Volume 11,Part 2, May 1997

A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO A POLICY ON COMMERCIALCOLLECTING OF WILD FUNGI

The need for the British Mycological Society todevelop a policy on commercial collecting offungi was outlined in Mycologist 11, pp 27-28.This paper aims to provide an overview of thescientific arguments and research results on theviability of large-scale harvesting and assess theimplications for wildlife conservation policy. Theprimary concern is the long-term survival of col-lected species and the consequential effect onhabitats and dependent organisms.

The science and research results

Harvesting fungi only involves collecting thefruiting body, leaving the mycelium in the soil.For some mycorrhizal species the mycelia areknown to survive for very long periods, perhapscenturies. The majority of commercially collect-ed species are mycorrhizal and many are still rel-atively abundant: Boletus edulis, Cantharelluscibarius and Lactarius deliciosus are all widelydistributed in Europe. This would appear to be agood model of a sustainable yield system; howev-er, Arnolds (1991) reports strong evidence fordeclining yields from a number of such speciesacross Europe.

Well designed field experiments have beenundertaken by Simon Egli and Francois Ayer(Egli, 1995) for the Swiss Institute of Forestry,and by Notvell (1996) for the Oregon MycologicalSociety. The aim of both studies, conductedover ten years, was to determine the effects ofintensive harvesting on the yield ofmacromycetes. The results show clearly thatharvesting itself has no significant effect.However, Egli showed that trampling did signifi-cantly reduce yields, possibly through soil com-paction. This finding could have importantimplications.

Many factors other than large-scale collectingaffect the viability of fungi: habitat loss, changingfarming and forestry practices and pollution arethe main concerns. Research on habitat loss isnow extensive throughout Western Europe.Many commercially collected species of fungioccur in rapidly declining habitats, and semi-nat-ural and forested areas cover a far lower propor-tion of the land surface in Britain and Eire thanin most other European countries. The use ofexotic tree species in afforestation schemes, largesingle-species plantations and clear felling prac-tices have all affected fungi. Rotheroe et al(1996) refer to the fact that agricultural changehas also been very significant.

Gulden et al (1992) have shown that pollutionleading to soil acidification inhibits the produc-

tion of fruiting bodies. Recent experimentalwork in Scandinavian forests reported byBrandrud (1995) shows dramatic reductions offungal fruiting bodies as a result of nitrogenenrichment.

The picture which emerges from currentresearch in continental Europe is one of fallingyields due to habitat loss, farming and forestrychanges, pollution, and recreational pressure.Increasing pressure from collecting is focused onthis diminishing resource.

The conservation issue directly concerns thelong-term viability of species, not falling yields.The factors which govern the establishment ofnew mycelia and the colonisation of new sites inthe wild are very complex. It is a striking featureof most fungi that they produce millions ofspores. Agaricus campestris, for example, mayliberate 500,000 spores per minute over severaldays. The wastage rate is clearly enormous andthe chances of establishing new mycelia are like-ly to be very low, even where there are hugenumbers of spores available. Reductions inspore numbers, from whatever cause, will reducethe chances of reproductive success.

Rare species of fungi may be particularly vul-nerable to removal of fruiting bodies. Thosethat occur late in the forest cycle associated withold trees of fragmented habitats such as heath-lands are most likely to be in this category.Although few of these, other than Hydnum spp,are commercially collected there is some evi-dence that unskilled commercial pickers collectindiscriminately; for example those collectingBoletus edulis may collect all boletes. These arethen sorted and graded at the purchaser'spremises where the inedible, possibly rare,species are then discarded. This practice maydirectly impair the establishment of mycelia atnew sites. We have found no valid research onthis topic.

Removal of fruit bodies also affects thoseorganisms that live on fungi, particularly thosewholly dependent on particular species as asource of food. Alexander et al (1996) cite certainfungi as an essential breeding medium for a largerange of invertebrates, including many rare andthreatened species.

Discussion

It is the combined effects of all these pressureson populations of wild fungi that is the real causefor concern. Research on this topic is urgentlyneeded, but will be very difficult to design. Workon fungal succession is beginning to clarify the

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Volume 11,Part 2, May 1997

establishment of early-stage fungi. However,late-stage fungi which include many of the rareand collected species, are less well understood.In the Netherlands the forests established on thenew polders are being intensively monitored.This very long term recording work to determinefungal succession may eventually (in say another50 to 400 years) give some indication of the dif-ferences in establishment rates of collected andother fungal species.

With a £1 billion per year world market forchanterelles, Leigel (1995) estimates that theirharvest value taken over a century is likely toexceed that for timber at a given site. Such eco-nomic potential does much to raise the profile offungi with landowners. Rowe (1997) reports thatthe extreme pressures from commercial collectingin Oregon are already leading the US Departmentof Agriculture to spearhead a series of long-termresearch projects on fungal sustainability. Untilthe results are available they are taking the pre-cautionary approach of licensing pickers. Suchstrategies need to be considered in Britain.

Relief in future may come from advances inresearch which improve the prospects for largescale commercial growing of fungi. For example,the expansion of commercial growing of Agaricusbisporus may reduce the collection for sale ofAgaricus campestris. Isolated advances havealready been made in cultivation of Morchellaesculenta by Ower et al (1988). Danell &Camacho (1997) have just reported researchadvances for the chanterelle, although these areunlikely to be translated to commercial produc-tion until the mycorrhizal dependency on thetree is broken.

For the less fashionable species the position isvery different. The market will not justifyresearch and the pointers are all negative, scien-tific results scarce, and monitoring is poor.There must therefore be serious doubts as to thesustainability of the current level of commercialcollecting.

The Convention on Biological Diversitysigned at the Rio summit has given new impetusto wildlife conservation and the protection ofspecies. Amongst the principles set out at Rioin Agenda 21 was the 'precautionary principle'.It suggests that in order to protect the environ-ment the precautionary principle should be wide-ly applied by member states and that lack of fullscientific certainty should not be used as a rea-son for postponing cost-effective measures toprevent environmental degradation. Nationaland European legislation is gradually beingstrengthened as a result. It is still strongest inits protection of birds and mammals and weak-est in the protection of fungi. Lack of informa-

tion continues to delay the drawing up of sched-ules to protect endangered species of fungi andtheir habitats.

The collecting debate

Increased commercial collecting has led to heat-ed debate on the rights of local people andlandowners and on the aesthetic consequences.In Britain there are long established de factorights to collect wild fruits, and common rightsgiving access to such sites as Ashdown Forest,the New Forest and the Forest of Dean. The lawis silent on the extension of these common rightsinto the commercial collection of fungi. InEurope where communally owned forests are fre-quent, it is relatively easy to enforce bylaws thatallow local people to collect and restrict commer-cial collecting. Anecdotal evidence suggests thatthese local rights have in the past been exercisedresponsibly.

The position of the private landowner inEngland and Wales is clear. The commercialpicking of fungi on private land is an offenceunder section 4(3) of the Theft Act 1968. Thosepurchasing these fungi are also guilty of anoffence. In Scotland the law requires owners toprove trespass and demonstrate the fungi werebeing pilfered with a view to being offered forsale. The aesthetic arguments are clear; sitesstripped of their fungi rob others of enjoyment.

Implications for BMS conservation policy

Rare and endangered species are now to be pro-tected as well as identified. Habitats also needprotection; those which already are afforded pro-tection of other wildlife need it extended to theirfungal populations. The most practical and costeffective way to implement the precautionaryprinciple would be to restrict collection of fungion vulnerable sites to scientific sampling. Thegrowing body of conservation legislation needs tobe drafted so that it can be applied to the fungi,and implemented to give them protection. TheBMS should add its voice to those calling forstricter control of pollution. Finally, commercialcollecting of fungi should be supported onlywhere it is sustainable.

A firmer conservation policy is now needed toimprove habitat and species protection, applythe precautionary principle and ensure the longterm viability of the fungi.

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful for the encouragement andconstructive comments of Maurice Rotheroe, YinFleming and other members of the BMSConservation Special Interest Committee.

ReferencesAlexander, K et al (1996) The management of overma-

ture tree populations for nature conservation - thebasic guidelines.Pollard and veteran tree managementII. Corporation of London.

Arnolds, E. (1991) Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi inEurope. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment35: 209 - 244.

Brandrud, T . E. (1995) Effects of Nitrogen enrichment onthe Macromycete flora of forest ecosystems. Paper tothe XII Congress of European Mycologists,Wageningen.

Danell , E. & Camacho, F. J . (1997) Successful cultivationof the golden chanterelle. Nature 385: 303.

Deacon, J. W. & Fleming, L. V. (1992) Interaction ofEctomycorrhizal fungi in Allen, M. F. MycorrhizalFunctioning - An integrative plant fungal process.Chapman and Hall, London pp. 249-300.

Egli, S. (1995) The influence of harvesting fruit bodies onthe macromycete {lora. Paper to the XII Congress ofEuropean Mycologists, Wageningen.

Gulden, G., Hoiland, K, Bendiksen, K, Brandrud, T . E.,Foss , B . S. , Jenssen, H. B. & Laber , D. (1992)Macromycetes and air pollution: Mycoenological stud-ies in three oligotrophic spruce forests in Europe.Bibliotheca Mycologica, Band 144. J. Cramer.

Jansen, A. E. (1990) Conservation of fungi in Europe.Mycologist 4: 83-85.

Volume 11, Part 2, May 1997

Norvell, L. (1996) Loving the ChanterelJe to death? Theten-year Oregon Chanterelle project. McIlvainea 12: 6- 25.

Leigel, L. (1995) Impacts of non-timber harvests on longterm productivity and sustainability in Northwesthuman and natural resource systems. In Schnepf, C.Dancing with the Elephant. Western Forestry andConservation Association, Portland, Oregon. pp. 85 -98.

Ower, R. et al (1988) Cultivation of Morchella. US patentnumber: 4,757,640.

Pilz, D. & Molina, R. (1996) Managing forest ecosystemsto conserve fungal diversity and wild mushroom har-vesting in forest ecosystems. USDA Forest Service.PNW - GTR - 371.

Rotheroe, M., Newton, A., Evans, S. & Feehan, J. (1996)Waxcap-grassland survey. Mycologist 10: 23 - 25.

Rowe, R. F. (1997) The commercial harvesting of wildedible mushrooms in the pacific north-west region ofthe United States. Mycologist 11: 10 - 15.

Patrick LeonardThe Garden House, Huggets Lane,

Eastbourne, East Sussex BN22 DLHShelley Evans

16 Haven Way, Abergavenny,Gwent NP7 7BA, UK

CORRESPONDENCE

The Encyclopedia of Fungi

I note the critical letter from Alick Henrici(November 1996 issue) which refers to the find-ings of an unnamed dozen field mycologistsof wide experience who claim many clearly visi-ble misidentifications in relation to theEncyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe.

It may help place the matter in perspective tocite the documented findings of Dr ThomasKuyper, who has kindly made a systematic studyof sections of the book. He reports that the levelof accuracy he finds in the Encyclopedia is com-parable to that in relevant volumes ofBreitenbach and Kranzlin (Fungi of Switzerland)and Cetto (I Funghi dal ~ro). Mr Henrici is onrecord as holding the Fungi of Switzerland inhigh regard.

I am also at a loss to comprehend the thrustof remarks regarding species not previouslyrecorded in Britain since the title is theEncyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe.

Michael JordanChantry House, Cannards Grave,

Shepton Mallet, Somerset BA4 4NA

Editor's note: Mr Jordan does not indicatewhether the species 'not previously recordedfrom Britain' were in fact photographed else-where, and if not so, whether there is herbariummaterial to substantiate any new British records.

Flammulina velutipes

In my local meanderings during the past two orthree winters, I have been struck by the almosttotal absence of Flammulina velutipes from itsusual widespread sites. In this area, mid & lowerDeeside, the most favoured host is Broom(Sarothamnus scoparius).

This winter the fungus has been fairly abun-dant. As this colourful species is the only onereadily available in the winter with which tostimulate the interest of others in the world offungi, it serves the amateur well.

W. D. G. Henrickson10 Binghill Park, Milltimber

Aberdeen AB13 DEE

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