a stfdy op the chief characters of nihe light op the ... - …
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A STfDY OP THE CHIEF CHARACTERS OF NIHE
OF BEKAVEHTE'S EARLY PLAYS IN THE
LIGHT OP THE TYPICAL HERO OF THE
GENERATION OF 1898
THESIS
Approved:
Thesis Committee
Approved:
Dean of Division of Graduate Studies
"r
. • ; • • ' • • • • • /
I
A_ STUDY OP THE CHIEF CHARACTERS OF NINE
OF BENAVENTE'S EARLY PLAYS IN THE
LIGHT OP THE TYPICAL HERO OF THE
GENERATION OF 1898
THESIS
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate Division of the Texas Technological
College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OP ARTS
By
Lucy Norman Miller, B. A.
Lubbock, Texas
July, 1950
TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE LUBBOCK, TEXAS LIBRARY
..... . . . . . '•••\ i jww-.
Pre
^^f * TABLE OP CONTENTS
o I.
CO
o
CHAPTER PAGE
' t'-A0 PREFACE
I . BENAVENTE AS A DRAMATIST OP THE
GENERATION OP 1898 1
I I . AN ANALYSIS OP REPRESENTATIVE
BENAVEITIAN HEROES IN THE LIGHT OP
THE FICTIONAL HERO OP 1898 19
I I I . WOMAN'S ROLE IN SPAIN'S REGENERATION
AS SEEN BY BENAVENTE . . / 58
CONCLUSION 84
BIBLIOGRAPHY 89
W'"
PREFACE
In the follfwlng study the writer proposes to
exasiine Benavente's position as a dramatist of the
"Generation of 1898," and: to adduce internal^evidence
from certain plays tO;substantiate the fact thot Benavente*
characters are typical of the fictional hero of the liter
ature of 1898.
The nine plays chosen for this study date from 1894
to 1916: El nido ajeno, 1894; La far^dula, 1897; Lo
Cursi, 1901; Sacrlficios, 1901; La gobernadora, 1901;
El prime Roman, 1901; Alma triunfante, 1902; Rosas de
otogp, 1905; La cludad alegre y confiada, 1916. This
group of plays was selected for two reasons: they were
presented during the early years of the author's career,
when he was definitely identified with the Generation of
1898, and they deal with the "Problema de Espana." These
plays thus offer satisfactory material for the study of
Benavente's characters in relation to what has come to be
recognized as the typical literary hero of the Generation.
Furthermore, they supply the evidence needed to ascertain
to what degree the author shared the aims and ideals of
the Generation of 1898.
' .s. ' . K I
APFHlcilATION
I Odsii t o thank Dr. C- B. Qualia, net only for
b i s valuable suggestions in direct ing t h i s the sis»
feut a lso for the inspirat ion that I received from h i s
loetures em the "Generation of '93.*' I am sure that
la. many of i ^ statements I.have repeated hira^ verbatim:*
I wish tiO; express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Eunice
Gates for her heIpfml suggestions in writing t h i s t h e s i s
and to Dr. T. W. Camp for h i s careful reading of the
teaBuscrlpt* - <
f?-'V
BSIAVSNTE Aft 4^DRAMATIST OF THE GENERATfON OF 1898
Meat modern crlties cite Benavente among the writers
ofv tho €^neratlon of 1898• Since it is the purpose of
th ls study to iaterprot seme of the.chief oharaeters of
Bonavonto's early plays in the light of the flotienal
hero of the Generation of 1898 and to determine whether the 'ft ">*W '
\&^''if->'i lOnaventian hero is typioal of the protagonists of the
literature of that period, it has seemed necessary to the
writer to define the Generation of 1898 and present a
brief aceount of its origin, aims and characteristics.
Then evidence will be presented to show that Benavente
really belongs to the Seneration by (la) common agreement
of contemporary critics and literary historians and (b)
by adducing internal evidence that the fictional heroes
of the dramas in question follow in major phases the out
line of the fictional hero of the Generation.
Among the groups which have appeared on the liter
ary, political, or social horizons of modern Spanish
history, one of the most controversial has been the so-
called Generation of 1898, a "number of young writers
who, breaking sharply with the traditions of the nine
teenth century, distinguished themselves by their desire
toti«Onovato Spanish l fongbt, define the Spanish essence,
and rovltallso the language.^^ These men grew up during
an M*a of superflelal happiness and peace from 1880 to
1895, the period whleh followed the Restoration and the
last Carl 1st war. B!*ee from cares the people devoted
themselves to their favorite pastimes and amusements.
Good humor prevailed everywhere, but in spite of this
apparent calm and satisfaction, Spain was a body without
historical or social consequence. No common ideals
united the government, the clergy, and the people.
Spaniards lacked a consciousness ef a possible histori
cal destiny and a firm will to acquire a significant
pesition-among world powers. Most of them were not-even
aware of the-situation, but there were those who per
ceived it and they felt as if they were living in a
vacuum. These were the **men of 98" who describe this
mental state of their compatriots in different terms,
but all of whom agree that the condition is deplorable.
Angel Ganivet, one of the yoimg modernists, diagnoses
this thing that is so difficult to define as abulia, a
lack of will; it is the marasmo, a consumption or wasting
that grieves Miguel de Unamuno. Azorlii is disturbed by
1 Katharine P. Reding, "The Generation of 1898 in Spain as seen through its Fictional Hero," Smith College Studies in Modern Languages, XVII, 12 (April-July, 19361, p. vll.
tli# sadiieio and eBOipmeus depression that he observes
amomgkls people. Uen^des y Pelayo deneunces the
liiiNlil y dxd alow suicide. The poet Antonio Machado
is ]baunted ¥y a vlaleB of Spain that is "vieja y
tahur, zagatera y triste.**^
Azorm, chief spokesman for the group, points out
in his treatment of the "Generaci^** that
The rebellion of its young leaders did not burst spontaneously upon the world: rather had it been painstakingly elaborated by the preceding generation. The poet Campoamor had criticized traditienal ideas; the novelist Gald<5a had opened their eyes to a new vision of reality; the "passionate cry** of Echegaray, the dramatist, had given impetus to their revolt. Politicians like Joaqufn Costa had lamented conditions of life in Spain. And so it was "in that vast and acrid spirit ef social criticism that the mentality of the generation of 1898 was formed.** 3
And so the impressions of Spain which were stamped in
the minds and hearts of these men were the same—
emptiness, discord, jienace, inconsistency and a lack
of inspiring ideals among Spaniards.
The loss of her colonies and the defeat of Spain
by the United States in 1898 mark a crisis in the soul
and mind of Spain, and although this hiamiliation was
2 Poesfas completas, p. 20Z>, quoted by La^n Entralgo in La generaci(5n del noventa y ocho (Madrid, 1945), p. 100.
3 Jos^ Martiiiez Ruiz, Clasicos y modernos, quoted by Reding, op. cit., p. 1.
net 1 a» iiatise of the rebelliOB of the writers of '98,
It jpao siu*oXy a deelslve factor. It awakened them to
the torirlblo realisation of the situation and shocked
them late a desire for action, so they devoted them-
seXvos wholeheartedly to the regeneration of Spain
by recalllBg the great deeds, epochs and men of old
Spain as well as the existing grandetirl of contempor
ary Spain. They sought to arouse their fellow-men
and^shake them out of that lethargic state, abulia,
marasmo, or whatever one chooses to call it, in order
that Spain might regain a portion of respect in Europe.
Because their active work springs specifically from
the year of Spain's defeat, these writers have become
known as the Generation of 1898. One of these young
men, AzorlB, portrays in his book. La voluntad, the
typical Spaniard who knows where he is going geograph
ically, but not intellectually or ethically. The
author seeks to show that his hero characterizes and
symbolizes these young enthusiasts and himself, that
his perplexities, anxieties and despair are character
istic of a generation without will and energy, a
vacillating and irresolute generation. The protago
nist, Azorlii, marks the appearance of a Generation
character, a generation that is made up of perplexOd.,
midiiojm,' weak-willed and analytical people who study
and analyze themselves, who would like to plan a course
of aotl Mi and carry it to completion by sheer force of
intelligence and will, but are defeated by inherent
weaknesses.
Although the men of '98 criticize Spanish tradi
tions and seek to Europeanize Spain, they do not
intend that their country should lose its native
espanolismo-"far from it. These men are devoted to
the history of Spain, even though they strongly oppose
its terrible inconsistency. Their love for the real
Spain and their hostility toward this superficial Spain
make them search for another "possible" Spain which
they envisage in their hearts—a Spain that is made up
of her past glory, a brilliant future and the reality
itself of the country. Although each one has sought
his ideal in a different manner, their language, their
hopes and their ideals for Spain's regeneration are
analogous.
The importance of the so-called Generation of '98
has added to the general controversy concerning the
movement. Rafael Cansinos Assens, Salvador de Madarlaga
and Melchor Pern^dez Almagro agree in emphasizing the
value of its critical position. The writers are esteemed
for their renovation of the language and the litera
ture, but each of the critics cited above expresses
,\
6
a dlffore«ilr opinion as to who eonstltuO#d this famous
Goner at loB.^
A particularly hostile judgment of the value of
the Generation Is that of the literary historian.
Den Jmlio COjador y Frauea, who declares that the aim
of the group was te **de*hispanize and de-ChristianiEe"^
Spain. He holds the Institucidn llbre de enseSanza,
their edueatienal center, responsible for the mis
guided youth who deserted the faith of thete» fathers
and took the enemy Nietssche to their bosom. These
young men rose up with fire in their eyes and hurled
anathema against all tradition, swearing to raao his
torical Spain to her foundations in true Iconoclastic
style. They declared loudly that Spaniards were of
inferior race, incapable of culture and that their
only hope of salvation as a nation was in becoming
completely Europeanlzed. In spite of the vitupera
tions which Cejador y Prauca heaps upon this Genera
tion he almost sells his case through a frank admissicn
of the benefits conferred upon Spanish literature by
4 Rafael Cansinos Assens, La nueva literatura; Salvador de Madariaga, Espana; Melchor Fernandez Almagro, Vida y obra de Angel Ganivet, quoted by Reding, op. cit., p. Ikj. ~~
5 "Entrada del modernismo en America y Espana y la llamada generacion del 98," Historia de la lengua y de la literatura castellana X, (Madrid, 1915-192ki), Prlmera parte, pp. 48-50.
-the generation he is combating. Generally the hostile
c»ltloi think the Generation a^destructive forco and
only grudgingly concede its ameliorating effect upon
artistic language, while ffaverable critics believe
that the movement is significant for I Its new critical
attitude^ and for its regeneration of aesthetic ideals
in Spanish art and letters.
Another point of controversy concerning.the
Generation of '98, as has been previously mentioned, is
the membership of the group. Who are the writers of the
5 Generation? That there is a wide variance of opinion
is shown by lists prepared by leading critics and his
torians of "men"'or "the men" who really belong to the
Generation. For example, Azori!n's6 list is limited to
seven members as follows: Valle-Inclan, Unamuno,
Benavente, Bueno, Maeztu, Ruben Darlo, and it is assumed
that he includes himself in the group. The German critic 7
Hans Jeschke, declares that there are only five who,
properly speaking, belong to the Generation, namely,
Baroja, Antonio Machado, Benavente, Valle-incl^ and
Azorili. Then there is the tendency to include
6 Jos/ Martinez Ruiz (Azorin), op. cit., (Madrid, 1919), p. 251.
7 Cited by Reding, ££. cit., p. 14.
8
|ii4ctlel^y all the slgnlf leant names in the literary
kiotery ef Spain during the transitional years from
the nimoteenth to the twentieth century. This tend-
eney' ls%hat we see in Rieardo BaezaS whose list is
more than twice as long as that of Azorfn, including
the names of the novelist, Gabriel Mir^; the philos
opher, Jos^Ortega y Gasset; the poets, Antonio, and
Manuel Machado, Juan Ram(& Jimenez, and Enrique Dfez-
Canedo; the dramatists, Eduardo Marqulna and Jacinto
Grau, in addition to those that Azorfn includes in his
list. In her excellent study of the literature of the
Generation, Miss Reding^ adds the name of the novelist.
Angel Ganivet, to the list of writers whom coma»n
opinien places in the group.
€feie leading critic, C^ar Barja,XO believes that
the question will probably never be satisfactorily
answered because of the double aspect of the movement,
the literary and the social-spiritual. In Hispanic
America, Spain, and in other European countries, in
open revolt against the realistr'cand nat\iralisticforms
8 "Azorin y la generaci(5n del 98," Gompren3i(5n de Dostoiewesky y otros ensayos (Barcelona, 1935, pp. 170-imT' ^
9 0£. cit., p. viii.
10 "Who are the Writers of the Spanish Generation of 1898," Modern Language Forum, XXX, 4(Dec. 1945), pp. 83-92.
v'. ,
9
ef l|tov^iu*o« a new kind of literature known as
^fKoAernlsm" marks the dissolution of the nineteenth
oontory and manifests Itself in arts, religion, poli
ties and every aspect of human life. The writers of
the Generation are directly connected with the Modern
ist movement, which each one illustrates in his own
field. And this is the literary label under which
they appear to us.
The social-spiritual phase is likewise a revolt
against the traditional order of things, social and
polltleal, but whether literary or social, the purpose
in both cases was to break away from the past and to
create something better than had ever existed before.
As a result of the double aspect of the movement
some critics will think of the whole generation of
1898 as a literary school; others will think of it as
a social-spiritual movement vitally related to the
social and spiritual realities of Spanish life at the
end of the nineteenth century.
The aims of the generation are social-religious,
political, and literary. Generally, an individual may
represent a different phase of the movement. Some are
concerned with practical reforms, others solely with
art. But their ultimate aim is to improve national
life, though the means to that end be various.
10
In the seclal-rellgleus life the writers of '98
sought to awaken the people of Spain to their laek of
reality, to arouse a spirit of patriotism, sadly lack
ing among their people. They would change living con
ditions and eventually change the Spaniard. They
sought tolerance in religion; they believed that Spain's
regeneration must be of a spiritual order. As most of
the evils of Spain were a result of ignorance, the
group was keenly interested in education and favored
sweeping reforms both in primary and secondary educa-
t ion.
In the political life of Spain the men of 1898
sought to abolish corrupt, vicious and illegal govern
mental practices, the incompetence in administrative
offices, false elections, "convenient politics,"11
nepotism and caciquismo, the boss system.
The literary endeavor of the 98-ers has been
called "the movement of good writing." They sought to
clarify the Spanish language, to purify it of its care
less improvisation, its pompous and bombastic infla
tion. They sought simplicity in their writing and strove
to be modern while retaining the aesthetic values of the t
past.
11 Azorfii, 0£. cit., p. 235
11
So then we si»o that one of the chief character
istics of the famous Generation** is their critical
attitude toward social, political and literary ideals
of Spain. Moved by a desire and a necessity to free
themselves from the traditional and to create a new art
in accord with the new age, they protested the accepted
forms of national art, many of which were decadent and
needed to be renovated.
The writers of *98 have a keener intellectual
curiosity and are better informed than their prede
cessors because of their wider and more Intimate contact
with foreign literatures. They all want to be literary
men, to do something important in the life of apaln.
They all dream of a new era when Spain will be faithful
to herself and to her former glory, and thoy^all have
the idea that they are the ones who will initiate the
new epoch.
The men of ''98 want Europeanization, but without
de-Hispanization. Their patriotism and love for Spain
are expressed in a sincere desire for her development
and prosperity.
The enthusiastic desire to reform is common to all
the Generation. They all agree that change is the
solution to Spain's problem of regeneration, though
they differ in their methods and suggestions as to how
12
It Should, or might, be done. Some of them reflect the
spirit of their time by their hesitation, their uncer
tainty and Inability to offer a satisfactory solution.
They all agree that the vital shock that is needed for
her regeneration must be spiritual and religious.
In short, these writers of "98 dream of a pure,
original and exemplary Spain, and a literature that is
filled with the best and most worthy of the memory of
the past, that is rich with hope and promise for a
glorious Spain.
In order to interpret the protagonists of certain
BOnaventian dramas in the light of the fictional hero
of 1898 and to determine whether they are typical of
that literature, it is necessary to present the major
characteristics of the fictional hero of the literature
of that period.
Entralgo states in his study of the ' Generacion*'
that the Spaniard as a ''peculiar human type" is one of
the fundamental themes of the writers of 1898. The
authors combine the real Spaniard, whom they see on the
streets and roads of Spain, with their ideal Spaniard
patterned after the immortal Don (;iuijote. The new
Spaniard will be uncomplaining; he will be a serious and
melancholy fighter; he will resign himself to his fate.
He will not be very optimistic; neither will he be
*"-:'-'
13
pessimistic. He will not be afraid of ridicule; rather
he will look for it, like his hero and model. He will
have a zest for study, comparison, and criticism; he
wilLliave a curiosity fdr spiritual things. His wisdom
Will be of faith and immortality; his life will be a
"fountain of energy, thought, and action."^2
In her brilliant study, "The Generation of 1898
in Spain as seen through its Fiction«IHero," based on
the novels of Azorfn, P^o Baroja, Unamuno, Valle-Inclan
and Angel Ganivet, Miss Reding^^ analyzes and outlines
the essential Characteristics of the typical hero of the
literature of 1898. She finds that he is intensely
aware of himself, that he feels the weight and impor
tance of his own ego. He has a complex personality; he
is often torn by some conflict between discordant ele
ments in his emotional or intellectual life. He has no
well-defined aim.
There is a "lack of balance"!^ in the protagonist
of the Generation of 1898. He is hypersensitive or
super-intellectual; he is at the mercy of one of his
passions; he is sex-mad or is driven by his lust for
12 0£. cit., pp. 372-394
13 , pp. 102-117.
14 Ibid., p. 104.
14
adventure. In any case there is not the balance between
thesO qmalitiea which makes them function more or less
harmoniously in the average man.
The typical hero of '98 lacks a ^normal power of
volition to direct his own course."^^ it is submerged
by stronger passions, or functions in an exaggerated
manner*
"The romantic hero who kneels in adoration before
his beloved is not to be found among the heroes of
1898.**^^ Since the interest usually centers upon the
self-fulfillment of the protagonist, his marriage is
treated as incidental to that. Stress is laid upon the
functional significance of sex rather than upon the
more dazzling super-structure df romantic love. Men
turn to women and marriage as a means of escape from
their spiritual problems; women seek men as fathers of
their children because they feel an intense need for
love and companionship.
The type protagonist of 1898 is an eccentric^17
he is a rebel who expresses himself in various ways
against the existing order. His attitude toward Spain
is hostile and his criticism becomes more acute when it
refers to actual contemporary life.
15 Ibid., p. 107.
16 Ibid., p. 107.
17 Ibid., p. 109.
15
The fictional hero of the liter at tire of 1898 is a
tot«Ll skeptic; his lack of faith in God and the immor-
taXlty of the soul Is the cause of much spiritual
anguish. IS
The present writer finds no variance of opinion
among contemporary eritlas and literary historians
regarding Benavente'8rposition among the writers of
1898. AzorJCn, ensign and trumpeter of the group, in
cludes Benavente in his list of "men**! of the Genera
tion. (Jejador y Frauea cites Benavente as '"one of the
young writers who were influenced by Prencn modern is ts."*^^
A detailed study of tne prevailing conception of
life of the autnors of 1898 leads Jeschke to conclude
that only Benavente in the theatre, Valle-Inclwi,
Baroja and. Azorin in prose and Antonio Machado in
poetry belong to the Generation of 1898.^1
In his discussion of **Phe Generation of '98 '
Isaac Goldberg writes as follows:
Benavente, as one of the eager 98-ers became a participant in the intellectual life of Europe; his prose—even apart from his dramas--shows a sensitiveness to shades of tnougnt and an exquisite
18 I b i d . , p . 1 1 7 .
19 Azor in , op . c i t . , p . i i51.
iiO £ p . c i t . , pp. 5 6 - 8 .
kil C i t e d by Reding, £ £ . c i t . , p . 1 4 .
16
aesthetic judgment that are the chief contributions of the restless youths among which he grew to maturity.2^
In his article "The 1898 MoveMent," Walter Starkle,
English critic and literary historian, declares that
Amidst all those new writers there moved the slender figure of a young man CBenavent^ who was to be not only the master builder of modern Spanish drama, but also the mirror of the society of his time.^^
Federico de Onis, distinguished Spanish scholar,
reminds us that from the beginning Benavente was "imo
de los decididos propulsores de lo que entonces se llamo
'modernismo' y que su obra responde por complete a las
tendencias m ^ modernas del teatro universal."^4
Another literary historian,, Andres Gonzales-
Blanco^^ finds the carainal principles of the "famous
Generation" in Benavente's works. He believes that
Benavente is of his time and race, that his work con
sists of a series of essays designed to show how social
life may be reformed in order that it might be more
just, more sincere, and more human.
22 Drama of Transition, (Cincinnati, 1922), p. 96.
23 Walter Starkle, Jacinto Benavente (London, 1924), p. 19.
24 Jacinto Benavente (l ew lork, 1923), p. 15.
25 Los dramaturgos espai oles contemporsmeos l.a serle (Valencia, 1917), p. 168.
17
A more recent study is that of Lain Entralgo,^^
published in 1945* Entralgo designates Benavente as
the chief dramatist of the writers of '98. Thus it is
seen that Benavente belongs to the Generation of 1898 by
common agreement of leading contemporary critics and
historians.
In the following pages the writer proposes to pro-
Vide internal evidence that Benavente belongs to the
Generation of '98 by showing how the Benaventian hero
follows in major phases the typical outline of the
fictional hero of the writers of 1898 and how other
important characters reflect the spirit and ideas of
the Generation.
The plays chosen for this study fall into two
distinct categories, those dealing with social problems
and those pertaining to the political problems of
Spain. El nido ajeno, Lo cursi, Sacrlficios, Alma
triunfante, and Rosas de otoiio belong to the first
group. In these plays Benavente portrays the sham and
hypocrisy in the social life of Spain among the upper
middle class and the aristocracy. He satirizes the
nobility, the corrupt Madrilenian society, the "unfaith
ful husband," and encourages education for women. He
26 0£. £it. (Madrid, 1945), p. 69.
18
portrays the womsn of great virtue whose responsi
bility it is to regenerate Spain, the ultimate aim of
the writers ef '98.
In La far&dula. La gobernadora. El prime Roman
and La cludad alegre y confiada, the aithor lays bare
the evils of the political system in Spain, the evils
protested by the writers of '98, caciquismo, nepotism
"convenient politics," incompetence in government
administrators and false elections.
Let us turn first to a study of the male
characters.
,^ I lilillllWIII H II . Jp-
CHAPTER I I
AN ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATIVE BENAVENTIAN HEROES IN THE LIGHT
OF THE FICTIONAL HERO OF 1898
In the fo l lowing pages I s h a l l attempt t o i n t e r
pret the Benaventian heroes in t h e l i g h t of the
ffieneration hero and show how and why they are t y p i c a l
of the hero of 1898, and how other important characters
revea l s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and l i t e r a r y tendencies and
i d e a l s of the age. I s h a l l use Entralgo's i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n of the idea l Spaniard and Miss Reding's a n a l y s i s
of the f i c t i o n a l hero as the b a s i s for my own i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n of the Benaventian hero .
The type protagonist of 1898 i s an eccentr ic who
i s engrossed in the workings of h i s own mind and sou l .^
This i s the hero that we meet in El nido ajeno^ (1894) ,
Benavente's f i r s t drama. B r i e f l y the s tory i s as
f o l l o w s :
Emilia comes t o i n v i t e Maria and her husband t o
a f i r s t night at the t h e a t r e . J o s ^ L u i s has had i n d i
g e s t i o n and re fuses the i n v i t a t i o n . His brother,
Manuel, just returned from America where he made a
for tune , i s s tay ing with Jose^ Luis and Maria.
1 Reding, op. cit., p. 109.
2 Cuarta edicion (Librerjfa de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), VdU 1.
20
jOO^Lmls lo a dyspeptic. He is melancholy by
mm%imm- and derives voXuptuous enjoyment from his sad
ness. He never goes out with his wife. Marfa, and his
brother. He is either too busy or too ill. So Manuel
and Mar fa are thrown together constantly. Jose Luis
finds nothing but displeasure in their easy comrade
ship. His melancholy nature engenders suspicion. He
believes that they are in love. So suspicious has he
grown that he goes out frequently at night, then comes
in unannownced to see if he can "catch" them in a love
affair.
Manuel and Maria realize that Jos^Luis is jeal
ous. Both are embarrassed and humiliated. Manuel
prepares to leave his brother's house, and a quarrel
ensues. Jose Luis tells him that he is not his full
brother. Manuel disillusions him, and tells him the
story of his father's unfounded suspicions. They are
all happy again.
As Manuel leaves, Maria kisses him on the fore
head, in the presence of Jose Luis, to prove their
innocence. Manuel realizes now that he has loved
Maria without knowing it, but he keeps his secret and
leaves. He confesses that he will come back when they
both shall be very old and can cause no suspicion.
As a true Generation hero, Jose Luis is an egoist;
he falls into moods of lethargy and melancholy which
21
Oihaoo hlfflto be anheyed by his pleasant environment.
Ifeiable to dismiss this evil state of mind, he becomes
reatXess and indecisive; he never finds the peace of
spirit that he seeks. Jos^Luis knows that he is
being unfair with Maria, that he has no right to doubt
her- He even realizes that this tendency to suspect
her is an inherent weakness, one that he is unable to
overcome. He admits that it is madness.^ Jose Luis
would like to express his love for Maria and exchange
confidences with her. He would like to change his
egotistical habits, but he lacks a normal power of
volition to set up and maintain an intelligent course
of actien. As a result, he suffers an unconquerable
weariness. Jose Luis, then, is afflicted with abulia,
the disease or mental illness that all the writers of
'98 deplore and which they have so frequently depicted
in fiction. It is also to be noted that Jose Luis is
the drab, colorless type of husband often depicted by
the writers of the Generation.
Maria is the traditional Spanish woman, devoted
to her husband and her home. Emilia, the neighbor,
tells us that Maria is a model wife, that no one else
would contend with such a husband. She even warns
Jos/ Luis that life is short, that he should enjoy
3 Ibid., II, xii, 61.
22
himself and spend more time with Maria. But Jose Luis
never has time for anything except his illness and his
business. Absorbed in himself, he has no regard for
the activities and illnesses of others. When Maria
urges him to rest for the day, he shows us just hew
important the condition and interests of others are to
him as he answers her with the following questions:
d Creeras tu que mi enfermedad es come tus jaquecas . . • Estoy muy male^ . . Tu crees que mis asuntos son como los vuostros? Visitas y compras que a cualquier hora y cualquier dia da lo misme . . # v
Typical of the Spanish wife, Maria exercises the
greatest patience with her husband. She understands
why Jose Luis is such a negative character and the
reason is significant. She explains to Manuel that
Jose' Luis is an introvert, that it is difficult for
him to receive just anybody into his heart.
Manuel, educated outside of Spain--in America—
is not poisoned by the melancholia, abulia, and egoism
which are so characteristic of his people. Manuel
diagnoses his brother in a less kindly manner, but
more objectively and more accurately, thus:
. . . porque vuestro amor no es amor, es apetito; impulse devorador, absorbente, que no tolera voluntad ni vida propias en el ser
4 Ibid., I, iii, 22.
23
afetfcide, que ahoga y tritura el impulse ajeno . . . Es tan grande vuestro egofsmo, que no cab/ls en vosotros. Sols como esos tiranos conquistadores, ansiosos de poderib, a quienes no les basta con sua dominies y rompen fronteras para avasallar al mundo entero, si pudieran . . .5
Manuel represents an ideal type of husband of the
Generation. In direct contrast to his brother, Manuel
is amiable, affectionate, and attractive, a scrupulous
and honest business man, appreciative of kindness and
integrity in ethers. He is gifted with a love that is
more spiritual than mere desire. He is devoted to the
memory of his mother and is repelled by his father's
lack of respect for her. He tries to show Jose Luis
that he sheuld realize the true value of the treasiire
that he possesses in Maria, that he should spend more
time with her, that they should make trips together.
Foremost in the minds of the writers of 1898 is
the regeneration of Spain. Although they hesitate to
offer a specific solution to the problem, they do agree
that the man must be changed. It seems that Jose Luis
is the man that Benavente actually sees, that Manuel is
the man that he dreams of in his vision of a better
Spain. By keeping Maria and her husband together and
by convincing him that he does hold some mistaken ideas,
Benavente implies that the Spaniard can be changed and
that it must begin in the home.
5 Ibid., Ill, V, 78
24
Ixk Lo oural^ (1901), a drama which seeks to prove
that truth and goodness pay the greatest dividends,
Benavente satirizes bitterly the spirit of abandon and
giddiness which was undermining the cardinal virtues of
Spain. This desire for pleasxare and show has been
described as escapist by Spanish critics. The people
drowned their feeling of shame and disgrace by attend
ing gawdy diversions or by "showing off" in other ways.
Benavente detests the hypocrisy and the subetitution
of that so-called cursi for the real and significant
values of life.
The hero, Agustin, a native of Madrid^ is imbued
with the modern spirit. He desires to experience every
new sensation and thus symbolizes the literary and
social tendencies of the new century. Rosario,^reared
in the ceimtry, strives in vain to keep pace with her
husband and his "modern" friends. In order not to be,
or appear cursi, Rosario stifles her jealousy when her
husband neglects her and pays attention to the flighty
Lola. To arouse Agustdi's jealousy Rosario pretends to
be attracted to Carlos, the traditional Don Juan.
Agustin is aroused, but it is cursi to be concerned
about one's wife; so he apparently ignores the situa
tion and really does so far as Rosario knows.
6 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 4.
• W^.
25 I
Ifecelt, pretense, and flattery soon take their
toll* Rosario believes that separation is the only
aolmtlen. Finally her aunt, tia Flora, and Agustin's
father show her and Agustin how ridiculous they have
made themselves by trying to be distinguished. They
prove t3D them that goodness, kindness, and distinction
of the soul are never common.
Agustui represents the yoimg moderns themselves.
Per him there is no good or evil; a thing is either
cursi or distinguished. One is cursi unless he ques
tions and opposes the usual thing'. It is a mark of
distinction to be bored and vexed with current ideals,
to be idle, t© lie in bed until noon, to be up all
night. Agustim thinks that he wants his wife to be the
self-sufficient, modern woman who keeps to herself and
does not trouble her husband.
Rosario is from the country, born and bred in the
dignified silence of an ancestral palace; so it is very
difficult for this quiet, unassuming person to keep up
with the pretentious life of her husband and his friends.
She tries to select the newest fashions in order to
please him, but in trying to be distinctive she makes
herself ridiculous. She lives in a state of constant
confusion.
26
Preoccupied with his own interests Agustin never
exchanges confidences with his wife; he never helps
her with a word of encouragement; he is not even con
cerned about her, or at least he does not want to give
the impression that he is—that would be cursi. Agustin
is, then, a typical "Generation" husband—one who does
not let himself find companionship and idealized love
in his home. Though not induced by the type of egoism
superinduced by introspection, as was Jose Luis, he is
that type of egoist that wants to show off.
Although Benavente is a modern^ he is still a con
servative in many of his ideas. Thus, we find that he
gazes sardonically at the new ideas which were grad
ually changing the life of Spain. He frowns on the
Madrilenians who stay out until morning, ignoring their
health, deriding the Constitution, and he castigates
Catholics who give no thought to the catechism, and
who discredit all economic laws. In Lo cursi, Benavente
has revealed the bourgeoisie and>the aristocratic
Madrilenian as they were in the moment of their evolu
tion in which they were transforming themselves to
European molds, losing many of their traditional vir
tues without acquiring new ones, and at the same time
conserving many old vices which were being augmented by
new ones, a product of the modernization which was a
growth of the movement of 1898. We find embodied in
27
the protagonist the moral and InteXlaBotual anarchy
idtloh is typical of the decadent spirit at the end of
the century.
In almost every drama there are some important
ideas not expressed by the protagonist, but by other
chjoracters seeking better social conditions for Spain.
In Lo cursi, Benavente allows the old Marquis t© set
forth his ideas on marriage. He dreams of a day when
husbands and wives can speak and act freely and natu
rally, when marriages are based on love, respect and
consideration rather than social convenience. He and
tia Flora both express Benavente's opposition to the
current fashion of "separate homes" for married people.
Flora is horrified by the thought or suggestion of
divorce. When Rosario remarks that a separation is
the only way out of the difficulty, tia Flora exclaims:
En nuestra familia nunca se han visto estas
cosasl'7
Unhappy marriages form one of the chief problems
of Spain. Here again Benavente implies that regenera
tion of Spain must begin in the home by allowing the
Marquis and Flora to help the young couple find their
real love. They show them that distinctiveness of the
7 Ibid., Ill, vii, 169.
28
soul is worth more than all the distinctions of
fashion, t&at In their fanatic desire to be distin
guished they have made themselves very ordinary.
Characteristically of the ideals ef the writers
of >98, Benavente implies that the Spaniard must and
can be ehanged. The egotistical hero, Agust:^, agrees
at last with tfa Flora, as she and the Marquis con
vince him that goodness and kindness are never common
or cursi.
In the psychological drama Sacrlficios^ (1901),
there is no trace of disdainful social satire: rather
do we sense a certain pessimism. Benavente seems to
say that love and happiness are the primary essentials
in life; money and renown are secondary. If we allow
our chance for love and happiness to pass by, we may
never be able to regain it.
Sacrlficios is the story of two sisters. Alma and
Doll, who have been adopted by the singing-master,
Esteban. His chief desire is to make Alma a famous
singer. She wins world acclaim, but she is not happy.
Influenced by Esteban, Alma has disregarded emotional
security, in favor of financial security for her sister
and herself.
8 Segunda edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 4.
29
^ Alaa and RlcardO love each other. Believing that
IM» irt is;«ire Important thin Xove, Alma persuades
him to transfer his love te hoY sister. Doll listens
to Alma in everything and readily consents to the mar
riage. ••l|iif - '/
When DoXI realizes that Alma and Rieardo are in
love, she is brokenhearted. She commits suicide by'
drewnlng because she is convinced of the initial terror
ef her marriage. She has sacrificed herself in order
te make happiness possible for Alma and Rieardo, but
her renunciation has the effect of driving them apart.
Benavente spares no touch to bring out the mean
egoism that animates the majority of his heroes.
Esteban, protagonist in Sacrlficios, is so absorbed in
his own interests that he completely destroys whatever
chance for happiness the other three characters in the
play might have. It is his overweening desire to make
Alma a famous singer and thus gain renown as her
singing-master, which makes him a typical protagonist
of 1898. He not only has abandoned his family in
order to carry out his selfisn purpose, but he can
also speak of his desertion in the most calloused man
ner. There is a lack of balance in his essential
qualities; he is not interested in the things which
ordinarily make up a maa's life. He has aevoted all
30
of his energy te this one ideal—to the development of
Alma^S career. In his ofinlen he Is the only one who
has made a saerlfloe; he is too selfish to recognize
that it has been for his own pleasure and satisfaction
that he has relentlessly exploited his protegee. Alma,
with no thought for her emotional security. Ho has
deliberately discouraged the younger sister's toUent
for music, whleh, admittedly, is not so unusual as
Alma's; nevertheless, he emphasizes his one-sided
nature as he says:
Para el maestro, todo el que no es artista es un
ser inutil y per judicial.*^
Esteban regards Alma's career as his life's work
and he hates Rieardo with the natred of a man who sees
a stronger one coming to seize his treasure. The
older he grows the more Esteban acts like a spoiled
and selfish child. He is afraid that Alma will not
return to the theatre and tie will be left to his own
resources, which are just as limited and narrow as his
conscience. He is at the mercy of his own passions and
so he goes on blindly, insensitive to the pain that he
inflicts on his family and nis friends, until he suc
ceeds in wrecking and even destroying the lives of
Alma, Rieardo, and Doll.
9 Ibid., I, 11, 221.
31
RlcardO .Oigl»ees to marry Deli, the pale and fragile
yeunger sister« but he is in love with Alma. As is
eharaeteristic of the Generatien hero, Rieardo knows
what he wants, but he is unable to obtain it; he has
no well-defined aim. He admires Alma for the very
qualities that he lacks, strength of will and spirit,
dignity and self-assurance. His inability to cope with
conflicting elements in his own nature impresses us
with a sense of failure that is typical of the fic
tional hero of 1898*
In Alma triunfante-^^ (1902), Madrilenian society
continues to be the prime subject matter, but in this
psychological drama, as in Sacrlficios, Benavente has
compassionately revealed the weak and sorrowful trag
edies that are hidden under the surface of his giddy,
contemporary society. He never makes those who stiff er
the object of laughter.
While Isabel is being cared for in a mental hos
pital, her husband, Andr^, has fallen in love with
Emilia. As a result of their love, a little girl is
born. Unexpectedly, Isabel regains her nealth' and
returns home.
Andres is torn between two conflicting ideas of
duty and morality. Padre victor tells him that his
10 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1918), Vol. 7.
32
sin must be expiated, but he is not strong enough to
carry out the Padre's decree.
Ferceiving her husband's anxiety, Isabel deter
mines the reason in her own mind. She decides to
feign a relapse of her former madness in order to re
turn to the hospital, thus freeing Andr/s from his
Christian duty. The Padre will not permit this sacri
fice; so she resigns herself to the situation. She
forgives Andres; she will help rear hi a. child aid she
accepts Boilla as her "sister in suffering."
Andres is the typically weak Generation hero who
knows where he is going geographically, but not intel
lectually nor ethically. He lacks the ability to think
clearly and to make decisions. He is torn between two
ideas of morality. One is the morality of life, which
demands that he yield to his instinctive love for
Emilia, mother of his little daughter; the other, the
morality of duty, his Christian duty which demands
that he sacrifice those two for the peace and happiness
of his lawful home. This conflict in his emotional
life tends to consume him to the extent that he has
no spirit or vitality left with which to conduct his
daily life. He seeks counsel from Padre Victor. When
the priest decrees that he must forget Emilia, Andres
33
finds that he is Incapable of the sacrifice.- - Accord
ing te the priest, he lacks "the serene courage of a
strong man*"
Andres has stifled the love that he feels for
Emilia. He wants to pay for his sin, but he is irre
solute and helpless before the situation. He shrinks
from making up his mind to any decisive course of
action. He would like to share his secret with Isabel;
it would be so much easier, but he believes that her
mental condition forbids his telling her. In the end,
it is Isabel who makes the sacrifice; Andres can not,
because he is defeated by his weakness of will. Thus,
he is typical of the fictional hero of 1898.
Benavente's increased interest in moral questions
of hiffiian relationship, especially in problems of mar
ried life, is seen in Rosas de otono- ^ (1905). Love
and faithfulness in the virtuous wife are idealized
and the theme of compassion and true love is forcefully
developed. The drama is a study of a loving, resigned
woman who forgives all her husband's infidelities, is
content to be a sort of mother to him, and is happy to
11 . . . Qu^ facil sacrificar a los que nos quieren, que dificll sacrificar a lo que se quierel (Ibid., I, iii, 22).
12 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 2.
34
be-first In his heart, no matter how many others there
may be, or may have been.
A lust for adventure causes Gonzalo, the worth
less rake to whom Isabel is married, to behave like
Don Juan. Engaging in numerous intrigues, he almost
wrecks his home before he realizes that the example
that he sets before his son-in-law is going to wreck
his daughter's life. Isabel suffers many humiliations
and indignities, but when she sees that Maria Antonia's
happiness is at stake, she speaks out. The effect of
this speaking is immediate. Gonzalo softens and lets
himself be led back to virtue by his wife. Isabel's
long years of waiting for a return of her husband's
affections come to a happy end and bring her "autumn
roses."
Gonzalo is the typical, "busy," middle class
Spaniard of the early 1900's who has no time to spend
with his wife. Preoccupied with his own interests, he
conveniently forgets a little thing like guests for
dinner, but Isabel is patient and solicitous. He is
selfish, compromising, vain, deceitful, and otherwise
irresponsible. His haughtiness is insufferable, but
Isabel bears it with Christian fortitude.
Knowing that he will receive the same protection,
Gonzalo defends and approves of Pepe, his son-in-law.
35
who is modeling his life on that ef his father-in-law.
SoBzalo is bound by no moral scruples, or respect for
convention. He recognizes a code of honor, although
he does not live by it. He tells Pepe that
. • . fuera del matrimonio de la familia no hay^verdadero cariffo, no hay nada; est a es la «nlca, la verdadera felicidad . . .- ^
And immediately Gonzalo begins to inquire about a new
source ef intrigueMr:;<^ '
. . . Oye, h en que piececilla trabaja^sa muchacha de que me hablaste? Porque fuf al teatro la otra noche, por casualidad, y no vf nada que valiera la penat.14
Gonzalo selfishly continues in-his pursuit of
idle pleasures, never taking cognizance of the fact
that Isabel is entitled to a certain degree of love,
confidence, sympathy, and respect. He feels no obli
gation to provide more than financial security for
his family and he is completely oblivious to his
moral obligations. We find the fundamental traits
of the protagonists of the literature of 1898 In
Gonzalo.
The writers of '98 can not see how Spain can be
regenerated as long as greed, envy, hate, and "don-
juanism" prevail. Unamuno has expressed it in terms
13 Ibid., I, ii, p. 24.
14 Ibid.
36
that seem to apply directly to the situation analyzed
above. He says:
Don Juan vive y se agita, mientras Don Quijote duerme y suena, y de aquf muchas de nuestras desgracias.13
In.the works of all the members of the Generation
the theme of a possible and ideal Spaniard appears as
a sparkle of hope behind a theme of the present and
past Spain. The writers attempt to characterize the
men whom they see on the streets and roads of Spain.
These men are not the men they see in their visionary
Spain; so they combine the real Spaniard with their
ideal Spaniard who will fulfill their hopes for Spain's
regeneration. By allowing Gonzalo, the man that is
seen on the streets of Madrid, to be led back to virtue,
he becomes the ideal man that the writers of '98 dream
of in their vision of Spain.
In Rosas de otono Benavente seeks to make men
know that their wives are entitled to love and confi-
dence, sympathy and respect. He would awaken them to
a sense of their obligation as parents. He would show
them that the financial security of their families is
not their only responsibility, that tenderness, love,
and affection, rather than egoism and "donjuanism,"
15 Miguel de Unamuno, "Sabre Don Juan Tenorio," Ensayos, II, 404.
37
wtXl form the b a s i s of Spain's regenerat ion . Moral
( Ibl lgat lens and r e s p e n s l b l l l t y are far more important
In Spain 's regenOratlon than i s f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y .
Here again Benavente impl ies that Spain's regenerat ion
must begin in t h e home, where the Spanish woman w i l l
asstzme a major r d l e , a top ic that w i l l be d i scussed at
greater l ength in t h e fo l lowing chapter .
I sabe l symbolizes t h e idea l of resignati<Ma and
s a c r i f i c e . She knows that i t i s u s e l e s s t o speak t o
Gonzalo about h i s manner of l i v i n g ; in f a c t , she would
not dare quest ion him about his^conduct. She res igns
h e r s e l f t o awaiting the time and opportunity to s t r i k e
and win back h i s a f f e c t i o n . Roman, a f r i end of t h e
fami ly , suggests t o Isabel that she warn her husband
of impending g o s s i p . Her reply i s short , but i t speaks
volumes revea l ing the preva i l ing a t t i t u d e of men toward
t h e i r w ives . I sabel says that
. . . Nunca me permito aconsejar le y menos oponerme a su voluntad. Nada f i b n i espero de sus palabras , por carinbsas y bien intencionadas que sean. Para conseguir algo ma's que promesas de enmienda, . . . hay que hacer algo m s que hablar .16
I t w i l l take more than words to regenerate the
Spanish husband, but Isabel proves that i t can be done.
How? She proves that the Spaniard can be changed by
the redeeming Influence of women. Although the Spanish
16 Rosas de otono, I , v l i i , 65 .
38
woman has no political or civil rights, Benavente
believes she irules the world by her sheer moral power,
which he terms virtud. She rules the world because she
males men and rules them by tears, love, persuasion,
and care. In short, she rules them by force of virtue.
In this drama Benavente seeks to show men and women
that the work of Spain's regeneration lies in their
hands, and that unless they accept their responsibil
ities, then they are failing to fulfill their obliga
tion to Spain.
The plays which have been studied thus far deal
chiefly with secial problems at the turn of the cen
tury. Benavente satirizes the bloated, complacent
society which had evolved in the years of Spain's mis
fortunes. At first he attacks Madrilenian society, ard
then he turns his attention to the towns in the prov
inces, which became the lawful prey of Madrid officials
La farandula^*^ (1897), is the first in a series
of three plays in which Benavente scourges the politi
cians, and lays bare the evils of caciquismo.
Gonzalo, an aspiring politician campaigning at
Moraleda, is staying at the home of Juan Manuel, a
wealthy land-owner. The entire household is busily
17 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916), Vol. 2.
39
engaged in preparations and activities for Gonzalo's
entertainment and his campaign.
Gonzalo'8 secretary, Aurelio, does not share this
enthusiasm for politics. After one season of elec
tioneering, he is completely disillusioned, for every
where he finds the same comedy being enacted, the same
speeches, the same political intrigue. The same trite
performance goes from place to place like the ancient
farandula, a traveling theatrical company.
While at the home of Juan Manuel, Aurelio meets
his former wife, Guadalupe, from ?feom he has been
separated for many years because Aurelio could not earn
a livelihood from his literary efforts.
Aurelio embarks upon a political career, but he is
so dismayed by the deceit and graft #iich are the com
mon practices among his friends that he renounces his
profession.
Now that Aurelio and Guadalupe are together again,
they are happy in their newly found love, peace, and
freedom from financial cares.
Benavente implies that one can only be happy when
he engages in scrupulous conduct, and when his life is
founded on love and truth, rather than on the hypocrisy
and Intrigue of contemporary Spain.
40
Aurelio represents Benavente, himself. He is the
"amiable cynic, that product of modern c iv i l i za t ion
whose cynicism Is an armour v^lch conceals a sensi t ive
hear t . "^^
Although Aurelio has sold his intel l igence to the
f i r s t man who wishes to u t i l i z e i t , yet he ra tes h i s
heart at a higher price.^^ Gonzalo thinks that Aurelio
has t a l en t for a po l i t i c a l career; he would l ike to
have him for a son-in-law. But Aurelio sees that the
body p o l i t i c of contemporary Spain is corrupt and de
moralized. Social in jus t ice outrages him; po l i t i c s
seem to him a business for "graf te rs . " By having him
renounce p o l i t i c s , ^ ^ Benavente seems to imply tha t if
one is to be happy, he must be governed by his con
science, t r u t h and love, not by the sham and hypocrisy
that make up current society. Typical of the principles
of the wri ters of '98, Benavente's hero scourges the
hypocrisy, greed, graf t , corrupt ion--social and p o l i t i -
ca l - - tha t prevail in the province.
18 Starkle, op. c i t . , p. 60.
19 . . . sin escrupulo vendi mi inteligencla al primero que quiso utilizarla; el corazon lo he t sado un poco m^s alto. (La farandula, I, xii, 130).
20 Yo, por mi", renuncio a la farandula. (Ibid., II, vii, 175).
41
The frivolity, idleness, and marasmo or abulia,
whleh grlovo the enthusiastic young writers of 1898,
are reflected in Guadalupe's speech. She describes
the young men of the upper class society who spend their
time in the Casino, gambling away their opportunity to
do anything creative or beneficial toward Spain"s
regenerat ion. -
The minor characters criticize the political
system. They believe that "politics la good, for vaga
bonds." .< (I, vi, 103). We find in these characters, as
well as in Guadalupe and Aurelio, an attitude of mind
and a conception of life which are fxmdamental in the
idealogy of the Generation of '98—a generation which
protested against the incompetence and corruption in
administrative offices, false elections, nepotism, and
many other illegal governmental practices. •
In La gobernadora^^ (1901), Benavente immasks the
sham and hypocrisy of a society that is calm and con
ventional on the surface, but immoral underneath. He
21 fOhl Los elegantes de Madrid son muy atentos con las damas^ Se pasan la vida en el Casino, no se ocupan en polp.tica; pero murmuran de toda el m\mdo, no hay reputacion para ellos, se juegan los olivares y las dehesas muy bonitamente. (Ibid., I, v, 104).
22 Segunda edicion (Libreri'a de Los Sue de Hernanao, Madria, 1916), Vol. 5.
42
continues to denounce political ideals and the evils
of caciquismo, as he presents a live and animated pic
ture of provincial customs.
The big square in Moraleda is the center of the
town's social life. As Damian serves coffee to his
customers who throng the square, we are introduced to
many characters and learn bits of gossip concerning the
celebrities of the town. We hear that Santiago, the
Governor, is completely dominated by his wife, Josefina
She is fascinated by the charm, ambition and strong
will-power of Santiago's secretary, Manolo.
Everyone is talking about the coming production.
ObscurantIsmo. The people want to see the play, but
the upper classes, dominated by the dignitaries of the
church, wish to prevent its production because of its
liberal tendencies. They seek help from Josefina.
She persuades the weak governor to forbid its produc
tion, although it is not contrary to law.
Santiago exercises no authority in his home or in
his office. Joseflna constantly reminds him that he
has no ambition and that she is responsible for what
ever degree of success he has attained.
Manolo is an ambitious young man who has gone to
the capital to seek his fortune. He is employed by
Santiago, and he promptly ingratiates himself with the
43
Governor's wife. Joseflna admires his strength of
will and spirit; she decides that he will marry
Esperanza, daughter of Don Baldomero, the rich cacique
of Moraleda.
Manolo and Baldomero quarrel. The rich capitalist
threatens to disclose a letter compromising Joseflna
and Manolo unless he leaves Moraleda. Manolo will not
be subdued by such threats; he determines to fight the
capitalist and the principles for which he stands. He
decides now that Joseflna should persuade the Governor
to allow the production of Obscurantismo in order to
win the people over to the side of the government.
The play concludes with Manolo's triumph. The
weak Governor never realizes why his people have
hissed, applauded, cheered and acclaimed him Adthin
one afternoon. 'Ye hear him ask himself: "How is one
going to govern his people?" Prom all these experi
ences he still has not learned to think for himself;
so he insists that Manolo stay in I..oraleda to help him
perform his duties.
The outcome of the well-known triangle is left to
the imagination of the spectators.
We are in difficulty if we try to determine who
is the biggest scoundrel: Santiago, the weak and vacil
lating Governor, his wife Joseflna, the gobernadora.
44
or his secretary, Manolo. Each one is strictly for
himself and "let the one fall who falls I" (III, i,
141). Benavente implies that all politicians are
selfish, envious and intolerant. Santiago thinks only
of maintaining his position; Joseflna desires a better
position for him, thus gaining a higher social stand
ing for herself. Manolo thinks only of his people,
the working class.
Santiago is the typically weak Generation hero.
He has no ambition, no will, or strength of character.
He is completely under the power of his wife, who
frequently reminds him that all of his mistakes are
due to lack of character. (II, iii, 99).
Santiago is the subject of ridicule because he is
unable to keep Joseflna under control; so his people
naturally conclude that he is unable to govern their
province. They realize that Joseflna is really the
governor; they know that she directs and influences
every decision that Santiago makes. Santiago would
like to follow the dictates of his own conscience, but
he lacks a normal power of volition to airect his course
of procedure. It is impossible for him to ignore
Joseflna's pleas. JVhen she threatens to leave Santiago
and go to Madrid if he does not forbid the production
of Obscurant ismo, v/e see him hesitate and finally yield
as he asks her the following questions:
45
d Pero tu crees que si no fuera por ti' dudaria yo un memento? Solo por ti vacilo todaviia y deseo, si deseo que haya un medio legal de faltar a la ley . . . Pero no me hables de marcharte a Madrid, ni llores, ni me recrimines . . .23
'JVhen Santiago sees that the peace of his home is
being disrupted, he yields completely to Joseflna's
will. His love for her is more Important than all the
governments. And thus, once more Benavente shows how,
even though a Spanish woman does not have political and
social rights, she may rule "her man" by her persuasion.
But Benavente does not approve of the manner in which
Joseflna uses her persuasion; he implies that women
must have better and more practical training (I, ix,
65) in order that they may use their "persuasion" to a
better advantage. Husbands and wives must work together,
share confidences and encouragement; they must develop
common interests; the Spaniard must accept his wife as
his equal. If men and women fall, or refuse to accept
their respective obligations, then they are falling to
fulfill their responsibility toward the regeneration of
Spain.
All the minor characters in La gobernadora illus
trate the modern tendencies of the new century; they
condemn caciquismo and the political practices, and
23 Ibid., II, ii, 85.
46
participation of women In civic affairs has led them
to the conclusion that "it is a woman's world."24
El prime Roman25 (1901) is the third in this
series of dramas in which Benavente satirizes the
political system, but El prime Roman differs from La
farandula and La gobernadora in that this drama ap
proaches the sentimental type of comedy.
El prime Roman is the story of a young man who
sacrifices love in order to fulfill his ambition to be
a politician.
The cOTjntry folk near Madrid are making last
minute preparations for the arrival of Roman, their
"city cousin," an aspiring politician who is coming
to the rural district seeking votes for the approach
ing election.
Cristeta, fruit of an unfortunate love affair,
lives in the country with Doiia Sglome, the wealthy
widow of her father. Cristeta's entire life has been
colored by sadness because of the circumstances of her
own life and the misfortunes that she sees in the rural
24 . . . Ya sabe que en este mimdo, y yo creo en el otro, todo es cuestic5n de faldas . . . (Ibid., I, vi, 44).
25 Segunda edicion (Libreria de Los Sue de iiernando, Madrid, 1916), Vol. 5.
47
vicinity. She believes that the election of her
cousin, Roman, will make everything right--the graft,
poverty and all other social and political evils will
be corrected.
When Roman arrives, Cristeta does everything to
make him comfortable; he never notices her efforts; he
scenes to expect them. He does observe that she is
like a cool drink of water here in Dona Salome's house
where gloom, pessimism, envy, and egoism prevail.
Unfortunately Cristeta falls in love with Roman.
She knows that she is out of his class, but it Is diffi
cult for her to realize how very hopeless the situa
tion is. Roman's presence in the house has changed '
the entire atmosphere. Por the first time there is
laughter at mealtime.
Nothing is important to Roman except the fulfill
ment of his ambition. Love is an obstacle to ambition.
7/hy be Antony v/hen one might be Caesar? By devious and
questionable means Roman wins the election. He pre
pares to leave. y
A day in the hot sun securing votes for Ror,:an has
made Cristeta very ill. A severe headache, aggravated
by disappointment, makes her delirious. Her confidant,
Iviajin, delays Roman's departure because his leaving is
the chief cause of Cristeta's illness.
48
Roman hears Cristeta talking in her delirium. He
learns that she loves him. He tells her he is inter
ested in a political career, which does not permit one
to be involved in love affairs. But he tells her that
he will remember her. Llajin consoles Cristeta; he
tells her that Rom^ is leaving because he is ambitious,
but that some day he will remember her when it shall
be too late.
A lack of balance in essential qualities drives
Roman to employ every artifice within his power to ful
fill his desire to be a politiciin. He does not want
to be inconvenienced in any way; he wants complete
freedom in order to devote all of his time to the pur
suit of his ambition. He will beg or deceive, buy or
sell to further his purpose.
It is characteristic of the spirit of the age
which engendered him that Roman feels no pride in the
history of Spain. Those stories of Isabel la Cato-
lica, and the conquest of Granada are pure "nonsense."
(Ill, 1, 276).
Roir.an is not interested in anything which wil l
not promote him social ly or p o l i t i c a l l y . I t is d i f f i
cult for him to remain in the ri^ral areas long enough
to take care of h i s dut ies ; he is not Interested in
49
the people or their problem.s. He is interested only
in securing their votes for his elect ion.^^
Preoccupied with his own interests, Ro an feels
no need for love and companionship. He believes that
love is a disturbing force in one's life. It seems
that Roman really loves Cristeta, a lovely young girl,
uneducated, but beautiful in her childlike and unso
phisticated manner. But Roman's love is not sufficient
to compete with his ambition. He lacks the balance
between his capacity for love and his desire for poli
tical glory which makes these qualities function more
or less harmoniously in the average man.
If this little world in which Cristeta lives were
all there is to be gained, Roman might be satisfied,
but he knows there is more and he wants it. There are
moments when he almost wins our admiration, but the
thought soon vanishes when he expresses a thought like
this because we know that it does not ring true:
iDichoso yo, si fuera tan egoista que no me
27 importaria hacerte desgraciadal
Roman is the archetype of the Generation hero. He
not only is selfish, but also is made cruel and sarcastic
26 Las espaldas en cuanto cojo yo mi acta . (Ibid., II, vi, 239).
27 Ibid., Ill, V, 291.
TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE
LUBBOCK, TEXAS
LIBRARY •IW
50
by his egoism. Roman assures Majin that "time and
absence are very powerful remedies," but Majin knows
that Cristeta will never forget Roman. It is really
quite unimportant to Roman whether she does, as is
seen in his reply to Majin:
En fin si usted la quiere tanto, used la consolarsf.SB
Cristeta reflects the spirit of other heroines of the
literatTire of '98 vi en she perceives the hopelessness
of her love. There is nothing that she can do. Roman
is going away and "the house will be sad as it was
before."
The pessimism of the writers of '98 is reflected
throughout the drama. Through his characters Benavente
makes us behold the evils of society: graft, unbal
anced marriage, inordinate love of money, and many
other faults. He seems to conclude that the more we
realize how deep the evils are, the less capable we
are of remedying them.
La cludad alegre y conflada^^ (1916) is the last
and most recent of the nine plays which have formed ths
basis of this study. In this drama of the city that
is "gay and confident" Benavente has sought to mirror
28 Ibid., Ill, 1, 279.
29 Te rce r a e d i c i o n ( L i b r e r i a de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916) , Vol . 2 3 .
51
the vacillating policy of Spain before the first world
war. Newspaper articles*^^ published in Spain in 1916
show that many of the foremost intellectuals of Spain
were pro-German. Most of the business men v;ere pro-
Ally, and some literary men enthusiastically espoused
the cause of the Allies. But among many there was
vacillation, and it is this fluctuation of mind that
the author seeks to portray.
El Desterrado (The Exile), a great popular leader,
returns to his native land to find a confused spirit
of social unrest, superficial gaiety, and impending
disaster. He presents the author's views on the poli
tics of Spain. El Desterrado tries to arouse a spirit
of patriotism and loyalty to the City-state. He has
difficulty convincing his compatriots that they have
anything to defend.
Public, the demagogue, would like to obtain El
Desterrado for his friend so that they might work to
gether against Crispin, the ruler. El Desterrado
aligns himself with Crispin, el Magnifico, because he
understands Public's ulterior motives. El Desterrado's
son, Lauro, is engaged to Julia, Crispin's daughter.
The Venet:ians are going to declare v/ar on the City,
using as a pretext the City's friendship with the
30 Starkle, op. cit., pp. 40-41.
52
Genoese, unless they submit to the strictest and most
humiliating peace terms* El Desterrado knows that the
real reason is greed and a lust for power.
While Pantaldn, a rich capitalist, and Public
worry over the loss of their property if there is war.
El Desterrado tries to convince his fellow-men that they
must fight for their country, or they will become slaves
of the Venetians.
Crispin knows there is no chance for victory
because his people are unprepared and they have no will
to fight. They feel no sense of patriotism toward the
City. He makes peace with the enemy, knowing that he
will be branded as a traitor. The people revolt and
he allows himself to be killed. He believes that his
death will reawaken their spirit of patriotism.
As the curtain falls on the ruins of the city we
see Pantaldn, who has gone mad, shouting for his ducats,
while El Desterrado mourns for his son, and all the other
sons who have fought and lost the battle.
The attitude of the fictional heroes is uniformly
hostile. They .criticize civilized society in general,
but their caustic remarks become more bitter when they
refer to actual contemporary Spanish life. In his early
dramas, and particularly in Lo cursi. La faraidula, and
La gobernadora, Benavente satirizes and laments the
prevailing political and social structure, but his
53
first real, outspoken criticism of official Spain
appears in La cludad alegre y confiada.
The author portrays these gay and confident men
and women with equal disdain; the women are shallow
and too compromising; the husbands are conceited and
unfaithful; the young men are idlers; they are not
interested in serious matters; war is disagreeable, so
they refuse to discuss its possibility. Their con
versation consists chiefly of discussions of amuse
ments or other personal Issues. In contrast to these
characters and to other Benaventian heroes in this
group of plays. El Desterrado is a great popular leader
who represents honesty and good sense. He is the
"real man" spoken of in the prologue.
The solemn words of El Desterrgdo have a peculiar
ring in this city where the young men of the upper
classes are momentarily engaged in celebrating the
advent of a famous dancer, Girasol. El Desterrado is
the apostle of bitter truths, the one who reveals the
deceit and disguise that make up their dally lives.
He represents common sense among this array of indi
viduals who are inexorably bringing about the destruc
tion of their city and themselves by their selfishness,
greed and ignorance.
As a true son of the Generation of 1898, Benavente
has a vision of a regenerated Spain that is vigorous.
54
courageous, and energetic. Benavente's hero has that
vision too. El Desterrado is the one character in the
play who can see what is wrong with Spain, the only
one who is impelled to do something about it. He can
view his country objectively, for he has just returned
from exile. While he was away from his native land,
he has learned the full meaning of patriotism and his
speeches are filled with noble and stirring sentiments.
Away from home, one learns that:
. . . no hay rosas como sus rosas; que no hay puestas del sol como las de su cielo; que lejos de la patria al recordarla, una flor, un celaje, bastan para encender el corazc^ en amor patrio.31
El Desterrado's experiences are the same as Unamuno's,
who was banished from Spain for his outspoken cry against
tyranny. The vision of a glorious Spain was forever
before him and gave him consolation while he was away
from his native land.
El Desterrado would have his fellow-men seek strength
and idealism in their own traditions and in their own
literature, but he finds difficulty in influencing men
who are filled with the pessimism of the Generation of
1898. They have no pride in their country, no intia-
tlve nor will; they have no confidence in a government
which they believe "elevates only those who have no
31 La cludad alegre y confiada, I, v, 43
55
talent." (I, 111, 136). They do not believe that
there Is a need for ships and soldiers—there is
nothing to defend. What difference would it make if
it were lost? Spain has nothing to be proud of except
her "dancing girls, ?her horse trainers, and her
beggers." (I, ill, 136).
The people are indifferent and afraid. El Des
terrado would show them that in a democracy people
should speak up, that it is not the leaders who are to
blame; it is the people. El Desterrado criticizes
their lack of will. He knows that his people should
be strengthened and drawn closer together as a result
of their humiliation and defeat, but in his heart he
understands why they are not, ^j they could not have
won the contest and why they never will. We hear him
say to himself that
La vida fuerte y vigorosa, la plenltud de vida, lo que era necesario para triunfar. . ., no podia ser ... . ya desespero que pueda ser nunca . . .32
It is not difficult to find a profound relationship
between El Desterrado's attitude and conception of life
and those of the fictional hero of 1898. It is a
"defeatist" psychology that is typical of the litera
ture of that period. The characters have no faith in
32 Ibid., II, ix, 248.
56
action, because they have no faith in the ultimate
reality of the world.
The desire to reform is common to all the Genera
tion. All the writers dream of a consistent and united
Spain made'up of the Spanish soil, of the past, and
the future. They all agree that change is the solu
tion to the "Problema de Espana." The writers of '98
reflect the spirit of their time by their hesitation,
uncertainty, and inability to set up a constructive
program. Benavente poses a problem and leaves the
solution to his readers. Azorin would like to do some
thing important in the life of Spain, but he admits
that he is powerless to achieve his goal because he is
"a man of his time. "33
Thus it is seen that the heroes studied in this
series of plays are poisoned by the melancholia,
abulia, and egoism which characterize the protagonist
of the literature of 1898. In nany cases external
action is reduced to a minimum, and the drama consists
of the inner conflict in the mind of the hero between
tv70 lines of conduct, as is illustrated through Andres
(Alma triunfante). The Benaventian hero is a "man of
his time," for as I have tried to demonstrate, he is
33 "Soy un hombre de mi tiempo." La Voluntad, cited by Entralgo, £p. cit., p. 310.
57
unable to achieve the things of which he is easily
capable because of inherent weaknesses. Forever
analyzing his motives, he dissipates all his generous
energies to the extent that he has nothing left with
which to conduct the ordinary business of life.
In the following chapter I shall attempt to
present Benavente's ideas regarding the r^le of women
in the regeneration of Spain.
CHAPTER III
WOMAN'S ROLE IN SPAIN'S REGENERATION AS SEEN BY BENAVENTE
One of the chief alms of the writers of 1898 is
to regenerate Spain. They all agree that the Spaniard
must be changed, but they vary in their suggestions
and implications as to how it may be done. Benavente
believes that the responsibility of the revival of
Spain lies in the women, and further, that they are
the only ones who are capable of achieving the desired
goal.
He, therefore, seeks to make women his most
original and most intense characters, and those of
greatest moral strength. In many of his plays and
certainly in all those studied here, he has given the
noble parts to women and he has portrayed the man as
egotistical and unfaithful. His feminine characters
are not candid, emotional or depraved types; they are
women of the general average, whose vices and virtues
make out an even balance. Their originality probably
lies in Benavente's effort to see them as they see
themselves, and as they see each other. He has no
illusions about his heroines; he analyzes them with
strict impartiality and reveals their complex char
acters with a deep psychological knowledge and power.
His wide range of topics may include anything from the
59
prattle incident to choosing a cost\ime for the opera
to a conversation full of tragic foreboding between
peasant women.
As a child, Benavente, with his mother, made
frequent visits in the homes of women of the upper
middle class, never realizing that these visits were
to give him the basis for a deep understanding of
feminine psychology. He is able to expose the feminine
soul just as it reveals itself under the most intimate
circumstances, as wife, mother, mistress, or sister.
In El nido ajeno Benavente develops the idea that
no intruder has the right to share "another's nest."
Behind this theme he implies that the women are capable
of regenerating Spain by their love, kindness, patience,
persuasion, and tears.
Karia is a typical heroine of the literature of
1898; she is patient, self-sacrificing, and resigned.
Sadness is the key-note of her existence. She is kind,
affectionate, and tender; her life revolves around her
home and her husband, who is egotistical, melancholy,
and unco-operative. Maria understands and expects to
give herself completely to the duties and obligations
imposed by Spanish traditions, regarding the wife's
place in the home. Every personal desire and pleasure
is subjected to that of her husband. When Emilia
invites her to go to the theatre, it is necessary that
60
Jose Luis decide the issue. Maria is resigned to
living a retired, secluded life, but in her heart she
is a typical woman. 'JlHien Jose^Luis decides that they
will go to the theatre, we can see just how feminine
she is, as she anticipates the pleasure that is in
store for her. Her excitement and delight over the
new jewels that she will wear for the first time, and
the eternal question, "What shall I wear?"^ make her
forget the earlier fear of her husband's refusal.
This little moment of feminine vanity is soon
changed to one of humiliation. Jose Luis suffers an
attack of indigestion and he refuses to accompany her
to the theatre. Maria is accustomed to this kind of
treatment. Patience and resignation are traditional
characteristics in the Spanish woman, so Maria complains
very little. Benavente believes that the patience and
resignation, kindness and love of the wife can change
her husband. Benavente holds that she is the "angel"
of the household, and that through her the husbands
and fathers of Spain will be, or at least can be,
cured of their moral illness. Maria's innocence and
patience will ultimately cure Jose Luis and "save" her
marriage.
I
1 . . . Vamos de nocne y al teatro RealI . . . no se que vestido ponerme . . . (El nido ajeno, II, 11, 43).
61
Jose Luis never egresses his love for Maria; he
never shares confiaences with her, nor does he discuss
his business with her. The men of Spain require much
patience on the part of their wives, and Maria makes
constant sacrifices. The difficulty is that with all
her self-denial she has not succeeaed in making ner
husband happy. Benavente implies that Jose Luis's
love, based on desire, does not bring happiness, but
that Maria's patient, faithful, and sane love is that
which endures, and has the power to restore peace of
mind and spirit. Benavente seeks to show women in
Spain that they should become interested in their hus
bands' affairs and other Interests outside the home,
in order that they may be better companions, because
he believes that Spain's regeneration must begin in
the home, and that their country's regeneration depends
upon them.
•^ Lo cursi Benavente presents his ideas of the
role of Spanish women through tia Flora and the old
Marquis and, in a lesser degree, through the heroine,
Rosario, and through other minor characters. Althou^
Benavente is consi'v ered by many as a leader of mod
erns, he is not a passionate inodernist. In spite of
v,is assimilation of modern, literary, and social
theories, he is basically conservative. Through tia
Flora, Benavente expresses disapproval of the espiritu
62
moderno, which al lows a new s t andard of conduct for
young p e o p l e . In o rde r t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , t ne g i r l s
must have a f r e e and bold manner with men and e v e r y
body. They engage in s p o r t s t h a t convent ion a s s i g n s
on ly t o men.
Rosar io t r i e s t o d i s r e g a r d t i a F l o r a ' s remarks ,
bu t she i s r e a l l y q u i t e d i s t u r b e d . Pear of be ing
c u r s i p r e v e n t s he r from conf ron t ing Agustin wi th he r
problems; so she and h e r husband go on offending and
worrying each o t h e r , f a i l i n g t o face t h e t r u t h and d i s
g u i s i n g t h e i r r e a l s e n t i m e n t s . Rosar io defends he r
husband by saying t h a t t h e yoimg l a d i e s who v i s i t him
a r e only "good f r i e n d s " and t h a t t h e y a re very " e n t e r
t a i n i n g . " When t i 'a F l o r a exp l a in s t h a t men never
marry " e n t e r t a i n i n g " women, Agust in d e c l a r e s t h a t
Se casan con l a s que a b u r r e n . 2
Here aga in Benavente impl ies t h a t t h e Spanish woman
should broaden h e r l i f e and should develop common in te r -
e s t s w i t h h e r husband so t h a t she can make he r mar r iage
more e n d u r i n g .
The Marquis i s a f r a i d t h a t h i s s o n ' s marr iage
w i l l not l a s t , so he t r i e s t o show Agust in and Rosar io
t h e e v i l s of t he c u r r e n t fash ion of s e p a r a t i o n due t o
" i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y . " A g u s t i n ' s aunt Vq len t lna and imcle
2 Lo c u r s i , I , 11 , 74 .
63
Caspar are "amicably separated." Benavente spares no
device to show that he does not sanction such an
arrangement. A woman should stay with her husband and
rear a family. Her children should have a chance to
know their father, and not simply to visit with him
occasionally. She and her husband should set the proper
example by their own habits and manner of living. They
should provide proper reading materials for their
daughters. Through tia Flora and the Marquis, Bena
vente endeavors to show Rosario that she has no right
to go out alone, that she is doing the wrong thing
when she apparently condones her husband's conduct, that
in trying to be distinctive, she is being very common.
Benavente frowns on these young people who seek com
panionship away from home. It is all "very modern, very
English, and very chic," but it is too modern for Bena
vente. He allovjs other characters to make disapprov
ing comments. Flora, for example, voices the author's
objection, as she questions Rosario when she returns
from a ride vith Carlos.'^ Benavente again urges that
husbands and wives build up more companionship, for he
is aware that emotional security is far more important
that financial security.
3 c' y Lola? 4 Coipo no ha venido contigo? (Ibid., II, iv, 113).
64
Rosario's life is typical of the Spanish woman of
1898. Her husband never encourages her; he never ex
presses his love for her, and she has nothing except
financial security. She longs for someone in whom she
can confide, so she resorts to intrigue. This is dis
tasteful to her; she has been reared to love and respect
Spanish traditions, but her husband tells her that it
is cursi to be governed by old ideals. True to the
generation in which she lives, Rosario is perplexed,
anxious, and torn by doubts. She is incapable of mak
ing decisions."^ Rosario is not, and can not be the
"modern" woman that her husband wants her to be. \Vh.en
she decides that separation is the only answer to her
problem., tia Flora shows her that divorce is not the
solution. She shows her that by being herself, the
kind, patient woman that she really is, she will tri
umph in the end. In Lo cursi and in El nido ajeno,
both heroines, Rosario and Maria respectively, save
their marriages and consequently their homes because
of their moral goodness and strength of character.
Benavente believes that in virtue there is strength,
and he makes his women powerful in their virtue. These
4 No se'; no tengo plan. Espero el ultimo fii^ur^. Porque hay figurines tambie'n para el alm a, querida tia, y mi m.arido quiere que seamos distinguidos a todo trance. (Ibid., II, v, 122).
65
heroines are strong in their duty, purity, and womanly
qualities; thus, they are able to triumph over their
husbands and bring them back to rectitude.
Benavente believes that women are capable of mak
ing greater sacrifices than men. The thought is devel
oped especially in the two plays Sacrlficios and Alma
triunfante. So charmed are we by the evolution of the
heroines in these plays that we often forget the
existence of the m ale characters.
Sacrlficios demonstrates the spirit of sacrifice
of two women, both supremely Spanish, for their ability
to renounce and sublimate human instincts. The drama
is a delicate presentation of the feminine soul in
which the author has attempted to observe the subcon
scious minds of his characters. To a greater extent
even than in Lo cursi Benavente reveals the need for
emotional security in Spain. He strives to show in
this play that the Spanish woman, in her desire to
achieve financial security for herself, may lose her
em.otional security. She must not allo". ambition to
keep her from love, for only in love is her life ful
filled.
Alma is one of Benavente's strong heroines; her
masterful mind dominates the entire play. But even
she reflects the spirit of the protagonists of the lit
erature of 1898. Her love for the theatre and her
66
desire to obtain financial security for her sister and
herself have repressed and smothered her natural desire
for emotional security so long that now she is unable
to obtain it.
Alma is a talented singer; she has won world
acclaim, but she is not happy. When the play opens,
we find her at the country home of her singing-master,
the egotistical Esteban. Alma is in love with Rieardo,
who tries to show Esteban that even though Alma is a
great artist, she is first of all a woman with a soul—
a woman who needs love and companionship. Benavente
believes that every woman has the right to love and
happiness derived from normal instincts.
Alma had longed for the quietude of the country,
but she has become restless; she misses the excite
ment of the theatre. The jealousies, applauses, and
triumphs of an artist's life have left an indelible
impression in her mind and heart. She enjoys the love
and admiration of the audience. She says that there
is no other love like it,^ so she sacrifices her love
for Rieardo in favor of her art. She determines that
he shall marry her sister, and she returns to the
theatre. But Alma does not find happiness there. She
5 . . . Es un completo amor que a ningun otro se parece. (Sacrlficios, I, iii, 226).
67
had believed that her plan would be a pleasant arrange
ment, but now she finds that she is.jealous of her
sister. She realizes that she has made a dreadful mis
take. She tells us that reality
. . . es no pedir a la vida lo que no puede dar . . .La realidad es no creernos mas grandes, ni mas generosos, ni mejores de lo que somos; es conocernos y aceptarnos como somos, buenos o males, vlvir nuestra vida, seguir nuestro camino, que es el unico mode de no ser un obstaculo en la vida de los demas.6
Alma has worked and sacrificed all her life; now she
realizes that her sacrifices have been made in vain.
She has never really lived. Por the first time, her
own desires have become paramount in her mind. She
sees that she has lied to her heart.' The glories of
being an artist can never compensate for the emptiness
in Alma's heart.
'•Jhlle visiting in her sister's home. Alma observes
that Doll and Rieardo are not happy together; she is
more undecided than ever, as the following conversation
with Rieardo will show:
Rieardo: . . . dHas hallado por fin tu camino? Alma: No lo se''. Cuando se huye, no se elige el
camino.Q
6 Ibid., II, iii, 240.
7 fOhl Las ^entiras de nuestro corazon I Los grandes sacrlficiosI . . . Pretender no querer . . . cuando se quiere con toda la energia de nuestra voluntadl (Ibid., II, iv, 247).
8 Ibid., II, iii, 241.
68
Rieardo tries to persuade her that they can still
enjoy their love, but Alma knows too well that they
have lost their opportunity to find hap-oiness. She
says that
La dlcha no nos espera; cuando volvemos creyendo encontrarla, solo hallamos su espectro, el espectro de la dlcha que asesinamos.^
Alma and Rieardo have played a cruel game -dth their
hearts, and the innocent as well as they must suffer
for it.
Benavente believes that love, life, and duty are
the sa:e for us all; the artist does not belong to
another category. He believes that any woman must
build up emotional security for herself by seeking ani
accepting love and happiness when they come her way.
As a true son of the Generation of 1898, Benavente
also desires independence and better education for the
masses; he is especially interested in better educa
tion and more independence for women. Doll, for exam
ple, wants to teach music so that she will not be
forced to depend on her sister. Alma, for financial
assistance. It seems that Benavente wants the Spanish
woman to remain patient, resigned, and submissive, but,
at the sam.e time, he sees that she needs the ability to
9 Ibid., Ill, vi, 264.
69
earn a livelihood if the occasion should arise.
Benavente wants her to be resourceful without being
masculine.
In Alma triunfante Andr^ agrees to the Padre's
austere terms that he renounce his love for Emilia,
mother of his little daughter. He lacks the moral
strength, however, to carry out the Padre's decree.
It is necessary then for his wife to make the sacri
fice. Isabel is the traditional Spanish woman, strong
in her faith, willing to sacrifice herself, or to make
the most superhuman sacrifices in order to preserve
her home. Benavente believes it is a woman's duty to
stay with her husband, even though he has offended her
and given cause for jealousy. Realizing that she is
an obstacle to her husband's love for E nilia, Isabel
would like to feign a relapse of her former Illness
and return to the mental hospital. But Padre Victor
assures her that her duty is to stay at home. He
tells her
No, tu deber esta aqui; no puedes destruir •un Sacramento santo, no puedes ser ocasion de nuevo pec ado; . . .-'•
Because she is kind, compassionate and forgiving, Isabel
agrees to remain with her husband and help re- r his
daughter as if the child were her own.
10 Alma triunfante. III, iv, 60.
70
In these two plays, Sacrlficios and Alma triun
fante, Benavente seems to sum up his philosophy regard
ing women's sacrifice. He believes that women draw
strength and courage from their virtue; thus, they are
capable of making greater sacrifices than men. They
are not afraid because they are strong in their sense
of duty, purity, and womanly qualities. They will sac
rifice their love for the happiness of others; they
accept the doctrine of resignation and renunciation.
The Benaventian woman will number among her many
virtues that of intelligence and clear thinking. Isa
bel sees, understands, and forgives the precautions
that her family observes in order to conceal Andres's
sin from. her. ""(inien she begs them to accept her as one
of the fam.lly and as one of the same level of intelli
gence, she is not merely thinking of her own desire to
be comfortable and well adjusted, she is also being the
new woman that Benavente envisages for Spain. That
woman is entitled to love, confidence, respect and sym
pathy from her husband.
The role of women in the regeneration of Spain is
evident in all of Benavente's dranas, but particularly
in Rosas de otono. The author symbolizes in Isabel's
virtuous character the redeeming power of woman, and
no play shows more completely her mission of purifica
tion. In Isabel, Benavente again portrays the lovinr.
71
patient, and resigned woman who forgives all her
husband's infidelities and waits patiently for a return
of his affection. She knows better than to advise her
husband or to oppose him, but Benavente shows that she
is the one person capable of "making over" her man.
Although she and Gonzalo's daughter, Maria Antonia,
Inwardly rebel against a society which permits and
accepts such unequal standards for men and women, Isabel
v:ill not allow reprisals against the indignities that
they they suffer. The only thing to do is to wait until,
by sheer personal and moral strength, she can influence
and persuade her husband that her way is better. And that
is just what Isabel does. She carries on a revolution
in her home and Gonzalo, the traditional Don Juan, is
redeemed. In this drama Benavente attributes to strong
and virtuous women, especially the mothers of families,
the r6le of family regulator or director.
Rosas de otono is a poignant satire on the position
of Spanish women in m.atrimony. As has been previously
noted, Benavente desires that the Spanish woman keep
her traditional qualities, but he resents any infringe
ment on her kindness and patience. He implies that men
are what they are because their wives are too good.
Women must no longer allow their men the freedom to
transgress as they have in the past. They must demand
a change. .Spaniards must accept their wives as
72
their equals. If only the men of Spain would measure
up to the moral stature of their women, Spain would be
not only saved, but spiritually reborn. Benavente
continues his feminist theory in La farandula, where
he allows Gonzalo, the aspiring politician, to tell
us that
La mano que mece la cuna, mueve el mundo.-^^
In spite of women's dependence and their lack of free
dom in Spain, they rule their men, their homes, and
ultimately their country by their love, care, persua
sion, and tears.
Unlike the other heroes studied in this series of
plays, Aurelio appreciates and is inspired by the
truthfulness and sincerity that his wife possesses.
He finds consolation for the disillusionment that he
feels as a result of the hypocrisy and sham: that pre
vail among his friends and business associates. Here
again Benavente emphasizes the beneficent influence of
women, as Guadalupe helps her husband secure the peace
and happiness that he so desires.
Guadalupe is one of Benavente's less striking
heroines, but she presents a modern idea of the
11 La farandula, I, vi, 108.
73
author, as she protests against the "double standard"
in Spain.-^^
The heroine in La gobernadora has absorbed all
the dangerous notions of an Ibsenlan heroine. It
seems that Benavente is wavering between two ideas
concerning his women characters. Will she be modern
or traditional? But Benavente is Spanish, and his
women are Spanish. Santiago voices the author's opin
ion that women should be queens of the households and
not the governors.
Joseflna exerts an Influence over her husband that
is entirely different from that studied thus far. She
is one of Benavente's wise heroines who works her will
upon her husband and the surrounding society through a
subtle knowledge of human nature. She has made her
husband and she knows how to recall every detail of the
making in order to gain some new end. She can switch
back and forth between two decisions with complete
ease if the new occasion offers more opportunity, or Is
better suited to her personal interests. She is imper
ious with Santiago. She obtains the favors that she
wants by demanding them, and then uses her feminine
12 Pobres de nosotrasl Los hombres teneis vuestra vida privada y vuestra vida publlca . . . vida de art is-tas, de sabios, y . . . de politicos. Cometeis bajezas, deslealtades, tralclones, y todavla parecels honrados. Las pobres mujeres, no tenemo^ mas que una vida, nuestra vida . . . Si en ella cometleramos una sola de vuestras faltas, no habri'a indulgencla para nosotros. (Ibid., II, vii, 173).
74
wllies to conquer him completely.-^^ When Santiago
determines what to do, Joseflna deno\mces his decision,
each time further breaking down his feeble attempts to
act on his own resources. He admits his inability to
cope with his wife.^^
Joseflna has been educated in Madrid; she is
charming and alluring, but she is flighty and unsteady.
She is irresistibly attracted to Manolo; she admires
the qualities in him that she does not find in San-
tiago'. Manolo is amhitious, capable and strong; he
has will power and character; he will fight for the
things that he wants. He finds support for his ambi
tions in Joseflna, and so he is happy to serve her.
Manolo recognizes her dignity and ability, and she is
flattered. Santiago appreciates her charm and femi
ninity, but he overlooks her dignity and Intelligence.
Josefina resents her husband's flatteries and his
desire to shield her from political cares. She real
izes that she has made him what he is and she is deter
mined to go on. She has worked hard and made sacrifices;
13 Ya estoy contenta, buenq dlo ves? Mira que facil es contentarme. Dame un abrazo; otro. Que'' bueno eres en el fondol jCua'nto te quierol (La goi'ernadora, II, 11, 87).
14 Quislera yo haber visto^a Richelieu, a Felipe II, a cualquier gran politico con una mujer como 6sta. (Ibid., II, vi, 103).
75
now he must recognize her opinions^^ and her dignity.
Benavente believes that women should influence their
husbands gently, by co-operating, rather than by tak
ing over the men's jobs. He does not advocate the
entrance of women into politics and business. Par
from it. He advocates better and more practical edu
cation in order that they may be more understanding of
their husbands, and their husb^^nds' business; and thus
a more closely knit family life would be established
and through it, Spain could be regenerated.
In El prime Roman, as in most of his plays, Bena
vente idealizes woman. To Benavente she personifies
the spirit of sacrifice, kindness, and compassion.
The heroine, a lovely young uneducated country girl,
loves Roman. His desire to be a successful politician
pushes all thought of love from his mind. As in
Sacrlficios, the underlying idea of the story is that
we should not let egoistic desire keep us from love,
for only through love, truth, and fulfillment of obli
gation, can one be completely happy.
Benavente seem s to waver between tenderness and
irony, i ien he softens his bitter irony, it is to
evoke the charming figure of a girl heroine who is to
15 Seras capaz de decir que no haces mas que lo que yo quiero; que yo soy la Gobernadora. (Ibid,, II, ii, 87).
76
be contrasted with her brutal surroundings. We are
Introdaeed te Cristeta through the conversation of the
other characters in the play. She is a victim of cir
cumstances and is entirely at the mercy of others. She
appeals to the spectator .immediately; she is the acme
of self-sacrifice.
Roman's coming to the rural districts to secure
votes for the approaching election and his short visit
in the home of his aimt. Dona Salome', have brought
Cristeta the only happiness that she has ever known.
She feels a sincere need for affection and companionship
and she longs for Roman's love. He believes that a
life devoted to love is a useless life; however, Cris
teta is certain that a life devoted to love and service
is a useful life. She enjoys helping others.-^^ She
finds happiness in the fact that Majm, a faithful old
servant of her father, needs and appreciates her affec
tion and confidence.- *''
In El prime Roman, Benavente further emphasizes
the importance of education for women because he believes
that the hope for Spain's future lies in her women.
16 . . . Lo (que?) quisiera es servir para algo . . . (El prime Romd^, I, vlii, 206).
17 Tu me quieres a mi, yo a ti: ya servimos para algo. (Ibid., I, vlii, 207).
. j i j i j i j i j i j i
77
Cristeta realizes that she has no education, and
Benavente implies that she is at a distinct disadvan
tage because she is uneducated. Although the author
thoroughly disapproves of Roman's conduct, he seems to
indicate that Cristeta would have a better chance to
win his love if she were of the same Intellectual
level, and if she held common interests with him. The
author allows Amalla, one of the minor characters in
the play, to suggest that they place Cristeta in "a
good college." (I, iv, 202).
Speaking of marrlAge, Roman says that "mutual
confidence, absolute independence, and good education
are more essential to happiness than the most tender
affection." But Benavente seems to believe that
mutual confidence, respect, education, and the "most
tender affection" are the essentials of happiness. He
implies that Roman will be unhappy lafcen he realizes
too late that he has permitted love to pass by.
Dona Salome , with whom Cristeta lives, is the
wealthy widow of her father. Although Salome does not
have the right to vote, her influence Is a thing to be
desired and sought after because she is the "queen of
half the province." Salome realizes that she influences
many people who work her land in the surrounding com-
m\mity. She resents Roman's representing himself as
her nephew, and as her "favorite" for the election.
78
because she disapproves of his political tactics.
The influence of the other country women is seen in
their conversations at the well. They resent the
indifference of politicians after they are elected;
officials should recognize their needs and abolish
existing social and political evils. They will not
permit their husbands to go to the voting places be
cause they say that "all the men are drunk, . . . one
little drink here, another one there, . . . " As a
result of the influence of these wives, their men do
not vote. Benavente's observations of men's behavior
seem to lead him to think they assume all the rights
and privileges in modern Spanish society, but the ele-
mient, or faction, that really counts and that really
guides the destinies of Spain is the woman. Por this
reason Benavente seeks to educate the Spanish woman so
that she can be more understanding and lend her influ
ence more intelligently because she m.akes men, and
ultimately should rule them.
Contrary to his usual procedure, Benavente has
not made the heroine of La cludad alegre y confiada
stronger than his hero. In fact, there is no real
heroine in the truest sense of the word. The women
assu-e a minor role so far as action is concerned, but
Benavente implies that there is much they should do if
Spain is to be regenerated. And it is to be noted that
79
the author has become much more skeptical and pessi-
mistic than he was when Rosas de otono was produced
eleven years before. In La cludad alegre y confiada
the author's discouragement and alarm are reflected in
all of the characters. They have an "air of forlorn
sadness, as if the days were always dark and dreary."
The superficial gaiety and calm that so permeated Spain
after her disastrous defeat in 1898 are now anxiety and
fear. The entire drama is developed in an atmosphere
of uneasiness and indifference. Madrilenian society is
still Benavente's favorite subject, but he is no longer
satirical and mocking. Now he interprets this society
with love and pity. The people try to hide their con
cern for the City-state behind a mask of animation, but
there is no sincerity in the m.erriment—there is only
pessimism. They are celebrating the arrival of Girasol,
a famous dancer--at least the men are. The women view
her coming with m.ixed emotions. Julia, the younger and
inexperienced, tries, in vain, to convince Silvia that
Girasol has no ulterior motives. But Silvia knows that
her husband Leandro neglects her and spends his time
wooing the beautiful bailarina. Like so many other
Spanish women, Silvia's obligation to her children and
to her home supersedes her personal and patriotic duty.
Suddenly she has awakened to the realization that her
80
husband no longer loves her, and there is nothing that
she can do. She is helpless as she regards her prob
lem; she is worried about her home, her children, and
the future of Spain. She expresses her fears to Julia
in these words:
• . . Cuando yo me creia dlchosa en el amor de Leandro, que poco pensaba en las intrigas del Gobierno y de su politica, que''poco me preocupaba la intervencion de mi padre en esos traficos y negocios que son escandalo de la Ciudadl Ahora, todo me asusta; perdido el amor de mi esposo, so'lo me queda el amor de mis hijos . . . y tiemblo por ellos.18
Benavente once again shows the Spanish woman that
she, herself, is to a great extent responsible for her
emiOtional security, that she should learn more about
her husband's type of employment, and how he spends
his idle ho\irs.
The dramatist reveals to the Spanish wom.an that her
horizon is very limited; apparently it does not occur
to her that she should develop new interests. Her
education consists chiefly of traditions and exper
ience, her own, her mother's, and her grandm.other's.
Silvia's narrow conception of life leads her to conclude
that men miarry for money. She assures Julia that her
marriage to Lauro will bring disillusionment, just as
her ovim marriage to Leandro has. Silvia resents the
18 La cludad alegre y confiada, I, ix, 164
81
strong sense of obligation that parents feel for their
children because they lose sight of their obligations
to each other. She complains to Julia, saying
Pero . . . des que debemos pensar solo en
nuestros hijos?^9
Benavente wants husbands and wives to have time not
only for their children, but also for each other. He
tries to make the woman aware of her obligation to
herself, as well as to her family. The Spanish woman
feels a sincere need for love and companionship, but
she unwittingly neglects her opportunity to secure
them.
Girasol's confidante, Colombina, reprimands
Leandro for his Interest in Girasol; she reminds him
that at the time he and Silvia were married,, everyone
believed their happiness and love would endure for
ever. They would be like Romeo and Juliet. Leandro
seems to express Benavente's opinion that marriages
are monotonous and uneventful in Spain,^^ so that one
must seek entertainment and companionship elsewhere.
Benavente believes that it is the duty of women to
19 Ibid., I, ix, 164.
20 Ten en cuenta que Romeo y Julieta murier^n muy jovenes, que de su despedlda en el florido balcon de Verona a su muerte en la tumba de los Capuletos solo medlaron unos dlas de ausencia; si hubieran vivido muchos anos de pl^cido matrimonio . . . (Ibid., I, vlii, 158).
82
make their marriages less monotonous in order to hold
their husbands and draw them closer to them, for as
long as "donjuanism exists, while Don Quijote sleeps,"
Spain can not be regenerated.
Although Benavente does not approve of woman's
active participation in civic affairs, he does believe
that she should acquaint herself with social and civic
problems, and lend her Influence toward their improve
ment. It is her duty to be intelligent, strong, cour
ageous, and conscientious so that she may be worthy of
questioning or attacking unworthy rulers. Benavente
seeks to arouse the Spanish woman to a consciousness of
the fact that it is only weak and vacillating people,
without conscience, who are satisfied with being badly
governed. The author seems to imply that while women
in Spain do not signify their approval of the social
and political structure, yet they remain silent and sub
missive, partly because by tradition they are humble
and unquestioning, and because their traditional sense
of obligation to their home and family is so strong that
they neglect, and are even unaware of, their patriotic
duty.
In the foregoing discussion of the heroines in
cluded in this study I have attempted to show that
according to Benavente the women of Spain should assume
a role of major importance. He believes that the
83
redeeming Influence of the Spanish wife can change her
husband and thus women can ultimately change Spain.
It is woman's duty to be strong in her character, in
her virtue, and in her convictions, in order that she
may lend her influence to the greatest advantage. She
must seek and find emotional security; she must broaden
her Interests and develop her mind. If the Spanish
women fail to fulfill their obligations to themselves
and to their country, they are neglecting to assume
their role in the regeneration of Spain. "The hand
that rocks the cradle" will have failed in its oppor
tunity to rule Spain.
CONCLUSION
Prom the preceding study of nine of Benavente's
early plays, we can conclude that the author shared
to a great extent the aims and ideals of the Genera
tion of 1898. These dramas are faithful pictures of
Madrilenian society of the period, a society losing
its casticismo and taking on the vices of other Euro
pean capitals. Spaniards in the early 1900's were
choosing material welfare and comfort, and neglecting
the basic values which, in the end, really make a
nation great. As is evidenced by El nido ajeno, Lo
cursi, and Sacrlficios, Benavente believes that
"spiritual" or moral values are far more important in
our lives than material values.
In La farandula, La gobernadora, and in El prime
Rom.^ the author reveals his scorn for caciquismo,
nepotism, false elections, and many other political
and associated social evils of contemporary Spain
which were the chief object of criticism among the
Generation. Benavente's philosophy is very simple and
quite universal. It is to accept one's position in
life with all its obligations, for only in their ful
fillment can one be happy. In this way all men become
equal. '/hen people have achieved self-government, then
all men become free, without revolutions and without
85
laws. In keeping with the spirit of the young writers,
the ideal of a better humanity and a faint ray of hope
for Spain's spiritual revival glow beneath his satire.
On Benavente's crowded stage we see the struggle
between the growth of the modern twentieth century
civilization and the deep-rooted traditions that give
a characteristic flavor to the Spanish character. Be
lieving that the function of the theatre is to portray
life as it is, Benavente presents a phase of modern
life as he sees it and allows the spectator to draw
his ov/n conclusions. Instead of the typical villain
and the perfect hero, we have natural characters of
everyday life, who speak and act as people really do
under given situations. There is a tendency among all
the writers of 1898 to describe psychologically the
Spanish man, and we find that there is a profound rela
tionship between the characteristics of the fictional
hero and those perceived by Benavente.
One of the largest elements that go to form what
the Generation of 1898 called the "Problema de Espaiia"
is, no doubt, the moral weakness of Spanish men--a
lack of will to make decisions, to cut through diffi
culties. Their weakness subjects them to constant
compromises r/ith m.oral problems. Basic to the whole
regeneration of Spain, according to Benavente, is the
86
need for a more conventional sex life of the Spanish
male. He reveals the falsity of the conventions of
society, the egoism of men, and the cruel logic of
modern life. He shows the nature of the "moral ill-
ness," or the abulia, which has penetrated the very
soul of Spaniards, but distrusting his ability to offer
a constructive program for their moral, spiritual, and
intellectual recovery, he conceals his lack of skill
in irony—that irony which he has defined as "sadness
which can not weep, and therefore smiles."
Benavente idealizes the Spanish woman and makes
her the presiding spirit of his drama. The strength
and virtues of the feminine characters stand out in
vivid contrast to the weakness and the overbearing
egoism of the men. In El nido ajeno, Lo cursi, and in
Rosas de oton'o, the author presents women of great
moral strength and courage who are able to Influence
their husbands and lead them back to moral goodness
through their own virtue, and thus preserve the sanc
tity of their homes. In spite of women's apparent
dependence and lack of freedom, Benavente shows that
they rule their men, their homes, and ultimately the
nation by their love, care, persuasion, and tears.
In the tragedies, Sacrlficios and Alma triunfante,
Benavente presents the themes of human goodness, sacri
fice for the sake of others, love as the only basis
87
for happy marriage, and renunciation and self-abnegation
as necessary virtues. In these plays and in El prlmo
Roman, as well as those mentioned above, it has been
seen that Benavente's women really place no limit on
the sacrifices that they are willing to make for the
sake of their love, their families, their homes. Quite
the contrary is true of his men. Thus he would seem
to say that if the men of Spain could be brought to
measure up to the moral greatness of their women, Spain
would not only be saved, or reinvigorated, but actually
regenerated. Furthermore, he indicates that it is the
woman's duty to bring about the conversion of the men.
It seems that Benavente's faith in the regenera
tion of Spain in this series of plays is still evident
through Rosas de otono (1905), but as early as El prlmo
Roman (1901) pessimism is the pervading spirit of the
drama. Roman will not permit love to interrupt his
political career; Cristeta is deeply hurt; her lack of
education and social standing make her unattractive to
Roman. Benavente seems to say that there is little
hope for Spain.
In La cludad alegre y confiada, speaking of their
defeat by, the Venetians, the author loses hope completely;
he says through El Desterrado that
. . . Ya desespero que pueda ser nunca . . .
1 La didad alegre y confiada. III, ix, 248.
88
And thus, this study is concluded on a note of pessi
mism, for the very men of the Generation of 1898, who
sought to awaken Spain from her lethargy, themselves
became Inoculated with the virus of pessimism, defeat
ism, and abulia. Benavente seems to have been no
exception in this series of plays; he is truly a man
of his time.
BIBLIOGRAPIiY
T e x t s
Benavente, Jacinto, Alma triunfante, (tercera edicio'n, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1918).
, El nido ajeno, (cuarta edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).
, El prime Roman, (segunda edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).
, La cludad alegre y confiada, (segunda edlcidh, Libreri'a de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).
, La farandula, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).
, La gobernadora, (segunda edicid^, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).
, Lo cursi, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).
, Rosas de otono, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).
, Sacrlficios, (segunda edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).
Criticism
Baeza, Rieardo, Comprension de Dostoiewesky y otros ensayos,' (Editorial Juventud, S. A. Provenza, ioi, Barcelona, 1935).
Barja, Cefsar, "Who are the Writers of the Spanish 'Generation of 1898'," Modern Language Forurn, XXX, 4, Univ. Cal., Los Angeles, 24. Dec. 1945.
Benavente, Jacinto,'"The Playwright's Mind," Yale Review, XIII, 43-62, (October, 1923).
Bueno, Manuel, Teatro espa^ol contemporgtneo, (Biblioteca Renacimiento, Madrid, 1909).
Cejador y Prauca, Julio, Historia de la lengua y literatura castellana, X, (TipografIa de la Revista de Archives, Madrid, 1919).
Entralgo, Pedro Lain, La generacicm del noventa y ocho, (Diana. Artes Gr^icas., Larra, 12, Madrid, 1945).
Goldberg, Isaac, The Dram a of Transition, (Stewart Kidd Company, Cincinnati, 1922).
Gonz^ez-Blanco, Andr^, Los dramaturges espafToles contem-por&eos, (Editorial Cervantes, Valencia, 1917).
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