a revolt in the early sokoto caliphate -...

Journal of Asian and African Studies, No.95, 2018Source Material

Keywords: Islam,theSokotoCaliphate,MuḥammadBello,‘Abdal-Salām,revolt＊ThisworkwassupportedbyJSPSKAKENHIGrantNumber15K16578.

A Revolt in the Early Sokoto Caliphate*Muḥammad Bello’s Sard al-kalām

KARIYA,Kota

AmongthesuccessivejihadscharacterizingtheIslamichistoryofWestAfricaintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,thatlaunchedby‘UthmānbnFūdī(d.1817),aFulaniMuslimintellectual, isoneofthemost“successful”andinfluential religiousandsocialreformcampaigns. ‘Uthmānandhis jamā‘a(community)commencedtheirarmedjihadin1804andswiftlydefeatedtheHausakingdoms.Thepolityestablishedthroughthejihad,commonlycalledtheSokotoCaliphate,adoptedIslamiclawasoneofitsgoverningprinciplesandruledawideareaofHausalandandthesurroundingregionsforapproximately100yearsuntilitscollapsein1903.Thereligiousandsocialcircumstancescreatedbyitsruleinthenineteenthcenturymaystillbeobservedinvariouswaysinthereligiousandsocialstructuresofpresent-daynorthernNigeria.

However,thegovernanceoftheCaliphatewasnotentirelystableduringitsearlyperiodbecauseitstruggledwithmultiplepoliticalproblems,suchasrebelliousactionsbyremnantsof theHausakingdoms,confrontationwithaneighboringstate,andinternalconflictsamongmembersof itsgoverningnucleus.Inparticular,‘Uthmān’sson,MuḥammadBello(d.1837),dealtwithfrequentrevolts in theCaliphatesoonaftersucceedinghis father.Amongtheseincidents,therevoltincitedby‘Abdal-SalāmbnIbrāhīm(d.1818),whowasaHausadiscipleof‘Uthmān,wasoneofthelargestrebellionsatthetime.Thisrevolt isthefocusofMuḥammadBello’swritingentitledSard al-kalām fī-mā jarā bayn-nā wa-bayn ‘Abd al-Salām,which isoneof themostvaluablecontemporarysourcesforexaminingpolitical,religious,andsocialcircumstancesintheearlySokotoCaliphate,inspiteofthefactthatthedescriptionitprovidesisbasedsolelyontheSokotoruler’sperspective.

Inthisstudy,IedittheArabictextofthissignificantworkandusesevenmanuscriptsheldbytheNationalArchivesofNigeria,Kaduna,forreference,alongwithothermaterials.IalsoprovideanEnglishtranslation.

1. The Early Sokoto Caliphate and theRevoltof‘Abdal-Salām

2. TheSourcesforEditingtheTextofSard al-Kalām

3. ExplanatoryNotesonEditingTextTranslation

222 Journal of Asian and African Studies, No. 95

1. The Early Sokoto Caliphate and the Revolt of ‘Abd al-Salām

WestAfricaduringtheeighteenthandthenineteenthcenturywasanarenaofsuccessivejihadslaunchedbyMuslims,especiallyFulaniMuslims.Althoughthesestrugglesvariedinscaleandpoliticalandsocialimpact,thejihadcommencedin1804by‘UthmānbnFūdī(d.1817),aFulaniMuslimintellectual,andhisjamā‘a(community)chieflyagainsttheHausakingdomswasoneofthemost“successful”religiousandsocialcampaignsintheIslamichistoryofWestAfrica,anditestablishedapolitycommonlycalledtheSokotoCaliphate.TheCaliphateexercisedcontroloveravastareaforapproximatelyonehundredlongyearsuntiltheBritishinvasionpracticallycollapseditin1903.

However,despite theCaliphate’s success in conqueringmostofHausalandbyaround1808, itsadministrationwasnotnecessarilystablebutratherprecariousbecausethegovernmentcouldnot resolve troublesomeproblemssuchas the insubordinationof remnant forcesof theHausakingdoms, its conflictwith theneighboringBornugovernment, andseriousdifferencesamong leading figureswithin theCaliphate. Inparticular,when‘Uthmān,whoplayedanabsolutelycriticalroleinprosecutingthejihadandestablishingthestate,died,hissonandsuccessor,MuḥammadBello(d.1837),wasforcedtodealwithrecurringrevolts intheCaliphate,especiallyduringtheearlyperiodofhisreign.Andamongtheserevolts thatcausedpoliticalandsocial instability intheCaliphate, that ledby ‘Abdal-SalāmbnIbrāhīm(d.1818)wasoneof the largest-scalerebellionsatthetimeandwasprobablyconsideredthemostdangerousforthegovernmentoftheCaliphatebyitsleaders.

‘Abdal-Salām,aninfluentialHausaMuslimfromtheArewaregion,tothenorthwestofSokoto,hadalreadybeenoneoftheprincipaldisciplesof‘Uthmānaswellasamemberofthejamā‘abefore‘Uthmān’sreligiousandsocialreformcampaignmadethetransitionfromrelativelypeacefulreligiousactivitiestomilitaryjihadin1804.AccordingtosomeArabicsourcescomposedintheCaliphate,heapparentlyplayedasignificantroleinthestartofthe jihad,whichconclusively ledtotheestablishmentoftheCaliphate,butatthesametime,hebegantoshowadefiantattitudetowardthegovernmentoftheCaliphateasearlyasintheperiodof‘Uthmān’sreign.

‘Abdal-Salām’shostilitytotheCaliphatedidnotreachadecisiverupturebetweenhimandthenucleusoftheCaliphateuntilthedeathofhismaster,‘Uthmān;however,assoonasMuḥammadBellosucceededhisfather,‘Abdal-SalāmwithhisHausacommunityovertlybegantoadoptaconfrontationalattitudetowardthenewrulerandhisgovernment.MuḥammadBello,assumingaconciliatoryattitude, tried to restrain ‘Abdal-Salām’sinsubordinateactivities,buthisappeasementpolicyeventuallyprovedfutile,and‘Abdal-Salāmandhisfollowersdeclareda“revolt”(tawayeinHausa)againsttheCaliphate.Duetothisaction,MuḥammadBellorecognized‘Abdal-Salāmandhisfollowersas“apostates”(murtaddūn inArabic),who shouldbeattacked in jihad, and theCaliphateand thecommunityof ‘Abdal-Salāmendedupinafull-blownmilitaryclash.ThearmedconflictstartedaroundSeptember1817andtentativelyceasedinJanuary1818when‘Abdal-Salām

223Kariya, Kota: A Revolt in the Early Sokoto Caliphate

tookflightanddiedinBakura.Inspiteofthedeathoftheleaderoftherevolt,however,itwasnotcompletelyquelled,andremnantforcesof‘Abdal-Salām’scommunityspreadoutandcontinuedtheirresistanceagainsttheSokotoCaliphate.

Sard al-kalām fī mā jarā bayn-nā wa-bayn ‘Abd al-Salām,which Ihave editedandtranslated,andwhichIpresent in thispaper, isawork inwhichMuḥammadBello,the supreme leaderof theCaliphateat the time,givesa fullaccountof the revoltof‘Abdal-Salām.Inthiswriting,whichwasprobablycomposedintheearlypartof1818,MuḥammadBellobeginsbydescribingthebackgroundof‘Abdal-Salāmanddetailstheprocessleadingtotheoccurrenceoftherevolt,quotingthetextsoftheircorrespondence.EventakingintoconsiderationthattheinformationfoundinthiswritingcouldhavebeenmoreorlessselectedoralteredonbehalfofthegovernmentoftheCaliphateandtojustifytheauthor’sdecisionsandbehavior,wecancertainlysaythatthiswritingisoneofthemostvaluableandsignificantcontemporarysourcesforexaminingpolitical,religious,andsocialcircumstancesintheearlySokotoCaliphate.

2. The Sources for Editing the Text of Sard al-Kalām

It isknownthattherearemanymanuscriptsofSard al-kalām inNigeriaandNiger[Hunwick1995: 138] and thatR.Osswaldpublished itsArabic text andaGermantranslation in1986.1)Although theanalysisof thiswritingbyOsswald iscarefulandexcellent,itispossibletoidentifynotafewquestionablepointsinitstextbecausehereferstoonlyacopyofamanuscriptinthepossessionoftheemirofBauchiinhisreconstructionoftheoriginaltext.

Inthispaper,foreditingtheArabictext,Ihaveusedsevenmanuscripts(from خtoأbelow),allofwhichareheldbytheNationalArchivesofNigeria,Kaduna(NAK),andwhicharebasicallywrittenintheMaghribīortheSūdānīscript.Thetranscribersdidnotwritetheirnamesinthesemanuscripts.Also,thedateoftranscriptionisnotfoundexceptin ofbookspublishedtwotoreferredhaveImanuscripts,thesetoadditionIn.بandأSard al-kalām inwhichhandwrittentextsareprinted(دandذbelow).BothofthemwerepublishedinSokotoandprobablybasedonasinglemanuscriptbecausetheirtextsarealmostidentical.Moreover,IhavealsoreferredtothetextprovidedbyOsswald(رbelow).Forallthesesourcesexceptر,Iregardedthebasmalaforthefirstphraseofthepreambleasthebeginningofthefirstpage,andfromthisfirstpage,IhavecountedthepagenumbersofeachsourceandindicatedthemintheArabictextbelow.2)Asforر,however,IhaveadoptedthepagenumbersfoundinOsswald’sstudy,whoseArabictextbeginsatpage37andendsatpage52.

1) ItisknownthatA.I.LawalsubmittedacriticaleditionofSard al-kalāmashisMAdissertationtotheUniversityofIbadanin1984.However,itseemsthatithasnotbeenpublishedyet,andIcouldnotrefertoit.

2) InmyEnglishtranslation,IhaveindicatedthepagenumbersofأinordertodrawaparallelbetweenitandtheArabictext.


Themanuscript أ isthebasetextformyediting.However,whenareadingfoundintheothersourcesseemstomakemoresense,Ipreferittothatofأ.Therefore,thefollowingArabictextbecomeseclectic.

Asatranslationof Sard al-kalām,aGermantranslationwaspublishedbyOsswald,asmentionedabove[Osswald1986:53–71].Also,aHausatranslationwaspublishedbyR.M.East[East1971:19–35].Moreover,M.T.M.MinnaprovidedanEnglishtranslationofasmallportionofitinhisdoctoralthesis[Minna1982:413–420].WealsofindinO/AR8/1ofNAKanEnglishtranslationbyamissionary,H.G.Harris,andaHausatranslationbyamancalledMalamBako.However,Harris’stranslationisnotverymeticulous.

BelowisabasicdescriptionofeachsourcetowhichIreferredinordertoedit theArabictext:

A/AR4/11:أ21–24lines.17pages.Accordingtothecolophon,thetranscriptionofthismanuscriptwascompletedonOctober31,1828,whichmeansthat itwastranscribedabouttenyearsaftertheoriginaltextwascomposedbyMuḥammadBello.Despiteitsrelativeoldness,itisinagoodstate.

O/AR1/8-a:ب17–20lines.21pages.ThecolophonstatesthatthiswascompletedonAugust13,1931.BecausethreeArabicmanuscriptsofSard al-kalāmareincludedinO/AR1/8,Iaddedauxiliaryletters(-a,-b,and-c)toeachreferencenumberoftheminthislist.

O/AR1/8-b:ت14–18lines.27pages.TheMaghribīscriptinthismanuscriptisirregularbecausetwodotsappearabovetheletterqāf,whichisthesameastheqāfusedintheMashriq.

O/AR1/8-c:ث17–22lines.23pages.Thelowerhalfofthefirstfolioisbadlytorn,andapartofthesecondfolioisblurred.ItseemsthatthisisthemanuscriptthatHarristranslatedintoEnglish.

A/AR1/27:ج14–15lines.25pages.Thesheetsofthismanuscriptarepapersprintedwithblueruledlines.

A/AR24/5:ح13–18lines.27pages.Thequalityoftranscriptionisnotverygoodbecausetherearemanymisspellingsandindistinguishablescripts.

A/AR35/1:خ9–12lines.48pages.Vowelmarksareusedthroughouttheentiretext.

:SokotoSard al-kalām fī-mā jarā bayn-nā wa-bayn ‘Abd al-Salām.Bello.Muḥammad:دFadamaPrintingWorks,publishedattheexpenseofIbrāhīmal-Dasūqī,1989.

15–17lines.29pages.Vowelmarksareusedthroughouttheentiretext.:SokotoSard al-kalām fī-mā jarā bayn-nā wa-bayn ‘Abd al-Salām.Bello.Muḥammad:ذ

PublishedattheexpenseofMuḥammadBūda,n.d.19–22lines.19pages.Vowelmarksareusedthroughouttheentiretext.Thetranscriber


writeshisnameMuḥammadBello(which,ofcourse,isdifferentfromtheauthorofSard al-kalām).

.Sard al-kalām fī-mā jarā bayn-nā wa-bayn ‘Abd al-SalāmBello.Muḥammad:ر InR.Osswald,Das Sokoto-Kalifat und seine ethnischen Grundlagen: Eine Untersuchung zum Aufstand des ‘Abd as-Salām,Beirut:InKommissionbeiFranzSteinerVerlag,Wiesbaden,1986,pp.37–52.

3. Explanatory Notes on Editing

1) Vowel Marks and a Hamza (ء) above or below an Alif (ا)Vowelmarksandahamzaaboveorbelowanalifareused intheabove-mentioned

sources.Fromagrammaticalviewpoint,however,wefindmanyerrorsintheusageofthem.Hence,Ibasicallyoverlooktheminthoseversions.Instead,judgingfromthecontextandbasedonmyownreading,IvocalizesomewordsandputahamzaaboveorbelowanalifatmyowndiscretioninthefollowingArabictext.Infootnotes,Ibasicallydonotreproducevowelmarksandahamzaaboveorbelowanaliffoundinthetextsofthesourcesexceptforthosefoundinر.

However,forpropernounsandHausawords,whosespellingandvocalizationvaryconsiderablyamongthesources,Ireproducethemwithvowelmarksandahamzaaboveorbelowanalifinthetextthatfollowsorinitsfootnotes,butasforpopularArabicnameslikeمحمد(“Muḥammad”)andعثمان(“‘Uthmān”),Idonotaddvowelmarkstotheminthefollowingtextaswellasitsfootnotes.

2) Hamza and the Letters above or below Which a Hamza Is PlacedTheabove-mentionedsourceshaveconsiderablevariationintheorthographyofthe

hamzaandthelettersaboveorbelowwhichahamzaisplaced.Inthefollowingtext,ImadethemuniforminaccordancewiththecommonorthographyofmodernstandardArabic.Forexample,االىتالف<;االئتالفءوالئك، ؤالئك، اءوالئك<;أولئكمجىءهم<;مجيئهممجى ئنا<;مجيئنارءوس، رؤس، روس<تهيئنا;يستهزئون<يستهزءون، يستهزؤن;امتألت<امتلئت;مأل<مالء;نسأله<نسئله;أريد<اءريد;رأى<رءى;رؤوس<

.تهيأناWhenwritingtheminfootnotes,however,Ireproducetheirformsfoundineachsource.

3) The Alif Representing a Long Vowel, AlifMaqṣūra, Alif Mamdūda, and Dagger Alif Written and Not Written

As for thealif representinga longvowel,alif maqṣūra,alif mamdūda, anddaggeralifwrittenandalsonotwritten,ImadethemuniforminaccordancewiththecommonorthographyofmodernstandardArabic.Forexample,ءاخر<;آخراالسرى<;االسارىمئاب<مآب;

;راجعون<رجعون;ذلك<ذالك;برآء<برءاء;آويناك<اءاويناك;آله<ءاله ;سبحان<سبحن;رضى<رضا ;سبى<سبا

<أعملكم، أعملكم;تعالى<تعلى;العالمين<العلمين;العاقبة<العقبة;عثمان<عثمن;الظالمين<الظلمين;الشيطان<الشيطن

.يا أيها<يايها;ولى<وال;هداهم<هدىهم;التقى<التقا;القيامة<القيمة;أعمالكمWhenwritingtheminfootnotes,however,Ireproducetheirformsasgivenineachsource.


4) Hausa AjamiIntheorthographyofHausaAjami,thevowele isoftenrepresentedbyasubscript

dotcalledawarshdot(forexample,سابيلSābuyel),andthelongvowelēisexpressedbythecombinationofawarshdotandadotlessyā’(ى)withorwithoutadaggaralif(forexample,

propersomedescribingforsourcestheinadoptedisorthographythisBecuaseArēwā).أرىوىnounsandHausawords,Ireproducetheminthefollowingtextoritsfootnotes.

5) Repetition of Letters or Words as a Transcribing ErrorInthesources, therearemanytranscribingerrorssuchasa lackofdotsnecessary

for some lettersand theunnecessary repetitionof lettersorwords. In the followingtext, inordertopreserve itsreadability,Idonot indicatetheunnecessaryrepetitionoflettersorwordsasatranscribingerrorobviouslymadebythetranscribers.Forexample,

;حربيين<حربييين;وحين احسوا<وحين وحين احسوا;بااللواح<باااللواح;باللـه<بااللـه;المومنين من دمه<المومنين من من دمه

;تعلوا على اللـه<تعلوا على على اللـه;شيخ امير المومنين<شيخ شيخ امير المومنين;ازمعت<ازممعت;االختالف<االختالف ف

.قومه<قومه ومه;قومه<قو قومه;غير الذين بها قبل<غير الذين بها غير الذين بها قبل


Text


Translation

The Detailed Narration about What Occurred between Us and ‘Abd al-Salām

.ProphetnobletheblessAllahMayMerciful.theCompassionate,theAllah,ofnametheIn|1-أ|TheCommanderoftheFaithful(amīr al-mu’minīn)MuḥammadBellosays:Praisebeto

Allah,Whoissufficient[forus],andsalvationbeonHisservantswhomHehaschosen.Nowthen,thisisThe Detailed Narration about What Occurred between Us and ‘Abd al-Salām,

andIsay—successisthroughAllah—:‘Abdal-Salām isamanof thepeopleof theSudan(ahl al-sūdān, i.e., theHausa

people)1)fromthetribeofArewa.2)HewasoneofthosewhoweredisciplesofourShaykh(‘UthmānbnFūdī)andusedtoimitatehiminsermonsandincallingtoAllah—exaltedbeHe;andmanyofthedescendantsofhisnation(abnā’jins-hi,i.e.,theHausapeople)cameandgatheredaroundhim.AlthoughhisnamewasMīkā’īlatfirst,hedwelledinaplaceneartheShaykh’sresidence,andhenameditDāral-Salāmandcalledhimself‘Abdal-Salām.

[When]oneofthevassalsoftheemirofGobir,Nafata,[intendedto]ruleoverhim,hefledwithhiscommunityfromthelandofGobir,stayedinaregionofKebbi,andlivedinatowncalledGimbana.Manypeoplecameandgatheredaroundhim,andmanyemigratedfromthecountryofGobirtohim.

WhentheemirofGobirdied,however,hissonYunfa,thesuccessortohim,contactedhim(‘Abdal-Salām)[toaskhim]toreturntohisplace,desiringtobuildthroughhimsupportsforhisstate,andthattheirsubjectswouldreturntothem.He(‘Abdal-Salām)wrotetotheemirofGobirthathewouldnotreturnuntilheconsultedhisShaykhand[alsountil]he(theShaykh)permittedhimtomove.Hethensent[amessage]toourShaykh,andhe(‘Uthmān)wrote[back]tohimthathedidnotordernorforbidhimbecausehedidnothavethepowertopreventthem(theGobirpeople)fromdoingwrongtohiminasmuchastheyhadalreadydonewrongtohiminhis(‘Uthmān’s)presence.He(‘Abdal-Salām)thenrefusedtoreturntothelandofGobirandconstructedforhisvillageabarricade3)ofwood.

TheemirofGobirbecame furiouswithhimand sent tohimanarmywith theagreementoftheemirofKebbiwithhisopinion.Theyattackedhisvillage,killedsomeoftherecitersoftheQur’anandsomeofthecommonpeople,andcapturedtheirwomenandchildren.Moreover,theybegantospreadoutbooksandcopiesoftheQur’anandburn

1) AsOsswaldmentions,theHausapeopleareoftenrepresentedas“thepeopleoftheSudan”or“theblackpeople”(ahl al-sūdān,sūdān,orsūdānīyūn)inthewritingsbytheSokotoleaders[Osswald1986:87].

2) AlthoughtheHausawordarewameans“north”ingeneral,ithereindicatesthenameofaregiontothenorthofKebbiorthepeopleofthatregion[Osswald1986:88;Last1967:lxvii].

3) Inthemanuscripts, thiswordiswrittenas ”,“provinceArabicinmeansgenerallywhich,كورة“district,”“quarter,”“town,”“village,”andsoon.However,thesemeaningscannotbeproperlycontextualized.OsswaldsupposesthatthisisaHausaword,kawara,whichmeans“barricade”or“palisade”[Osswald1986:73–74].Iagreewithhisview inmytranslation,because it isactuallyvocalizedaskawaraorka-w-rainsomeofmysources.


[them]withwoodenboards.4)Itwasinramaḍānofthemonthsoftheyear1218aftertheHijra(i.e.,fromDecember15,1803,toJanuary13,1804)—maythebestblessingandthepurestsalvationbeuponitspossessor.

However,Allahsaved ‘Abdal-Salāmandhisgroup(ṭā’ifat-hu),andthey left [theirvillage],fleeingandinconfusionbecausetherewasanalliancebetweentheGobirpeopleandtheKebbipeopleagainstthemandbecauseoftheirdespairoverall|أ-2|thepeopleoftheSudan(i.e.,thepeopleoftheHausakingdoms).Hetookrefugeinafortress(ḥiṣn)5)oftheFulaniinaregionofKebbi.They(theFulani)shelteredhimandwrotetotheShaykhabouttheaffairof‘Abdal-Salām,notifyinghimwhathadhappened.TheShaykhorderedthemnottohandhimovertotheenemy.Then,theenemysentthem[amessage],“Surrenderthefugitiverebellingagainstus,orwewillattackyou.”Theyansweredthem,“WewillnothandhimovertoyoubecauseheisourbrotherinIslam.”Becausetheenemywasafraidthattheywouldexcitethemandthatthingsmightresultindisruptionforthem,theywentback.However,whentheywentback,theypassedbytheShaykh’sstayingplaceandbegantomocktheMuslims,saying,“Nooneremainsexceptyou,andyouwillseeus[again]before long.”Then, ignorantpeopleamongusattackedthem,plunderedthemofsomecaptives,andfreedthem.Andthey(thefreedenemy)fled.Whenthis[occurrence]cametotheknowledgeoftheiremir,hesenttheShaykh[amessage],“Leavethevillage,you,yourchildren,andyourbrethren.[Because]Iintendtoraidtheremainingpeople.”TheShaykh,however,refused,excepttosaythathecouldemigratewithhiscommunity.

Thenheemigratedfromthesphereof influenceof theircountrytoaregioncalledGuduandorderedMuslimstoemigratefromthelandofunbelieverstotheregiontowhichhehadimmigrated.Peoplethenimmigratedindrovestotheplacewherehewas,sothattheunbelievershinderedMuslimsfromemigrating.TheShaykh’scommunitypledgedallegiance(bāya‘a)tohimontheQur’anandtheSunna,andthis‘Abdal-Salāmwasoneofthosewhopledgedallegiancetohim.TheemirofGobirthenwentouttowardus,andweencounteredataplacecalledKwotto;andAllahdefeatedhim.ThentherehappenedbetweenusandthepeopleoftheSudan(i.e.,thepeopleoftheHausakingdoms)whathappened,andAllahconqueredthecountryanddroveawaythepeopleofunbeliefandcorruption.

Ouremir,theShaykh,appointedviziers,qadis,anddeputies(nuwwāb)overthewholecountryandappointedthis‘Abdal-Salāmasthedeputyofaregionofit,andit(theregion)was[composedof]sevendistricts(kuwar) inadditiontohisvillage(qaryat-hi)wherehewaslocated.Andit(thevillage)wasabigtownsimilartothetownwheretheShaykhwas.Hencehewasthedeputy[living]init(thevillage)andovertheseven|أ-3|districts.Andhe(theShaykh)appointedmetosupervisehisdeputiesintheeasternarea[ofthewholeterritory]andappointedhisbrother ‘AbdAllāhtosupervisehisdeputies inthewesternarea.This‘Abdal-Salāmresidedinaregionofthewesternarea.

4) TakingintoaccountthetraditionalmethodofIslamiceducationintheSudan,theseboardswereprobablythoseusedbychildrenforlearningtheQur’anandothertexts.

5) AsOsswaldmentions,thefortresshereprobablymeansa“walledtown,”whichiscalledabirniintheHausalanguage[Osswald1986:74].


However,‘Abdal-Salāmintendedtoobtainpossessionoflandsof[other]deputiesbyforce.Thevizier‘AbdAllāhprohibitedhim[fromdoingthat]andorderedhimtoremainwherehehadbeenposted,butherefusedandbegantoigniteafitna.6)Thenheeventuallybeganeven tooppose theShaykh, toreproachhimprivatelyandpublicly, tocontactdescendantsofhisnation(i.e., theHausa)about that,andto incite themtorebellion(khurūj).Theygatheredtogetheralongwithhimforthat.[People’s]mindsthenchanged,thefitnatookplace,anddisputesbetweenhimandthevizier(‘AbdAllāh)occurred.TheShaykh,therefore,senthim[amessagetoorder]tocometohim.Then,hecameafterhehadrefusedtocome[atfirst].[When]hearrived,heexcusedhimself.TheShaykhacceptedhisexcusebutrebukedhimsothathewouldnotgobacktowhatwassimilartothatrevolt(baghy).Andheevendeclaredthathe(‘Abdal-Salām)andthosewhohadfollowedhiminthat[incident]hadbeenrebelsinthepast.Thenpeopleenteredinto[vaindiscourseof]it(theaffairof‘Abdal-Salām).[Afterthat,]theShaykhorderedhimtojoinuswhilewewere[then]atAlkarawaattackinganenemywhohadrevoltedandrisenup[againstus].Afterheleft[theShaykh]andheadedforus,itbecameapparenttohim(theShaykh)thathe(‘Abdal-Salām)hadcontacted[theShaykh’s]belligerentenemy(al-‘adū al-muḥāribīn).TheShaykhintensifiedthedeclarationthathe(‘Abdal-Salām)hadlefthis(theShaykh’s)community.

Whenwereturnedwithhim,weheldameetingregardinghimandweredividedon[theissueof]preventinghimfromreturningtohiscountry(balad-hi)forfearthathewouldcauseafitna.ThentheShaykhsaidtome,“Lethimstaywithyou.Perhapsyouwillbecomeabettercompanionofhim.VerilyIamafraidthathewilligniteafitna.”Therefore,Icamewithhimandsettledhiminaplacenearus,whichwascalledKware.Thenhisfamily,hispeople(qawm-hu),andallthosewhowererelatedtohimmovedtowherehe[now]was.Theygatheredtogetherandbeganhavingabundantfields.[Their lifeof]settlingdown[there]waspleasantforthem.

He(‘Abdal-Salām)thensentme[amessagetosay]thathewantedtobuildforhiscommunityafortress(i.e.,walls)aroundhistown.[Thatisbecause]asforhim,hewasnotlivingtherebutinSokoto.ThenIwrotetomyfatherthatofwhichthetextis[asfollows]:

Tomyfather,greetingandpeace.Nowthen, thereasonforwriting[this letter] is thatyoumayknowthat ‘Abd

al-Salāmaskedmetopermitdigging(ḥafr, i.e.,building)7)a fortress forhisplacebecauseheisinthenorthernregion.Ididnotseeinthat|أ-4|anyharmbecausewehavenotseenanythingfromthemexcept[their]devotiontothecultivationoffieldsandhandicraftsincetheysettledinthatplace.Particularly,theplaceisveryclosetous;besides, ‘Abdal-Salāmisoneofthosewhosettledwithusinthisfortress8) justashe

6) Fitnaisawordhavingmultiplemeaningssuchas“temptation,”“trial,”“sedition,”“riot,”“discord,”and“strife.”Hereitmeansdiscordbetween‘Abdal-SalāmandthenucleusoftheSokotoCaliphate.

7) AsOsswaldindicates,MuḥammadBelloprobablyboreinmindtheHausawordgina(“dig”and“buildwithclay”)whenchoosingthisArabicwordhere[Osswald1986:75].

8) The“fortress”(ḥiṣn)hereisalsoabirni,thatis,awalledtown[Osswald1986:75].Inthiscontext,thistownisSokoto,whereMuḥammadBellowasliving.


contractedonitwithusandalltheviziers.Peace.

Then[my]fathersentme[hisanswer],“Iftheplaceisnearyou,permithim[tobuildthefortress],but ifhestirsupanyaffair,hemustleavethatplacewithouttakingalonganything.”Therefore,Ipermittedhim,andhedug(i.e.,built)thefortress.Andtheylivedaneasylifeinsafetywhilegoingoutfromandcomingbackto[Kware].Theylivedinthat[state]whiledemonstratingaharmonybetweenusandthemduringtherestoftheShaykh’sdays,thoughtheydemonstrated[their]rancoragainst[my]uncle(‘AbdAllāh),becauseofadisputethatoccurredbetweenthemaswellasbecauseofhiscommunity’sdevouringoftheirfieldsatthetimeoftheirmigration,andbecauseofwhathefoundofthosewhichtheShaykhsaidaboutandpeopleenteredinto[vaindiscourseof].

WhentheShaykhsetoffforthemercyofAllah,thosewhowerepresentinthetown(Sokoto)pledgedallegiancetome,andpeoplecame[toSokoto]toexpresscondolencesandtopledgeallegiance.[However,]he(‘Abdal-Salām)[only]sentushiscondolencesandremained[inhistown];[furthermore,]heclaimedhissovereignty(da‘ā ilā nafs-hi).Someamonghiscommunitypledgedallegiancetohim,andothersrefused.Ithensenthim[amessage]thathemightcomewithfriendlinessandgentleness.Hethencame,gavecondolences,andpledgedallegiance.ThatwasonFriday,sohestoodupaftertheFridayprayer,confirmedhispledgingofallegiance[tome],declaredittotheheadsofthecrowd,calleduponthepeopletobewitnesses,andspokepleasantwords.ThenIbidfarewelltohimandpromisedhimthatIwouldnotneglecthisrightandthatIwouldallotanamplesharetohim—ifAllahwilled—whenIfoundthecapability(mukna)[todoit].I[also]wroteforhimadocumentregardingthatforconfirmation.Andthenhebidfarewelltousandleftforhistown.

[However,]helivedinit(histown)whilecorrespondingwithdescendantsofhisnation(theHausa)[again]andhatchingaplotagainstus,andeventually,herecognizedtheconsentofthemajorityofthemtohim.IthadthenalreadyhappenedthatwehadattackedinfidelenemieswhohadrebelledaftertheShaykh’sdeath,andthatourcommunityhadbeendefeated.Therebyhe(‘Abdal-Salām)andhispeopleintensifiedthefitna.[Moreover,]mostoftheMuslimsandtheahl al-dhimma(peopleofthecovenantofprotection)9)amongthepeopleoftheSudan(sūdān,i.e.,theHausa)whowerewithusjoinedhistownbecausewehadbecomeweak,whichtheysaw,andbecauseofthedeteriorationofaffairsandtheaccumulationoftribulations.Inaddition,hecalledthem|أ-5|andsaidtothem[that]therewasnorefuge[forthem]unless[theycame]tohim.

Whenhesawthepeoplewhogatheredaroundhimandhadconfidenceinthereportofthosewhowerefarfromhim,hesenttotheinfidelenemies[tosay]thathewasontheirside

9) Ahl al-dhimma,ordhimmī, isahistoricaltermmeaningnon-MuslimswhowereprotectedandpermittedtomaintaintheirbeliefunderaMuslimsovereigninexchangefortheirundertakingofsomeobligationssuchaspayingajizya(polltax).InthecontextoftheSokotoCaliphate,asLastmentions,theywere“peopleswhosubmittedtotheSokotoCaliphate,yetretainedtheiridentityandcustoms,”especiallyHausapeoplecalledmaguzawa,whodidnotacceptIslamicbelief[Last1967:67].


againstus.Theyaffirmativelyansweredhiminwhatheaskedofthem,that is,gatheringtroopsagainstus,whilehe(‘Abdal-Salām)waswiththemasahelper.

Thenmerchantsoftheenemybegantocometohistownpublicly,andmerchantsofhiscountry[beganto]traveltothelandoftheenemyandtotradethere,whileIhadalreadypreventedpeoplefromopposingthem.

Itthenhappenedthatsomeahl al-dhimma,violatingthecovenant,wentoutfromaregionfar frommetothe landof theenemy.People living inthatregionpursuedandcapturedthem.Theycamewiththeircaptivesandpassedbyhis(‘Abdal-Salām’s)village,atwhichtimeheordered[hispeople]tosnatchthemfromthehandsofthosewhohadcapturedthem.Thereuponthey(thecaptors)cameandexpressedtheircomplaintstome.I,therefore,orderedascribetowritetohim[todemand]toreturntothemwhatthey(‘Abdal-Salām’speople)hadplundered.Whereuponhe(‘Abdal-Salām)wrotemealetter,thegistofwhichwasthatnothinghadincitedhimtosnatchthembuttheinjusticethathehadperceivedinthisband.Inhisletter,hewentinthedirectionof[causing]adispute.Whenhisletterreachedme,Iwrotetohimthatofwhichthecopyis[asfollows]:

InthenameofAllah, theCompassionate, theMerciful.MayAllahbless thenobleProphet.PraisebetoAllah,Whoissufficient[forus],andsalvationbeonHisservantswhomHehaschosen.

FromustoShaykh‘Abdal-Salām,greetingandpeace.Nowthen,yourletterreachedmeasareplytoourletter,whichthescribeofpapers

wroteonbehalfofcomplainants.IthappenedthatIhadnotreadituntilIperceiveditsform,correctness,andmode.[However,]Ihavealreadyreadyourstatementinthereply,whichisacorrectandrighteousstatementthatnoonewhohasasoundheartcandeny.

Atthistime,thespreadingofinjusticeisapparent,andcorruptionis increasing.However, it isnotpermissibletoissueajudgmentonitateveryoccurrencewithoutaninvestigationoftheessenceoftheoccurrence.Rather,itisobligatorytoinvestigate[it]ateveryoccurrenceuntiltheinjusticeisprovenbecausethereisapossibilityoftheabsenceofit(theinjustice)init(theoccurrence).AḥmadZarrūqsaidinhisQawā‘id,10)“Aprinciple:whatisappliedtothewhole(‘umūm)maybeannulledinaspecificcase(khuṣūṣ),nay,it isfound|أ -6|[like]that.”Hethensaid,“Censureagainstthewholedoesnotreachtheonewhoisfreefromitscause.”[Thequotation]hasended.11)

It isknownasthe ijmā‘(consensusoftheIslamiccommunity)that ifadhimmī,breakingthecompactinspiteofthefactthatnoinjusticehasbeendonetohisright,

10) AḥmadZarrūq(d.1493)wasaprolificMuslimintellectualandSufioftheShādhilīorderfromMorocco.ThequotedworkishisQawā‘id al-taṣawwuf.

11) AccordingtoacriticaleditionofQawā‘id al-taṣawwuf, thesequotationsarepartsofthe146thprincipleoftheoriginaltext.However,somewordsdonotcorrespondtothosefoundintheoriginaltext.Moreover,thisprincipleisnotfoundinsomemanuscriptsofQawā‘id al-Taṣawwuf[UrRehman2009:382].


leavesforthedār al-ḥarb(houseofwar),12)[heis]aḥarbī.13)RegardingIbnal-Ḥājib’sstatementinhisMukhtaṣar“Ifadhimmīleaves,breakingthecompact,[heis]aḥarbī,”14)Ibn‘Abdal-Salāmsaid,“Thismeans[that]ifadhimmīleaves,wishingtoliveinadār al-ḥarbandrelinquishingthecompactandthecovenantofprotectionappliedtohim,heandwhathewishedforarenotleft[astheyare],butheisfoughtjustasaḥarbīisfought.Andifheiskilled,[hisbloodis]shedinvain.Thisisright,andIdonotknowanydisagreementaboutit.”15)Hisstatementhasended.

Asforthecaseinwhichheleavesduetoinjustice,heisnotenslavedaccordingtothegenerallyacceptedviewas[itiswritten]intheQur’an.Allahknowsbestwhatisright.HeistheOnetoreturnandhaverecourseto.ThereisnopowerandstrengthexceptwithAllah.Peace.

Whenmyletterreachedhim,heneitheransweredmenorreplied.Therefore,Iheldmytongueandrestrainedmyself.Then,Igaveacommandtothosewhoblockedthewayoftheenemy,andtheycapturedfour[ofthem],twoofwhomhadgonefromKwaretothelandoftheenemyinordertotrade,and[theother]twowhohadcomefromthelandoftheenemytotradeinKware.They(thelatter),[coming]fromthelandoftheenemy,hadalreadydonebusiness[inKware]andwere[then]ontheirwayback[tothelandoftheenemy].

Isenthis(‘Abdal-Salām’s)qadiandhismuezzin[amessagetodemand]tocometome.Whentheycame,Isaidtothem,“Askthese(thefourcaptives)wheretheycamefromandwheretheywant[togo].”16)Theyaskedthecaptives,andthey(thecaptives)relatedtothemtheinformation.Ithensaidtothem(theqadiandthemuezzin),“NotifyShaykh‘Abdal-Salāmthathemayprohibitthisconnectionbetweenhimandtheenemy.VerilyitharmsMuslims,andthereisnobenefitinitatall.”

Itwasmoreastonishingthanthisthat,whenwelaunchedaraid,wesenthim[amessage]thathemightreinforceus,butwedidnotseehisreinforcementscometous,andeventuallytherelationshipbetweenusandhimdeteriorated.Then,hewrotetomealetterwithasheetofpaper,onwhichtherewasacircle,anditwasanotherletter.Thetextofthefirstletteris[asfollows]:

12) InIslamicjurisprudence,adār al-ḥarb,or dār al-kufr (houseofunbelief),isatermdenotingterritoriesgovernedbynon-Muslimrulers.Incontrast,territoriesgovernedbyMuslimrulersarecalleddār al-islām (houseofIslam).

13) Aḥarbīisanon-Muslimbelongingtoadār al-ḥarb.14) Ibnal-Ḥājib(d.1249)wasanEgyptianjuristoftheMalikischooloflaw.Thisphraseisfound

inhisMukhtaṣar al-furū‘knownas Jāmi‘ al-ummahāt[Ibnal-Ḥājib2004:140].15) ThisIbn‘Abdal-SalāmisprobablyMuḥammadbn‘Abdal-SalāmbnIsḥāqal-Umawī(d.1403?),

whocomposedTanbīh al-ṭālib li-fahm lughāt Ibn al-Ḥājib,acommentaryofIbnal-Ḥājib’sMukhtaṣar.Icouldnotrefertothiscommentary[Brockelmann1937–1949:Vol.1,373;Supplement1,538–539;AḥmadBābā2000:Vol.2,130;2004:Vol.2,164].

16) Inallthemanuscripts,thetexthereismin ayna yurīdūna,whichmeans,“Wheretheywant[tocome]from.”AlthoughIpreserveditinmyArabictext,Ireadit,judgingfromthecontext,asilā ayna yurīdūna,whichmeans,“Wheretheywant[togo],”asinthetextofر.


InthenameofAllah, theCompassionate, theMerciful.MayAllahbless thenobleProphetandhisfamilyandcompanionswhotookhisrightway.

From‘Abdal-Salām|أ-7|bnIbrāhīmtotheCommanderoftheFaithful,MuḥammadBello—mayAllah,exaltedbeHe,givehimamightyvictory.

Nowthen,fromustoyou,OtheCommanderoftheFaithful,greetingandpeacewhichnogoodwordcansurpassforever,and[alsoto]thosewithyouofthecommunityofMuslimsingeneralandinparticular.

Then,youaskedmeaboutthereasonformyquittingoftherelationshipwithyou.ItsreasonsaretheQur’an,theSunna,andtheijmā‘becausewewereMuslimsatfirstjustas‘AbdAllāhbnFūdīsaidinhisqaṣīda,thatis,

Mostofthemarenotasyouwereacquaintedwiththembecauseayoungmanis[now]anagedmanwithintelligence,andtheirinfantisamiddle-agedman.

Asfor[their]tents,theyareliketheir[former]tents;theirinhabitantsare,however,notthosewhowereinthembefore.17)

IheardfromthemouthoftheCommanderoftheFaithful,MuḥammadBello,sayingtouswhenhepreachedtousonthedayofourcomingtoexpress[our]condolencestotheCommanderoftheFaithful,‘Uthmān—mayAllah,exaltedbeHe,havemercyuponhim—,“[Our]communitytookactions[whichare]notactionsfortheotherworld,butIchoosewhatiswithAllahtoWhombelongmightandmajesty.”[Thequotation]hasended.Afterthat,wewereMuslims,[butsomeofwhomwere]unjust,and[otherswhowere]sincere.18)Havingarelationshipinthisstate isnotpermittedaccordingtotheQur’an,theSunna,andtheijmā‘.

As for theQur’an, [there is]astatementbyHimtoWhombelongmightandmajesty,“Andhelponeanotherindevoutnessandpiety,butdonothelponeanotherin sinandenmity” (Q5:2).And[there is]a statementbyHimtoWhombelongmightandmajesty,“Anddonotrelyonthosewhodowrong”(Q11:113).AndalsoastatementbyHimtoWhombelongmightandmajesty,“Anddonottransgress”(Q2:190andQ5:87).

AsfortheSunna,Omybrethren—mayAllah,exaltedbeHe,givemeandyousuccessin[achieving]obediencetoHim—,knowthatthis[following]hadithisverilyasignificanthadith, that is,his(theProphetMuḥammad’s)statement—mayAllahblesshimandgranthimsalvation—,“[There shouldbe]noharming(ḍarar)norreciprocalharming(ḍirār),”19)withputtingthevowel“i”tothefirst[letter]ofit(thelatterword).Withregardtothemeaning,[itisthesameasthewords]“aḍarra-hu”and

17) Thisqaṣīdaisfoundin‘AbdAllāh’sTazyīn al-waraqāt[‘AbdAllāhbnFūdī1963:79].18) Fromagrammaticalviewpoint,itisdifficulttoderivethistranslationfromtheArabictext(kunnā

muslimīn ẓālimīn khāliṣīn)here.However,takingthecontextintoaccount,Ihaveinterpreteditasmeaning that ‘Abdal-Salāmrecognizedhisowncommunityas sincereMuslimsandMuḥammadBello’scommunity(i.e.,themajorityoftheSokotoCaliphate)asunjustMuslims.

19) ThishadithisfoundinMuwaṭṭa’byMālikbnAnas(d.795)[MālikbnAnas1999:654].


“ḍārra-hu,”andistheoppositeof“benefiting,”asal-Jawharīsaidso.20)Bringingthesetwo[words]together is foremphasis.However, thegenerallyacceptedviewis thatthereisadifferencebetweenthetwo,anditissaid,“Thefirstis‘attachingacauseofeviltoothersingeneral.’Thesecondis‘attachingacauseofeviltoothersasawayofretribution’,”thatis,eachoftwopersonsisintendingtoharmtheother,but[itis]notinthewayofthesameaggression[asthatdonebytheother]norinthewayofrevenge.[Thereis]apoem[asfollows]:

Ifyoucovetarankofjustice,beneficenceandjusticeareincumbentonyou.Ifeveryoneactsunjustlyagainstyou,leavehimalone[because]fateisasufficient

recompenserforhim.

أ| -8|Itwasauthenticated,“Allah—exaltedbeHe—declaredinviolablethebloodofabeliever,hisproperty,andhishonor.”21)Itwasalsoauthenticated,“Yourblood,yourproperty,andyourhonorareinviolableforyou.”22)[Thereisalso]awittystoryofreportingwhatwasmentionedabouttheseverityofpunishmentforapersonwhoharmsbelievers:Mujāhid[bnJabar]related,basedonhischain[oftransmission],“He(theProphetMuḥammad)saidthatHellhasashorelikethatofthesea,wherethereareverminandotherslikethem.”23)Partofit(thissaying)isintwoṢaḥīḥs(byMuḥammadal-BukhārīandMuslimbnal-Ḥajjāj).

Omybrethren—mayAllah,exaltedbeHe,givemeandyousuccessin[achieving]obediencetoHim—,knowthatthis[following]hadithisasignificantprincipleamongprinciplesofprovisionsofIslamiclaw.Doyounotseehis(theProphetMuḥammad’s)speech—may[Allah’s]blessingandsalvationbeuponhim—duringhisfarewellpilgrimagewhenhesaid,“Whatlandisthis?”downtowherehesaid,“Yourblood,yourproperty,andyourhonorareinviolableforyou,likethesanctityofthisdayofyoursinthislandofyoursinthismonthofyours.YouwillmeetyourLord,andHewillaskyouaboutyourdeeds,”untilhesaidtwice,“HaveInotdelivered[Allah’smessagetoyou]?HaveInotdelivered[Allah’smessagetoyou]?”24)Andheconfirmedthismatterwiththethird[repetition]asyousee.

Peoplearedividedintofourgroups,andthereisnofifthofthem.

20) Ismā‘īlal-Jawharī(d.c.1007/8)istheauthorofawell-knownArabicdictionary,Tāj al-lugha wa-ṣiḥāḥ al-‘arabīya.Al-Jawharīsaysinit,“al-ḍarr:theoppositeof‘al-naf‘’(‘benefiting’).Withregardtothemeaning,[itisthesameasthewords]‘ḍarra-hu’and‘ḍārra-hu’.Andthenounis‘al-ḍarar’”[al-Jawharī1999:412].

21) Thishadithisfoundinal-Tamhīd li-mā fī al-Muwaṭṭa’ min al-ma‘ānī wa-al-asānīdbyIbn‘Abdal-Barr(d.1071)[Ibn‘Abdal-Barr1989:157].

22) Thishadithandalmostthesameonearefoundinmanyhadithcollections,includingtwoṢaḥīḥsbyMuḥammadal-Bukhārī(d.870)andMuslimbnal-Ḥajjāj(d.875).

23) Thishadithisfoundinal-Tadhkira bi-aḥwāl al-mawtā wa-umūr al-ākhirabyMuḥammadal-Qurṭubī(d.1273)[al-Qurṭubī2004/5:878].

24) Thishadithisfoundinal-Bukhārī’sṢaḥīḥ[al-Bukhārī2000–2003:Vol.3,427;Vol.4,378].


Thefirstgroupisfreefromall[thedisapprovedactions].25)“ThosearetheoneswhomAllahguided.Followtheirguidance”(Q6:90).“Thoseatthefront[inbeneficence],thoseatthefrontarethosewhowillbebroughtnear[toAllah]”(Q56:10–11).26)“ThoseareupontheguidanceoftheirLord,andthosearetheywhoaresuccessful”(Q2:5).

Thesecondgroupistheoppositeofthefirst.Itis[thegroupwhosemember]haspowerandrankandfalls intoall[thedisapprovedactions].“ThosearethepartyofSatan”(Q58:19).IaskAllah—exaltedbeHe—safetythroughHisfavor.

Thethirdgroupis[theonewhosememberis]incapableofshedding[others’]bloodbutdeprives[othersoftheir]propertyandcastsaspersionson[others’]honorbecauseofhisabilitytodothesetwothings.Ifhehastheabilitytodeprive[othersoftheir]propertyandtocastaspersionson[others’]honorand[actually]fallsintobothofthesetwothings,asinwillcatchhimwithrespecttohisperformanceofthesetwothings,andheis[also]connectedtothefirst(bloodshed)becauseifhehadnotbeenincapableofit,hewouldhavedoneit.

Thefourthgroupis[theonewhosememberis] incapableofshedding[others’]bloodanddepriving [othersof their]propertybutcastsaspersionson [others’]honorbecauseofhisabilitytodoit.Heisasinnerwithrespecttothethird(castingaspersionsonothers’honor)becauseofhisperformanceofit;heis[also]added,duetohisintention,tothosewhoshed[others’]bloodanddeprive[othersoftheir]property,becausehis(theProphetMuḥammad’s)statement—peacebeuponhim—[isasfollows]:“IftwoMuslimsmeet(andfight)|أ -9|withtheirswords,[both]thekillerandthekilledwill[fall]intoHell.”Itwasthensaid[tohim],“OAllah’sMessenger—mayAllahblesshimandgranthimsalvation—,[itisunderstandableabout]thiskiller,butwhataboutthekilled?”Hesaid,“He(thekilled)waseagerforkillinghim(thekiller).”[Thequotation]hasended.27)

Itwasauthenticallytransmittedfromhim(theProphetMuḥammad)—peacebeuponhim—,“[TheProphetMuḥammadsaid,]‘IremindyouofAllahtoWhombelongmightandmajesty,andtestifytoyouthatIamawarnerandbringerofgoodtidingstoyounottoexaltyourselvesagainstAllahamongHisservantsandinHisland.BecauseHetoWhombelongmightandmajestysaidtomeandyou,“Weassignthathouseofthehereaftertothosewhodonotdesiresuperiorityupontheearthorcorruption.[Good]outcomeisfortherighteous”(Q28:83).Healsosaid,“IstherenotinHelladwellingforhaughtypeople?”’(Q39:60)And[healsosaid]otherQur’anicversesand

25) Forthisinterpretation,Ihavereferredtoanannotativeword,المنكرات,writteninthemarginofب.Althoughthewordisvocalizedas al-munkirātinب,itshouldbevocalizedasal-munkarāt,whichmeans“disapprovedorreprehensibleactions,”“vices,”andsoon.Osswaldalsooffersasimilarinterpretation[Osswald1986:61].

26) IreferredtoTafsīr al-JalālaynforthisinterpretationoftheQur’anicverses[al-Maḥallīandal-Suyūṭī2005:534].

27) Ahadithalmostthesameasthisisfoundinal-Bukhārī’sṢaḥīḥ[al-Bukhārī2000–2003:Vol.1,21;Vol.4,249].


hadiths.”28)TheUmmaunanimouslyagreedontheprohibitionofthat.Someofthem(peopleoftheUmma)said,“Iequalizenothingwithblamelessness.”29)WebeseechHim—mayHebepraisedandexalted—,theGenerous,theBestower,thatHesavesusandsaves[others]throughus,thatHeprotectsusandprotects[others]throughus,andthatHeguardsusfromtheevilsofourselvesandthewickednessofourdeeds.OtheLordoftheworlds,answerusandyou(i.e.,ourprayerandyourprayer).MayAllahblessourmasterMuḥammad—mayAllahblesshimandgranthimsalvation—,amenandpeace. Ina tradition(hadith), [it is told,]“Wrongdoers, theirhelpers,andeventhosewhoassistedthem[only]forawhile,willbeassembledonthedayofresurrection.”30)WebeseechAllah—exaltedbeHe—well-being.

Thefirstletterhasended.Asforthetextofthesecondletter,itislikethis:

28) AlthoughIcouldnotidentifyexactlythesamehadithasthis,partofitisfoundinsomehadithcollectionssuchasal-Mu‘jam al-awsaṭ bySulaymānal-Ṭabarānī(d.971)[al-Ṭabarānī1995:209].

29) ThisisastatementofacompanionoftheProphetMuḥammad,Ibn‘Abbās(d.687/8)[al-Bayhaqī2000:467].

30) Atraditionalmostthesameasthisisfoundinawell-knownbookofjurisprudence,al-MadkhalbyIbnal-Ḥājj(d.1336)[Ibnal-Ḥājj1929:91].


(1)ThisisadescriptionofthelandofAllahtoWhombelongmightandmajesty,whichAllah,toWhombelongmightandmajesty,gave,throughHisfavor—exaltedbeHe—,toMuslimsasawholewithrespecttoitseast,west,south,andnorth.WepraiseandthankHimtoWhombelongmightandmajestyforthat.“HowexcellenttheProtectoris!HowexcellenttheHelperis!”(Q8:40)ThereisnopowerandstrengthexceptwithAllah,theMostHigh,theMostGreat.

(2)Asfortheeastregion,itbelongstoMuḥammadBello,31)thesonoftheCommanderoftheFaithful,‘Uthmān.

(3)Asforthewestregion,itbelongsto‘AbdAllāhbnFūdī,thefullbrotheroftheCommanderoftheFaithful(‘Uthmān).32)ThisiswhatImadesomeallusiontojustasaeulogistsaid,“Imadeanallusiontothenecessitywithapart[ofit].”33)

(4)Asforthesouthregion,itbelongstotwosonsoftheCommanderoftheFaithful(‘Uthmān),‘AtīqandBukhārī.34)

(5)Asforthenorthregion,itbelongsto‘AlībnJaydu(‘AlīJedo),theson-in-lawoftheCommanderoftheFaithful(‘Uthmān),andMuḥammadān,thesonofthemaster(Jibrīlbn‘Umar)oftheCommanderoftheFaithful(‘Uthmān).35)

(6)Andwhereistheregionofmine,me,‘Abdal-Salām?ItiswhatIpossessedinthetimeofunbeliefthatIstillpossessinthetimeofIslam;itisnothingbutaplacetoresideandaplaceofsomegardens(basātīn).36)Anyrestrictionisbetterthanthis—mayAllahtoWhombelongmightandmajestybepraised—,namely,[therestriction]withrespecttotheland.Thisisthefateoftime.VerilywebelongtoAllahandreturntoHim.PraisebetoAllah,theLordoftheworlds.

readImuezzin,andqadihisbyaccompaniedmetocameletterstwotheWhen|10-أ|themtothepeopleandassembledconsultativemembersforthat.Whentheclamorbecamegreat,Isaidtothem,“Regardwhatisuponyouasoflittleimportance.Hewrotetonoonebutme,soIwillreplytohim—ifAllahwills—withaconvincingandbriefanswer,becausewhatislittleandsufficientisbetterthanwhatismuchanddistracting.”ThenIrepliedtohimthatofwhichthetextis[asfollows]:

InthenameofAllah,theCompassionate, theMerciful.Mayblessingandsalvation

31) Inall thedecipherablemanuscriptsexceptت andخ, theabbreviatedwordof ilā ākhir-hi(i.e.,etcetera) isfoundafterthenameMuḥammadBello.AlthoughitmightpossiblymeanMuḥammadBello’somissionofsomewordswrittenintheoriginalletter,thatisnotcertain.

32) Inanalogytotheprecedingnote,theabbreviatedwordofilā ākhir-hiiswritteninallthedecipherablemanuscriptsexceptت.

33) Icouldnotfindthesourceofthisverse.34) Herealso,theabbreviatedwordof ilā ākhir-hi iswritteninall thedecipherablemanuscripts

except,تح,andخ.Moreover,thespellingofitinجisnotcorrect.35) Asisthecasewiththeprecedingnote,theabbreviatedwordofilā ākhir-hiiswritteninallthe

decipherablemanuscriptsexcept,أت,andخ.36) Taking intoaccounthisandhis followers’ lifeasdescribed inSard al-Kalām, thisprobably

means“farmland.”


beuponthenobleProphetandhisfamilyandcompanionswhotookhisrightway.“Othosewhobelieve,fearAllahandsaytherightwords,andHewillameliorateyourdeedsforyouandforgiveyouyoursins.WhoeverobeysAllahandhisMessengerhasattainedagreatachievement”(Q33:70–71).MayAllahblessourmasterMuḥammad,hisfamily,andhiscompanionsandgrantthemsalvation.

ToShaykh‘Abdal-Salām,greetingfromusandpeace.Nowthen,wesawyourfirstandsecondlettersandhaveunderstoodtheircontents

intermsofthemeaning.[However,]asforyourstatementthathavingarelationshipwithus in this state isnotpermitteddue to injustice,knowthatweare free frominjustice,andit isfarfromourcourtyardexceptforslipsandlapses.Andwerepentandask[Allah’s]pardon[forthoseslipsandlapses].Infallibilitybelongstoprophets,andperfectionbelongstoAllah.

AsfortheQur’anicversesandhadithsthatyouregardedasevidenceforthat,theyarenotadmissible.

As forHis statement—exaltedbeHe—“Andhelponeanother indevoutnessandpiety,butdonothelponeanotherinsinandenmity”(Q5:2),itwasrevealedtoprohibit[Muslims]fromhelping[others]indisobedience[toAllah].Wedidnotaskyourhelpexceptforthejihad,whichis incumbentonusandyou.He(theProphetMuḥammad)—mayblessingandsalvationbeuponhim—said,“Jihadwillcontinue,andtheinjusticeofonewhodoeswrongwillnotnullifyit.”37)InMukhtaṣar,[itissaid,]“Evenifwithanunjustruler.”38)

AsforHisstatement—exaltedbeHe—“Anddonotrelyonthosewhodowrong,ortheFirewilltouchyou”(Q11:113),commentators[oftheQur’an]mentionedthatitwasrevealedtoprohibitMuslimsfromestablishingfriendshipwithunbelievers.

Asforthehadithsthatyoumentioned,we—ifAllahwills—areafraidofthedisparagementofblood,property,andhonorforthat,evenifsomepeopledisparagedthemingeneral.MayAllahavertusfromacrueldeathinfitnas.

Asforyourneglectoftheaffairoftheḥarbīswhocometoyou,|أ -11|thatleadstoallkindsofcorruption.Therefore,donotneglectitbutputyourmindtoitandcutofftheirgreedbecausetheopeningofthegateofcorruption,fromwhichprotectionissought,isintheneglectofit.

Asforyourstatementthatweareneglectfulofyourshareintermsoflands,knowthatyourvaluewasnothiddentous,andthatwewerenotignorantofyourclaimtomorethanwhatyoumentioned.However,capabilityisaconditionofjudgmentsandfreedisposal.Therefore,we—ifAllahwills—willallotanabundantsharetoyou.FromAllah[comes]facilitation,andtoHimreturnaffairs.Peace,Allah’smercy,andHisbenedictionbeuponyou.

37) AlthoughIcouldnotidentifyexactlythesamehadithasthis,similarhadithsarefoundinsomeworkssuchasal-Fawākih al-dawānībyAḥmadal-Nafrāwī(d.1714)[al-Nafrāwī1997:613].

38) Thisisfromawell-knownwritingofjurisprudencebyKhalīlbnIsḥāq(d.c.1365),anEgyptianjuristoftheMalikischooloflaw[KhalīlbnIsḥāq2005:88].


Then,hisqadiandhismuezzindepartedwiththisreplyofours;however,noreplyreachedusfromhim,buthesaid,“Whoassigns[lands]tous?Thelandis inourhandstoday.”Moreover,theirconnectionwiththeenemygrewaswellastheirdisconnectionfromus.ItthenhappenedthathecorrespondedwiththeemirofKonni,whowasoneofthesubjectsof‘Alī[Jedo],theCommanderoftheArmy,andsenttoregionsinthevicinityofhim,whichbelongedtothosewhohadnotbeenunderhisadministration(administrativedistrict).Theyjoinedhim,andadisturbanceresultedfromthat.IsenttheemirofKonni[amessagetoorder] tocome[tome]so thatIcouldsettlewhatwasamongthat(thedisturbance).However,herefusedandwentto‘Abdal-Salām;hence,Iwrotetohim(‘Abdal-Salām)thatofwhichthetextis[asfollows]:


Fromustoyou,greetingandpeace.Nowthen,[several]affairsofyourshavebeenambiguousforus.Thefirst[ofthem]

isyourdeclarationtousthatyourfriendshipandrelationshipwithusdonotexist.Thesecondisyourshelteringofmaraudersagainstus,whoobtaininformationaboutourweakspots,robusofourproperty,andmakeapparenttheiraffairs(i.e.,wrongdoing)inourmidst.Thethirdisyourconqueringofoursubjectswithoutconsultationwithusand[our]agreement.Ifyourconnection[withus]still remains,put that(thesematters) inorderwithaneffortat [establishing]arelationship[withus],handingovertoustheenemywhocametoyou,cuttingofftheir(theenemy’s)aviditytowardyou,andrenouncingtheconquering[ofoursubjects].Ifyouprefer[theretobe]arift[betweenyouandus]andavertyourselvesfromharmony,eventhoughthereisnooffenseonourpart,[itis]justasapoetsaid:

Ifyoudeterminedonseparatingfromuswithoutanycrime,patienceissuitable.39)

Ifyoureplaceusbyothers,Allahissufficientforus,andwhatanexcellentTrusteeHeis!40)

butit,fornecessaryiswhatdowillweandstate,[your]knowusletThen,|12-أ|wepreferharmonyandconcord,anddonotchooseriftanddisagreement.Therefore,makeaneffortatputting[theseaffairs]inorderasmuchasyoucan.Andwe[willalso]makeaneffortatit.AllahistheOneWhograntssuccess.

Whenthisletterreachedhim,hewrotetomethatofwhichthetextis[asfollows]:

39) Thephrase“Patienceissuitable”isfoundintheQur’an(Q12:18,83).40) Thephrase“Allahissufficientforus,andwhatanexcellentTrusteeHeis!”ispartofaQur’anic

verse(Q3:173).



Fromustoyou,greetingandpeace.Nowthen,[thereis]apoem[asfollows]:

Weneitherseekpeoplenordemandfromthemall.Andwedidnotwishanyrank.Ifapersonsympathetic[tous]sympathizeswithus,weneitherdrivehimawaynor

seekhelpfromanyonetogainsupremacy.ConsiderationandspeculationaboutcreationareinAllah’swisdom.Verilywonders

belongtothecommandofmyLord.MypraiseisduetoAllahfirstandlastfortheobtainmentofwhatIpreachedof

HisBooks.

Then,Oourbrethren,knowthatwepreferaccordanceandconcord,anddonotchooseriftanddisagreementexceptwiththeonewhoconflictswiththeTruthnomatterwhoheis.ThereisnopowerandstrengthexceptwithAllah,theMostHigh,theMostGreat.

[Furthermore,]whenthis letterofminereachedhimandherepliedtomewiththisanswerofhis,hegatheredhispeopleandsaid,“So-and-sosentme[amessagetoorder]thatIshouldsendhimallofthosewhoareherebecausetheyarehisslaves,andthemasteryofthemiswithhim.Whatdoyouthink?IthinkthatIwillnotsendthem[tohim].VerilyIamlikethem.”Allofthem,then,answeredhim,“Donotconsenttothat.”Withthat,heincreasedtheiraversionandangertowardusinspiteofthefactthatIsentnothingtohimexceptthisletter.

Duringthecourseofthiscorrespondence,wrongedpeoplecontinuouslycametome.[Because]his(‘Abdal-Salām’s)peoplehadwrestedtheirgardenfromthem,takentheirproperty[byforce], injuredthem,andhurtthemwithbeatingsordamagedtheirhonor,andeventually,[when]Isentmyslaves(ghilmān-ī)with20,000cowriestobuysaltwiththem(thecowries)inamarketforsomeofourcamelsandtheypassedbyavillageofthem(‘Abdal-Salām’speople), theywrestedthem(20,000cowries) fromthemandtook[byforce]alloftheirgoodsthatwerewiththem.Whenthepeopleofourjamā‘awhowere[then]nearthemsawsomeoftheirstateandheardsomeoftheirwords,theyretiredtothefarthest[region].Thenfoolsofhispeopleturnedtoplundertheirplantationandtherestoftheirgoods[insomeplaces]likethatof|أ-13|amancalledMaimundu(Maymundu)41)andthatoftheFulaniofthewest.

Ithappenedthat[after]theemirofKonni joinedhim(‘Abdal-Salām)andrefusedtocometous,hisbrothercametome.IorderedhimtoembraceIslam,andhedidso.Ithenappointedhimastheemiroverhiscountryandorderedourfamilies(or‘Alī?)42) to

41) IntheHausalanguage,mai mundu means“anownerofablacksmith’shammer.”


extirpatethefamiliesoftheviolator,andtheyextirpatedthem.Hearingthat,‘Abdal-Salāmdispatchedalargearmywithhim(theformeremirofKonni)tomakehimreachhislandandtoattacktheFulanipeoplewhentheypassedbythem.Thentheycarriedtimberofthedelebpalmforrepairingthegatesoftheirvillage.Moreover,theymarcheduntiltheyarrivedatoneoftheFulanitowns,andtheyturnedtothem;however,theFulaniexpectedthem,andAllahdefeatedthem.

Itthenhappenedthatamanwhohadfledfromthelandoftheenemycametousandinformedusthathehadseeninavillage[called]Talātāamessengerof ‘Abdal-Salām,whomhe(‘Abdal-Salām)sentwithagifttotheenemytonotifythemthathewasontheirsideandthattheymighthurrytouswith[their]troops.Whenwesawwhathehaddoneandwhenwecametoknowwhathehadsent,hehadalreadyclaimedhissovereignty,andthosewithhimhadpledgedallegiancetohim.Furthermore,hehaddeclaredthewordtāwāyē 43) towardchiefsofthecrowd,andhispeoplewhohadconsentedtohisstatehad[also]declaredit.Itisawordthatbelligerentunbelieversmakeasasignofenteringtheirorganizationandamodeofaritualforenteringtheirreligion;44)therefore,nooneuttersitexceptthosewhohaveconsentedtotheirstate.Whenheuttereditandsenthismessengertopowerfulunbelievers,mobsofthembecameexcited,andhisvillagebecamefilled[withthem].Thensomepeopleimmigratedtous,andwhatwasbetweenusandhimwascutoff.

ThentheybecamestirredupandattackedourplantationsintheregionofSokoto.Therefore,Iorderedpeopletoraidthemanddefendthemselves,[their]family,and[their]property.Andduetohisfriendshipwiththeenemyunbelievers,Ipronouncedhisapostasyandthatofthosewhoconsentedtohisstate.Thisisbecausehewasfollowingthembutwasnotfollowedbythem,andwashelpingthembutwasnothelpedbythem[inspiteofthefactthat]theywerenotunderthedhimma(covenantofprotection)withusnorwithhim,and,eventually,hebecamearebelaskingthemforhelp.Thisiswhatprovokedwarbetweenusandhim.

Ikeptdispatchingraidingpartiestohimtokillandcapture[‘Abdal-Salām’speople],andwereleasedapostates[whohadrepentedfortheirapostasy]andenslavedahl al-dhimmawhowerewiththem|أ-14|becauseoftheirbreach[ofdhimma].ThenIwrotethreeletterstohim,hisson,andthewholeof[his]communityandsenttohim[amessenger]withthem.Thetextofthefirst[letter]is[asfollows]:

InthenameofAllah,theCompassionate,theMerciful.ThereisnopowerandstrengthexceptwithAllah,theMostHigh,theMostGreat.MayAllahblessthenobleProphet,hisfamily,hiscompanions,andhisgenuineparty.PraisebetoAllah,theLordofthe

42) Inthemanuscripts,ث,جح,andخ,itiswrittenas‘iyāl-nā(“ourfamilies”),butinthemanuscripts,تandأ it istranscribedas ‘Alī.Ifthelatteriscorrect, itmayindicate‘AlīJedo,whowastheCommanderoftheArmy(Qā’id al-Jaysh).

43) ThisisaHausaword,tawaye,meaning“revolt”or“rebellion.”44) TheArabicwordṣibghahasmultiplemeaningssuchas“religion,”“baptism,”and“amodeormanner

ofbaptism.”Ihaveinterpretedithereasamodeormannerofaritualforembracingareligion.


worlds.A[good]outcomeisforpiouspeople,andthereisnoenmityexceptagainstunjustpeople.

ToShaykh‘Abdal-Salām,peace.Andpeacebeuponthosewhofollowtherightguidance.

Nowthen,evenifsilenceismoreappropriatebecauseoftheabsenceofthebenefitofyourcorrespondence,themotiveof[my]writingtoyouisthatyoumaycometohavecertainknowledgethatthere isnothingwithusexceptgood[intention].Fromyouappearedbetrayalthrough[yourestablishingof]friendshipwithenemydisregardingus,theconqueringof[our]subjectswithoutconsultationwithus,thespoilingofthelandbytheplunderingoffoodandthepropertyofpeopleafteritscultivation.Besides,yourlettertousis[saying]thatyouhavecutofftherelationshipbetweenusandyou,etc.Then,ourobjective[whichwewish]you[torealize] isthatyoumovefromourneighborhoodtoaplaceinwhichsettlingisgoodforyoubecauselivingtogetheris[possible]with[mutual]confidence.WhentherebefellyouwhatbefellyouinSabuyel,weshelteredyouinourmidstasbeneficencetoyou;therefore,donotdoeviltous.“Istherewardforbeneficence[anything]butbeneficence?”(Q55:60).Whatweaimatconcerningyourmoveisbeingfreefromafitnabetweenusandyou.Verilyweneitherlikeitnorwantit.Ifyouaccept[it]andmove,wewillnotinterferewithyou.Thus,leaveforaplacewhereyoulikeinthelandofZamfara,butifyouturnyourback[onthat]andpreferafitna,knowthatthesinofthosewithyouandofthosewithusregardingwhathappensisuponyou.Allahundertakestheguidanceofusandyou.Peace.

Thetextofthesecond[letter]is[asfollows]:


Toal-Bukhārī;hismother,Ummal-Khayr;andalltheMuslimwomen.Knowthat there isnothingwithusexceptgood[intention],whichyouknow

betweenusandyou,andthatwedonotchooseexceptharmony.|أ-15|Shaykh‘Abdal-Salāmchosearift,butwedonotwanttoattackyououtoffearthatwemaywoundtheonewhomwedonotwanttokillandcapture.Therefore,weorderedhimtomovefromourneighborhood.Ifheaccepts[that],heandwewillbefreefromafitna.Ifherefuses,however, it is inevitable[thatwewill]attackhiminthenearfuture—ifAllahwills—,andthesinofthosewithhimandofthosewithusregardingwhathappensisuponhim;thus,endeavortomakeplansforyourselves.Iletyouknow,OBukhārī,thatIhaveseenyourfather’srequitaltome,andhewillsee—ifAllahwills—therequitalofAllah—exaltedbeHe—intheplacewherehegoesbythepermissionofAllah—exaltedbeHe.Thisistheresultofwhatwethink.Peace.

Thetextofthethird[letter]is[asfollows]:



TothecommunityofMuslims,greetingandpeace.Nowthen,whathappenedbetweenusandShaykh ‘Abdal-Salāmhasalready

becomeevidenttoyou,andwedidnotprohibitattackinghimexceptoutoffearthatwemightwoundyou.Itiscertainthatifhedoesnotmovefromourneighborhood,wewillattackhim—ifAllahwills.Thus,makeplansforyourselvesandyourfamiliesandpreferAllah’scommandtothisworld(temporalthings).Verilyemigrationfromhislandisincumbentonyou.“Say,‘Ifyourfathers,yoursons,yourbrothers...’”(Q9:24).Ifhemoves,however,wewillnotinterferewithhim,withthosewhofollowhim,andwiththosewhoremain.Thisistheresultofwhatwethink.IthasalreadycometoourknowledgethathesenttoBānāghatoaskfor[auxiliary]troops;andwe—ifAllahwills—arereadytoencounterhimifhecomes.“VictoryisnotexceptfromAllah,theMighty, theWise”(Q3:126).Wehavealreadyspreadspiesandsent[messages] totroopsinallregions.Thisisourstate.Peace.

Thisismylastpieceofcorrespondencetohim.Whenthelettersreachedhim,hewasintheregionofhisfortwhile[heandhisfollowers]wereworkingatrepairingit,andwhenhesawthem(theletters),hedidnotreply.Moreover,itcametomyknowledgethathesaid[tohisfollowers],“Devoteyourselvestorepairingthefort.”

TheemirofAïrandtwobrothers,Aḥmadandal-Ḥasan,[whowere] twosonsofajurisprudent[named]AḥmadGhukku(?),45)wrotetohimandadvisedhim|أ -16|totheutmostlimit,buthedidnotaccept[that].Afterthat,weraisedanarmy,whichcametotheirplaceandfoughtthem.However,novictorywasgrantedtoit(thearmy),anditreturned.ThenIraisedaraidingpartyat theendof themonthofdhū al-ḥijja (thebeginningofNovember1817).Itencounteredalargearmyofthem,andtheyweredefeated.Andtheraidingpartycausedpainamongthem.Furthermore,[ourother]raidingpartieskeptgoingbackandforthagainstthem,asit(thefirstraidingparty)didatfirst.Thentheir infidelfriendscametardilytothem[toassistthem].They(‘Abdal-Salām’sarmy)remained[there]expectingthattheywouldcomeanddispatchingtheirraidingparties.However,itwasnotbeneficialtotheminspiteoftheirgreatnumberandoftheirnumberbeingdoublethatofours.Theycouldnotturntoraidingusbecauseoffright,whichAllahthrewintheirhearts,andofwhattheyhadsufferedfromusintheirowncountry.Wewereinthisstateduringthemonthofmuḥarram(fromNovember11toDecember10,1817).

Afterthisbattle,amancharacterizedbypietycametousandclaimedthatleadingfiguresof‘Abdal-Salām’stownhadsenthimandthattheywanted[toestablish]agoodaffair.46)

45) Itisundeterminedhowtoreadthisjurisprudent’sname.“Ghukku”isthetransliterationofwhatiswritteninب.Osswaldreadsitas“Gakka,”Harrisas“Akki,”andMinnaas“Akoka”[Osswald1986:70;Harris1909:24;Minna1982:80].

46) Thewordtranslatedhereas“agoodaffair”iswrittenasmaṣlaḥainallthemanuscriptstowhichIhavereferred.Takingintoaccountthecontext,however, itmaybemuṣālaḥa,whichmeans“peace,”“conciliation,”“settlement,”andsoon.


Therefore,IwrotetothemthatIdidnotwishanythingexceptreconciliationandsentwithhimamessengerforall,mybrother,Yūsuf.Whentheyarrived,however,theonewhowentoutfromthemwaskilled,andtheyreleasedourmessengerafterhesawwhathesawfromhim.Thentheraidingpartieskeptgoingbackandforthuntilthemonthofmuḥarramended(December10,1817).

I thenraiseda troopforambushandorderedthemtocometo them(theenemy)fromtheeast.Andtheyraided[them].It thenhappenedthatareinforcementofsomeunbelieversarrivedandwentout,andthey(thetroopforambush)wentoutfollowingitstracksandkilledquicklyinvastnumbersonthatday.Thatwastennightsbeforetheendofthemonthofṣafar(December29,1817).

ItthenhappenedthatreinforcementsoftheemirofAïr,MuḥammadGhumā,cametous,andweraisedanarmy,whichunitedwiththereinforcements.Theyattackedthevillage[of ‘Abdal-Salām]threenightsbeforetheendofthemonthof ṣafar (January5,1818),andAllahbroughtvictoryfasterthanunfasteningaropeforhobblingthefeetofacamel.Thedefeatedremnantsofthemgatheredinacornerofthefortwaitingforsunset.[Our]armycollected|أ-17|whatwasintheirfortandkilledandcapturedmany[ofthem].[Thenumberof]thedefeatedremnantsgatheringinacornerofthefortwasmorethanthatof[our]armymanyfold.

Whenamessengerbringinggoodtidingsreachedus,werodewiththosewhoremainedwithusandarrivedatsunset.Perceivingourarrival,thedefeatedremnantsscatteredandheadedfor theregionofBakura.Ourarmysurroundedthemandkilledandcaptured[them].Thenanarrow,whoseshooterwasnotknown,hit ‘Abdal-Salām,andheheadedforZamfara.EnteringBakura,hepassedafewnightswoundedandinpain,andthendiedthere.Hiscommunityspreadintothecountryoftheenemy,helpingthem.Thisisthelastknowledgeabouthimandthem.

PraisebetoAllahfirstandlast.MayblessingandsalvationbeuponthenobleProphet,hisfamily,hiscompanions,andhisgenuineparty.

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Acceptedon5October2017

a revolt in the early sokoto caliphate -...

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