of studies carried out by CGWB, ONGC and NRSC are included in this review.

In addition to this an account of Archaeological evicdences primarily based on the

excavations of Archaeological Survey of India are included in this review.


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4.1 Archaeological Studies

Many archaeological evidences primarily gathered by Archaeological Survey of India point

towards existence of a great civilization along the vedic Saraswati. Many independent

researchers have analysed these arcaheological finds to draw conclusions regardingcivilization along vedic river saraswati. The review given below is based on the studies

reported by independent researchers and as compiled by Sharma et al., 2014.

The pre-historic remains in the Saraswati basin were for the first time brought to light

in the early 1940’s with the investigation of Hakra valley by Stein (1942). Stein’s work was

further extended by Ghosh during (1950-52) during survey of the dried up course of

Saraswati and Drishadvati in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan (Ghosh et al., 1979, 1980).Kar and Ghosh (1984) have carried out an intensive survey of the Saraswati basin within

Haryana since 1960. In northern Haryana, important Harappan sites were discovered at

Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Kunal, Bidarna, Balu and others (Chakrabarti and Saini, 2009,

Kalyanraman, 1999; Lal, 2002, 2009; Valdiya, 2002). Late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware

(PGW) materials were recovered from Kurukshetra, Mirzapur (Kurukshetra district) and

Bhagwanpura (Hissar district). Recent excavations at Bhagwanpura and Kasithal

(Kurukshetra district) have yielded evidence of a partial overlap between the late Harappanand PGW culture. The Ghaggar-Hakra palaeochannel course has been associated with

extensive Bronze-age Harappan civilisation archaeological sites that are located with the

channel. The abrupt abandonment of urban centres at ~3500 BP has been explained as a

consequence of river diversion, although alternative explanations for cultural decline have

also been offered (Sinha et al., 2013).

The explored area has been seen to be rich in archaeological sites which may be

classified as Harappa, PGW and Early Historical with the addition of the well-known Pre-

Harappa. The remains of the prominent PGW settlements are often overlaid by those of the

succeeding early historical (Rang Mahal) culture. The Rang Mahal culture is named after the

site of Rang Mahal about 3Km up Suratgarh. A general dissection followed the decay of the

Rang Mahal culture as indicated by a scatter of pottery in the dry riverbed and also on the

sand dunes.

A steady flow of water, followed by dessication and then utter dryness of the river is

clearly indicated by the archaeological evidences. Eastward diversion of water to the Ganga


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system is indicated in 1750 B.C. (end of Harappa culture), resulting in a dry phase (partly

coinciding with the PGW period), a recurrence of the wet phase in the early centuries A.D

(Rang Mahal period) and then by another desiccation. Thus, the PGW sites are generally

small and are sometimes situated in the riverbed itself indicating a scanty flow. Radiocarbon

dating indicates that Kalibangan, the Mature Harappan settlement located on the bank of the

ancient river Saraswati was abandoned around 1900 B.C. because of the drying up of the

river.

More than 1200 settlements of the Stone Age and Harappan civilizations are found along the

river course implying the availability of year-round supply of water, which only perennial

rivers could have provided. Joshi et al. (1984) have compiled the data on Harappan, Early

Harappan (Pre-Harappan) and Late Harappan sites in India. A summary of the sites in the

Saraswati valley is given below (Table-1).

Table-1: Number of archaeological sites in NW India (Joshi et al., 1984)State Early Harappan

(2500-2200 B.C.)Harappan(2200-1700 B.C.)

Late Harappan(1700-1000 B.C.)

Punjab 23 32 102Haryana 103 44 297Rajasthan 8 28

The archaeological studies reveal the following information: (a) No Early Harappan

or Harappan sites occur along the present Sutlej or the Yamuna channel, (b) There is fairly

good distribution of Early Harappan and Harappan sites along the Ghaggar – Hakra bed and

(c) No Late Harappan sites are found in Rajasthan along the Saraswati bed which must have

dried up during that period forcing eastward or westward migration (Joshi et al. 1984;

Mughal, 1982; Rajani and Rajawat, 2011).

4.1.1. Archaeological Studies in Rajasthan

More than 1200 of the 1600 settlements, including many prosperous towns of

Harappan culture (5000-3500 B.P.) have been discovered in the Saraswati river basin

(Valdiya 2002, Mughal, 1981). Out of the archaeological sites discovered by the

Archaeological Survey of India in the Sarasvati river basin (Possehl, 2000), 54 sites of Early-

Harappan and Mature Harappan period are falling in the western Rajasthan (Table-2). These

have been plotted on to the palaeo channel map prepared from WiFS data, to observe if any

correlation exist between the two types of data. It is observed that most of the archaeological

sites of Harappan period discovered in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts fall along the


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Ghaggar River , indicating Ghaggar to be the palaeo Sarasvati course (Gupta et al., 2001,

2003).

4.1.2 Archaeological Studies in Haryana and Punjab:

The locations of archaeological sites, discovered till 2000 in Haryana (Possel, 2000) and a

few recently discovered archaeological sites have been plotted and overlaid on the mapped

river courses for age determination. The archaeological sites are classified into four

categories viz. Mature Harappan, Sothi Harappan, Late Harappan and Post to Harappan

(Table-3). In northern Haryana, mostly Late Harappan sites have been found to lie in

Table-2: Number of archaeological sites in NW Rajasthan (Possel, 2000)Site Site Name Site Site Name Site Site Name1 Akalgarh 9 Chak 02 17 Chak 0872 Bhaironura 10 Chak 03 18 Chak 0883 Bingee 11 Chak 07 19 Jogiasson4 Binjor One 12 Chak 043 20 Jogiason Chak One5 Binjor Two 13 Chak 050 21 Kalibagan6 Binjor Three 14 Chak 072.3 22 Satuki East7 Binjor Four 15 Chak 075 23 Satuki West8 Bugia 16 Chak 080 24 Sullewala

Fig.4.1 : IRS-WiFS image showing Harappan Sites along Ghaggar River in Ganganagar and

Hanumangarh Districts of Rajasthan


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Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra and Kaithal districts (Fig.4.2). However, clustered Mature

Harappan/Sothi Harappan sites are found to occur in Jind and Karnal districts, where many

palaeochannels have been demarcated.

Table-3 : Classification of Archaeological sites in Haryana (Valdiya, 2002, p.38)Classes ((Period, B.P)* RemarksPost to Harappan(3500 to Medieval)

Represents all the sites which are post to Harappan period. It includes OCP, PGW, Pre-Historic, Buddhist,Medieval, etc.)

Harappan

Late Harappan(3900-3300)

Mostly Post-Urban Harappan

Sothi-Siswal(~Mature Harappan)

Sothi-Siswal sites have distinct Hakra culture butresembles Mature Harappan culture

Mature Harappan(4600-3900)

Exclusive Harappan sites

Criterion: The archaeological sites, reported in Possel (2000) and other sources are plotted onthe map. It is observed that archaeological assemblages (cultures) of many periods are foundover a single site. To plot on the map, only the oldest period out of many cultures present overa site, has been considered for a particular class. Other lower period cultures are not depictedon the maps.

Apart from the Harappan sites, archaeological sites of Late-Harappan to Medieval

period have been discovered in Adi Badri, Sandhya, Kapal Mochan, Mustafabad, Bilaspur,

Sadhaura, Thanesar and Pehowa which lie mostly along the course of Saraswati Nadi.

Although catchment area of Markanda River is larger than that of Saraswati Nadi, but the

number of archaeological sites are much more along the Saraswati Nadi. This indicates

towards higher level of historical significance of Saraswati Nadi in the region than that of

Markanda River. Recently, an archaeological site (12 th Century old Painted Grey Ware i.e.

Post-Harappan) has been discovered at Bhor Saidan village which lie on the bank of

Sarraswati Nadi in the west of Kurukshetra (Purohit, 2006). All these evidence indicate

flourishment of Mature Harappan to Post-Harappan culture along the Saraswati Nadi.

The delineation of the palaeochannels of Saraswati & Drishadwati in the northern

parts of Haryana got a big boost by the discoveries of Harappan sites. The excavations are

done by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) & various other scholars. It provides a good

evidence of the presence of an ancient civiliz ation which is known as ‘Harappan Civilization’

or ‘Indus Valley Civilization’.


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Fig. 4.2: Archaeological Sites and Paleochannels in Northern Haryana

Most of the sites of this civilization have show a common characteristic like

a) Presence of house made of bricks,

b) Well planned city,

c) Ploughed agricultural field, etc.

There are more than 400 archeological sites spreads all over Haryana especially in the

northern part. Some of these belong to Harappan age & some to Post Harappan age. These

Archeological sites are present in cluster, which are called “Economic Pockets” by Joshi et al.

(1984). Most of the sites are falling on or nearby the paleochannels. Most of the green and

yellow spots representing the Mature Harappan sites are found at the SW part of Haryana, i.e.

Jind, Hisar, Fatehabad and Sirsa districts. But the Post-Harapppan sites represented as brownspots are present in the eastern and NE part of Haryana i.e. Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal,

Ambala and Yamunanagar. This probably shows the shifting of the people from W to E with

loss of river. Similarly, location of a large number of archaeological sites along the Sutlej

palaeochannel in eastern Punjab indicates close affinity between ancient civilizations with the

Saraswati River.

4.1.3 Archaeological Study in Gujarat


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Available archaeological sites of Pre, Mature and Post Harrapan ages have been

plotted in Kachchh, Mehsana, Patan, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Surendranagar districs of northern

Gujarat. Plots of archaeological sites of Mature Harappan period in Kachchh district(Desalpur, Dholavira, Gunthai, Kanthkot, Kerasi, kotada, Lakhpat, Luna etc.) clearly

indicates close association of important civilization along the bank of Saraswati

palaeochannels (Fig.4.3).

Fig.4.3: Archaeological Sites and the Palaeochannels in Northern Gujarat


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4.2 Study carried out by CGWB

4.2.1 Introduction

Central Ground Water Board, Western Region has carried out detailed studies on to trace the

existence of palaeochannels in Western Rajasthan.

State Ground Water Department, Rajashan and Regional Remote Sensing Service

Center(RRSSC), Jodhpur demarcated palaeo-channel courses based on earlier studies and

remote sensing data.Eight such locations were identified in the Western Rajasthan, spreading

over Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Barmer, Bikaner, Ganganagarand Hanumangarh districts.

To confirm the indications of palaeochannels a joint program of ground waterexploration and isotope studies was undertaken by Central Ground Water Board in

collaboration with BARC Mumbai, RRSSC Jodhpur and other organizations to delineate

palaeochannels, with emphasis on lost Saraswati river.

The studies carried out in Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala-Ghotaru area of Jaisalmer

district, included Remote sensing, field traverses, geophysical surveys, exploratory drilling,

geophysical well logging and Isotope analysis.

4.2.2 Hydrogeology In the area Quaternary sediments comprising alluvium and aeolian sediments form the

aquifer almost in the entire area. The thickness of quaternary sediments varies from 40 to

more than 300 m.

Due to high salinity of ground water in deeper levels and predominance of argillaceous

material, promising deeper aquifers in the area are not encountered.

Water level monitoring stations of CGWB indicate unconfined groundwater conditions prevailing in almost entire area undertaken for studies.

Depth to water in the area varies from 29.62 to 67.96 mbgl. Deeper water levels occur in

southern parts of the area and ranges from 60.38 mbgl at Asutar to 67.96 mbgl at

Mithuwala. In the area lying north of Kishangarh (KhariaBeri-RatanwalaTala) the depth to

water is around 30 m.

4.2.3 Surface Resistivity Survey


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For identification of the buried channels geophysical electrical resistivity surveyswere

conducted in the inferred palaeochannel areas in northwestern parts of Jaisalmer district by

Rajasthan Ground Water Department and Central Ground Water Board. Rajasthan Ground

Water Department carried out resistivity surveys in following sections falling in the area.

1. KuriaBeri to Kishangarh

2. Kishangarh to SakirewalaKhu

3. Kishangarh to Kaladhartobba

4. KuriaBeri to Tanot

5. Ghantiyali to Tanot

6. Ranau to Ghantiyali The resistivity survey data interpretation indicated that the first layer comprising of fine

blown sand corresponds to a general resistivity range of 135-3000 ohm-m.

The second layer is represented by a general resistivity range of 550-2550 ohm-m, which

corresponds to fine to medium sand and at places it may be coarse grained sand.

The third layer, comprising of clay shows a general resistivity range of 10-100 ohm-m.

The lower range of resistivity indicates presence of highly conductive clays at the depth

of investigation.

In Ranau-Tanot section fourth layer comprising clays and shales was interpreted and layer

resistivity varied from 1 to 36 ohm -m.

Central Ground Water Board has carried out spot resistivity soundings at 31 locations

in Kishangarh- Tanot- Ranau- Ghotaru area at favorable locations. The soundings were

carried out in interdunal areas where the ground level was almost flat. During the surveys it

was found that the formation resistivity in the range of 15 to 25 ohm - m represents fine to

medium grained sand containing the fresh water. The zone lying immediately above the water

table has a resistivity value in the range of 70 to 80 ohm-m may represent the moisture

conditions. The resistivity below 10 ohm-m was interpreted to be clay/silt containing poor

quality of ground water. Dry sands in upper layers indicated very high resistivities. Based on

above interpretation layers with resistivity ranging from 15 to 25 ohm-m and showing

considerable thickness were suggested for exploratory drilling. In general it was interpreted

that there is a general deterioration of groundwater quality with depth. In addition resistivity

surveys were also conducted in Longewala and Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

4.2.4 Ground Water Exploration


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The exploratory drilling was undertaken in the area based on the remote sensing, field

studies and geophysical surveys. Geophysical well logging of the bore holes was done for

identification of water bearing zones and interpreting water quality for well construction.

During the study 18 exploratory boreholes were constructed at different sites. The depth

of drilling of the boreholes varied from 120 to 200 m. Depth of wells constructed varied

from 70(Ranau 7 Km on Tanot road) to 136 m (Gamnewala).

The thickness of these coarser zones varied from 6 to 22 m and the depth of zones varied

from 25 to 125 m. Presence of these coarse sediments are the positive indication of

existence of old buried channels in the area along Ranau, Nihal Khan Ki Dhani&Ghotaru.

Hydrogeological cross sections along Tanot-Ranau and KhariaKua-Kishangarh (Fig.)

reveals that thickness of fine sands increases towards KuriaBeri- Kishangarh area.

Kankars are generally found to be occurring in association with silt and fine sands.

In Gamnewala area the formation is predominately clayey. Tertiary clays, claystone,

impure soft limestone and sandstone were encountered at comparatively shallow depth in

Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

Further electrical logs of the bore holes drilled in the area also points to the existence of

clean sands attributed to water action in depth range of 42 to 63 m and going down up to

about 100 m.

Unconfined groundwater conditions prevails in the area with the depth to water in the

wells constructed varying from 30.22 (Kishangarh) to 65.10(Ranau 4 km on Ramgarh

road) m bgl. Shallow water levels (up to 40 m) occur in northern and northwestern part

of the area whereas deeper water levels occur in southern part (Fig 11).

The discharge in the wells drilled during the present study ranges from 60 (Gamnewala)

to 1000 (Kishangarh) lpm.

Low discharge in Gamnewala area was mainly due to predominance of argillaceous

formation, the water quality met here was also highly saline. The discharge of the well

constructed at KuriaBeri was also comparatively high.

The higher discharge with fresh groundwater quality in Kishangarh-KuriaBeri area forms

it groundwater potential area. The electrical conductance of groundwater encountered in

the wells constructed varies from 1210 to 9500 micro mhos/Cm. at 25 C.


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Mechanical analysis of lithological samples encountered at various depths during the

drilling was carried out for determination of the grain size distribution of various

fractions.

It is observed that in the northwestern parts in Kuriaberi-Karthai-Ghantiyali-Ranau areathe uniformity coefficient of the upper saturated zone sediments varies between 2 to 3

indicating well sorted nature of sediments.

In Longewala- Ghotaru area forming southwestern part uniformity coefficient was found

to be higher up to 6.0 indicating heterogeneous nature of sediments.

4.2.5 Geophysical Well Logging

Interpretation of electric and gamma ray logs of all the bore holes has revealed poor

lithological contrast within the saturated formation. However, following characters have

been demarcated on the basis of above logs.

The surface layer ‘A’ Zoneis characterized by sand ranging in thickness from 35 to 50

meters with a resistivity value of >50 m. This zone generally marks the unsaturated

horizon.

The underlying ‘B’ zone with a resistivity range of 20-50 m represents partially

saturated alluvium. This zone extends to a depth of 50 to 65 m bgl. This horizon contains

flushed arenaceous sediments and is encountered only along Kishangarh to KuriaBeri

section.

In other sections zone ‘A’ is directly followed by zone ‘C’ with a resistivity range to 10 to

20 m. The ‘SP’ character of this zone indicat es an increase in salt content due to change

in depositional environment.

The lower part of zone ‘C’ is relatively compact and poorly flushed. However,

predominantly this zone contains flushed to semi flushed sediments and the formation

water quality is generally brackish.

The lowermost zone ‘D’ has a resistivity value of


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EC value of less than 3000-m. mhos/cm at 25 C and the water quality deteriorates with

depth.

4.2.6 Chemical Quality

The chemical quality of ground water in the area varies largely from fresh to highly

saline. The electrical conductance varies from 1000 to 42200 micro mhos/cm at 25 c in

the area.

During exploratory drilling fresh ground water was encountered at Ranau, Ranau 4.6 Km

on Tanot road, Longewala, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri, Ghotaru and Ranau 4 Kms on

Ramgarh road.

Coarse sand and gravel were encountered at Nihal Khan Ki Dhani but the ground water

quality at this place was found to be highly saline with electrical conductance 9500

m.mhos/cm at 25 c. Electrical conductance of water encountered during the present

drilling varied from 1210 to 9500 m.mhos/cm at 25 c.

Concentration of fluoride and nitrates was found to be low. Map prepared on the basis of exploratory drilling and the existing wells data indicate

presence of fresh groundwater in a linear NE-SW pattern surrounded by comparatively

saline water on either side (Fig 12). The DharmiKhu, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri and Ranau

area represents fresh water zone falling in northeastern part of the study area. In

southwestern part a small area in Ghotaru-Asutar zone the groundwater quality is fresh.

In general even in fresh water area there is a deterioration of groundwater quality with

increase in depth. It has been observed that the deterioration in groundwater quality starts

beyond depth of 100 m in general.

4.2.7 Isotope Studies During the yield testing of the exploratory wells, 16 nos. of water samples were collected

for isotope analysis and were sent to BARC Mumbaifor tritium isotope. The results of

analysis received from BARC are given below (Table ).

TABLE 4 : Results of Tritium Isotope Analysis of Groundwater Samples From The

Tubewells Constructed During Palaeochannel Studies, District Jaisalmer Rajasthan.

S.No Sample Location TRITIUM(TU ó TU)

Depth range of sample(m.)

1. Ranau-I 0.7 0.9 65-101


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2. NathuKaBera 0.4 0.9 43-743. Ghantiyali -I 0.6 0.3 62-854. KuriaBeri 2.3 0.8 55-935. Karthai 0.8 0.3 78-846. Gaje Singh Ka Tar 1.1 0.3 82-1127. Longewala-I 0.8 0.3 66-958. Longewala-II 1.3 0.3 65-1049. Nihal Khan Ki Dhani 1.5 0.3 63-9610. Ghotaru 0.9 0.3 90-11411. Gamnewala 1.0 0.3 97-13412. Ranau- 4.6 Km 1.2 0.3 71-8413. Longewala-III 0.7 0.3 54-7814. Ranau- 7 Km on Tanot Road 0.8 0.3 50-6815. Ranau- 4 Km on Ramgarh

Road0.7 0.3 79-104

16. Kishangarh 0.7 0.3 50-101 Most of the above samples show negligible tritium contents indicating absence of modern

recharge. Sample from KuriaBeri show higher tritium value and this indicates

components of recent recharge. Owing to the complex problem of defining tritium

concentration at the time of ground water recharge, most studies make only a qualitative

estimate of ground water age.

For determination of ground water age by Carbon-14 analysis 8 no. of water samples

were sent to BARC Mumbai and results are awaited???for the same. During the earlier studies conducted by the BARC Mumbai in the area water samples

from the existing dug wells were collected and analyzed for Tritium isotope. The water

from these wells represents the upper most saturated zone. The results of studies

conducted are as under (Table 6).

TABLE 5 : Results of Tritium Isotope Analysis of Ground Water Samples From

Shallow Dug Wells, District Jaisalmer (Rajasthan.)

S. No. Sample Location Tritium (TR 0.5 TR)

Depth range of sample(m.)

1. DharmiKhu 2.1 50.00

2. Kishangarh 1.1 35.00

3. KuriaBeri 0,5 39.00

4. NathuKaBera 0.3 35.00

5. Ghantiyali 0.6 38.00

6. Gaje Singh Ka Tar 2.1 40.007. Ranau 1.7 55.00


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8. Sadewala 0.8 45.00

9. Longewala 1.0 45.00

10. Ghotaru 1.1 42.00

11. Dost Mohammad 1.0 47.00

12. Asutar 0.3 65.00

13. KoluTala 0.3 70.00

14. Langtala 1.0 23.00

15. Maithuwala 0.6 72.00

A perusal of the above indicates that in general both the dug well and tubewell water

indicate low (less than 1.0 Tr) Tritium values, indicating absence of modern recharge.

However, a few dug wells i.e. DharmiKhu, GajesinghKa Tar and Ranau do show some

small component of recent recharge, which may be due to local terrain conditions of

recharge.

4.2.8 Conclusions: There was frequent migration of the old river courses due to tectonic disturbances and

climatic changes in the past. The major cause given for drying up of the Saraswati isdiversion of its water to Satluj and Yamuna, former to west and later to east. This is

believed to be caused due to tectonic disturbance in Haridwar-Delhi ridge zone. The

stream piracy by Yamuna River at later stage is considered to be the cause for the

ultimate loss of water and drying up of Saraswati River. The discharge area of Saraswati,

the Cambay Kutch region is one of the most tectonically active regions of world and

tectonic disturbance in this region might have also contributed in disappearance and

shifting of the river.

Remote sensing studies with the help of aerial photographs and landsat imageries have

given indications of existence of palaeochhnnel courses in western Rajasthan.

Out of various areas Kishangarh-Tanot area forming north western parts of Jaisalmer

district was found to be most suitable for palaeochannel studies with emphasis for lost

Saraswati due to substantial thickness of quaternary sediments and possible alignment

traced on the basis of remote sensing and other studies. Among the remaining areas,

except for the Anupgarh- Suratgarh area of Ganganagar and Hanumangarh district, other

areas have no significant groundwater potential. This is due to very shallow thickness of


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quaternary sediments and saline ground water in these areas. Also the areas lying towards

east in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur district are falling in Luni river basin.

The Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala forms northwestern part of Jaisalmer district adjoining

international border with Pakistan.The depth of drilling of the exploratory boreholes

varied from 120 to 200 m. Depth of wells constructed varied from 70 to 136 m.

The coarser zones varying in thickness from 6 to 22 m, in the depth of zones 25 to 125

mindicate existence of old buried channels in the area along Ranau, Nihal Khan Ki

Dhani&Ghotaru.

Tertiary clays, claystone, impure soft limestone and sandstone were encountered at

comparatively shallow depth in Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

Unconfined groundwater conditions prevails in the area with depth to water levels

varying from 30.22to 62.22 mbgl.

The discharge of well ranges from 60 lpm to 1000 lpm (Kishangarh). Discharge of the

well constructed at KuriaBeri was also comparatively high.

The higher discharge with fresh groundwater quality in Kishangarh- KuriaBeri area forms

it groundwater potential area.

Geophysical well logging indicates deterioration in groundwater quality beyond 80 to 100

m.

Electrical conductance of water encountered during the present drilling varies from 1210

to 9500 micromhos/cm at 25 C. Over the greater part of the area the groundwater quality

is saline.

The DharmiKhu, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri and Ranau area represents fresh water zone

falling in northeastern part of the study area. In southwestern part a small area in Ghotaru-

Asutar zone the groundwater quality is fresh.

The samples were analysed for tritium isotope indicate absence of modern recharge

except atKuriaBeri.

The loose and dry dune sand is major constraint in resistivity surveys as current

penetration is very erratic and depth of penetration of current is low. Thus the soundings

were done mainly in the interdunal depressions along the roads. Another constraint in the

area is the restricted stretch of sounding spreads in limited interdunal areas. High sand

dunes forming undulating terrains pose approachability problem.


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Fig. 4.4: Panel Diagram Deciphering Lithology in Kishangarh – Tanot-Longewala, DistrictJaisalmer


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Fig.4.5: Panel Daig. Deciphering Lithology in Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala, District

Jaisalmer


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Fig.4.6: Hydrogeological cross section along Khariakua- Kishangarh, District Jaisalmer


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4.3 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) Ltd.

4.3.1 Introduction

ONGC Project Saraswati was formulated in 2002with mission to provide a sustainable solution

of water availability in Rajasthan desert as ONGC’s contribution to people.

Objectives of the ONGC Saraswati Project were

To examine feasibility of identifying and recharging aquifers in Rajasthan (along the

course of Warswati route/Channel/ IG Canal and adjoining areas)

To implement such schemes as feasible for the puropose of providing a sustainable

solution in drought prone areas of the semi-desert/ desert parts of Rajasthan

4.3.2 Deeper Aquifer Exploration

The inspiration for ONGC project Saraswati aiming at deep fresh water aquifers not exploited by

any other agency so far came from two major success stories in desert areas

i. Great Man Made River (GMR) Project of

Libya-four major underground basins have been

located during exploratory drilling for oil in Libya

containing fresh water at depth from 600 m to

2500 m, which led to a gigantic irrigation project,

known as the Great Man-made River (GMR).

ii. Artesian Conditions in Pakistan side ofThar: Discovery of deep seated relatively fresh

groundwater under artesian conditions has been reported in Thar desert across the borader in

Pakistan.

Fig.4.8 : Four major groundwater basins

identified in Libya.


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4.3.3 Deep aquifer Evaluation inJaisalmer Basin Based onONGC data

A short-term study was taken up in a small block in Western Rajasthan to evaluate deep

groundwater occurrence (200m to 1000 m

depth) based on information from drilled

wells of ONGC. Drilled well data available in

Jaisalmer basin of Rajasthan were scanned

and 24 well completion reports, 7 Foramtion Evalution Reportr and wire line longs from 13 wells

were studied to identify water bearing horizons and its nature.

The study on the basis of well logs reveals that, the formation water has less salinity (up to 5 g/l)

in the shallow intervals (surface to 600 m average) and 10 g/l upto 1000 m; beyond this interval

the salinity of the formation water increases from 11 g/l to 140 g/l and even more. The salinity

increases rpidly with depth beyond 1000m, whereas it is gradual up to 400m.

The salinity values were grouped into 3 broad classes depending upon usage. The thickness of

Class-I zone varies from a few meters in the southwestern part of the area to a maximum

thickness beyond 500m in the eastern nad northern part of the area. Class-I zone mostly

contained salinity between 3-5 g/l, however isolated occurrences of fresh aquifers may not be

ruled out specially and the Palaeo-channels at Shallow depths. Prospectivity of Class-II type of

water through not fit for most of the usage exist in this are and thickens towards west ad southern

part. Class-III in Kharatar, Ghotaru, Manhera Tibba and Bankia area appear promising from

point of view of finding reasonably non-saline water aquifers in the depth zone upto 1000m.

The study recommended that the low salinity area Kharatar, Ghotaru, Manhera Tibba and Bankiaand further east may be considered as the p[ilot area to carry out intensive study including

geophysical survey, drilling and testing of wells upto 1000m and preparation of project plan to

exploit groundwater resources.

Fig.4.9 : Artesian well in Thar area in Pakistan


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4.3.4 Field Geological Studies

Under ONGC Project Saraswati, a short term study of three months was initiated in KDMIPE

under the guidance of Dr. Jagdish Pandey, Fromer GGM, ONGC to verify a model of palaeo

water accumulation in Wester Rajathan, as propounded by him. Based on this study threelocations were proposed for drilling: i) near Jaisalmer town ii) at west of Gadra Road (Barmer

district) and iii) at Lunar area of Myjlar sub basin. These locations were designated Saraswati-1,

Saraswati-2 and Saraswati-3 respectively.

Based on the above recommendations, a pilot project was undertaken. The pilot projct was under

taken through WAPCOS. An MoU was signed between ONGC and WAPCOS in November

2005 for detailed studies encompassing geophycisak surveys, drilling and testing of wells for the

project.

Initially 13 districts- Bikaner,

Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Barmer,

Pali, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Siakr, Churu,

Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Sirohi and Jhalore

were selected (Fig.4.10). The

possibility of existence of deeper fresh

water aquifers was ultimately prioritised for 3 pilot districts, namely

Barmer, Bikaner and Jaisalmer.

One well was drilled in location

Saraswati-1 (i.e. near Jaisalmer town).

The well was drilled upto 499m. A

zone of 37 meters from 461 to 498 was tapped. During yield test the static water level was

89.34m and at a discharge of 76 m 3 /hour, the well recorded a drawdown of 8.67 m. TDS of the

water was measured to be 3050 to 3540 mg/l.

Fig.4.10 : 13 districts infitially selected for detailed

studies.


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Fig.4.11 : VES curve and litholog of the well drilled at Saraswati-1 (near Jaisalmer)


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4.4 Major Findings of the Study by NRSC

4.4.1 Introduction

Regional remote sensing centre (RRSC-W) NRSC / ISRO, Department of Space, Govt. of India and

CAZRI campus, Jodhpur jointly carried put a study titled ‘river saraswati: an integrated study based

on remote sensing & GIS techniques’. The report was released in the year 2014 and was co-authored

by Dr. J. R. Sharma Chief General Manager NRSC/RCs, Hyderabad Dr. B. K. Bhadra Scientist /

Engineer `SF’ RRSC -W, NRSC/ISRO, Jodhpur, Dr. A. K. Gupta Ex. Scientist / Engineer `SF’

RRSC-W, NRSC/ISRO, Jodhpur Dr. G. Sreeni vasan Scientist / Engineer `SF’ RRSC -C,

NRSC/ISRO, Nagpur. The Stuy was taken up with the following objectives.

Delineation of palaeochannels using IRS P6 AWiFS, LISS-III and LISS-IV data.

Physiographic study using SRTM DEM. Preparation GIS database for road, rail, settlement, administrative boundary, existing drainage,

location of archaeological and drilling sites.

Field validation of the palaeochannels using historical data, archaeological sites, sedimentology

(drilling/litholog), hydrogeology and geochronology data.

Study of available geochronological ages of sand, water, artifacts. Possible River Linkages of Vedic Saraswai with Somb, Tons/Yamuna, Drishadvati and Sutlej

Rivers. Reconstruction of palaeodrainage network from Mann Sarovar to Dwaraka.

4.4.2 Methodology

In the present study, satellite data from IRS P3 WiFS, IRS P6 AWiFS (56m), LISS-III (23.5m) and

LISS-IV (5.8m) of February, 2004 have been used to delineate the course of the palaeochannels in

NW India . For specific area, Landsat ETM and Radarsat SAR data also have been used for

palaeochannel mapping. The extent of Thar Desert and the present day drainages in NW India have been shown on Landsat imge (Fig.4.12) . All these data have been digitally processed in

ERDAS/Imagine software (version 10.0). Digital image processing techniques like histogram

equalization, piece/scene wise linear stretching, contrast and brightness enhancement, different band

combinations and edge enhancement etc. have been applied on the satellite data. Present day

drainages are traced from IRS P6 LISS-IV data (5.8m resolution) and the Survey of India topomaps


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(1969). For integrated study, GIS database of various thematic layers (administrative boundary,

settlement, road, rail, drainage, well location, archaeological sites etc.) have been prepared by using

ARC/MAP software (version 10.0). The delineated palaeochannels are validated with various ground

data and collateral information from archaeology, sedimentology, hydrogeology and petrography.

4.4.3. Major Findigns of the Study

A. Palaeo-course of the Vedic Saraswati River.

The entire course of Vedic Sarasvati River has been delineated using latest satellite images. The

mapped course is validated with a variety of ground data such as archaeological sites, drilling and

hydrogeological data. River Saraswati originated in the Higher Himalayas and flowed through the

western part of Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains along several tributaries like Satluj, Yamuna, Chautang

and Drishadvati. The Saraswati river system passed through the states of Himanchal Pradesh, Punjab,

Haryana and Rajasthan and finally discharged into Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat. Maps pf the

delineated Palaeo-drainage are given in four successive maps. Palaeochannels in Rajasthan (Fig.4.13)

Palaeochannels in Haryana and Punjab (Fig.4.14), Saraswati Delta Structure in Rann of Kachchh

(Fig.4.15) and an Integrated Simplified map of Saraswati Palaeochannel (Fig.4.16)

B. Geochronol ogical Events Related to Saraswati Drain age

Geochronological evenets related to Saraswati Drainage Evolution in NW India during Quaternary

Period (Pleistocene = 10000years to 2 m.y. and Holocene = 0-10000 years) has been reconstructed by collating age data from various sources and their correlation with other features. The isotopic ages

(H3, O 18 and C 14) of 17 groundwater samples from the existing wells along the palaeochannels in

Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan were analysed by the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC),

Mumbai on the basis of Pearson model. The analysis indicates the variation in groundwater ages

from 1340 to 18880 BP at different localities from NE to SW. These areas lie either on the

palaeochannel or very close to it viz. Kuriaberi (1340BP), Ghantiyali (550BP), Ranau (1930BP),

Sadewala (18800BP), Longewala (12400BP), Ghotaru (8910BP), Dost Mohd. (2000BP) etc. Hence,

age analysis of water samples indicate towards a palaeo source of water along the channels that may

be linked to Ghaggar (Saraswati) palaeochannels. The ground water do not have isotopic signature of

present day Himalayan Rivers. However, the deep groundwater indicates towards origin from

Himalayan source. Based on the relative radiocarbon ages, ground water movement (velocity) along


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the palaeochannels has been estimated as 5m/yr. The Chronology of the events as proposed in this

report is given in Table 6.

C. Saraswati River L in kages

i. Linkage of Saraswati Nadi with Somb River at Adi Badri

Topography of Adi Badri area is studied based on the satellite data of SRTM of February, 2000.

SRTM derived hill shade view shows the emergence of ephemeral 1st order drainages of saraswati

Nadi and Somb River fr

a review of studies on saraswati (central ground water board, dec., 2014)

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