a study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · a study of enabling creativity...

515
“A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia” Richard Laferriere Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Business and Enterprise Swinburne University of Technology 2015

Upload: others

Post on 26-Aug-2020

0 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

“A study of enabling creativity and innovation

through excellence in managerial leadership in

Australia”

Richard Laferriere

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Business and Enterprise

Swinburne University of Technology

2015

Page 2: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 2

Abstract

This thesis explores the importance of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours

(CIB) used by Australian managers in what constitutes leadership excellence. To do

this, it brings together related fields of leadership and cultural study. The Asian

Perspectives of Leadership (APEL) model, which examines the perspectives of

excellence in managerial leadership in a culture, is applied to understanding the

importance of CIB to managerial leadership in Australia. The APEL model

categorises managerial leadership behaviours under four categories that represent the

primary influence areas on a managers’ actions. It is used as an artefact to categorise

CIBs from extant literature and tested within this framework.

Enabling creativity and innovation is an aspect of change leadership that requires

further study and categorisation. CIBs have been identified, but have not been

compiled into a categorisation reflective of managerial influence. The CIB have been

classified using the APEL framework in a comprehensive method to develop a scale

that is explored together with other behavioural categories that represent excellence in

managerial leadership in Australia.

Existing knowledge of Australian culture and management have been used to provide

EMIC insights into what constitutes excellence in managerial leadership in the

Australian context. To reach this objective, a cultural model is developed using factor

analysis and path analysis modelling. A total sample of 690 responses was collected

from Australian managers across Australia to build a baseline demographic and

managerial profile of Australian managers to explore the APEL based cultural model

and the newly developed scale representing CIB within it.

The results indicate that managerial leadership in Australia supports the inclusion of

the concept of CIB as a category of excellence in managerial leadership. In the final

model of excellence in managerial leadership, the Excellent Leader category has an

Organisational Leader component and a Visionary Leader component. Australian

Page 3: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 3

managers in this study view both being visionary and being focused on work and

people as what constitutes an excellent leader. In this model, CIB has a mediating

role between the Excellent Leader and managerial behaviour components such as

Organisational Demand, Micro-environment and Relationships.

Results highlight that CIB is directly related to excellence in managerial leadership in

Australia and should be further explored in future studies. The study also finds that

further study of Australian management is required to better understand how

managerial leadership is enacted in Australia.

Page 4: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 4

Acknowledgements

The successful completion of this thesis represents an enjoyable and challenging

opportunity that would not have been possible without the support, assistance and

encouragement of many people. I would like to recognize and acknowledge those that

have helped and supported me along my PhD journey.

First, I would like to extend my most heartfelt thanks to my supervisory team. My

Principle Coordinating Supervisor, Professor Christopher Selvarajah has provided me

with a foundation upon which I built my journey and endless amounts of

encouragement and inspiration as I worked towards completion. He was always there,

whenever and whatever I needed with academic advice and guidance as well as

personal care and support. He challenged me to go deeper and further when I started

and continued throughout with his comments and feedback on my work. I am very

grateful to him as a supervisor and mentor. My Associate Supervisor, Dr. Aron

Perenyi, joined my supervisory team at an opportune time for me. He pushed me and

reassured me as I worked through my steepest learning curves. He braved the

challenge of supporting me and always would take the time to show his friendship

and support. I am blessed to have had Aron to work with. Lastly, I would like to

thank Dr. Denny Meyer for providing advice and guidance on my statistical analysis.

Swinburne University of Technology has fostered my development and my learning

for many years now. Again, I am grateful for the support I have received from

Associate Dean Professor Heath McDonald and the Faculty of Business and

Enterprise Research office in providing me training and support services. I would

especially like to thank Anne Cain for all of her support, advice and guidance through

my journey.

Lastly, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Richard and Josephine

Laferriere. They supported me, encouraged me and were always there with their love

when I needed it. I could not have done it without them.

Page 5: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5

Declaration

This thesis:

Contains no material which has been accepted for the award to the candidate

of any other degree or diploma, except where due reference is made in the text

of the examinable outcome;

To the best of the candidate’s knowledge contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made in

the text of the examinable outcome;

Where the work is based on joint research or publications, discloses the

relative contributions of the respective workers or authors;

This thesis is less than 100,000 words in length exclusive of bibliography and

appendices;

Susannah Thompson edited this thesis. The editing addressed only style and

grammar and not its substantive content; and

This thesis has met all the requirements of the Ethics Approval from the

Swinburne University of Technology under SUHREC Project 2011/247.

Richard Laferriere

May 3rd, 2014

Page 6: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 6

Table of Contents

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 2 

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 4 

Declaration ......................................................................................................................... 5 

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... 6 

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 15 

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 19 

1.  Introduction ............................................................................................................... 21 

1.1  Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21 

  Managerial Leadership defined ............................................................ 22 1.1.1

  Culture defined ..................................................................................... 24 1.1.2

1.2  Managerial Leadership research context .......................................................... 25 

  Managers as leaders ............................................................................. 26 1.2.1

1.3  Background to the research .............................................................................. 30 

1.4  Research problem and research questions ....................................................... 40 

1.5  Justification of the research .............................................................................. 42 

1.6  Methodology .................................................................................................... 45 

1.7  Thesis outline ................................................................................................... 47 

1.8  Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 49 

2.  Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation ......... 51 

2.1  Chapter introduction ........................................................................................ 51 

2.2  Behavioural leadership theory ......................................................................... 52 

2.3  Change leadership – A third metacategory ...................................................... 54 

  Identification of the change leadership metacategory .......................... 55 2.3.1

2.4  From Three Metacategories to Four ................................................................. 56 

Page 7: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 7

2.5  Relationship between Yukl’s Hierarchical Taxonomy and the APEL framework ........................................................................................................ 58 

  APEL Framework Development .......................................................... 58 2.5.1

2.6  Change leadership behaviour theories ............................................................. 63 

  Transformational leadership ................................................................ 65 2.6.1

  Leader-member exchange theory ......................................................... 68 2.6.2

  Heifetz’s adaptive leadership ............................................................... 69 2.6.3

  Versatile leadership .............................................................................. 70 2.6.4

  Model of flexible leadership ................................................................ 71 2.6.5

  Complexity leadership theory .............................................................. 71 2.6.6

  Change leadership summary ................................................................ 73 2.6.7

2.7  Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours ................................................ 73 

  Personal qualities ................................................................................. 79 2.7.1

  Managerial behaviours ......................................................................... 92 2.7.2

  Organisational demand ...................................................................... 103 2.7.3

  Environmental influence .................................................................... 110 2.7.4

2.8  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 111 

3.  Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership ............................ 114 

3.1  Chapter introduction ...................................................................................... 114 

3.1  ETIC and EMIC cultural study and leadership .............................................. 115 

  Building EMIC insights into understanding managerial leadership .. 120 3.1.1

3.2  Cross-cultural research studies ....................................................................... 123 

  Geert Hofstede and cultural dimensions ............................................ 123 3.2.1

  Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner cultural factors model ............... 124 3.2.2

  Schwartz and the theory of human values ......................................... 125 3.2.3

  Inglehart and the world values survey ............................................... 127 3.2.4

  The GLOBE study ............................................................................. 127 3.2.5

Page 8: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 8

3.3  GLOBE cultural dimensions .......................................................................... 128 

  Uncertainty avoidance ........................................................................ 128 3.3.1

  Power distance ................................................................................... 129 3.3.2

  Collectivism I & II ............................................................................. 130 3.3.3

  Gender egalitarianism ........................................................................ 130 3.3.4

  Assertiveness ...................................................................................... 131 3.3.5

  Performance orientation ..................................................................... 131 3.3.6

  Future orientation ............................................................................... 132 3.3.7

  Humane orientation ............................................................................ 132 3.3.8

3.4  GLOBE study - primary leadership dimensions ............................................ 133 

3.5  Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its cultural dimensions ......................... 134 

3.6  Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its leadership dimensions ..................... 135 

3.7  Country cluster issue ...................................................................................... 136 

3.8  Australia as a part of Asia .............................................................................. 137 

3.9  Australian culture ........................................................................................... 138 

  Indigenous Australians ....................................................................... 139 3.9.1

3.10  EMIC Aspects of Australian Culture ............................................................. 139 

  Settlement ........................................................................................... 139 3.10.1

  Australian egalitarianism ................................................................... 141 3.10.2

  A fair go ............................................................................................. 142 3.10.3

  The Australian dream ......................................................................... 143 3.10.4

  Tall poppies ........................................................................................ 144 3.10.5

  Battlers & punters .............................................................................. 145 3.10.6

  Mateship ............................................................................................. 146 3.10.7

  She’ll be right and no worries ............................................................ 148 3.10.8

3.11  Summations of Australian culture .................................................................. 149 

Page 9: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 9

3.12  Early commentary and studies on Australian management ........................... 150 

3.13  Modern studies of Australian management ................................................... 152 

  Australian leadership in a competitive world .................................... 152 3.13.1

  Australia top quality management study ............................................ 152 3.13.2

  Cultural imprint studies ...................................................................... 153 3.13.3

  Enterprising nation ............................................................................. 157 3.13.4

3.14  Australian culture from the GLOBE study .................................................... 159 

  Australia and the performance orientation dimension ....................... 160 3.14.1

  Australia and the collectivism dimensions ......................................... 161 3.14.2

  Australia and the gender egalitarianism dimension ........................... 162 3.14.3

  Australia and the assertiveness dimension ......................................... 162 3.14.4

  Australia and the future orientation dimension .................................. 163 3.14.5

  Australia and the uncertainty avoidance dimension .......................... 164 3.14.6

  Australia and the humane orientation dimension ............................... 165 3.14.7

  Australia and the power distance dimension ...................................... 165 3.14.8

3.15  Australian leadership – GLOBE leadership dimensions ................................ 166 

3.16  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 167 

4.  Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses .................................. 169 

4.1  Introduction .................................................................................................... 169 

4.2  Utilisation of the APEL framework to categorise creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ....................................................................................... 170 

  Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in an APEL context . 171 4.2.1

  Enabling creativity and innovation scale development ...................... 173 4.2.2

4.3  Hypotheses development: Australian excellence in managerial leadership components .................................................................................................... 176 

  Excellent leader category ................................................................... 177 4.3.1

  Personal qualities category ................................................................. 180 4.3.2

Page 10: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 10

  Managerial behaviours category ........................................................ 183 4.3.3

  Environmental Influence category ..................................................... 186 4.3.4

  Organisational demand category ........................................................ 188 4.3.5

  Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours category ................... 189 4.3.6

  Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile summary ..... 190 4.3.7

4.4  Hypotheses: Relationships between independent and dependent variables ... 192 

  Personal qualities ............................................................................... 192 4.4.1

  Environmental influence .................................................................... 196 4.4.2

  Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 198 4.4.3

  Organisational demand ...................................................................... 202 4.4.4

  Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ................................. 204 4.4.5

4.5  Hypothesis on a shared view of leadership across groups ............................. 204 

4.6  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 207 

5.  Methodology ............................................................................................................ 208 

5.1  Introduction .................................................................................................... 208 

5.2  Research methodology and design ................................................................. 209 

5.3  Research context ............................................................................................ 211 

5.4  Ethical considerations .................................................................................... 213 

5.5  Design of the survey instrument .................................................................... 213 

  APEL questionnaire ........................................................................... 214 5.5.1

5.6  Operationalising the creativity and innovation enabling behaviours construct ......................................................................................................... 218 

5.7  Description of the survey instrument ............................................................. 220 

  Section one - demographic and managerial information ................... 220 5.7.1

  Section two – managerial leadership behaviours ............................... 224 5.7.2

5.8  Testing of the questionnaire ........................................................................... 226 

5.9  Sample development ...................................................................................... 227 

Page 11: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 11

5.10  Data collection and sampling frame ............................................................... 228 

5.11  Online panel ................................................................................................... 229 

5.12  Data analysis plan .......................................................................................... 231 

  Preliminary analysis ........................................................................... 232 5.12.1

  Factor analysis .................................................................................... 232 5.12.2

  Confirmatory factor analysis .............................................................. 236 5.12.3

  CFA and discriminant validity testing ............................................... 240 5.12.4

  Development of composite measures of excellence in managerial 5.12.5leadership ........................................................................................... 240 

  Structural equation modeling and path analysis ................................ 242 5.12.6

  Invariance testing ............................................................................... 242 5.12.7

5.13  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 244 

6.  Preliminary analysis ................................................................................................ 245 

6.1  Introduction .................................................................................................... 245 

6.2  Data preparation ............................................................................................. 246 

  Data coding ........................................................................................ 246 6.2.1

  Missing data check ............................................................................. 246 6.2.2

  Data cleaning ...................................................................................... 247 6.2.3

6.3  Univariate outliers .......................................................................................... 248 

6.4  Normality of the data ..................................................................................... 249 

6.5  Demographics and managerial profile ........................................................... 250 

  Demographic profile .......................................................................... 250 6.5.1

  Managerial profile .............................................................................. 254 6.5.2

6.6  EFA on APEL categories and CIB ................................................................ 258 

6.7  Separate sample EFA on new CIB scale ........................................................ 265 

6.8  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 267 

7.  Analysis ................................................................................................................... 269 

Page 12: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 12

7.1  Introduction .................................................................................................... 269 

7.2  Measurement models for the excellence in leadership components .............. 270 

7.3  Discriminant validity of components ............................................................. 282 

7.4  Measurement models and hypotheses ............................................................ 285 

7.5  Development of composite measures of excellence in leadership ................. 286 

7.6  Path analysis ................................................................................................... 287 

7.7  Path model and hypotheses ............................................................................ 296 

  Personal qualities ............................................................................... 296 7.7.1

  Environmental influence .................................................................... 298 7.7.2

  Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 299 7.7.3

  Organisational demand ...................................................................... 301 7.7.4

  Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ................................. 302 7.7.5

7.8  Invariance testing ........................................................................................... 303 

  Gender 303 7.8.1

  Under 40 and 40 or older ................................................................... 308 7.8.2

  Degree or no degree ........................................................................... 313 7.8.3

  First level managers and middle and senior manager groups ............ 318 7.8.4

7.9  Invariance testing hypothesis ......................................................................... 323 

7.10  Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 325 

8.  Discussion and conclusion ....................................................................................... 326 

8.1  Introduction .................................................................................................... 326 

8.2  Research question 1 – Categorisation of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation ................................................................................ 330 

8.3  Research question 2 - Australian managerial leadership components ........... 332 

  Excellent leader .................................................................................. 332 8.3.1

  Personal qualities ............................................................................... 333 8.3.2

  Organisational demand ...................................................................... 335 8.3.3

Page 13: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 13

  Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 336 8.3.4

  Environmental influence .................................................................... 338 8.3.5

  Importance of each Australian managerial leadership component .... 339 8.3.6

8.4  Research question 2 - Australian excellence in managerial leadership and associated relationships .................................................................................. 345 

  Relationships to visionary leader ....................................................... 346 8.4.1

  Relationships to organisational leader ............................................... 348 8.4.2

8.5  Research question 3: Australian excellence in managerial leadership and the relationship with CIB ..................................................................................... 355 

  CIB and mediating effects .................................................................. 360 8.5.1

8.6  Research question 4 – differences in managerial perspectives of excellence in leadership ................................................................................................... 363 

8.7  Contributions to theory .................................................................................. 366 

8.8  Managerial implications ................................................................................. 377 

8.9  Limitations of the research ............................................................................. 380 

8.10  Future research ............................................................................................... 386 

8.11  Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 392 

References ..................................................................................................................... 394 

Appendix 1: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ........................................ 437 

Personal Qualities .................................................................................................... 437 

Managerial Behaviours ............................................................................................ 439 

Organisational Demand ........................................................................................... 442 

Environmental Influence ......................................................................................... 443 

Appendix 2: Swinburne Ethics Approval ...................................................................... 445 

Appendix 3: Survey Instrument ..................................................................................... 446 

Appendix 4 – Descriptive & Normality Data for Indicator Variables........................... 458 

Appendix 5: Exploratory Factor Analysis Results ........................................................ 465 

Page 14: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 14

EFA on Excellent Leader ........................................................................................ 465 

EFA on Personal Qualities ...................................................................................... 466 

EFA on Organisational Demand .............................................................................. 469 

EFA on Environmental Influence Demand ............................................................. 470 

EFA on Managerial Behaviours .............................................................................. 472 

EFA on CIB ............................................................................................................. 475 

Appendix 6: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ...................................................... 477 

Excellent Leader ...................................................................................................... 477 

Personal Qualities .................................................................................................... 479 

Managerial Behaviours ............................................................................................ 485 

Environmental Influence ......................................................................................... 493 

Organisational Demand ........................................................................................... 497 

CIB 501 

Appendix 7: Path Analysis ............................................................................................ 509 

Hypothesised Model Results ................................................................................... 509 

Revised Model: ........................................................................................................ 511 

Final Model .............................................................................................................. 513 

Page 15: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 15

List of Tables

Table 2-1: Yukl’s hierarchical taxonomy and APEL categories ................................ 56 

Table 2-2: APEL categories ....................................................................................... 60 

Table 2-3: Leadership behaviours that influence employee innovation ..................... 76 

Table 2-4: Personal qualities enabling creativity and innovation ............................... 79 

Table 2-5: Managerial behaviours enabling creativity and innovation ...................... 92 

Table 2-6: Organisational demands enabling creativity and innovation .................. 103 

Table 2-7: Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours – four categories ........... 113 

Table 3-1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions ............................................................... 124 

Table 3-2: Cultural factors model ............................................................................. 125 

Table 3-3: Schwartz’s theory of human values ........................................................ 126 

Table 3-4: Inglehart’s world values .......................................................................... 127 

Table 3-5: GLOBE cultural dimensions ................................................................... 129 

Table 3-6: GLOBE CLT dimensions ........................................................................ 133 

Table 3-7: GLOBE cultural dimensions for Australia .............................................. 159 

Table 4-1: Subcategories of enabling creativity and innovation .............................. 173 

Table 4-2: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours scale .............................. 175 

Table 4-3: Excellent leader category ........................................................................ 178 

Table 4-4: GLOBE leadership dimension rankings for Australia ............................ 178 

Table 4-5: Personal qualities category ...................................................................... 181 

Table 4-6: Managerial behaviours category ............................................................. 183 

Table 4-7: Environmental influence category .......................................................... 186 

Table 4-8: Organisational demand category ............................................................. 188 

Table 4-9: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile ...................... 191 

Table 5-1: APEL scales from the survey instrument: ............................................... 215 

Table 5-2: Hypothesised excellent leader category .................................................. 216 

Table 5-3: Hypothesised personal qualities category ............................................... 216 

Table 5-4: Hypothesised managerial behaviours category ....................................... 217 

Table 5-5: Hypothesised organisational demand category ....................................... 218 

Table 5-6: Hypothesised environmental influence category .................................... 218 

Page 16: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 16

Table 5-7: CIB scale ................................................................................................. 220 

Table 5-8: Goodness of fit measures ........................................................................ 240 

Table 6-1: Comparison of sample demographics and 2006 census figures.............. 251 

Table 6-2: Sector of respondents .............................................................................. 254 

Table 6-3: Years of Australian work experience ...................................................... 255 

Table 6-4: Years of managerial experience .............................................................. 256 

Table 6-5: Managerial role ....................................................................................... 257 

Table 6-6: Size of organisation ................................................................................. 257 

Table 6-7: Size of department .................................................................................. 258 

Table 6-8: EFA completed on excellence in managerial leadership components .... 259 

Table 6-9: Pattern matrix for EFA on excellent leader............................................. 260 

Table 6-10: Pattern matrix for EFA on personal qualities ........................................ 261 

Table 6-11: Factor Matrix for EFA on organisational demand ................................ 262 

Table 6-12: Pattern matrix for EFA on environmental influence ............................. 263 

Table 6-13: Pattern matrix for EFA on managerial behaviours ............................... 264 

Table 6-14: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB – separate sample of 100 ..................... 265 

Table 6-15: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB .............................................................. 266 

Table 7-1: Regression weights for excellent leader .................................................. 272 

Table 7-2: Regression weights for personal qualities ............................................... 274 

Table 7-3: Regression weights for managerial behaviours ...................................... 277 

Table 7-4: Regression weights for environmental influence .................................... 279 

Table 7-5: Regression weights for organisational demand ...................................... 280 

Table 7-6: Regression weights for CIB .................................................................... 282 

Table 7-7: Supported components of Australian excellence in managerial leadership

.......................................................................................................................... 286 

Table 7-8: Descriptive statistics for the excellence in leadership components ........ 287 

Table 7-9: Goodness of fit indices of hypothesised model ...................................... 290 

Table 7-10: Regression weights for hypothesised model ......................................... 291 

Table 7-11: Goodness of fit indices for first revision of final model ....................... 292 

Table 7-12: Regression weights for final model ...................................................... 292 

Page 17: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 17

Table 7-13: Goodness of fit indices for the final model ........................................... 293 

Table 7-14: Correlations between Decision Making and other independent variables

.......................................................................................................................... 295 

Table 7-15: Standardised total effects ...................................................................... 295 

Table 7-16: Cohen’s d effect size calculation - change in variance explained ......... 296 

Table 7-17: Personal qualities related hypotheses .................................................... 297 

Table 7-18: Environmental influence related hypotheses ........................................ 298 

Table 7-19: Managerial behaviours related hypotheses ........................................... 300 

Table 7-20: Organisational demand related hypotheses ........................................... 301 

Table 7-21: CIB related hypotheses ......................................................................... 302 

Table 7-22: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 303 

Table 7-23: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 304 

Table 7-24: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 304 

Table 7-25: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 305 

Table 7-26: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 305 

Table 7-27: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 306 

Table 7-28: Independent sample t-tests for gender groups ....................................... 307 

Table 7-29: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 308 

Table 7-30: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 309 

Table 7-31: Invariance testing for CIB measurement model .................................... 309 

Table 7-32: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 310 

Table 7-33: Invariance testing for managerial behaviours measurement model ...... 310 

Table 7-34: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 311 

Table 7-35: Invariance testing of the organisational demand measurement model . 311 

Table 7-36: Independent sample t-tests for -40 and 40+age groups ......................... 312 

Table 7-37: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 313 

Table 7-38: Invariance testing of the excellent leader measurement model ............ 314 

Table 7-39: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 314 

Table 7-40: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 315 

Table 7-41: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 315 

Page 18: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 18

Table 7-42: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 316 

Table 7-43: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 316 

Table 7-44: Independent sample t-tests for no degree and with a degree groups ..... 317 

Table 7-45: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 318 

Table 7-46: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 319 

Table 7-47: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 319 

Table 7-48: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 320 

Table 7-49: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 320 

Table 7-50: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 321 

Table 7-51: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 321 

Table 7-52: Independent sample t-tests for First level managers compared with

Middle and Senior Manager Groups ................................................................ 322 

Table 7-53: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 323 

Table 8-1: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile ...................... 328 

Table 8-2: Hypothesised relationships ..................................................................... 329 

Table 8-3: Importance of excellence in leadership components and CIB category . 340 

Table 8-4: Hypothesised relationships to visionary leader ....................................... 346 

Table 8-5: Hypothesised relationships to organisational leader ............................... 349 

Table 8-6: Hypothesised relationships to and from CIB .......................................... 356 

Table 8-7: Categories of behaviours enabling creativity and innovation ................. 368 

Table 8-8: CIB scale ................................................................................................. 369 

Page 19: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 19

List of Figures

Figure 1-1: Chapter overview ..................................................................................... 21 

Figure 2-1: Chapter overview ..................................................................................... 51 

Figure 2-2: Leadership behaviours - two metacategories ........................................... 52 

Figure 2-3: Leadership behaviours – three metacategories ........................................ 55 

Figure 2-4: Leadership behaviours – four metacategories ......................................... 57 

Figure 2-5: Asian perspectives of excellence in leadership framework ..................... 59 

Figure 3-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 114 

Figure 4-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 169 

Figure 4-2: Expanded APEL model with new enabling behaviours category.......... 170 

Figure 4-3: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in APEL context ......... 172 

Figure 4-4: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours under investigation ..... 172 

Figure 5-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 208 

Figure 5-2: Positivist research approach .................................................................. 210 

Figure 5-3: Likert scale descriptor and question structure ....................................... 225 

Figure 5-4: Data analysis plan .................................................................................. 231 

Figure 6-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 245 

Figure 7-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 269 

Figure 7-2: Standardised measurement model of excellent leader ........................... 271 

Figure 7-3: CFA for personal qualities ..................................................................... 273 

Figure 7-4: CFA for managerial behaviours ............................................................. 276 

Figure 7-5: CFA for environmental influence .......................................................... 278 

Figure 7-6: CFA for organisational demand ............................................................. 280 

Figure 7-7: CFA of CIB category ............................................................................. 281 

Figure 7-8: CFA for organisational demand ............................................................. 283 

Figure 7-9: CFA for managerial behaviour .............................................................. 284 

Figure 7-10: Hypothesised model of Australian excellence in leadership ............... 288 

Figure 7-11: Revised hypothesised model - corrected for CFA results.................... 289 

Figure 7-12: Result of hypothesised model .............................................................. 290 

Figure 7-13: Final model with satisfactory goodness of fit ...................................... 293 

Page 20: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 20

Figure 8-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 326 

Page 21: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 21

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an introduction to the thesis “a study of enabling creativity and

innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia”. It provides the

background to the research, followed by identification of the research problem and

research questions. The outline of the chapter is provided in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Chapter overview

This research study provides an exploratory examination of the perceptions of what

constitutes excellence in managerial leadership among Australian managers and to

understand how excellence in managerial leadership relates to behaviours associated

with enabling creativity and innovation in organisations. The foundation of this

research project rests in three key theoretical domains pertaining to: managerial

leadership behaviours; specific managerial leadership behaviours that enable

IntroductionManagerial Leadership Introduction & 

Definitions

Managers as Leaders

Background to the Research 

Research Problem and

Research Questions

Justification of the Research

Methodology

Thesis Outline

Conclusion

Page 22: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 22

creativity and innovation; and cultural study, specifically Australian culture. The

results of the exploratory study will contribute to the development of a cultural

specific model of perceived excellence in managerial leadership in Australia through

enabling creativity and innovation.

Managerial Leadership defined 1.1.1

The concept of being a leader dates back to ancient times. The word “leader” dates

back to the ancient Egyptians, more than 5,000 years ago (Dorfman 1996). In Asia,

scriptures and treatises of India and China have influenced leadership behaviours.

The Indian philosophies of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, of the 9th Century BC

embodying Dharma or virtuous conduct have influenced Asian leadership generally

(Brockington 1998). Among the prominent Chinese philosophers, Confucius and Lao

Tzu have had great influence on leadership behaviours in numerous cultures.

Confucius, who lived in the 5th Century BC talked of leadership and morality and Lao

Tzu in the 6th Century BC focused on servant leadership (Bokenkamp & Nickerson

1997; Wah 2002). In Europe, the ancient Greeks were interested in the phenomenon

of leadership and wrote about it in their texts and stories, such as Homer’s Iliad

dating to the 7th Century BC, with characters that personified the traits of leaders; and

centuries later Machiavelli (approximately 1500 AD) wrote of the significance of

change, power and influence and its importance to maintaining leadership (Bass

2008; Vidal-Naquet 2000). Leadership has long been subject of discussion and

popular dialogue. However, it was not until the late 19th century and early 20th

century that formal study of leadership from a managerial perspective started to take

shape.

When examining the formal study of managerial leadership, what emerges is that the

types of theories and models are numerous. In 1990, leading researchers on

leadership, estimated that over 7,500 studies, articles and books have been written on

the subject (Bass 1990a). In 2008, it was estimated there had been a 100 precent

Page 23: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 23

increase in leadership research since the 1990 figure in the United States alone (Bass

2008). Leadership has become engrained as a corner stone of management and

cultural research (Yukl 2010). The diverse fields that comprise managerial leadership

research include the study of traits, behaviours, contingency theories, servant

leadership and ethical leadership to name just a few.

Consequently to select a single definition of leadership is not an easy task. As is

evident, leadership is not categorised in just one set action, activity, mindset or

purpose. However, a definition is necessary in order to properly frame this research

study. Yukl (2010 p.2), summarises the size, scope and the consistency of leadership

definitions in the following statement:

Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviours,

influence, interaction patterns, role relationships and occupation of

an administrative position…Most definitions reflect the assumption

that it involves a process whereby intentional influence is exerted

on one person over the other to guide, structure, and facilitate

activities and relationships in a group or organisation. (p.2)

The above mentioned definition is also applicable to managerial leadership. Yukl

(1989) utilised the term managerial leadership in order to move past the debate of

whether or not leadership and management are separate. The term, as he specified,

refers to leadership as applicable to practicing managers – that is managerial

leadership includes both leadership and management to accomplish objectives, work

tasks, employee engagement, performance, strategies and vision of the organisation.

The issues associated with viewing managers as leaders is further discussed later in

this chapter, however the term managerial leadership is used in this study as it has

been in studies to refer to managers that operate in roles where there is an overlap

between management functions and leadership (Kerns & Ko 2014). Within Yukl’s

(2010) summary of leadership definitions, reference to the behaviours of managerial

leaders sets the focus of this research study and will be discussed in chapter 2.

Page 24: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 24

A recent study named the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour

Effectiveness (GLOBE) study offers a succinct definition from a behavioural and

cross-cultural perspective. The GLOBE study is arguably the most comprehensive

cross-cultural leadership study ever conducted involving over 180 academics and

researchers covering 62 cultures (House et al. 2004). The GLOBE study involved

examining value behaviours as cultural dimensions and leadership universals on an

international sample of practicing middle managers. The study provided a definition

on organisational leadership as follows (House, Wright & Aditya 1997,p. 548):

The ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable

others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the

organisations of which they are members (p.548)

This definition articulates the role of a managerial leader within an organisation,

whether it is a private business, government or non-government organisation.

Managerial leaders are there to positively move the organisation forward to meet its

objectives reflected through their behaviours (Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al.

2004). Considering the scope of the GLOBE study and the significant number of

academics that agree with this definition it will serve as the definition around

managerial leadership for this thesis.

Culture defined 1.1.2

As with defining leadership, defining culture is also a challenge. The core definition

of many cross-cultural studies has been established around the work of Kroeber and

Kluckhohn (1952) who conducted a comprehensive review of literature on culture

(Adler & Gundersen 2008; Hofstede 2001; House et al. 2004; Kroeber & Kluckhohn

1952; Selvarajah et al. 1995). A reworded summary of this definition, taken from

Carroll (1992), is provided by Adler (2008, p.19):

Page 25: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 25

Culture is therefore:

Something shared by all or almost all members of a given social

group

Something older members of a group pass on to younger

members

Something (as in the case of morals, laws and customs) that

shapes behaviour, or … structures one’s perception of the world

(p.19)

The Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership (APEL) framework, utilised in

this research study, applies this same foundation and establishes a definition of

culture to be “the attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours shared by a particular

group of people” (Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d, p.360). This succinct definition

captures the complexities in understanding culture that allows for examination of

culture at societal levels.

1.2 Managerial Leadership research context

When looking at leadership research, six characteristics have been identified as apt

for consideration in managerial leadership (McFarland, Senn & Childress 1993). The

six are: (1) leadership is not only the role of the senior representatives of an

|organisation; (2) leadership increases ability and performance in others; (3)

leadership is unique from management; (4) leadership is tied to understanding the

human condition; (5) leadership is multifaceted including competency, skills and

qualities; and (6) leadership is a key component and attribute of change. The

identified characteristics cover much of the research that has been done to date and

reflect the various theories that will be discussed in the next chapter and ties directly

to the stated definition of managerial leadership earlier in this chapter. These research

characteristics show that understanding managers’ behaviours is paramount to being

able to successfully conceptualise managerial leadership. The third characteristic and

Page 26: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 26

its connection to the first characteristic, will be discussed below, as in this research,

managers are utilised as a means of understanding leadership.

Managers as leaders 1.2.1

In the previous section, two of the six characteristics appear to be slightly at odds

with each other. The first characteristic implies everyone is a leader and the third

characteristic states that leadership is unique from management. Yet, the two are

intrinsically connected. The emergence of the practice of management is a relatively

recent development that shares its development with that of leadership (Kotterman

2006). In an organisation, managers are often identified as leaders or are expected to

fulfil this role (Bass 2008). Two of the foremost authors addressing this topic are

Zaleznik (2004) and Kotter (1990).

In Zaleznik’s (2004) article “Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?” he outlines

several differences between the two. On a personality level, managers are more

practical and straightforward, compared with leaders who have personalities that are

more dynamic. The two look at goals differently; managers in a pragmatic or reactive

way, leaders in a proactive and engaged way. From the perspective of motivating

others, managers approach in a transactional manner using rewards and punishments.

Leaders look more towards transformational approaches engaging co-workers and

developing subordinates and their team for the work at hand. Leaders also show more

empathy and emotional understanding for their co-workers, while managers are more

detached and concerned about productivity as opposed to feelings. The final

distinction Zaleznik (2004) proposed is that managers are part of the organisation,

while leaders see themselves as above it or more than a part of the organisation. In

reviewing these differences and considering the expectations that are placed on an

organisational manager the two are more similar than they are different (Yukl 1989).

Page 27: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 27

Kotter (1990) illustrates the similarities between the two, explaining how managers

being leaders led organisations to positive results. Kotter (1990, p.5) states:

They both involve deciding what needs to be done, creating

networks of people and relationships that can accomplish an

agenda, and then trying to ensure that those people actually get the

job done. They are both, in this sense, complete action

systems…(p.5)

The difference between the two, he notes, as the dynamic nature of leadership versus

the pragmatic approach of management. In today’s organisations however, this line

has largely become blurred. These differences are again based on arguments that try

to find complete distinction - for a manager there is no distinction, but rather the two

roles have merged together. Hamlin (2007) notes that a significant amount of overlap

exist within both leadership and managerial practice that makes it impossible to

completely separate the two. Additional research states similar positions in terms of

leader roles and managerial roles, indicating that there are significant overlaps that

exist between the two (Lowman 2002; Rost 1993; Yukl 2010). The literature on the

whole does indicate that managers do lead and that leaders do manage (Bass 2008).

Kotterman (2006) notes, that nearly every employee leads or has the opportunity to

lead. This statement particularly extends to managers. The study of management has

continuously included leadership as one of the primary components of being a

manager (Yukl 2010). Mintzberg (1973) included leadership as one of his ten

managerial roles, noting that leadership was essential to a manager in order to

motivate and enhance the work experience of subordinates. Gardner (1993) viewed

managers that lead as their own special category called “Leader-Manager”. Similarly,

Yukl (1989) when discussing the two does not separate them, but uses the term

“Managerial Leadership”. A large number of leadership research projects have looked

to managers and executives as their samples, this again highlights the overlap (Bass

Page 28: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 28

2008). The GLOBE study, the largest culture and leadership study, utilised managers

as the sample to build leadership dimensions comparable across cultures (House et al.

2004). This further illustrates that managers are a viable group to examine from both

a leadership and cultural perspective. In Australia, managers acting as leaders is

viewed as a necessity in order to capitalise on opportunities, move organisations

forward through change and to help the country reach its economic potential (Karpin

1995b; Sarros et al. 1992).

The validation of the overlap in roles and the identified reality that the two are

inseparable provides sufficient validation for the inclusion of the manager, as a

managerial leader. While it can be viewed that managers are not always leading and

is relative to the position they hold in the organisation, there is some understanding of

what leadership means and what it entails. The opinions of organisational managers

are the closest that can be found to reflect behaviours of an organisational leader. In

this study managerial leadership is the focus that represents leadership from an

organisational perspective.

Kent (2005) outlines how there is the continuous debate as to whether managers and

leaders are different, the same or connected and inseparable - this debate as explained

provides challenge to moving leadership research forward. He notes that the two roles

are shared within an individual and both must be present in order for organisations to

operate effectively. From a practical perspective the two cannot be separated

however, from a conceptual and theoretical perspective they can (p.1014). He

recommends that research relating to leadership and management should look at a

leader/manager perspective where both are present, or in other terms managerial

leadership. Where a manager in an organisation will need to utilise skills associated

with both aspects to be successful in their job.

In examining the literature on management and leadership roles and tasks, Nienaber

(2010) identifies 25 tasks that have been found to represent activities of managers and

Page 29: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 29

leaders. The findings from this literature review indicate that all researched tasks are

concerned with management and a limited number are associated with leadership

though still connected to management, primarily related to goal setting, motivation

and communication. Five tasks were identified as related to managers and not leaders.

These include task categories associated with determining organisational performance

and maintaining an information base to be used by the organisation. He notes that the

distinction in the research is found when overlapping tasks are associated with

managers in higher order roles and more managerial tasks with lower level managers.

This suggests that managers do lead though focus on management.

In order to move research on leadership and management forward it has been

identified that there needs to be clarity in what is being studied or the perspective that

is being taken (Hamlin 2007; Kent 2005; Kotterman 2006; Nienaber 2010; Simonet

& Tett 2013; Yukl 2010; Yukl & Lepsinger 2005). The differing research views on

leadership and management can be considered from five separate and distinct

perspectives (Simonet & Tett 2013). These include (1) bipolar, (2) unidimensional,

(3) bidimensional and hierarchical from a (4) manager to leadership or (5) leadership

to management perspective.

In order to provide clarity and to ensure that the appropriate context in which research

is occurring is addressed, Simonet and Tett (2013) examined 63 competencies of

leadership and management against expert opinions from the Academy of

Management and Society for Industrial Organisational Psychology to determine the

predominant position of the leadership-management relationship. Utilising a

taxonomy developed by Tett et al. (2000), respondents were asked to rate how

representative the competencies were to management and leadership. From this

analysis a hybrid model of the two was suggested to be used in future leadership and

management study, where leadership is viewed as either bidimensional or

co-dimensional (replacing the term unidimensional) (Simonet & Tett 2013). When a

study is looking at a specific set of attributes and capabilities, it may be better to take

Page 30: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 30

on the bidimensional perspective, however when examining leadership and

management from a larger or more complex perspective it is better to take a

co-dimensional perspective. In these instances the two should be viewed as “equal

partners or teammates” (p.209) where leadership and management are overlapping

and may be viewed as managerial leadership.

This co-dimensional perspective is taken in this research, where specifically

managerial leadership is looked at that includes overlapping areas alongside

behaviours associated more specifically to management or leadership. This view on

managerial leadership should allow for a more realistic measure of how practicing

managers view the higher order leadership expectations alongside their managerial

responsibilities and duties.

1.3 Background to the research

Behavioural theories of managerial leadership

The study of behavioural theories of leadership introduces the term ‘metacategory’

and its role in understanding managerial leadership (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

Behavioural theories of leadership were developed initially in the 1950s and are still

prevalent today. These theories are largely responsible for the universal application of

metacategories of behaviours across various cultures, organisations and industries. A

metacategory refers to a grouping of similar or related behaviours used by managers

that are focused on a specific area of responsibility (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

Historically, research specified that behaviours fell into one of two metacategories;

either ‘relation’ or ‘task’ oriented behaviours, sometimes referred to as

‘consideration’ and ‘initiating structure’ (Bass 2008; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

In the 1990s, a third managerial leadership behavioural metacategory was identified

and recognised as prevalent in managerial behaviours, the change-oriented

metacategory. The change-oriented metacategory focuses on behaviours that provide

Page 31: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 31

the dynamism to instigate change by moving an organisation forward through

visioning, adaptation, creativity and innovation (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 1999;

Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). The realisation of this third metacategory and its

previous undiscovered nature, stems from the fact that it was not being looked for and

that it was not necessarily prevalent in the past where change pressures were much

lower (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991).

A current view on metacategories of managerial leadership behaviours includes four

metacategories (Yukl 2012). The four are task-oriented, relationship-oriented

behaviours, change-oriented and an external category. The external metacategory

relates to behaving in a manner that connects the organisation to various stakeholders

outside the organisation and provides cues for the organisation to adapt. The external

metacategory, was originally viewed as part of the change-oriented metacategory,

however as more specificity has been added to the view on managerial behaviours, it

has developed into its own important metacategory (Yukl 2012; Yukl, Gordon &

Taber 2002).

The study of managerial behaviour and examination of taxonomies of leadership

behaviours, as described above has declined in terms of the current research focus

(Dinh et al. 2014). This has been attributed to a shifting focus on areas of research

identified as neo-charismatic (such as transformational leadership) and more specific

contextual elements of management pushing into new understanding and theory

development. This movement away from broad behavioural theories, to explain the

behaviours of managerial leaders, is also driven by the fact that it does not necessarily

allow for more micro-level views unless combined with additional theories. This

means that traditional theories need to be connected to outcomes and specific context

in order to understand the behaviours of managerial leaders. Dinh et al. (2014, p.55)

summarise that “future research needs to develop integrative perspectives that

consider how disparate theories relate or operate simultaneously to influence the

emergence of leadership phenomena”.

Page 32: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 32

Leadership of creativity, innovation and change

In the same comprehensive review by Dinh et al. (2014) on the fields of leadership

research in the new millennium, one area of research that has received increasing

development is that of how managerial leadership can enable change through

creativity and innovation in organisations . Enabling creativity and innovation is

firmly identified as a key component in the change-oriented metacategory (Yukl

2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

An important component of change leadership relates the acceptance of

transformational leadership as being an important and essential type of leadership

where managers act to connect and inspire organisational members to embrace

organisational goals, including change (Bass 1985a; Bass 1997; Bass, Avolio &

Atwater 1996; Burns 1978). Managing the processes involved in change requires

more than just being transformational or visionary; it requires behaviours that will

move an entire organisation, its work and its members through the change process

(Arvonen & Ekvall 1999; Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Skogstad & Einarsen 1999). The

change-oriented metacategory clearly connects with the emergence of a grouping of

behaviours associated with adaptation, innovation and creativity that are practiced by

managers in organisations. Therefore it is paramount that these behaviours be

investigated when examining managerial leadership. Understanding just what these

behaviours are and how they work with other behaviours, and how they impact across

an organisation and its stakeholders will require a significant amount of research in its

own right.

According to Uhl-Bien, Marion and McKelvey (2007) and their theory of complexity

leadership, managers need to look at the entire organisation as an interactive system

that includes individuals, teams, departments, and the organisation as a whole when

focused on innovation and change. This requires administrative, adaptive and

Page 33: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 33

enabling leadership on the part of managers. Exploration of these types of managerial

leadership focused on change and innovation is required.

Arguably the most important component of leading change is ensuring that

innovation is brought in to the context of the organisation and all its parts utilised to

positively move forward. At the individual level that requires creativity and at the

team, department and organisation level it requires innovation (Von Stamm 2008). At

the same time the change related metacategory was identified, separate research was

beginning that focused on identifying the managerial leadership behaviours required

to enable creativity and innovation in organisations (Amabile 1988; Damanpour

1991; Mumford et al. 2002; Scott & Bruce 1994; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).

Through qualitative, empirical study, meta-analysis and informed views of learned

academics a list of behavioural categories can be identified that when practiced will

result in increased innovation and creativity in organisations (Baer, Oldham &

Cummings 2003; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Dewett 2004; Mumford 2000;

Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004; Shalley & Gilson 2004; Tierney & Farmer 2004; Zhou

& George 2003). It should be noted these fields of research still remain largely

separate as there is no development of a comprehensive categorisation of the specific

behavioural components. This study will attempt to address this shortcoming.

Given the importance of managers enabling creativity and innovation in organisations

it is important to be able to have a comprehensive categorisation of behaviours that

managers utilise when attempting to lead and develop changes in products, services,

practices and organisational goals. This requires influencing all aspects of the

organisation and takes managerial leadership into a direction that has to consider:

individuals, teams, departments, overarching organisational objectives and practices.

As was noted above, the fields of research into these areas of managerial behaviours,

while connected through the shared theme of enabling creativity and innovation in

organisations, have not been brought together in order to develop a full categorisation

of behaviours. Where categorisation has occurred it has largely been limited to

Page 34: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 34

managers engaging individuals through their behaviours to be creative and innovative

(de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). For a categorisation to be more complete, it must also

look towards how managers can enable creativity and innovation across teams,

departments and the organisation, as well as behaving in a manner to understand the

external environment. In order to do this, it will require an examination of the extant

literature and to conceptualise managerial behaviours in a manner that can be viewed

as more comprehensive of influences on and of managers in organisations.

To do this it will require looking at the research on the specific behaviours, which are

known to enable creativity and innovation in a manner that is theoretically sound and

has been used in exploring behaviours of managerial leaders in organisations.

Additionally, as noted in Dinh et al (2014), it is important to bring together specific

aspects of managerial leadership like enabling creativity and innovation with other

aspects of managerial leadership behaviours, as behaviours are not practiced

singularly and need to be integrated with other perspectives; this requires using

behavioural metacategories found in behavioural taxonomies as a foundation.

Cultural study of managerial leadership

When examining how managerial leaders choose to lead, one of the most important

aspects that shape the behaviours is the country culture in which a manager operates

(Bass 2008; Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Dickson et

al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson 2003; House et al. 2004). While

managers adapt their behaviours to the various situations, strategic directions, goals

and organisational needs, they utilise their core fundamental beliefs on how best to

lead. These beliefs stem from numerous sources: knowledge, experience,

environment, education and organisation (Mumford et al. 2000). Research studies

show that one of the most significant contexts that shape the value-based behaviours

of managers is the reflection of expected cultural values within a society (House et al.

2004; Selvarajah et al. 1995). Effective managers use the values within a culture to

determine how best to act and in a sense build a “prototype” of what a leader should

Page 35: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 35

be, should do and how a manager should act in order to motivate subordinates and

accomplish goals – this is known as implicit leadership theory (Lord, Foti & De

Vader 1984; Lord & Maher 1993). These values, translated through the managers’

preferred behaviours, reflect the country culture in which the organisation and its

members operate. This theoretical approach forms the basis within which managerial

leadership behaviours have been studied in different cultures (Hofstede 2001; House

et al. 2004; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 2003).

Understanding what can be viewed as a culturally relevant way for a manager to

behave is one that requires distinction between universal views on how a manager

should behave and culturally specific ways. This is referred to as ETIC (universal)

and EMIC (culturally specific) (Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010; Leung

2009; Lu 2012; Morris et al. 1999). Universal aspects of leadership provide a clear

understanding of what is most important or least important to managers across

cultures and can be directly compared to get a sense of how behaviours towards

leadership differ between cultures (Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al. 2004). EMIC

level insights into managerial leadership behaviours are culture specific, where

managers take cultural cues in order to shape, refine and define how they will behave

when acting as a managerial leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Chhokar, Brodbeck & House

2012). These are usually not comparable between cultures.

The identification and creation of leadership universals in the GLOBE study has

grown out of implicit leadership theory (Den Hartog et al. 1999; House et al. 2004;

House, Wright & Aditya 1997). The GLOBE study is the largest and first of its kind

to develop cross-culturally comparable leadership universals as one of its key

outcomes (Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006;

House et al. 2004). These universals serve theory well by informing research,

practicing managers and organisations on specific aspects of leadership that can be

compared across cultures. However, in terms of where future culturally-focused

managerial research needs to go, numerous academics are in agreement that the

Page 36: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 36

greatest value is engaging in understanding and building EMIC insights into studies

to provide greater clarity and practicality to how managerial leadership manifests

itself in different cultures (Dickson et al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson

2003; Dorfman 1996; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley & Mosakowski 2002;

Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Osland & Bird 2000; Wang, Waldman & Zhang 2012;

Yeganeh & Su 2006). As part of the second phase of the GLOBE study, efforts were

made to establish culture specific leadership profiles for some countries (Chhokar,

House & Brodbeck 2012). These efforts have led to many unique cultural values

being identified that shape managerial behaviours in specific cultures. Australia is

one of the countries that have been examined, due to unique cultural influences on

managerial leadership (Ashkanasy 2007).

Australian culture and management

Australia is a separate and distinct culture that is not easily categorised or classified

when it comes to understanding leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). Frequently categorised

and grouped together with other English language speaking nations, predominantly

colonies of the former British empire, Australia is often considered an Anglo nation

(House et al. 2004). The adequacy of this categorisation has proven to be rather

misleading from a practical management perspective, where the application of UK or

US based management approaches require adaptation in order to work or have been

found to be ineffective in Australia (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a;

Irwin 1996; Parry 1996; Parry 1999; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). Currently the

Anglo cluster is being reconsidered as a correct or feasible grouping of nations for

comparative research (Egri et al. 2012). Given the above issues and the predominant

interpretations of these Anglo cultures emanating mainly from US and UK findings,

it is fair to say that there needs to be a greater culture specific understanding of

Australian managerial leadership.

At the same time that an increasing awareness exists of the cultural distinctiveness of

Australia from other culturally comparable nations there is also a growing recognition

Page 37: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 37

that Australia has an ever increasing alignment with Asia (Alomes 2012; Australia in

the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Higgott & Nossal 2008; Karpin 1995b). Even

the nation’s demographics are shifting with greater and greater ethnic diversity

largely coming from Asia. The most recent census shows 300 different ancestries,

with the largest growth in the Australian population being born in Asia (6%) or

coming from Asian ancestry (12%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012a; Colebatch

2012; Salt 2013). Taken together this demonstrates the unique multicultural makeup

of the Australian population and accentuates the reason why managerial leadership

will take on a distinctive form and may continue to evolve.

Ashkanasy (2007) identifies several aspects of culture that shape managerial

leadership in Australia, including values such as mateship and the “she’ll be right”

attitude that have an impact on management. This work does not go further than

identifying some of the EMIC values influencing managerial leadership. To go

further requires exploration of managerial leadership universals and cultural specific

values reflected upon in a framework that will allow for culturally specific

components to be drawn out of known managerial leadership behaviours.

Theoretical contributions

In providing this background to the research study being undertaken there were

several elements identified as gaps in both theory and in understanding of managerial

leadership. Firstly, behavioural theories of managerial leadership were presented. The

two metacategory perspective drove much of managerial leadership research for over

40 years. Today this has been expanded to four metacategories and serves as a

comprehensive taxonomy of the behavioural approach to categorising managerial

leadership behaviours. This taxonomy approach provides a broad overview of the

types of behaviours that managers use when leading organisations. Despite calls for

more research and integration with new theories, behavioural theories have decreased

in focus in the new millennium (Dinh et al. 2014; Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004).

Page 38: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 38

Emphasis has shifted to more context specific approaches to studying managerial

leadership. Two of the most relevant to this research study were presented.

Firstly, the growing interest in studying leadership for creativity, innovation and

change was identified. This area of study, includes emphasis on how managers may

enable creativity and innovation in organisations. While this is more specific than

behavioural theories, it does emphasise the behavioural approach at its core. Much of

the research in this area has focused on how managers influence the creativity of

individuals, though other aspects relating to teams, departments, the environment and

the organisation have been developing separately. There has been little development

of bringing the differing fields of study together in a succinct categorisation across

areas of managerial influence. Additionally there has been very little quantitative

study of this area.

Secondly, the field of culture specific aspects of managerial leadership was discussed.

Emphasis in this field has led to the identification of cultural dimensions and

leadership universals that are comparable across cultures. There has been some work

to bring in more culture specific aspects that influence the behaviours associated with

managerial leadership in different countries (Chhokar, House & Brodbeck 2012).

However, this has been very limited and across different fields there have been calls

to bring in more EMIC level insights to understand why and how managers behave in

order to lead effectively in their culture. Additionally there is very little known about

how managerial leadership, influenced by cultural values relates to the behaviours

that enable creativity and innovation

In both the cultural study of managerial leadership and the study of how managers

enable creativity and innovation there is a need to focus on behavioural theory to

move forward the understanding of managerial leadership phenomena. This research

study brings together the three theoretical fields, enabling creativity and innovation;

cultural specific study and the behavioural approach of managerial leadership. This

Page 39: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 39

fits alongside what researchers are calling for in order to extend knowledge and

understanding, connecting distinct and disparate fields and theories so that an

integrative approach to theory development emerges (Dinh et al. 2014).

To do this requires the utilisation of theory and a framework that can serve as both a

means to look at the way managers behave when enabling creativity and innovation

and that allows EMIC level insights of culture to be considered to examine how

managerial leadership is viewed. This requires selecting a developed behavioural

taxonomy that can be utilised as an artefact to extend the understanding of the

phenomena of enabling creativity and innovation and that can be utilised in

developing a culturally specific model of managerial leadership (Hilpinen 2011).

The framework selected for this study is the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in

Leadership (APEL) (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The APEL framework includes a

validated taxonomy of leadership behaviours that has categorised managerial

leadership behaviours into four categories that are reflective of the primary areas of

influence in an organisation on a manager. The model classifies behaviours into four

primary categories: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours, Organisational

Demand and Environmental Influence. The taxonomy is reflective of other

managerial leadership taxonomies, though behaviours associated with

change-oriented leadership are largely lacking in the APEL framework (Yukl 2012).

By utilising the four primary categories in the framework the managerial behaviours

that enable creativity and innovation in organisations will be explored in order to

develop a specific categorisation reflective of the areas of influence that managerial

behaviours have on enabling creativity and innovation.

The APEL framework was developed utilising the earlier mentioned implicit

leadership theory behaviour approach (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Validated across Asia,

the APEL model has been effective in providing insight into managerial leadership

profiles, preferences and styles across national cultures (de Waal et al. 2012;

Page 40: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 40

Selvarajah 2006, 2010; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d;

Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah,

Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011; Selvarajah et al. 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung 2010;

Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). The APEL framework

uses a form of cultural modelling that brings into consideration pre-existing cultural,

management and organisational studies of a given society and incorporates other

relevant literature to create a culturally specific perspective. This detailed

interpretation of culture is used in developing a culture-specific model that explores

the relationships between the categories of behaviours in the model and provides a

profile of what constitutes an excellent leader in the opinions of managers. This

approach will be applied to understanding how cultural specific managerial

leadership values relate to creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.

An examination of the taxonomy used in the APEL framework will be provided in

chapter 2 along with how it will be used as an artefact to explore managerial

behaviours that enable creativity and innovation. The cultural modelling approach is

presented in chapter 3, along with relevant insights into Australian cultural values

that shape managerial leadership in the country.

1.4 Research problem and research questions

The background provided in the last section, highlights the gaps that exist in literature

associated with understanding managerial leadership behaviours that enable creativity

and innovation, connecting these behaviours to views on excellence in managerial

leadership and providing further understanding of how managerial leadership and

enabling creativity and innovation relates to a national cultural context. The gaps in

the literature lead to four research questions to be addressed in this study:

1. What are the creativity and innovation enabling managerial behaviours that

influence managerial leadership excellence?

Page 41: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 41

2. How does Australian culture shape the perceptions of what constitutes

excellence in managerial leadership?

3. What is the relationship between managerial leadership values and creativity

and innovation enabling behaviours in Australia?

4. How do perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership differ between

groups of Australian managers?

This thesis develops a cultural model of excellence in managerial leadership as

perceived by Australian managers and relates this to what constitutes an excellent

leader. Along with this it will provide insight into how the components of excellence

in managerial leadership in Australia relate to enabling creativity and innovation

behaviours.

These innovation and creativity enabling behaviours are a significant group of

behaviours associated with leading change in organisations. To do this the APEL

framework is used as an artefact to categorise managerial behaviours that enable

creativity and innovation (Hilpinen 2011). This categorisation is used to develop and

test a new scale that has been added to the APEL framework. Consequently, the

model used in this study will be a measure of both excellence in managerial

leadership in Australia and also will provide an understanding of how excellence in

managerial leadership relates to enabling creativity and innovation. Validation of the

new categorisation and associated scale will increase understanding of excellence in

managerial leadership specific to Australia.

Exploring differences between different groups of managers in Australia will help

provide insights into understanding if perceptions of excellence in managerial

leadership are separate and distinct across different groups of managers or if a more

homogenous view on leadership exists.

Page 42: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 42

1.5 Justification of the research

The purpose of this research is to extend the body of knowledge in several academic

fields of study. Firstly it expands the understanding of specific managerial leadership

behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in organisations into a detailed

category associated with the change-oriented metacategory. The creativity and

innovation enabling behaviours have not yet been studied at the quantitative level and

have yet to be categorised reflective of all the areas that are influenced by managers

in organisations (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). Enabling creativity and innovation is

a critical component of change leadership and one that requires managerial leaders to

behave in a specific manner.

Enabling creativity and innovation involves all facets of an organisation; creating a

vision, correctly motivating and managing employees, completing the work required

and ensuring external influences on the organisational are recognised and considered

(Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Skogstad & Einarsen 1999; Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl,

Gordon & Taber 2002; Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). Specifically, one of the outcomes

from this study is to address the lack of understanding in the extant literature of how

different influences from managers can be considered to form a comprehensive

categorisation of enabling creativity and innovation in an organisation.

In determining an appropriate categorisation in which a manager operates and leads

an organisation it is important to consider the areas of influence that drive and impact

on their behaviour. In order to explore the behaviours that enable creativity and

innovation as a specific category of behaviours associated with the change-oriented

metacategory it requires that behaviours be identified and categorised in a manner

that is reflective of the primary areas of influence from a manager.

Research on managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling creativity and

innovation has progressed significantly. Currently the understandings of these

behaviours are being treated as another universally applicable approach and viewed in

Page 43: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 43

the same way across cultures. As a majority of the research in this area has been

occurring in Anglo based countries, the selection of Australia is logical as a first

nation for the consideration of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in a

quantitative study. The treatment of the behaviours as a universal category works

effectively in utilising the APEL taxonomy, as the four categories of behaviours in

the framework are also viewed as universally applicable to excellence in managerial

leadership. Given that the enabling behaviours themselves have only recently been

established there is little understanding if they are universal or if there are differences

in application in a particular culture. Once tested and validated the categorisation and

scale can be used in future studies in other nations.

From a cultural perspective, a managerial leadership study needs to bring in culturally

specific considerations in order to provide deeper and richer information on

management and organisations in that culture that take both an ETIC and EMIC

perspective (Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Leung 2009; Lu 2012). Australian

managerial leadership needs to be studied in greater detail to fully understand its

unique nature, as it is not an easily understood culture in which to lead (Ashkanasy

2007; Parry 1999). It has long been identified that managerial practices adopted from

the US and the UK are not effective solutions for Australian organisations

(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Parry 1996; Parry 1999;

Turnell & Washbourne 1991). By looking specifically at Australia, a culturally

relevant view of managerial leadership will be developed to better understand the

intricacies of management in the nation and allow a clearer understanding to emerge

of the enigmatic nature of Australian managerial leadership. This will be beneficial if

considered at an organisational and managerial level in order to enhance

performance, innovation and productivity and understand the relationship to

creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.

Connecting the two fields of managerial leadership study, culture and enabling

creativity and innovation is also important. Australia has been emphasising the need

Page 44: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 44

to enhance managerial capabilities for a number of years. Early assessments of

Australian managers were unflattering, referring to them as bureaucratic and lacking

in ability to lead (Byrt & Masters 1974; Frenkel & Manners 1980). It was asserted

from 1982 onwards that Australian managerial education had to be increased and

refocused in order to prepare for the challenges of leading organisations facing a

more global and open economy (Ralph 1982).

The Enterprising Nation study of Australian leadership in 1995, a massive study of

Australian managerial leadership, identified the challenges Australian managers

would face in the new millennium (Karpin 1995b). It provided a clear picture of

strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement for Australian managers. The study

resulted in a set of recommendations pertaining to training, engagement and

improvement. Although recommendations were not completely established in

government policy, they have largely been embraced by managers and educational

providers in order to improve the quality and capabilities of Australian managers.

Particular to the Karpin (1995b) study, were recommendations related to increasing

the ability of Australian managers to be more innovative, adaptive and to position

themselves to change organisations to reflect the global economic shifts that were

expected and largely have happened (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).

The understanding of how Australian perceptions of excellence in managerial

leadership are shaped along with the addition of change related behaviours to the

framework related to enabling creativity and innovation, will afford opportunities to

better understand ways in which management in Australia may have shifted in their

approach to leadership and to see what behaviours they are emphasising with respect

to enabling creativity and innovation. This study will be a first attempt to explore

how the behaviours that enable creativity and innovation are associated within the

context of excellence in managerial leadership of a nation. This will add a new

perspective to understanding the complexities associated with management in today’s

dynamic organisational environments for a culture.

Page 45: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 45

This study also addresses gaps in understanding if management in Australia differs

between groups of managers. A cross section of Australian managers has been

selected as a sample. Managers from across industry, states and managerial roles and

demographic variables such as gender, age and education are used to build an

Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile. By including managers from a

cross section of demographics and roles it will allow for examination of managerial

leadership and any differences that may emerge between these groups. This will

provide insight into if Australia has a singular view on leadership or if it varies

between groups.

The study utilises a quantitative approach to understanding the role that enabling

creativity and innovation behaviours play in relation to excellence in managerial

leadership. An expanded model and instrument are used that once tested and

validated will improve the ability of the APEL framework to explain managerial

leadership preferences across cultures. It will also add to the existing APEL

taxonomy behaviours associated with change leadership that it currently lacks, but

have been deemed a specific and important part of managerial leadership. This

extension allows for a better understanding of the role of creativity and innovation

enabling behaviours from a broader managerial perspective. This will have many

applications to theory building and to management in general, where leading change

effectively is a priority in almost every organisation.

1.6 Methodology

This research study is based on the positivist paradigm that utilises a quantitative

method to explore relationships between categories of managerial leadership

behaviours associated with excellence in managerial leadership. A new category and

scale are developed that utilises the APEL framework as an artefact to categorise

behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation.

Page 46: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 46

In utilising the APEL framework to include behaviours that enable creativity and

innovation it requires the establishment of a new category and an associated scale that

is based on theory. When selecting the best approach to take in looking at a new

category of behaviours the preferred academic method is to use existing models of

behaviours along with additional theory based constructs to increase the contexts in

which behaviours can be understood (Bryman 2012). In doing this a theoretically

sound categorisation and associated scale can be developed. Similarly in terms of

classifying the components of Australian managerial leadership it requires an

extensive review of the literature on Australian culture and management. This needs

to take into account ETIC level understandings as well as EMIC insights that shape

culture, values and attitudes in Australia.

Once understood and applied, behaviour-based culture specific managerial leadership

components can be hypothesised along with the associated relationships between the

independent and dependent variables. By examining the categories of behaviours and

the ensuing causal paths through a structural equation modelling approach, based on

path analysis, a quantitative methodology is appropriate (Creswell 2009).

An online survey will be used in order to quantitatively explore the importance of

managerial leadership behaviours among a sample of Australian managers that is

reflective of the population in a managerial role, as identified in the Census

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a; Collis & Hussey 2009). This is not a

representative sample, but rather a sample of practicing managers across known

demographic variables of the occupation population. A panel company provided the

sample of managers to be similar to the demographics of those in the managerial

occupation based on the 2006 Census, to ensure a broad selection of Australian

managers (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). In total 1,000 potential respondents

were identified for the project. After cleaning the data, a total sample of 690 quality

responses were collected, a response rate of 69%.

Page 47: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 47

Following the collection of the survey data, preliminary data analysis is completed.

This ensures all statistical assumptions are being met, that the data is coded correctly

and prepared for advanced analysis. In addressing the first research question, an

exploratory factor analysis is completed on a separate sample, followed by

confirmatory factor analysis. Research questions two and three use confirmatory

factor analysis to provide support for the hypothesised make up of components of

Australian excellence in managerial leadership. Confirmatory factor analysis is

carried out on the data to confirm the measurement models and ensure satisfactory

model fit.

Having established the measurement models structural equation modelling in AMOS

utilising path analysis is next conducted to determine the relationships between the

dependent and independent variables associated with excellence in managerial

leadership and enabling creativity and innovation. The final research question

involves invariance testing against demographic and managerial categories including:

age, gender, managerial role and education level to examine if managerial leadership

in Australia has a shared perspective or is different across groups of managers.

1.7 Thesis outline

The thesis is arranged into 8 chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: The introduction includes a background to the research, identifying the

research problem and the research questions to be answered. A section justifying the

research is provided as well as an overview of the methodology and the analysis plan.

Chapter 2: The first literature review chapter provides an overview of managerial

leadership behavioural theories and the recognition of change leadership. The APEL

framework is explored against a leading taxonomy of managerial leadership

Page 48: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 48

behaviours in order to ensure it is a reasonable artefact to utilise in this research study

and acknowledge where it needs to be further developed. It is used as an artefact to

categorise behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in leading change.

Chapter 3: The second literature review chapter discusses the concept of national

culture and how it can be understood from an ETIC and EMIC perspective and

connects managerial leadership to national culture. Lastly, it investigates the

understanding of Australian culture and management that will serve as a foundation

upon which to build the Australian profile of managerial leadership under

investigation in this study.

Chapter 4: The Conceptual framework chapter provides the explanation of the model

and the application of the APEL framework in developing the Creativity and

Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) scale. It provides the hypothesised model of

Australian managerial leadership that will be tested along with the hypothesised

relationships.

Chapter 5: Research methodology is provided in this chapter. It explains the research

paradigm, and why a quantitative study was selected. A detailed review of the

research structure and analysis plan is included.

Chapter 6: The data collection process and preliminary analysis of the data is

provided in order to address the research objectives. Included is a review of the

demographics and managerial characteristics of the sample collected. Exploratory

Factor analysis is conducted across the hypothesised components to provide

verification they are present and on a separate sample to provide an initial validation

of the newly established scale, as a first step in answering research question one.

Chapter 7: The primary data analysis chapter provides the statistical analysis steps

taken in order to answer the research questions and associated hypotheses. It begins

Page 49: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 49

with confirmatory factor analysis being conducted to answer research questions one

and two. This is followed by path analysis in order to answer research questions two

and three. Lastly the invariance testing across groups of managers is completed to

answer research question four.

Chapter 8: Discussion and findings chapter is last and the results of the study are

discussed and presented. A review of the contribution to theory is provided along

with managerial implications. This chapter concludes by stating the limitations of the

research and the presentation of future research to address the limitations and further

opportunities.

1.8 Chapter summary

This chapter provided the foundation for the research study. The background and

reasons for this exploratory study were presented. Managerial Leadership has long

been understood to be influenced by cultural values of a country, explained through

implicit leadership theory. Management is also constantly evolving and today’s

managerial leaders must focus energy on leading change, which can partially be done

through behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in individuals, departments

and the organisation.

The research was justified and the planned methodology presented. Australia was

selected as a country to base this research study in as it requires a unique managerial

leadership style. As a nation it has also identified a need for managers to increase

efforts towards ensuring change and innovation are occurring to remain competitive.

The methodology involves the use of the APEL framework in developing a new

category of managerial behaviours that specifically enable creativity and innovation.

A cultural model of Australian managerial leadership is hypothesised. Relationships

are tested in order to determine what constitutes managerial perceptions of excellence

Page 50: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 1 - Introduction

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 50

in leadership in Australia and how these relate to enabling creativity and innovation

through a survey and statistical methods.

An outline of the thesis concluded the chapter. In the next chapter the literature

review of managerial leadership behaviours is presented leading to an explanation of

how managers enable creativity and innovation through their behaviours.

Page 51: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 51

2. Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

2.1 Chapter introduction

The study of managerial leadership has been of particular interest in the fields of

management and cross-cultural study. This chapter begins with an overview of

behavioural managerial leadership research progression from its inception to the

identification of the change leadership metacategory and since. It is followed by a

synopsis of where the change leadership metacategory fits into the hierarchical

taxonomy of leadership behaviour that also includes task, relationship and external

metacategories. The hierarchical taxonomy is than looked at in comparison with the

APEL framework, which is being used as an artefact in order to explain change

leadership behaviours practiced by managers that enable creativity and innovation in

organisations. Figure 2-1 provides an overview for the chapter.

Figure 2-1: Chapter overview

An overview of the development of how change leadership fits into various

leadership theories will be presented and an overview of one of the key aspects of

change leadership, behaviours that enable creativity and innovation will be presented

in the context of the four categories of behaviours found in the APEL framework.

Change Leadership and Enabling Creativity and Innovation

Behavioural Leadership Theories: Task & Relationship

Leadership Behaviour Taxonomies & Change Leadership

Views of Change Leadership in Leadership thoeries 

Enabling Creativity and Innovation Behaviours

Page 52: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 52

2.2 Behavioural leadership theory

Behavioural leadership theories have traditionally been based on two metacategories

of behaviours: relationship (consideration) and task (initiating structures) (Bass,

2008; Yukl, 2010). Ground breaking leadership studies at two U.S. Universities in the

1940s through to the 60s identified the behavioural metacategories. The studies,

categorised under numerous names, sometimes referred to as a style or a skill, looked

at what leaders were doing and how they acted, as opposed to personality traits (Bass

2008; Northouse 2012). Behavioural research focus can be traced back to World War

Two when US Military officials identified studying behaviours as key to

understanding leadership (Nahavandi, 2009). Once the behaviours were identified,

training could be implemented to develop or enhance leadership behaviour.

The Ohio and Michigan State studies were initially built on subordinates’ opinions of

their manager’s behaviours and later extended to managers opinions of themselves

(Fleishman 1953, 1957; Halpin & Winer 1957; Likert 1967). The consideration or

relationship category relates to people oriented behaviours reflecting personal

concern for subordinates. The initiating structure or task category on the other hand is

focused on the needs of the organisation and is more performance or work oriented.

These two metacategories were the primary groupings upon which behaviours were

categorised in leadership studies for over 40 years. Many names have been used for

the task and people related metacategories. In order to avoid confusion they are

referred to as the task metacategory (behaviours associated with work, organisational

activities and productivity) and relationship metacategory (behaviours associated with

people and relationships), illustrated in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: Leadership behaviours - two metacategories

Leadership Behaviours

Task Behaviours Relationship Behaviours

Page 53: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 53

Managerial leaders choose to emphasise behaviours that are either task or relationship

oriented based on personal preferences and situational factors. The relevancy of this

to understanding managerial leadership from a cultural context is that managers

behave to reflect the societal culture, referred to as implicit leadership theory. Implicit

leadership theory involves a manager taking into account the preferences and values

of the societal culture to determine how to act (Lord & Maher 1993). National culture

has been considered one of the major influences on the behavioural preferences of

managerial leaders, and culture has been identified as a major influence that could be

considered when examining management in a given nation (Bass 2008; Jackson &

Parry 2011).

There have been numerous cultural studies that have examined managerial leadership

using the behavioural approach. The principle areas looked at, as noted by House and

Aditya (1997), are the task and relationship oriented metacategories. The studies have

found that there are differences between preferences and how the behaviours are

actioned in different countries (Dorfman 1996). However, no clear difference has

emerged that can be used to separate countries in all studies. This indicates that the

examination of managerial leadership behaviours will need to look to culture to better

understand how it influences leadership choices of managers.

A further connection between country culture and the behavioural approach is that the

metacategory concept is universal across cultures. As noted the two metacategory

approach was originally established in the United States, but it has been applied

across different cultures in unique ways. This is illustrated by two of the most

well-known Asian leadership theories Misumi’s (1995) Performance–Maintenance

theory and Sinha’s (1980) Nurturant-Task Oriented theory (Singh 1987). In both

instances unique preferences towards the different metacategories emerge for

managers in different organisations and when dealing with different subordinates.

From this it is clear to see that a simple categorisation of being task or relationship

Page 54: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 54

oriented may be universal, but is insufficient to fully explain leadership in a given

culture.

A third Asian managerial leadership behavioural taxonomy that was developed was

the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership model (Selvarajah et al. 1995).

This model developed by taking into account both eastern and western research and

understandings of leadership and management and examining and categorising

behaviours from a unique perspective reflective of the areas of influence on a

manager (Selvarajah et al. 1995). As opposed to two metacategories, the framework

looks at four metacategories. This framework will be explained in greater detail in

this chapter as it serves as the model being utilised in this study.

2.3 Change leadership – A third metacategory

While the traditional task and relationship metacategories continue to be researched

and applied, other researchers sought to expand the taxonomy of leadership

behaviours to be more comprehensive. This process began with the identification of

the importance of behaviours associated with leading change. Change-related

behaviours are those that involve visioning, scanning the environment, taking risks,

and being creative and innovative (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 1999; Yukl 2012;

Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). They are directly related to managers moving an

organisation forward through adaptation and change. Illustrated in Figure 2-3, the

third metacategory sits between the existing categories, as leading change utilizes

specific behaviours and requires task and relationship behaviours to be successful.

Page 55: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 55

Figure 2-3: Leadership behaviours – three metacategories

Adapted from Ekvall & Arvonen (1991)

Managers chose their emphasis dependent upon their own personal preferences, the

organisational objectives and other contextual factors, including culture.

Identification of the change leadership metacategory 2.3.1

First identified in the 1990s, the change leadership metacategory was identified when

research shifted to specifically look at the reality of change faced by organisations,

which led to the realisation that the response to change had become a key aspect of

management roles. The reasons as to why it took so long for the change metacategory

to be recognised, according to Ekvall and Arvonen (1991), are three fold. Firstly,

earlier studies were focused on organisations where change was not a principle

strategic consideration, such as bureaucratic organisations and the military. Secondly,

the changing macro-environment in which organisations exist was evolving. Lastly,

earlier studies respondents were more likely practitioners of transactional leadership

(Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Kotter 1990). Taken together, these reasons highlight that

managerial leadership research had not actively engaged in looking beyond the two

metacategories and ignored the paradigm shift towards leading change (Yukl, Gordon

& Taber 2002).

Leadership Behaviours

Task BehavioursChange Related Behaviours

Relationship Behaviours

Page 56: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 56

2.4 From Three Metacategories to Four

Yukl (2012) revisited the various work done on behavioural taxonomies and added a

forth metacategory to the three metacategory model, External. Together the four

metacategories are represented by 15 specific components. These are detailed in the

first two columns of Table 2-1. The four metacategories are based on accomplishing a

primary objective related to the behaviours of managers. The components for each

category are groupings of behaviours that will lead to the accomplishment of a

primary objective and will influence the ability to achieve the other objectives.

Table 2-1: Yukl’s hierarchical taxonomy and APEL categories

Adapted from Yukl (2012)

Hierarchical Taxonomy APELBehavioural Components Categories

Clarifying Managerial BehavioursManagerial BehavioursOrganisational DemandManagerial Behaviour

Organisational DemandProblem Solving Managerial Behaviour

Supporting Personal QualitiesDeveloping Personal Qualities

Personal QualitiesManagerial Behaviours

Personal QualitiesManagerial Behaviours

Advocating change AbsentPartially Absent

Organisational DemandEncouraging innovation Absent

Facilitating collective learning AbsentEnvironmental InfluenceOrganisational Demand

External Monitoring Environmental InfluenceEnvironmental InfluenceOrganisational Demand

Change-orientedEnvisioning change

External

Networking

Representing

Leadership Metacategory

Task-orientedPlanning

Monitoring

Relations-oriented Recognizing

Empowering

Page 57: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 57

Task-oriented relates to the completion of required work in a consistent and effective

manner. Relationship-oriented focuses on establishing and building relationships

leading to positive attitudes in organisational members. The change-oriented

metacateogy are focused on changing people and the organisation to increase

innovation and adapt to the shifting environment. The External metacategory is about

engaging with the outside environment to develop the organisation and ensure that it

is connected to the right channels. The four metacategory model is illustrated in

Figure 2.4.

Figure 2-4: Leadership behaviours – four metacategories

Adapted from Yukl (2012)

Yukl’s (2012) categorisation was initially developed by Yukl, Gordon and Taber

(2002) when the Change-oriented metacategory was added along with the two

previously established metacategories of leadership behaviours validated through a

variety of measurement tools including the Leadership Behaviour Development

Questionnaire (LBDQ-12); Leader Observation Scale (LOS); the Managerial

Behaviour Survey (MBS); Managerial Practice Survey (MPS); Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ); the Survey of Management Practices (SMP);

Transformational Leadership Inventory (TLI); the Conger-Kanungo Leadership Scale

(C-K Scale); and the Multifactor Leadership Inventory (MLI) (Bass & Avolio 2004;

Castro & Schriesheim 1999; Conger & Kanungo 1998; Kouzes 1995; Luthans &

Leadership Behaviours

Task Oriented

Relationship Oriented

Change Oriented

External

Page 58: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 58

Lockwood 1984; Podsakoff et al. 1990; Stogdill, Goode & Day 1962; Wilson, O'Hare

& Shipper 1990; Yukl & Lepsinger 1990; Yukl & Nemeroff 1979).

2.5 Relationship between Yukl’s Hierarchical Taxonomy and the APEL framework

The APEL framework has been selected in this study for three purposes, firstly to

serve as an artefact upon which to categorise behaviours that have been shown to

enable creativity and innovation. Secondly, to include in the APEL framework

behaviours associated with the change-oriented leadership metacategory that the

taxonomy is currently lacking. Thirdly, to allow for cultural modelling to establish a

culture specific managerial leadership profile in Australia.

In selecting the APEL framework it is important to examine the relevance and

feasibility to utilise the taxonomy in comparison with the hierarchical taxonomy of

leadership behaviours. Developed by Yukl (2012) the taxonomy is one of the

prominent leadership behaviour taxonomies, as discussed earlier. Comparing these

will determine if the APEL framework should be utilised.

APEL Framework Development 2.5.1

Beginning development in 1995, the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership

(APEL) model was developed by Selvarajah et al. (1995) to understand what is

perceived as excellence in managerial leadership across Asia. Originally named after,

the ASEAN nations, the model’s name was altered to Asian as it was extended across

Asia. The APEL model explores a country’s managerial preferences based on how

much importance managers’ place on value statements framed as “to be an excellent

leader in their organisation” reflecting cultural, organisational and managerial

preferences. It categorises managerial leadership behaviours into four dimensions:

Page 59: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 59

personal qualities, managerial behaviour, organisational demands and environmental

influences, illustrated in Figure 2-5 (Selvarajah et al. 1995).

The model’s categories, as developed, took into account literature from both Eastern

and Western perspectives. Behaviours known to be important to management and

leadership were compiled by researchers from six ASEAN nations to ensure the

dimension categories were reflecting the existing literature and the understanding of

managerial leadership in their respective nations. Rather than look at categorising the

behaviours under an existing theory, the researchers looked at the behaviours from

the perspective of areas of influence on managers in organisations. This approach

expanded on the two metacategory approach to identify four categories that reflect

the primary influences and consideration in how a manager choses to behave. The

four categories and the excellent leader category are explained in Table 2-2.

Figure 2-5: Asian perspectives of excellence in leadership framework

Source: Selvarajah et al. (1995).

Perceptions of Excellence in Leadership

Perspectives of an Excellent Leader

Environmental

Influence

Personal

Qualities

Managerial

Behaviours

Organisational

Demand

Page 60: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 60

Table 2-2: APEL categories

Adapted from Selvarajah et al. (1995)

The selection of these four categories has proved to work effectively in measuring

managerial leadership in both cross-cultural studies and in country specific cases (de

Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d;

Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah

et al. 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Shrivastava et al. 2013; Taormina &

Selvarajah 2005). The fifth category, excellent leader, is made up of the highest

ranking behaviours in the framework reflecting a universal leadership category.

The framework has been examined against the traditional western two metacategory

model as well as categories of leadership identified in Asia, particularly China

(Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). In order to compare these theoretical concepts against

the APEL framework an exploratory study was conducted that found both a

connection to the relationship metacategory, associated with components named

“consideration for others” and “trust in others”. Similarly it found connection to the

task metacategory associated with a measure of “strategic thinking”. Additionally, it

found connection to an Asian-specific category, “progressive stability”, reflecting a

APEL Category Definition

Personal QualitiesPersonal values, skills, attitudes and qualities of an individual. It emphasises morality, religion, inter-personal relationships and communication

Managerial Behaviours

The values, attitudes, actions and styles necessary when performing managerial duties and team/department management. It emphasises persuasive powers, managerial expertise, team management and decision making practices

Organisational DemandThe way a manager responds to the goals, objectives, structures and issues in an organisation. It emphasises the importance of organisational prosperity, organisational values and context

Environmental Influence

The external factors that influence the success of the entire organisation. It emphasises the importance of scanning and evaluating the external environment for opportunities and ensuring environmental realities are brought into the organisation

Excellent LeaderBehaviours that have been found to reflect the highest order behaviours expected of outstanding leaders in a society

Page 61: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 61

paradoxical view where managers act in both an open-minded and consistent manner

when leading. This reflects the unique nature of leadership in Asia that views

leadership from a more holistic and dichotomous approach and has been identified in

numerous nations including China, India and Thailand (Bala, Chalil & Gupta 2012;

Fang 2012; Hofstede & Bond 1988; King & Wei 2014; Leung 2009; Lu 2012;

Wenquan, Chia & Liluo 2000).

The APEL framework shares a significant overlap with Yukl’s (2012) hierarchical

taxonomy of leadership behaviours, though it is based upon a different approach to

categorise behaviours and metacategories. While the hierarchical taxonomy’s

metacategories are based on the behaviours’ primary objective; the APEL model

categorised behaviours from the primary area of influence when utilised by a

manager leading an organisation (Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina & Selvarajah

2005). As detailed in Table 2-1, comparing the two taxonomies, one finds significant

overlap and only slight deviations between the two, indicating that both are relatively

consistent in being able to serve as a model upon which to look at managerial

leadership behaviours.

The APEL behavioural categories compared with the categorised components found

in Yukl’s (2012) hierarchy identified with slightly different metacategories. Largely

due to where and how it was developed, reflecting a different perspective on

categorising behaviours. The theoretical foundation upon which the hierarchical

taxonomy is based is a western understandings of managerial leadership and can be

viewed as a comprehensive understanding of behaviours of managers. Similarly the

APEL framework, as earlier established, has been built and established through

extensive literature review of Asian and western leadership theories, the expert

opinions of informed multi-country researchers, testing and comparison with

understandings of leadership in Asia and the west (Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina

& Selvarajah 2005).

Page 62: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 62

Interestingly, when the APEL framework was established it included a category

related to Environmental Influence that was not initially considered as its own

category by Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002). However upon further reflection and

development, Yukl (2012) separated environmental related managerial behaviours

into a similar metacategory named External. Additionally, the APEL behavioural

framework was developed in Asia, based upon the opinions of practicing Asian

managers and there are some different interpretations of specific managerial

leadership behaviours, which appear as overlapping when examining Table 2-1.

These differences aside, the two models share significant overlap with the exception

of the missing components in the APEL model associated with Yukl’s (2012)

change-oriented metacategory. The lack of presence of these behaviours in the APEL

model, could be a reflection of when and where it was developed, however in order

for it to be considered as a comprehensive taxonomy it should be extended to take

into account behaviours associated with the change-oreitend metacategory. Given the

established importance of change-oriented leadership in organisations and the

recognition of its theoretical foundation, the extension of these behaviours into the

APEL model is essential for it to be considered a more comprehensive taxonomy

reflective of what is known about managerial leadership behaviours. Addressing this

gap that exists in the APEL framework will ensure that it is reflective of established

understanding of metacategories and make it a more useful framework in continuing

use in academic studies.

Having established the relevance of the APEL framework as a comprehensive

taxonomy and identifying where it is in need of further development, it is important

to understand where and how exactly change leadership is defined in other theories.

Page 63: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 63

2.6 Change leadership behaviour theories

Change-oriented leadership research highlights the dynamic nature of management

and how it shifts as situations, conditions and stakeholders are considered in the face

of change. Understanding the change-oriented approach to organisational dynamics

that managers deal with illustrates change leadership as a fundamental context for

managers to operate in. It has been identified that there needs to be greater

understanding of how managerial leaders effectively lead change. In discussing his

revised Path-Goal leadership theory, House (1996) identifies that ‘leadership for

change’ is a significant factor that needs further investigation. He notes his Path-Goal

theory does not address it and that a better understanding of leaders in that process

needs to be researched.

In Sweden, the first specific change-related study was reported by and earlier

discussed by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991). They developed broad behavioural

categories from three metacategories to identify the different behaviours present. In

the change-centred leadership dimension four sub-domains for managers were

included: (1) promoter of change and growth; (2) creative attitude; (3) risk taker; and

(4) visionary qualities. The study found connection to transformational leadership as

only a partial explanation of leading change. Change leadership also needs to be

focused on the organisation and associated work. Further research was identified as

needed to better understand change leadership across roles, gender, cultures and

industry. That study resulted in a change-related model being developed known as

CPE, referring to Change-centred, Production-centred and Employee-centred as the

metacategories managers operate in. This model has been successfully used to better

understand managerial behaviours across numerous fields including business,

nursing, religious leaders and across cultures (Andersen 2000; Arvonen & Ekvall

1999; Rasulzada & Dackert 2009; Sellgren, Ekvall & Tomson 2006; Skogstad &

Einarsen 1999; Zampieron et al. 2013).

Page 64: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 64

A second significant study to identify change-related behaviours as a metacategory

resulted in the development of the Task Relations Change (TRC) model (Yukl 1999).

The change category in the TRC model included behaviours related to promoting

innovation and creativity, monitoring of the external environment and creating a clear

forward-oriented vision for the organisation. The TRC model went through factor

analysis and the separate change-related category was supported as used by

managers.

The TRC model was later utilised to develop the previously discussed hierarchical

taxonomy of leadership behaviours that again found support for the three

metacategories over the previously established two metacategories (Yukl, Gordon &

Taber 2002). In the expanded and most recent hierarchy developed by Yukl (2012)

the Change-oriented metacategory includes behaviours associated with advocating

change, envisioning change, encouraging innovation and facilitating collective

learning.

The establishment of the TRC and CPE models and the associated empirical evidence

demonstrates the necessity of inclusion of change based behaviours in behavioural

leadership theories. In analysing the results of these studies it is clear that managers

must operate within the different metacategories all the time due to the dynamic

nature of managerial leadership (Yukl 2012). Depending on the situation a manager

may utilise behaviours that initiate from a single metacategory however, it is likely to

influence or directly impact behaviours associated with the other metacategories

(Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). It is the situational and cultural factors that will

require managers to adjust behaviours between metacategories. The adjustments

result in a dynamic form of managerial leadership that has mostly been categorised as

flexible, adaptive or complex.

The multitude of models utilising various behaviours has also created a challenge

with respect to understanding categorised behaviours (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

Page 65: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 65

Differences in names, categorisations and definitions have created a complicated field

in which to study managerial behaviours in regards to the two metacategory context.

Adding the third and fourth metacategory creates more complication. This suggests

that examining managerial leadership behaviours in different approaches will provide

greater insights and understanding in order to enhance theoretical understanding.

To understand change leadership requires connection to areas of study of leadership

including transformational leadership, leader member exchange theory and

contingency theories to explain the interaction of the metacategories. Most

contingency theories categorised managers into the two original metacategories.

Task-motivated leaders were ones that were focused on completion of activities or

duties (Fiedler 1979). Relationship-motivated leaders were ones that focused on

personal relationships and establishing and maintaining them. There have been

numerous theories proposed and developed relating to managers acting to achieve

change and be more flexible or dynamic in their behaviours. A brief overview of the

different theories follows looking at transformational leadership and leader-member

exchange theory followed by models that incorporate the change metacategory.

Transformational leadership 2.6.1

Identifying transformational leadership may be viewed as a first step in the

development of the change metacategory. Behavioural studies began to move beyond

the relationship-task dichotomy with the recognition of behaviours associated with

inspiration, vision, strategy and engagement that push people and organisations into

new directions. The division of leadership as either transactional or transformational

was first formally studied in the 1970s. According to Burn’s (1978) work, two

leadership types were used, transactional leadership and transformational leadership.

Transactional leadership is foundationally set with the guiding principle that people

work for reward: pay, salary, bonuses or promotions. Transformational leadership on

Page 66: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 66

the other hand is about empowering, inspiring and invigorating both subordinates and

oneself to achieve more.

Bass (1985a) extended the work of Burns (1978) to further develop and refine the

concept of transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership has

three primary characteristics: (1) contingent reward where the manager recognises

and gives rewards for good performance; (2) management by exception, which can be

either active or passive, where the maanger responds to deviations in behaviour or

standards and acts to correct them; lastly (3) laissez-faire behaviour where the

manager avoids decision making (Bass 1990b). Transformational leadership on the

other hand has four identified characteristics: (1) charismatic leadership, refers to the

ability of the manager to share vision and gain subordinate support through respect,

trust and pride; (2) inspiration, where the manager motivates others through challenge

and commitment; (3) intellectual stimulation, allowing subordinates to be engaged,

creative, and solve problems; and (4) individualised consideration, where coaching

and supportive guidance is provided by the manager individually to subordinates.

From the transactional/transformational perspectives discussed above, it is clear that

transformational leadership is more in alignment with the relationship and change

metacategories and transactional leadership is more in line with the task

metacategory.

A closely related theory to transformational leadership is the theory of charismatic

leadership, first developed by House (1976). The theory aligns with the heroic

leadership style proposed by Burns (1978). Charismatic leaders are able to influence

and engage others through their personality and behaviours resulting in a strong

commitment and belief in the manager. The behaviours of charismatic leaders

translate into: acting as a role model reflecting the behaviours they want followers to

have; proficiency in their activities; clear communication of goals and ethics;

showing confidence in their subordinates; and lastly establishing in subordinates a

Page 67: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 67

desire to work (House 1976). The result of these behaviours includes trust, emotional

connection, confidence and unwavering support towards the manager.

The preferred leadership type is dependent upon the situation explained with Bass’s

(1985a) full range of leadership model. This approach identifies managers using both

transactional and transformational leadership to lead effectively (Avolio, Bass & Jung

1999). As the various leadership styles are applied each positively impacts on

subordinates, dependent on the situation.

In terms of all the leadership theories, transformational leadership, in its various

forms is largely universally identified as positive across cultures (Den Hartog et al.

1999). The identified recognition of transformational leadership, as a leadership

universal, with specific outcomes related to employee engagement, organisational

change and innovative results. These connect and go beyond the traditional two

metacategory view of leadership. Transformational leadership serves as a core

component of changing an organisation.

The connection between transformational leadership and the change related

metacategory has been made, where transformational leadership includes aspects of

leading change that are about inspiring others to change. However, transformational

leadership does not address all of the change-related behaviours. In the Ekvall and

Arvonen (1991) study, both transactional leadership and transformational leadership

were identified as being important, but do not completely explain efforts to enable

change. The focus of transformational leadership based on vision related items

detracted managerial efforts away from developing new work and organisation

practices. A wider shift in focus, beyond simply being transformational, was required

to support change and innovation. Managing people and processes and the competing

organisational objectives showcase the challenges in attempting to analyse

managerial leadership when tied to only a single universal like transformational

Page 68: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 68

leadership. To change an organisation a wider range of managerial behaviours are

required.

Leader-member exchange theory 2.6.2

The connection between transactional leadership and the task metacategory has been

explained and is easily illustrated by earlier stated definitions (Bass 1990b; Burns

1978). A manager knows the organisational goals and uses task related

behaviours to complete required work, meet deadlines and gain subordinate support.

The impact of using transformational leadership to connect subordinates to the

organisational objectives and required work was explained and can be demonstrated

through Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, where a strong relationship leads

to the ability to apply transformational tactics (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995). Vertical

Dyad Linkage was first proposed by Dansereau, Graen and Haga (1975), now known

as LMX theory, refers to the vertical relationships that a manager forms with their

various followers (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995).

The theory explains that the leader-follower relationship goes through three stages:

stranger, acquaintance and partner (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995). The first stage being a

transactional or needs exchange relationship; the second stage has a relationship

existing with trust and a higher level of commitment; in the final stage, the manager

and subordinate are analogous in their commitment to goals of the organisation. At

this third stage maximum benefit of the relationship is achieved. The theory’s

application has been shown to result in practical organisational benefits such as

higher retention rates, a more satisfied workforce, greater commitment to goals and

ability to self-initiate work (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Northouse 2012; Yukl 2010).

From a cultural perspective the theory is viewed as being universal across cultures

(Graen 2006). Graen worked alongside Wakabayashi in Japan and found that the

Page 69: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 69

LMX theory is applicable there (Graen et al. 1990). The theory was also looked at in

China and found that positive LMX increases organisational citizenship behaviour

and reduces negativity towards the workplace (Chi 1997; Hui & Graen 1997). With

these examples, cultural context needs to be understood in terms of the right approach

to build relationships and to explain relationships. There needs to be a firm

understanding of the national culture before a relationship type can be fully discerned

and understood.

Heifetz’s adaptive leadership 2.6.3

Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive leadership theory frames leadership as being either

technical or adaptive and can be looked at from the two metacategory perspective.

Managers, like subordinates, tend to strive for solving technical problems and

challenges as opposed to looking for truly adaptive means to address challenges.

Technical problems do not require anything new to solve a problem. While a solution

may be new, the means of solving the problem are not and management in these cases

is more in line with transactional leadership or the task metacategory. When learning

is required it moves managers to a state of adaptation. Adaptation involves change

and people tend to oppose change largely out of a fear of loss (Heifetz, Grashow &

Linsky 2009). It is fear of loss that leads to failure and resistance that creates a

necessity for managers being adaptive and operating in the relationship metacategory.

Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive leadership is summarised as a process of assessing the

situation, managing it to provide context for subordinates to counter feelings of loss

moving towards positive change (Heifetz, Grashow & Linsky 2009). This is

particularly reflective of organisations engaged in innovation efforts that shift

practices, policies, and organisational culture. An adaptive leader pushes to have

those involved accept loss. The manager walks a fine line between pushing

subordinates to the edge and keeping them motivated and accepting. From the

technical position of task oriented and transactional leadership, change is a catalyst to

Page 70: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 70

act as a transformational leader and go beyond technical management to manage the

change process.

Bass (2008, p. 17) sums it up as “the activity of mobilising a social system to face

challenges, clarify aspirations and adapt challenges faced”. In adaptive leadership, the

role of the manager is one that involves developing and implementing new solutions.

As well as managing the relationship with co-workers to deal with uncertainty and

insecurity. Both are required to generate creative and innovative solutions (George &

Jing 2007; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney 2008). This two dimensional model

emphasises that creative and change-related developments would be more effective

under the adaptive style.

Versatile leadership 2.6.4

Kaplan and Keiser (2003) developed a model of versatile leadership with a

dichotomy between opposing strengths of people and task. Managers must place the

right balance between the two in order to be most effective. They identify only one in

five managers qualify as versatile, meaning they focus on one area too much as

opposed to finding the right mix. As an example, a manager may be providing

encouragement and freedom, but in so doing fails to enforce necessary deadlines or

correct unsatisfactory performance. Managers think they do balance correctly, but as

the research shows subordinates identify this is not the case.

The behaviours identified in the change related metacategory fit alongside versatile

leadership as illustrated by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) who graphically positioned

the change-related metacategory directly in the middle between the other two

metacategories as illustrated in Figure 2-3. Versatile leadership as proposed exists in

a similar space as the change-related metacategory, with people and task categories

needing to be adapted continually to maintain the right balance (Kaplan & Kaiser

2003). Versatile leadership however, does not separate out change leadership.

Page 71: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 71

Model of flexible leadership 2.6.5

Yukl and Lepsinger (2004) developed a model of flexible leadership that is similar in

nature to the above theories, but expands the model to include all three

metacategories. The model is centred on organisational effectiveness, with three

primary components: (1) efficiency and reliability in activities and processes; (2)

adaptation to changes in the external environment and need to innovate; and (3)

strong human resource practices and policies. The behaviours identified in the three

components, reflect three metacategories of behaviours (task, change and relationship

respectively) as identified by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) and Yukl (1999). Each of

the three flexible leadership components work together and when applied in the right

context, will position an organisation to change.

The flexible leadership model identifies organisations as dynamic needing an

environment that can lead to creativity, innovation and change. Woodman (2008)

identified that change, innovation and creativity are interconnected and build out of

one another, with creativity being the initial building block, leading towards

innovation, which moves on to change.

Complexity leadership theory 2.6.6

Complexity leadership theory relates to the work of Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive

leadership, where leadership is viewed as a complex system that is “emergent,

interactive and dynamic” (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007, p. 299). The

complexity leadership theory notes that prominent leadership theories are focused at

achieving goals, creating visions and soliciting commitment to said goals (Bass

1990b; House 1996; Yukl 1989). The core proposition for the theory states: “Much of

leadership thinking has failed to recognise that leadership is not merely the influential

act of an individual or individuals but rather is imbedded in a complex interplay of

Page 72: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 72

numerous interacting forces” (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007, p. 302). This

theory is more than a behavioural or contingency theory and is designed to illustrate

leadership as a central aspect of organisations engaged in dynamic activities

constantly shifting (Uhl-Bien & Marion 2009).

The principle behind the theory is the idea that organisations operate in a complex

adaptive system (CAS). The participants, both subordinates and managers learn from

one another and build shared models of how to function within the organisation and

the external environment resulting in the CAS (Marion & Uhl-Bien 2001). The CAS

involves numerous individuals that interact in the system itself (Cilliers 1998).

Innovation and creativity are two aspects related to change and organisational

development in the model.

The theory utilises three leadership functions: adaptive, administrative and enabling

(Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007). Adaptive leadership involves people and the

ideas and knowledge they possess. Through the interaction of the differing

perspectives it can lead to an agreement on direction or position, referred to as

asymmetric interaction. This is of particular importance for creativity, innovation and

change in organisations as the ‘expert conflict’ results in agreement on changing the

system. Administrative leadership is much more focused on the traditional views of

what managers do, using authority to assist in creative, learning and adapting efforts.

Failure to do this will lead to barriers to change. It involves a level of authority that

creates pressure to accomplish goals, meet deadlines and prepare people for change.

Enabling leadership is the third leadership function, creating the environment,

encouragement and conditions for adaptive leadership to push for change and

innovation. The enabling function does this through fostering interaction, developing

interdependency and managing tension that allows for the identified outcomes to

occur. The three functions together create the environment for change and innovation

to emerge. Together these three types of leadership coexist and make considerable

sense in context of what it takes to enable change.

Page 73: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 73

Change leadership summary 2.6.7

For organisations, complexity is the norm. This complexity requires more than the

relationship and task metacategories, but also the third (change leadership) and fourth

(external) behavioural metacategories to allow organisations to function at high levels

of performance. As demonstrated, through the various theories discussed, all the

metacategories work together to create the behaviours managers use to effectively

lead. Selecting which behaviours and what to emphasise must take into account a

large contingency variable, that of culture. Depending on the values, expectations and

realities in a given culture the behaviours emphasised and utilised will shift in

importance.

The identification of the change-oriented metacategory, along with the number of

theories highlighting flexible and adaptive leadership, reflects the reality of

managerial leaders needing to focus on leading change. The fourth metacategory,

External or Environmental Influence is required as managers need to be prepared to

work with and understand the uncertain environments they operate in (Selvarajah et

al. 1995; Yukl 2012). Understanding how managers select their behaviour needs to be

better understood to determine the metacategories that they prefer to operate in. This

requires that managerial leadership behaviours be considered against the primary

contexts of who and what they are influenced by and influencing. The APEL model

serves as an appropriate model to consider when examining this.

2.7 Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours

Yukl and Lepsinger (2004) identified the challenge of categorising individual

behaviours into a single category. What may be deemed a task-oriented behaviour

will also have implications on relationships, as well as on change efforts. However,

efforts should be made to identify specific behaviours when possible and categorise

Page 74: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 74

the behaviours correctly. Behaviours focused on change are needed to position the

organisation to a change-enabling environment, generate innovative solutions and

stimulate subordinates. In selecting behaviours to add into a model of managerial

leadership behaviours it is best to focus on a specific aspect related to change which

has been clearly identified and where sufficient research to determine the specific

behaviours has been developed.

The behaviours that enable creativity and innovation is an appropriate concept to

build further research studies around as these behaviours are known, well researched

and distinct. Discussed in the sections below, these behaviours will be specifically

categorised and extend on the classification of behaviours used in the APEL

framework.

At the heart of change in organisations is innovation and creativity (Woodman 2008).

Organisations commit to change through development of innovations, whether that be

new products, ideas or processes, all of which require creativity. The foundational

research on creativity and innovation behaviours in organisations primarily began

occurring with Amabile’s (1988) componential model of creativity which identified

the process under which individuals are creative in organisations. Damanpour’s

(1991) meta-analysis of the determinants and moderators of organisational innovation

found primary influence from individuals, organisational factors, and the

environment. The theory of organisational creativity identified a theoretical

framework where creativity occurs through individuals, groups and organisations

(Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). Scott and Bruce’s (1994) path model of

individual innovation in the workplace looked towards identifying how individuals

innovate. These early studies form much of the underpinning of what is understood

about how innovation and creativity occur in organisations. From the above

mentioned research, the enacting of specific managerial leadership behaviours should

result in a significant increase in creativity and innovation outcomes in organisations.

Page 75: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 75

Research on behaviours that enable creativity and innovation have advanced and a

synopsis was compiled by Mumford et al. (2002) that provided a comprehensive

review of the literature and research at that time. Over the 2000s more research

around leading creativity and innovation efforts in organisations has occured. This

research will be presented to provide a foundation on which to construct an

understanding of how managerial leaders enable creativity and innovation (Mumford

2003; Mumford & Licuanan 2004).

These enabling creativity and innovation behaviours can be categorised against the

primary spheres of influence on a manager’s behaviours found in the APEL

framework; at the organisational level, the managerial level, the personal level and

influence from the external environment (Selvarajah et al. 1995). This breakdown of

areas of influence mirrors the categories found in the APEL model that is used in this

study. As an artefact it should work effectively to categorise behaviours in a clear

manner (Hilpinen 2011).

Much of the research in this domain remains dispersed across various fields such as

organisational behaviour, leadership psychology, innovation management and

managerial research. This creates a gap in understanding all the behaviours that

managers can use to enable creativity and innovation. It is necessary to compile these

behaviours so that they reflect personal qualities, managerial behaviours,

organisational demands and the external environment. Currently, this type of

consolidated picture does not exist.

However, there have been efforts to develop a clear picture of the more individually

influenced personal quality related behavioural categories associated with enabling

creativity and innovation (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). This inventory compiling 13

behavioural categories is listed in Table 2-3.

Page 76: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 76

The de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) study identified 13 behavioural categories that

effect two aspects of innovation: idea generation (creative output) and application

(creativity into innovation). Again, these behaviours are largely associated with

personal relationship types of behaviours. The researchers note that the study is

focused on enhancing individual innovation, not that of the organisation as a whole or

of entire departments. They note that the study of implementing creative output at the

organisational innovation side is under-researched.

Table 2-3: Leadership behaviours that influence employee innovation

Innovative role modeling

Intellectual stimulation

Stimulating knowledge diffusion

Providing vision

Consulting

Delegating Support for innovation

Organising feedback

Recognition Rewards

Providing resources

Monitoring Task

assignment      

Adapted from de Jong and Den Hartog (2007)

Additionally, the categories do not outline any specific behaviours, as it was a

qualitative study that only identified the broad categories of managerial behaviours

influencing employee innovation. The study also was limited to looking specifically

at knowledge intensive firms where transforming knowledge and creativity into

innovation is largely an organisational expectation.

They indicate further study, specifically quantitative study, is needed to better

understand managerial behaviours influencing innovation and creativity. As

developed the categorisation is incomplete, particularly around organisational

influencing behaviours, management behaviours associated with completion of work,

department needs and the external environment.

The inventory as developed by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007), as noted, has

transformational leadership and one-on-on relationships as the focal means by which

Page 77: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 77

creativity and innovation are influenced by management. However, as was noted with

the identification of the change leadership study, initially by Ekvall and Arvonen

(1991) and again by Yukl (1999), that more than transformational leadership is

needed. It will require behaviours associated with ensuring the completion of work;

driving the agenda for change; as well as keeping the organisation moving forward.

The organisation itself needs to be embracing vision, practices and strategies that will

position the organisational culture and climate to allow for greater levels of

innovation and change (Constantine 2001; West & Richter 2008). Additionally, it

will require an awareness and engagement outside the firm to identify opportunities

and recognize the changing environment within society and industry. De Jong and

Den Hartog (2007, pg.59) acknowledge these limitations and highlight that external

networks and a supportive work climate were identified as antecedents to both

creativity and innovation, but not added to their categorisation. Indicating a

comprehensive picture of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours should

consider these.

The model as proposed by de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007), while framed around

individual influence, does touch on larger areas of influence. From the categorisation

the categories of: “Provision of Resources”; “Stimulating Knowledge Diffusion”;

“Monitoring”; and “Support for Innovation” go beyond the individual and may relate

to a manger needing to ensure productivity of a team or department. Only the

category of “Having a Vision” could relate to managerial behaviours influencing an

organisation. The identified shortcomings of the de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007)

categorisation needs to be addressed in order to develop a categorisation that is more

representative of the areas of influence that a manager faces in their organisation to

be effective.

In order to address this gap it will require an examination of other relevant literature,

not yet compiled and the development of a more comprehensive categorisation within

a framework that is reflective of the influences on a managerial leader.

Page 78: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 78

The literature on managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling creativity

and innovation across an organisation, explored in the following sections, reveals that

looking at enabling behaviours from only an individual perspective would be

incomplete. This singular type of categorisation fits well with the current trend in

leadership research focused on neo-charismatic theories such as transformational

leadership and connects with the growing topic of leading for creativity, innovation

and change (Dinh et al. 2014). However in doing so from one-on-one relationships as

emphasised by de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007) it moves away from behavioural

theories that allow for a broader range of behaviours to be considered.

Rather the approach that should be taken is one where the behaviours that enable

innovation and creativity can be looked at from the multifaceted areas of influence

that a manager considers when leading an organisation. As was previously explained

the hierarchical taxonomy, as developed by Yukl (2012), offers up one potential

option. This however has limited applicability as emphasis is on the main objective of

behaviours, as opposed to the main area of influence as used in the APEL framework.

This emphasis on influence makes the APEL framework an ideal artefact upon which

to consider the behaviours that managers use to enable creativity and innovation in

their organisations.

The same four categories used in the APEL framework, provides the specific focus

for the examination of the extant literature on behaviours that influence organisational

creativity and innovation required for change: (1) Personal Qualities refer to

behaviours enabling creativity in oneself and directly influencing subordinates; (2)

Managerial Behaviours refer to behaviours associated with leading and managing the

innovation work associated with teams and departments; (3) Organisational Demand

categorises behaviours associated with positioning the organisation to increase

capacity to facilitate innovation and creativity through vision, goals, policy and

direction; and (4) Environmental influence occurs from sources outside of the

Page 79: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 79

organisation that impacts on a manager’s ability to enable creativity and innovation.

These categories are interconnected, as in the APEL model, and influence one

another, but still serve as separate domains of influence on managers’ actions for

categorisation purposes.

Personal qualities 2.7.1

Personal qualities associated with enabling creativity and innovation are associated

with the managers themselves and one-on-one interactions with subordinates. The

manager must reflect values associated with being creative and innovative; establish

strong communication and appropriate relationships with subordinates to support

their contributions. The categorising of the various behaviours relating to enabling

creativity and innovation at a Personal Qualities level is separated into five broad

categories, each with specific behavioural attributes. This categorisation is provided

in Table 2-4.

Table 2-4: Personal qualities enabling creativity and innovation

2.7.1.1 Role modelling

A manager can role model numerous behaviours they would like to see reflected in

subordinates. It could be reflecting the vision portrayed through actions; the ethical

behaviour expected; following financial protocols, and in this research context,

engagement in creative endeavours. Role modelling creativity has been identified in

the work of numerous researchers as having significant impact on enabling creativity

Personal Qualities

Role Modelling

Tolerate Ambiquity & Risk

Relationships

Communication

 Rewards & Incentives

Page 80: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 80

(Ashlubolagh et al. 2013; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Jaussi & Dionne 2003;

Simonton 1975; Sternberg 1998, 2006).

Research conducted by Jaussi and Dionne (2003) found the most effective way to

impact follower creativity in terms of role modelling was creative endeavour. Role

modelling also plays a role in teams, where team members learn from one another

when working together (Shalley & Gilson 2004). Senior team members act as role

models to younger team members to contribute in the team environment. Younger

members serve as role models by being creative and reviving creative abilities in

older subordinates. It is a manager’s role to encourage this role modelling behaviour

among team members. By enacting the behaviour at the highest level of authority it

creates a greater sense of buy-in, involvement and willingness to view creative

endeavour positively.

Confidence is a key trait in managerial leadership and of paramount importance when

enabling creativity from a role modelling perspective. The concept of self-confidence

is used interchangeably with self–efficacy (Bass 2008). McCormick (2001) proposed

that self-efficacy is the primary cognitive variable that managers must have to

successfully lead others to achieve goals. Managers having confidence in themselves

are positioned to deal with the complex and challenging nature of engaging

subordinates, influencing the organisation and working with uncertainty. When

creativity and innovation are the objectives, the manager’s confidence can transfer to

subordinates. Subordinates observation of managerial confidence results in a shared

view of both themselves and the manager, as seen in charismatic and transformational

leadership (Bass 1985b, 2008). When self-efficacy is high a participative leadership

style is possible, essential to enabling creativity in both individuals and groups (Bass

& Barrett 1981; Mumford et al. 2002). The presence of self-efficacy in a manager

sends a signal to individuals that the associated belief in oneself and work is welcome

and results in increasing positive internal motivation. The Path-goal theory of

leadership as developed and revised by House (1996) states that leaders should build

Page 81: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 81

in subordinates feelings of value in themselves and to the organisation as well as

proficiency in their roles (Wofford 1993).

Intrinsic motivation drives a person and propels them into creative endeavour.

Research has shown that several psychological factors are associated with intrinsic

motivation including: curiosity, challenge, extending knowledge and personal gain

(Amabile 1988). Traits relating to motivation that have been identified in managerial

leaders include initiative; persistence; ambition; application and industry; and

dependability (Bass 2008). A majority of research around motivation and creativity is

in the context of the individual. However, some research has examined the motivation

of managers and impact on creative endeavours (Amabile 1988; Farris 1988;

Sternberg, Kaufman & Pretz 2003; Tierney 2008; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999).

This research supports managers needing intrinsic motivation themselves to enable

creativity. Similar to confidence, when a manager appears to be engaged and

passionate these feelings can inspire similar attributes in subordinates.

Managers directly involved in creative efforts are able to generate higher levels of

creativity (Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Redmond, Mumford & Teach 1993). A manager

being creative all the time is not possible. Yet being creative some of the time results

in greater understanding of the efforts involved and this enhances their own creative

abilities. Amabile (2004) notes that the direct involvement of supervisors leads to

greater levels of creativity. Similarly, Mathieson (2011) found that managers play a

large role in promoting creative self-efficacy in subordinates. This direct involvement

could take many forms from planning, clarifying, monitoring or networking. Shalley

and Gilson (2004) identify monitoring efforts as key to ensuring creativity is

occurring.

Managerial involvement in the idea generation stage is very important (Howell &

Boies 2004; Mumford et al. 2002). Idea generation is supported when the managers

involved in this process have a broad role orientation (Howell & Boies 2004). To do

Page 82: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 82

this a manager should be up to date with knowledge and skills so they can operate at

an appropriate cognitive level that allows understanding of creative efforts. Without

this the subordinates may feel the manager lacks the ability to participate reflecting a

lack of organisational connection. The importance of a project champion has been

identified as being important for innovation (Howell & Boies 2004). This is often a

role a manager will play when they may not be able to participate in the actual

creative processes, initially encouraging and later championing the ideas developed

(Stenmark, Shipman & Mumford 2011). Knowing a champion is there supporting the

outcomes of creative endeavours makes a significant impact on individuals, where

this behaviour influences the motivation of subordinates and causes subordinates to

embrace creative challenge.

2.7.1.2 Tolerating ambiguity and risk

Tolerating ambiguity is a behaviour that has a significant impact on enabling

creativity in an organisation. Mangers must allow subordinates freedom to think and

develop solutions to innovate. When this occurs managers operate for a time free

from certainty about a new initiative, idea, product or direction. As freedom is

required for individuals to be creative, managers need to tolerate this freedom so that

better results occur (Sternberg 2005a; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). These results

are associated with the innovation itself, employee and team confidence; trust in the

manager and support for future endeavours.

Under intense scrutiny creativity can be stifled, as identified in Oldham and

Cumming’s (1996) study on differences in controlling and supportive supervision.

This means that managers must limit their control tactics. Mumford et al. (2002)

identified this as being able to accept risk. For a manager this means giving freedom

to subordinates and positioning the firm to view innovation as worthwhile. For the

individual employee it means being creative and risking failure. Managers share this

risk with the subordinates when they accept that failure may occur.

Page 83: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 83

Tolerance to risk can also be role-modelled, influencing other organisational

managers and creating a stronger innovation culture. Other managers will see this as a

best practice and an appropriate way to act to achieve success. Identified in creativity

research by Sternberg and Lubart (1991), tolerating ambiguity will impact on

individual, team and organisational creativity. Managers need to have an open mind,

not judge quickly and encourage divergent thinking according to analysis completed

by Basadur (2004). When managers show tolerance towards creative endeavour, what

follows is increased security and motivation towards ambiguity and risk.

2.7.1.3 Relationships

Emotional intelligence refers to a managerial leader employing skills reflecting

empathy, conflict resolution, self-management and motivation (Goleman 2005). A

manager must be attuned to subordinates to maintain motivation, inspire them and

eliminate conflict. Emotional intelligence has been found to be an antecedent of

transformational leadership (Ashkanasy & Tse 2000; Brown & Moshavi 2005).

LMX is also connected to emotional intelligence through the high levels of rapport,

trust and cooperation required in the relationship (George 2000). The value of this

positive rapport with trust is that it lessens the possible adverse impact of criticism

and becomes a motivation for increased creativity (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Tierney,

Farmer & Graen 1999; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). This is also key to enable

creativity across organisations (Graen 2006; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney, Farmer &

Graen 1999; Zhou & George 2003). In summation, it can be said that managers who

cultivate relationships with subordinates have more influence over subordinates, can

be more critical of their work and can challenge them to be more creative. Similarly

work around coaching has been identified as a powerful tool for innovation and

change endeavours (Yukl 2010).

Page 84: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 84

A managers’ interpersonal skills work alongside power and influence within the

organisation (Bass 2008; Steven 2008). The interpersonal abilities create influence,

that works with the different types of power held by managers, as developed in

French and Raven’s (1959) five-base power model, impacting on subordinates,

management peers, and more senior managers (Steven 2008).

According to studies by Oldham and Cummings (1996), Amabile et al. (2004) and

Redmond, Mumford and Teach (1993) a supportive supervisor that encourages and

challenges leads to greater levels of creativity. This connects to the work of Zhou and

George (2003) who identified the importance of using emotional intelligence when

attempting to induce and sustain creativity. When employees are engaged in creative

behaviour more effort must be put in by the manager to ensure the employee does not

become discouraged. To accomplish this a nurturing relationship is identified as best

by Shalley and Gilson (2004). The right balance of trust and respect where authority

of the manager is still maintained needs to be established for creative work and a safe

environment.

Managerial leaders are able to influence attitudes towards justice in their

organisations and in turn increase creative efforts (Gupta & Singh 2014). The

importance of interactional justice has been identified as important to continuous

creativity in organisations (George & Jing 2007). Interactional justice refers to

showing respect to people involved in the creative process by providing them with a

positive relationship that recognises their emotions and involves sharing all

information available (George & Jing 2007). Without this employees may be

unwilling to continue to be creative if they believe their efforts are not respected.

Managers through their relationships can establish interactional justice and promote it

through the entire organisation as best practice.

The manager needs to know how to best motivate, communicate, persuade, and

challenge employees. Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008) connect this to Rogers’s

Page 85: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 85

(2003) stages of innovation diffusion model, with the different attitudes towards

change needing to be understood by the manager when managing the innovation

processes. In understanding the positions held by those impacted by change, respect

can be shown to all to help reduce resistance. Mumford and Gustafson (1988) identify

that creative individuals are interested in exploring and may become critical of

themselves and co-workers to a point of being harsh. Managers need to identify this

happening and maintain interactional justice.

Work and personal life are difficult to separate and influences seep into each area

(Bailyn, Fletcher & Kolb 2003). Impacts from one’s personal life can adversely affect

performance and decrease engagement. A manager with subordinate relationships can

look to personal lives and work to attempt to ensure one does not negatively impact

the other. It has been found that when employees have work-life balance positively

adjusted by managers, through greater flexibility in work arrangements employee

creativity is one of the benefits (James 2011). This is impossible to monitor unless a

relationship exists.

Mumford et al. (2002) identified social skills of managers having an impact on

leading creative people. Sense making skills ensure all involved have an

understanding of and share a similar mental model. The manager uses relationships

alongside related cognitive and technical skills, where sense making can be viewed as

part of emotional intelligence or social perceptiveness (Goleman 2005; Palmer et al.

2008; Zaccaro et al. 1991). Managers use these skills to educate, persuade,

understand and empower subordinates to engage or persevere in creative efforts.

Social skills also work to deal with negativity towards creative people and creative

efforts (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Mumford et al. 2002). Managers must have

relationships across the organisation and use them to move forward creative efforts

and buffer against negativity that reduces motivation or belief in innovation efforts.

Page 86: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 86

A manager should know the skill sets of those in their organisation, or have access to

that information. Baer, Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify the importance of

assigning roles that enhance intrinsic motivation. Ensuring work on projects is related

to subordinates’ interests, passions and experience has a positive effect on intrinsic

motivation. Intrinsic motivation is directly tied to creativity (Amabile et al. 1996;

Oldham & Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004; Zhang & Bartol 2010).

It is only through a strong relationship that this can be understood.

2.7.1.4 Communications

Dispersal of ideas and information organisation wide results in less communication

breakdowns, clearer messages and organisational mandates spreading (Damanpour

1991). Managerial leaders have a responsibility in managing communication efforts

as they have an impact on subordinate endorsement and motivation. When

information related to innovation is shared and heard by others it serves as a means of

underpinning organisational goals.

Damanpour (1991) uses the term vertical differentiation, taken from Hull and Huge’s

(1982) investigation of innovation in manufacturing firms, where hierarchy in the

organisation makes it difficult for ideas to flow freely. Management, due to size and

complexity, have difficulty establishing flow-through of ideas organisation wide

because of complex interactions between departments. A manager working towards

increasing innovation within the firm would do their best to eliminate this problem.

Shalley and Gilson (2004) identify the importance of an open environment and

communication that means the use of an ‘open door’ policy where employees can

come to look for information, clarification, and also share their ideas and concerns.

According to Zhou and George (2003) communicating information to employees can

lead to greater creativity as it includes them in the organisation simply by awareness.

Shalley and Gilson (2004) identify the importance of using the arguments of

Page 87: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 87

subordinates in communicating with the team and across the organisation. Doing this

shows respect to individuals and team ideas, reflecting the importance of their work.

If a manager fails to do this it may show disrespect thereby decreasing motivation.

Amabile et al. (2004) notes that communication is a key to a leaders success in

enabling creativity. Managers should make sure their communication skills are

constantly being used and refined. Gilley, Gilley and McMillan (2009) identify that

managers are most effective in leading change efforts through motivation of

subordinates and effective communication efforts.

A manager’s role in communicating is to ensure it occurs across all channels, both

formal and informal (Howell & Boies 2004). In a study by Rizova (2006) it was

found that informal communications lead to greater connection to innovation efforts,

information sharing and less duplication of efforts. Informal channels are of particular

importance when various people have power and influence. The importance of

influence has been documented in research by the likes of Dudek and Hall (1991) and

Mumford (2002). Their conclusion is that managers have to use influence to navigate

the political landscape of organisations. The key tool to achieve this influence is

communication.

The right type of communication in the organisation can result in a sense of urgency

and increase the awareness and importance of doing things differently in times of

change and innovation, shifting culture and attitudes of employees (Gilley, Dixon &

Gilley 2008). This means communicating all relevant information and repeating it at

different times. This is tied to interactional justice, discussed at the relationship level

of enabling creativity (George & Jing 2007). In change efforts this has proven to

build respect and eliminate subordinate stress (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008).

Managers must communicate clearly, consistently and continually across the

organisation to enable creativity and innovation.

Page 88: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 88

Similarly the involvement of a champion also means that they can communicate

information on the importance of creative efforts and innovations. To do this

effectively the manager must be able to explain the projects under consideration, in

the context of the various stakeholders, identified as perspective taking in the work of

Parker and Axtell (2001). When this is practiced it allows understanding of how

everyone’s work relates, increases transparency and improves the organisational

environment for new developments. The manager acts as an advocate for the

innovative work connecting it with the efforts of the rest of organisation (Madjar,

Oldham & Pratt 2002).

The manager is able to enable creativity in the idea evaluation stage connecting the

mission of the organisation with creative endeavours (Mumford, Connelly & Gaddis

2003). The impact of doing this frames the creative work against the goals of the

organisation. When the manager does this they connect both the technical and

practical sides. When evaluation is occurring between subordinates, the importance of

it remaining focused on the work and not personal is key (Zhou & George 2003). A

manager may want to put the creative work in the context of the team as opposed to

the individual, or let the individuals’ involved lead critical discussion reducing

negativity and expanding roles. Supportive feedback should be constructive and

informative (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008; Shalley & Gilson 2004). This means it

should be helpful and useful for the person receiving feedback to apply to improving

efforts. The importance of performance feedback in enabling creative efforts has been

established (Amabile et al. 2004; Zhou & George 2003). It has been

established that subordinates seek out feedback from managers to enhance their

creative efforts (De Stobbeleir, Ashford & Buyens 2011). Feedback can be direct

however if it is informal it may be less harmful when it is negative.

Sitting alongside feedback is inquiry. When a manager challenges subordinates to

higher levels of inquiry at the time of feedback, it can move knowledge application

and creativity to a higher level (Mumford et al. 2002; Senge 2006). Pushing deeper

Page 89: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 89

levels of inquiry as part of the feedback process is a key aspect of enabling creativity.

This connects to performance feedback in ambiguous situations where progress is

measured instead of a specific idea or outcome (Mullin & Sherman 1993). Kouzes

and Pozner (2007) identify the importance of small wins and accomplishments being

recognised and celebrated in order to maintain motivation and identify progress is

occurring. Small wins are essential to acknowledge and celebrate to keep employees

motivated and engaged according to Amabile and Kramer (2011). Taken together, a

manager needs to recognise the creative accomplishments, push for an explanation

behind the solutions and address resulting challenges by communicating.

When employees are encouraged at the organisational level to take risks and

challenge convention they are being enabled with the ability to achieve innovation

(Amabile et al. 1996; Jung, Chow & Wu 2003; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).

As was discussed earlier tolerating risk is a necessary role for managers leading

creative endeavours. However, for employees it needs to be reinforced and framed

within the context of the work. Employees on their own may shy away from risk as

the traditional expectation is to develop solutions quickly or in ‘tried and true’

methods (Dewett 2004). Pushing subordinates to embrace the risky nature of creative

endeavours is an excellent practice to achieve innovation. When managers who

promote risk taking are viewed as being honourable and having integrity employees

feel less risk adverse and embrace the challenge (Palanski & Vogelgesang 2011).

Challenging subordinates sends a clear message that more is expected out of their

work, including creative output (Farris 1988). When tasks are given that prove to be

challenging, employees are pushed to develop themselves and with encouragement,

creative success can follow (Amabile et al. 1996).

Application of pressure on employees is something that initially may be thought of as

having a negative impact on creativity. Yet a certain level of pressure is needed in

order for employees to work at a more intensive level (Damanpour 1991). These

pressures should be real and not arbitrary. Arbitrary deadlines do not support

Page 90: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 90

creativity. It is the managers role to apply pressure and justify its

application alongside supports and encouragement. Pressure should take the form of

challenge and expectation tempered with motivating behaviours (Gutnick et al. 2012).

Appropriate pressure is established through proper communication efforts.

2.7.1.5 Rewards and incentives

How to best reward employees who are creative and innovative has been identified as

a challenge. There are intrinsic and extrinsic reward options. Intrinsic rewards may be

something along the lines of greater freedom, while an extrinsic reward might involve

money. Management must understand their employees in order to determine which is

best used in different circumstances (Amabile et al. 1996). There has been a

significant amount of research on the negative impact of monetary rewards. Still,

money does hold value in occupations where creativity may not be part of the regular

work (Shalley & Gilson 2004).

There is an inverse relationship between monetary rewards and enabling creativity,

consequently, managers need to understand their subordinates to determine the type

of reward required. Baer, Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify that those in a

simple job will prefer extrinsic rewards and those in a challenging job intrinsic

rewards. In a recent study examining creativity and performance related pay, it was

found that individual monetary incentives have limited to negative impact on

individual creativity and motivation, yet a positive relationship exists to collective

performance related pay for groups and teams (De Spiegelaere, Van Gyes & Van

Hootegem 2013). The importance for the manager is to understand different

employees wants and needs and unlock the potential of their employees with the right

reward and incentive.

Different individuals, projects and stages of innovation call for different rewards and

incentives. Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993) examined the Katz and Allen

Page 91: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 91

(1985) study on the impact of productivity in R&D teams and found that reward

decisions are best in the hands of an engaged manager or project manager. They are

in a better position to assess the work, contributions and to determine what will

motivate the individual team members. From the point of view of the subordinate,

when rewards are in the hands of a manager less involved, the resultant rewards may

be disassociated with their efforts and lack specific recognition. When reward

decisions are in the hands of the engaged manager, individuals view rewards as based

on achievement with a connection between themselves, their work and the manager

involved in decision making.

The need for a flexible rewards system is something that can have a positive impact

on change efforts and enabling creativity (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008). A flexible

reward system around compensation, time-off and other more intrinsic rewards

results in a positive effect on creativity. Managers need to understand their employees

and adjust rewards accordingly. Examples include a day off, an invitation for training,

or a bonus. Managers need to understand employees and consider what is best for

each.

Encouragement is closely tied to reward techniques. Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin

(1993) note it must be balanced and monitored. Too much encouragement can be

construed as lacking sincerity or come across as overbearing; too little can be seen as

a lack of support or a lack of interest. Illustrated by Mumford and Gustafson’s (1988)

research, younger workers were found to be more creative and older workers to be

less creative. The type of encouragement used needs to change and be monitored to

maximise effectiveness for each. In looking at emotional intelligence and creativity

Zhou and George (2003) found that one of the contributing factors to higher levels of

creativity is when recognition of ideas is given to subordinates or if team focused,

shared ownership is recognised. The key is encouragement that comes from

managers that empowers the individual to be creative (Zhang & Bartol 2010).

Without it a negative impact on people may result which reduces the ability to further

Page 92: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 92

enable creativity (Amabile et al. 1996; Mumford et al. 2002; Oldham & Cummings

1996; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999; Zhang & Bartol 2010). In the Howell and

Boies (2004) study of Canadian executives, they found that managerial

encouragement was most effective at the idea generation stage when they provided

enthusiastic support. This is further supported by Tierney and Farmer (2002) who

found that managerial encouragement results in greater employee self-efficacy.

Managerial behaviours 2.7.2

Managerial behaviours are a necessity for all organisational leaders, (Bass 2008;

Kotter 1990; Kotterman 2006; Mintzberg 1973; Yukl 1989, 2010; Zaleznik 2004).

From an enabling creativity and innovation perspective this is largely translated

through the organisation and management of work in teams and departments. Table

2-5 summarises the related aspects of enabling creativity and innovation through

managerial behaviours.

Table 2-5: Managerial behaviours enabling creativity and innovation

2.7.2.1 Leadership Expertise

A manager must have a certain level of expertise in order to lead others in creative

efforts (Mumford et al. 2002). The environment under which creative work occurs

involves managers connecting purposeful work and intrinsically motivated

individuals on diverse teams. Tierney, Farmer and Graen (1999) looked at leader’s

creative problem solving skills and found a direct relationship to the creativity of the

group. Engaging in creative efforts by managers is positively related to idea

Managerial Behaviours

Leadership Expertise

Team Management

Framing of Work

Resource Allocation

Page 93: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 93

generation stages of innovation and application of creative ideas (de Jong & Den

Hartog 2007).

When expertise is discussed, both technical and organisational expertise is paramount

to innovative work. In a multiyear field study of internal ventures in firms, Sharma

(1999) identified the importance of both understanding how innovation fits into the

organisation and where challenges in development may exist. Managers need to be

able to assess the situation and determine if an opportunity to be innovative exists

(Krause 2004). At the same time a manager has to determine the right skill sets to be

active in a particular creative effort, and thus has to consider their role either as a

leader or perhaps choose to serve in more of a champion role and place someone else

in charge (Howell & Boies 2004). Failure to do this decreases the perception of the

importance of the effort and the perception of the manager themselves.

Managerial tenure was identified by Damanpour (1991) as key in organisational

innovation and again identified by Musteen, Barker and Baeten (2010). When

management has organisational experience they understand how it functions, where

power and influence exists and reflects a level of commitment to the organisation.

The knowledge and experience of a manager translates through to the team or

department by the provision of expert power (French & Raven 1959). Expert power

has been shown to influence members of an organisation because there is a belief that

the manager has knowledge and understanding of particular needs leading to greater

efforts by the team. The use of expert power needs to occur in a positive way. When a

manager fails to do this and uses expertise to demotivate or to criticise it takes on the

form of negative expert power (Steven 2008). This means a manager has to ensure

that expert power is used positively.

Intelligence is a key attribute to being a leader and is of particular importance for

managing innovation processes. Stogdill’s (1948) comprehensive examination of all

trait research from 1904 through to 1948 found that 17 of 23 studies connect

Page 94: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 94

leadership and intelligence and a further 25 studies from 1948 to 1970, found leaders

exceeded the intelligence of other members of their group or organisation (Bass

2008). This research on leadership traits found intelligence is closely associated with

numerous other traits relating to creativity including being wise, conscientious and

persevering.

Sternberg (2005b) proposed a theory of intelligence that relates to creativity and how

managers may apply intelligence into their role. The theory of successful intelligence

identified three types of intelligence related skills. Analytical abilities refer to the

capability to solve problems, achieve goals or see a situation in a manner that is not

obvious. Creative abilities refer to managers developing less common or novel

approaches to unique ideas or challenging situations. Lastly, practical intelligence

refers to the ability to put intelligence related efforts into context so that what is

proposed is useful.

2.7.2.2 Team Management

When a manager is building a team they ensure a mixture of experience, knowledge

and creative ability for the given assignment. A manager who has built a team like

this will have a diverse group. The right level of cohesiveness is needed to have

innovative output, as teams should not be so diverse or similar that they lead to

demotivating individuals involved or a narrow outlook respectively (Jaussi & Dionne

2003). Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) identify that too much similar expertise results

in a narrow outlook and leads to dismissing other areas of consideration. Woodman,

Sawyer and Griffin (1993) cite the work of Nystrom (1979) and King and Anderson

(1990), who found that creative teams can be too cohesive or not cohesive enough. A

curvilinear relationship exists when too much cohesion results in few creative ideas

being developed; or too little cohesion results in a lack of trust and understanding for

the team to function at an innovative level. Joshi and Roh (2009) conducted a

meta-analysis of team diversity and performance and found that managers need to

Page 95: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 95

consider the context of several factors to achieve strong team performance including

industry, occupation, team type and duration. The managers’ role is to find the right

balance of diversity for the innovation effort.

According to Shalley, Zhou and Oldham (2004) and Shalley and Perry-Smith (2001)

when subordinates have the opportunity to observe creative models in practice they

gain valuable insight into how to apply this to their own work. This leads to increased

individual capabilities in the organisation. Team structure approaches that support

innovation involve diverse member selection from the entire organisation that

exposes members to a variety of organisational initiatives, experiences, team

environments and individuals (Mumford et al. 2002). When this is done it expands

the knowledge base and comfort zone of subordinates to tackle creative endeavours

involving uncertainty and change. From an organisational perspective this allows for

the creation of synergies between individuals and departments for future innovation.

The synergies established in a team environment can also be harmed by continuous

exposure to one another. King and Anderson (1990) identified diversity leads to more

creativity at the beginning, but reducing as the team adjusts and become comfortable

with work practices, behaviours and attitudes. Bassett-Jones (2005) concludes that

diverse teams is a trade-off between the potential for more creative solutions, but

comes at the cost of higher conflict and stress. Stress and turnover were identified as

challenges in team work in a study by Keller (2001). It is a manager’s responsibility

to a team or department to develop balanced ways to reduce stress, increase cohesion,

encourage productive conflict and avoid group think (Horwitz & Horwitz 2007).

The need for a fluid structure on a team to allow new expertise to come in and further

develop ideas and concepts (Mumford et al. 2002). This results in the replacement of

team members, resulting in another situation requiring management in order to

manage knowledge transfer, new member selection and team socialisation (Summers,

Humphrey & Ferris 2012). Teamwork that is positive, supportive and challenging is

Page 96: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 96

the best for generating creative output in an organisation (Damanpour 1991;

Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). Teams need to have their early

interactions framed, establishing a connection between the team and the work. This

means making them aware of each other’s skills, creating a sense of shared ownership

of the work and responsibilities and awareness that at different times different skills

are needed.

Working together to develop innovations is something that has an impact on

employee creativity (Farris 1988). Critical feedback from other team members is

essential in the creative process as it leads to better ideas (Shalley & Gilson 2004;

Williams 2001). Discouraging ridicule of solutions and negative interaction towards

members’ efforts and ideas is very important (Shalley & Gilson 2004). When team

members know negative actions are a serious offence and not tolerated it leads to

better outcomes, greater security and collaborative engagement. Managers must be

careful to allow critical feedback, but avoid discussions or comments becoming

personal or emotional in nature (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004). This works both in

terms of receiving feedback and interpreting it. At the heart of this role is the

challenge for managers to establish a commitment among members to the project,

team and organisation, not an idea or the person behind it.

Knowledge management has been shown in numerous studies to have a significant

benefit to innovative endeavours (Du Plessis 2007; López-Nicolás & Meroño-Cerdán

2011; Xu et al. 2010). Identified by Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) and Woodman,

Sawyer and Griffin (1993), when managers instruct subordinates to share their

knowledge and expertise across the organisation the result is more creative solutions.

This breaks down communication barriers that exist between individuals separated by

departmental roles and responsibilities. Managers need to make sure that the

processing of information is done in a broad way that considers different

perspectives. Brand (1998) investigated the highly innovative firm 3M. 3M instils in

employees the importance of sharing information as well as challenging one another.

Page 97: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 97

A manager needs to work towards establishing knowledge management practices on a

team. If focus is only on essential information, the effect is to corral efforts, rather

than expand knowledge. Expanding knowledge improves the innovation process and

shares information for future use (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004).

Recognition is an aspect of rewards that is equally important to teams and

departments. Credit should always be given to individuals, but an effort made to

position credit broadly including the team (Elkins & Keller 2003). The impact of

doing this maintains teams’ overall motivation and connection. Everyone requires a

pat on the back for a job well done, in creative work this must occur regularly and be

directed at the team and individuals. Transferring this recognition to the entire team

helps build a sense of community and a shared investment in the work. Similarly, the

inclusion of the team in recognition avoids problems with jealousy (Brun & Dugas

2008).

2.7.2.3 Framing of Work

The manager must convey the importance of the work occurring and how it should be

done. They use many tools to do this, categorised as framing of work (Mumford et al.

2002). Work must be framed, but not controlled. Managers often mistakenly provide

too much direction and end up stifling innovation. Basadur (2004) identified leaders

are best suited to take on a process role associated with management. This means that

they will provide a terms of reference in which a team will operate for the creative

endeavour. In order to capture the process it will mean establishing meeting

structures; repositioning leadership, relationships and authority; identifying

milestones; and time allocations. Shipper and Davy (2002) studied management skills

and found a mix of both interactive and work structuring skills were needed. This is

something that is ongoing and requires a fluid terms of reference. Rosing, Frese and

Bausch (2011) describe the framing of work processes in two ways; opening

behaviours - pushing for exploration; and closing behaviours - pushing for focus and

Page 98: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 98

clarity in efforts. A manager must continually connect with the team to ensure efforts

are relevant, on task and not stifled.

The importance of having responsibility for idea generation and problem solutions is

fundamental for a team’s involvement (Basadur 2004). The manager needs to pass

ownership to team members so they are in command of how the creative process will

flow. If done superficially it leads to reduced motivation as the ownership transfer is

deemed as nothing more than lip service. From an employee perspective when they

are meaningfully involved they will be more productive and committed (Gilley,

Dixon & Gilley 2008; Sims 2002; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). Managers must

provide a higher level of ownership to the team while remaining connected to the

creative process. When the leadership of a team is seen as democratic it should lead

to greater levels of creative outcomes (Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). When

teams’ members feel that the manager or other members of the team are controlling,

they will lose motivation and interest in developing creative results.

Subordinates need to have freedom in order to get the creative ideas flowing

(Amabile et al. 1996; Elkins & Keller 2003). When employees are subjected to a set

routine, time allocations or other influences on their work they will be less creative

(Damanpour 1991). Managers must make sure subordinates can develop their own

work processes, standards and time allocations in order to create a sense of

ownership. Zhou (1998) examined high task autonomy in a laboratory experiment

and found that it lead to higher levels of creativity. Another study by Jung, Chow and

Wu (2003) showed this same connection between autonomy and creativity.

Transformational leadership has been identified as providing subordinates with strong

feelings of autonomy positively impacting creative efforts (Hu, Gu & Chen 2013). At

the same time as providing freedom to work, allowing involvement in organisational

goal setting and problem definition is important (Mumford et al. 2002). By making

teams part of decision making processes, this leads to greater engagement and

motivation.

Page 99: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 99

Direction and structure extends beyond team management. The encouragement of

looking internally and externally for information was identified by Reiter-Palmon and

Illies (2004). A managerial leader must manage this process to ensure that the search

is broad and deep. According to Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) and Finke (1992) it

requires new information to be found and applied towards solution development. This

important framing exercise ensures new information is included in developing

solutions to problems and idea generation. The use of multiple perspectives in

analysis is also fundamental. Studies have shown that when groups work together

they tend towards finding similar information and coding it in similar ways.

Managers must ensure this does not happen through properly framing the research

efforts and encouraging inner team challenge (De Dreu, Nijstad & Van Knippenberg

2008; Schulz-Hardt et al. 2006). This is closely related to environmental influence

looked at later in this chapter.

Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) identify that in idea generation instruction to

subordinates should call for the use of specific research techniques, push for the

utilisation of different information and use of intense cognitive processes for applying

the information gathered. This information should be process-oriented and

goal-oriented and allow for change in team interactions as the stages of innovation

efforts evolve (Olsson & Backstrom 2012). Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993)

identified that individuals often times narrowly define causal relationships resulting

in limited opportunity for creative solutions. Asking people to be open to ideas,

solutions and scenarios based on subordinates diverse backgrounds and associated

knowledge is beneficial to creativity (Rosing, Frese & Bausch 2011; Shalley &

Gilson 2004). Managers need to ensure this is the case to avoid homogenous

processes.

Tied to instruction and important in its own right, Damanpour (1991) identified goal

clarity as something that can lead to greater creativity. When subordinates are able to

Page 100: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 100

understand the goals, particularly in developing novel ideas, as opposed to fast or

financially prudent solutions than the team is likely to adopt an innovative approach

to achieve goals (Olsson & Backstrom 2012). This involves training team members to

understand, providing rationale and providing ongoing support. The importance of

goal setting has also been established by other researchers such as Shalley and Gilson

(2004). When connected to feedback, goals serve as yardsticks for work completed

and work still needed. Subordinates can use goals to intensify efforts and internally

acknowledge their own efforts.

Goal clarity may be difficult to achieve when competing objectives exist in the

organisation (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004). A focus on cost savings and budget

reduction does not easily coexist alongside a push for creative solutions. The manager

must identify this happening and attempt to provide clarity for subordinates. For a

manager to be able to do this will require them to frame the different goals in unison

so that subordinates can identify which takes precedence and how goals can be

achieved alongside each other.

2.7.2.4 Resource Allocation

Resources take many forms when putting them in the context of creativity and

innovation. It includes providing the necessary time, equipment, administrative

supports and access to information. In a study by Hebda et al. (2007) looking at

motivation of technical workers, the fundamental factors of freedom, flexibility, time,

along with resources were most important. When managers provide these it leads to

necessary support and positive attitudes towards organisational goals.

Slack resources being available in an organisation assists creative endeavours in

providing much needed ‘start-up’ assets to engage in creative endeavours

(Damanpour 1991; Troilo, De Luca & Atuahene-Gima 2014; Woodman, Sawyer &

Griffin 1993). In their examination of empirical studies and relevant literature on R &

Page 101: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 101

D organisations relating to creativity, Elkins and Keller (2003) found availability of

resources as a significant factor to successfully innovate. This included time,

technologies, support staff, space and opportunities to engage others internally and

externally. Connected closely with allocating resources, tied to organisational

structure and support, is the practice of ensuring technological developments are

brought into the organisation in a timely and continuous manner (Damanpour 1991).

This may occur through the team process of information gathering, budgeting for

purchase of and training in new technologies.

It is important that subordinates have a say in resource allocation, in particular around

procurement of resources (Damanpour 1991). This creates a perception of being

consulted. Employees recognise that not all resource requests will be met, however

the opportunity to be consulted will lead to increased buy-in. Information gathering

requires resources and one of the ways that resources can be provided is through

supply of information and access to external knowledge (Reiter-Palmon & Illies

2004). This may include items such as access to professional expertise, software or

paid information.

Financial controls have been found to be a limiting factor in creative efforts (Elkins &

Keller 2003; Gibbert, Hoegl & Valikangas 2014). If the budget control is too tight or

if the impression of strict financial controls exists it can lead to a sense of limited

resources. This is a balancing act as all firms and managers must have strong

financial controls (Davila, Foster & Oyon 2009). The demands for financial control

and the need for abundant resources have the two at odds within an organisation. It is

the manager’s responsibility to balance resource demand with financial control. When

a firm does have strong financial controls and resources are still procured for a

project this sends a message to the entire organisation of the project’s importance

(Weiss, Hoegl & Gibbert 2014). Csíkszentmihályi (2013) along with Drazin, Glynn

and Kazanjian (1999) establish that resources also need to be supplied with a

balanced approach. Too many resources will make employees too comfortable and

Page 102: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 102

eliminate a sense of challenge; too few and the employees will feel that they are

hampered by organisational constraints.

One important resource that is often overlooked is administrative support for creative

endeavours. Creative work involves intensive mental energy with limited resources

and often under pressure. The addition of having to complete administrative work to

support these efforts takes time away from more productive and important efforts and

may create conflicts. Various researchers have identified the need for sufficient

administrative support as a required resource to facilitate creative endeavours

(Mumford et al. 2002; Mumford et al. 2000). Administrative support can be simple

clerical support or more complex, as identified in a study on creative organisations by

Cohendet and Simon (2008), where entire departments were identified as

administrative supports, like finance and human resource departments. The assistance

of these departments provided valuable resources which were essential to support the

innovation efforts. Without them, the innovation efforts would have likely resulted in

failure. Managers play a role in not only listening about resource needs and procuring

them they also convey this message through the organisation (Shalley & Gilson

2004). Procuring resources across the organisation and resource support from other

departments provides support that strengthen innovation efforts.

The provision of time is a significant tool that managers use to enable creativity in

organisations (Bluedorn & Jaussi 2008; Farris 1988; Halbesleben et al. 2003;

Mumford et al. 2002; Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004; Shalley & Gilson 2004).

Managers need to understand time fully in the context of creative work. Halbesleben

et al. (2003) developed a model that identifies the various ways a leader needs to

view time for innovation. They include: timeframe, tempo, temporality,

synchronisation, sequence, simultaneity, anticipating gaps and pauses, understanding

individual time personalities and creating timelessness in the work. Having a sense of

all of these refers to a manager’s temporal intelligence. Temporal intelligence is a

concept introduced by Clemens and Dalrymple (2005) and further refined by Doyle

Page 103: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 103

and Francis-Smythe (2009). They assert that temporal intelligence is important for

business success. Managers that understand time in the context of the work being

done and the subordinates involved will lead towards positive results.

There are numerous behaviours relating to these temporal dimensions that could be

used by managerial leaders. The most basic of which are allowing time for creative

work as identified by Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004). Providing dedicated time to

innovative efforts is one of the long identified methods of establishing creativity in

organisations (Halbesleben et al. 2003; Mumford et al. 2002; Reiter-Palmon & Illies

2004).

Organisational demand 2.7.3

The importance of organisational structure and senior level executive support to

organisational innovation has long been established (Farris 1988). Across an

organisation much of what managerial leaders do to establish a culture of innovation

relates to organisational level structures, supports and practices (Elkins & Keller

2003). These include establishing a vision, organisational norms, and human resource

practices. In looking at this category three components are identified in Table 2-6.

Table 2-6: Organisational demands enabling creativity and innovation

2.7.3.1 Organisational and executive support and practices

The culture that senior management establish, maintain or work to change can result

in mandated innovation in terms of organisational expectations. The senior

management in an organisation must be willing to embrace change and share this

Organisational DemandsOrganisational & Executive Support & Practices

Organisation Vision, Goals and StructureHuman Resource Practices & Policies

Page 104: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 104

message across the organisation (Damanpour 1991). When CEOs have different

attitudes towards change different strategies and approaches to innovation are needed

(Densten & Sarros 2012). As well, reprimanding resistance to change has a

significant impact on a firm. This positions the firm to grow and creates awareness in

stakeholders that change is a reality. It has been shown that managerial leadership

directly impacts organisational behaviour and can reduce or eliminate obstacles to

change (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008). Many aspects of an organisation including the

creative abilities of its members, organisational capacity and social and technical

factors are at play in an organisation that is attempting to generate creativity

(Csíkszentmihályi 1999).

Creativity in an organisation primarily occurs when innovation is being sought. The

organisational related attributes that need to be established to be innovative were

compiled by Mumford et al. (2002, p. 732) and include “(a) risk taking, (b) freedom,

(c) work challenge, (d) openness, (e) trust, (f) support, (g) intellectual orientation, (h)

intrinsic involvement, and (i) activity/experimentation”. It requires shifting culture to

bring these attributes into the organisation. Lee, Tan and Chiu (2008) found that the

organisational culture directly impacted on creativity. An empirical study of

adhocracy cultures (cultures that encourage flexibility, change and external

orientation) demonstrates adhocracy cultures have greater levels of product

innovation in comparison to hierarchical cultures (Naranjo Valencia, Sanz Valle &

Jiménez 2010). Organisational leaders establish a culture that “fosters creativity,

entrepreneurship, openness, risk taking”; while avoiding emphasis on “internal

controls, close adherence to rules and regulations and internal orientation” (p. 475).

Monitoring the organisational culture to ensure that it is open to creative endeavours

will have positive impacts for an organisation (Amabile et al. 1996; Oldham &

Cummings 1996; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).

Another role senior managers play in enabling creativity is connecting the creative

efforts across the organisation and establishing a climate for innovation (Bel 2010;

Page 105: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 105

Isaksen & Akkermans 2011). When innovation and associated efforts are connected

to departments, goals, objectives and values they will have more chance of success.

In a study on managerial roles in issue selling around organisational change efforts, it

was found that managers are more successful when they position change across

organisational needs, engage other organisational players and do it at the correct time

(Dutton et al. 2001). Mumford et al. (2002) describe this concept as creating

synergies. This involves planning where to focus, finding connection between

projects, departments and objectives.

Shifting a culture has been identified as a difficult executive management task

(Cummings 2008). Managerial leadership can focus efforts in numerous ways in

order to achieve this including: vision; commitment; role play; engagement; support

for staff; and adapting the organisation to reflect the desired culture from structural

and philosophical viewpoints. One organisational culture model that emphasises

creativity is McGuire’s (2003) entrepreneurial organisational culture model. The

model has an organisation sharing beliefs reflecting values for creativity including:

acceptance of creative behaviour and individuals; risk tolerance; future orientation;

and an expectation of its members to be engaged. An overarching theme identified by

Shelley and Gilson (2004) is the willingness to take risks and embrace uncertainty.

Senior management willing to take and promote this position enable the process of

innovation in their organisation. Mumford et al. (2002) points to the work of Quinn

(1983; 1985) in identifying challenges for an organisation towards innovation. They

are financial control, timeframes, authority and attitudes of senior level executives.

Executive leadership must minimise the dominance of these negative constraints for

innovation to be possible.

Establishing a system of procedural justice is also important for creativity (Shalley &

Gilson 2004). Procedural justice refers to decision making processes being viewed as

just and fair (Tyler & Lind 1992). When procedural justice is perceived to be high it

leads to greater levels of creativity and shapes a positive climate for team work,

Page 106: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 106

collaboration and the organisation on the whole. In a study by Mumin and Mustafa

(2008) it was found that procedural justice was positively related to creativity in new

product development. Senior management must make sure that management act

appropriately in decision making related to innovative endeavours, ensuring decision

making is viewed as transparent, understood by all and deemed to be reasonably fair.

2.7.3.2 Organisational vision, goals and structure

The vision for an organisation reflects more than the future state of the organisation,

it imparts attitudes, standards of work, the formal goals and expected treatment of

peers (Jacobsen & House 2001; Mumford et al. 2002). The identification of wanting

creative solutions, allowing risk and taking multiple perspectives creates a climate

conducive to innovation. Similarly, when finances or profit are pushed as the

predominant factor it sends a clear message about the importance of the bottom line

and innovation is reduced (Amabile 1988; Damanpour 1991). When the emphasis can

be moved away from financial or other limiting variables it can also result in a feeling

that innovation is wanted and creativity expected (Davila, Foster & Oyon 2009).

Adjusting vision to relate to innovation and creativity can be clearly stated and built

through senior managers.

Alongside vision is the role of firm strategy and it has been identified as a way to

shape the organisation to enable innovation (Scott 2001). When managers build plans

for innovation into departmental strategy or include an innovation strategy it leads to

greater organisational results. The development of policies and goals to be creative

and innovative and formalising those plans as part of the goals or missions has a

positive impact on the culture (Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). This could be

done formally in identifying strategic goals, signalled support through budgets, or

emphasising efforts to target innovation.

Page 107: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 107

Managers need to match calls for creativity with the organisational mission and goals

(Basadur 2004). When this is done it alleviates any confusion over diverse mandates

and connects subordinates back to the goals of the organisation. Similarly, it has been

identified that one of the most effective ways to change an organisational culture is to

build on its strengths (Katzenbach, Steffen & Kronley 2012). Projects that require

innovative work should be in line with the work of the organisation (Mumford et al.

2002). When work is within the fields of experience of the firm than a foundation

exists upon which to frame the work and build new competencies and opportunities.

This is supported by the research of Sharma (1999) who found innovation most likely

to occur when efforts are in alignment with core competencies along with being

technically, financially and commercially feasible.

Managers at a senior level need to make adjustments to the actual work environment

and organisational structure to ensure that it fits with the desired innovative

outcomes. In a study of over 2000 employees Shalley, Gilson and Blum (2000) found

that when the work environment was conducive to creativity it lead to greater job

satisfaction and less interest in leaving the organisation. In a study on establishing a

creative organisational climate, managers were found to be able to direct influence

the perception of the organisational climate as being creative (Isaksen & Akkermans

2011). Damanpour (1991) referred to the importance of addressing functional

differentiation in change processes. This means that departments across the

organisation are involved in the change process or creative endeavours. This builds

on the concept of synthesis in creative leadership, as identified by Sternberg (2008),

where managers connect non-related items that when brought together can combine

to support creative development. Damanpour (1991) identified the problem with

centralised decision making. When it is limited to a few in the organisation it is

demotivating in terms of innovative outputs. When a flat organisational structure

exists or flat communication channels and transparent decision making processes

exist it leads to less unease about innovative endeavours.

Page 108: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 108

Changing the structure of an established organisation may be harder to do, but

increasing involvement of subordinates in decision making is feasible. Goldsmith

(2010) identifies one of the leading contributors of resistance to change in

organisations is the desire of those in charge to be right. This has a negative impact

on subordinates, often times over nothing of relevance other than management

wanting to maintain control. The dispersal of decision making to subordinates can

lead to greater engagement and thus contribute more to the organisation.

Mumford et al. (2002) extends the work of Damanpour (1991) by identifying the

creation of flat structures and promotion of communication both formally and

informally. If not formally possible to change to a flat structure, the flat concept can

be achieved through both formal and informal communication efforts being made to

create a sense of inclusiveness among all members of the organisation. Hemlin,

Allwood and Martin (2008) refer to managers establishing a creative knowledge

environment, where efforts are made to create an environment to support both teams

and individuals to work towards innovation. A creative work environment relates to

all aspects of an organisation including communication, the physical environment and

the organisational culture.

2.7.3.3 Human resource practices and training

Earlier sections have discussed items relating to team and department make up,

rewards and incentives. In many organisations these decisions largely align with the

responsibilities of the human resource departments (Lansbury & Spillane 1991). The

human resource department and associated management need to be aware of the role

that they play in creating a climate for innovation (Lewicka 2011). Human Resource

departments must work with other departmental managers to ensure options related to

hiring and rewards exist.

Page 109: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 109

Damanpour (1991) identified that the more specialists and expertise found in a firm

the more likely the organisation will be innovative. The result of a broad range of

expertise in an organisation is an increase in skills, knowledge-base and ability to

generate ideas positioning the firm towards being innovative. Jung, Chow and Wu

(2003) identify this as a strategic human resource decision in recruiting diverse

people into organisations to increase innovation, as do Shalley and Gilson (2004).

Recruitment of motivated people who are also emotionally intelligent was identified

by Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008) as important for creating the right workforce for

innovation and change initiatives. Diverse experience across departments also

positions departments to be more embracing of change and enable innovation

(Damanpour 1991). Human resource policies that look to add diversity to an

organisation through new hires increases innovation opportunities and chance of

success.

An additional area in which human resource practices play a role relates to training.

An organisation that is constantly learning and adapting itself is going to be

successful (Senge 2006). This learning and adapting approach in organisations is

closely linked to innovation and its precursor creativity (Yukl 2010). Creativity

training in an organisation results in divergent thinking skills being developed and

works alongside convergent thinking to come up with creative and practical solutions

(Basadur 2004; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). The impact on the firm when

training is provided produces positive outcomes for the culture of the organisation as

it results in shared experience between staff that supports innovation efforts (Basadur,

Graen & Scandura 1986; Lewicka 2011).

Training may also take the form of procuring knowledge in areas external to the

organisations focus (Shalley & Gilson 2004). This will lead to the expansion of

knowledge outside of the organisational focus, contributing to greater diversity in

idea generation and problem identification. It has a significant impact on a firm when

it is viewed as professionally staffed. As identified by Damanpour (1991) when

Page 110: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 110

people bring with them diverse educational backgrounds it strengthens the

organisations ability to be creative.

The importance of managerial support for professional development instils

confidence in subordinates. This results in a sense of recognition on the part of the

employee, increased sense of value and increased intrinsic motivation. Damanpour

(1991) identified study of the outside world as key to organisational innovation.

Organisations, by their nature, are inward looking and involvement of key individuals

in external organisations such as professional associations, business groups and

community groups can bring fresh perspectives, new ideas or identify problems in

advance. Identified by Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008), encouraging employees to

pursue useful alliances, networks and relationships. External relationships, as sources

of information, prove to be integral for a firm being innovative and recognising the

need to be (Joshi, Pandey & Han 2009). These final points also relate to the last

category of enabling behaviours, environmental influence.

Environmental influence 2.7.4

A majority of the identified behaviours relate internally to the organisation, whether it

be motivating or guiding the individual, managing the team work or adjusting the

organisational culture to embrace innovation. Additionally, looking to the external

environment for motivation, guidance and influence can result in enabling innovation.

The external environment in many instances signals an organisation to evolve or

change through creativity and innovation (Zhou & George 2003). Managers

following what is happening externally are able to identify opportunities to innovate

and changes in values or practices within society (Westwood & Low 2003).

Managers themselves must be looking externally, as well as encouraging their

subordinates to do so, in order to identify and capitalise on these changes.

Page 111: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 111

Elkins and Keller (2003) identify that for new products to be successful it will require

involvement with numerous external stakeholders, including government agencies,

suppliers, customers and external organisations, including competitors (Joshi, Pandey

& Han 2009). These sources provide information to assess organisational

shortcomings, new product development, market direction and potential strategic

alliances. The practice of external analysis and engagement becomes a part of the

creativity and innovation generating processes.

There are several overlaps with regard to external environment influences and the

categories already discussed and these influences need to be considered by managers.

They include: bringing in diverse skills through human resource practices; ensuring

external training; that professional relationships are established; information is

gathered from a variety of external sources with respect to the framing of work;

lastly, through the role modelling of leaders themselves that make a point of being

engaged externally.

2.8 Chapter summary

This chapter provided a review and background on the development of key

behavioural leadership theories related to change leadership. It highlighted the

evolution in managerial leadership research from the two metacategory model of task

and relationship behaviours and explored the identification of a third metacategory

related to change-oriented leadership. The change-oriented metacategory has been

confirmed as distinct and is now viewed as part of the hierarchical taxonomy of

leadership behaviours that includes four metacategories, the three previously

mentioned and a fourth related to the external environment (Yukl 2012).

The APEL framework used in this study was introduced and it was explored against

the hierarchical taxonomy of managerial leadership behaviours. The APEL

framework has been examined against the two metacategory model and found to

Page 112: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 112

serve as a more robust measure. When compared with Yukl’s (2012) four

metacategory model it was found to be missing the necessary change-oriented

behaviour category. In order for the APEL framework to be reflective of the current

understanding of managerial leadership behaviours it must be expanded to include

change-oriented behaviours, specifically those focused on how managers can enable

creativity and innovation. This study attempts to do this by examining the behaviours

associated with enabling creativity and innovation by building a new categorisation

that is comprehensive of the major influences on a manager. The APEL framework

serves as an artefact of managerial behaviour categorisation used to accomplish this

categorisation.

In order to do this an exploration of various leadership theories occurred that relate to

change leadership explaining how it is applied. From these models what was found

was that change leadership involves a variety of behaviours that focus on ways to

increase and apply creativity and innovation to move an organisation forward.

The challenge with understanding how to enable creativity and innovation behaviours

from a managerial leadership perspective was discussed and it was identified that the

current categorisation of behaviours that enable creativity and innovation primarily

emphasise the individual related behaviours. They fail to take into account behaviours

relating to managing teams and departments in the innovation process, and

organisational related considerations, as well as looking at the external environment.

In order to address this the APEL framework, that looks at four categories of

behaviours was considered as an artefact upon which to bring the disparate fields of

research on managerial behaviours together to develop a comprehensive

categorisation reflective of the areas of influence of an organisational manager.

This categorisation is summarised in Table 2-7. It used the APEL framework upon

which to examine the behavioural research to develop a new categorisation that will

be later used, in chapter 4, to build a new scale to be added into the APEL model.

Page 113: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 2 – Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 113

Table 2-7: Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours – four categories

Personal Qualities

Managerial Behaviours

Organisational Demands

Environmental Influence

Role Modelling Team

Management

Organisational & Executive Support & Practices   

Tolerate Ambiguity &

Risk

Resource Allocation

Organisation Vision, Goals and Structure   

Relationships Framing of

Work

Human Resource Practices &

Policies   

Communication Leadership Expertise   

Rewards and Incentives   

Of the four categories identified, three will be included in the extension presented in

chapter 4. The Environmental Influence category is already largely represented in the

APEL framework, so it will not be utilised in adding behaviours to the categorisation.

This chapter has provided the theoretical foundation upon which the need to expand

the APEL framework was identified and how the APEL framework was applied in

order to develop a new categorisation of behaviours that enable creativity and

innovation when practiced by managers.

Chapter 3 will provide an overview of the connection between cultural study and

managerial leadership and explain why culture specific information needs to be

considered. It will provide an overview of what is understood about Australian

culture and managerial leadership, essential to develop a model of leadership that is

reflective of Australian cultural values.

Page 114: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 114

3. Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

3.1 Chapter introduction

Managerial leadership and cultural research have identified universal leadership

attributes and that managerial leadership varies in styles, practices and actions in

different societies due to implicit leadership theory (Bass 2008; Chhokar, House &

Brodbeck 2012; Dickson et al. 2012; House, Wright & Aditya 1997). This means that

before understanding managerial leadership in a society, a country’s culture must first

be considered and its influence on management studied.

This chapter will firstly examine ways to view culture through universal and specific

measures. It will be followed by an overview of comparable cultural dimensions and

leadership universals. The shortcomings of this approach to understanding Australian

cultural impacts on managerial leadership will be presented. Finally it will examine

Australian cultural values that impact on managerial leadership. Lastly a review on

studies specific to Australia management will be looked at. An outline of this chapter

is presented in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1: Chapter overview

Australian Culture & Leadership

ETIC and EMIC Cultural values

Cultural Dimensions, GLOBE Culture & Leadership 

Dimensions

Challenges of understanding Australian Leadership

Australian Culture & Leadership

Page 115: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 115

3.1 ETIC and EMIC cultural study and leadership

The connection between leadership and national culture in management research has

long been established and continues to be linked in many studies (Bass 2008; Jackson

& Parry 2011). Cultural studies have identified managers as a group upon which to

focus research, due to implicit leadership theories, where managers reflect the values

held in a national culture and expected behaviours are formed (Bass 1997; Chhokar,

Brodbeck & House 2012; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Dickson et al. 2012; Dorfman et al.

1997; House et al. 2002; House et al. 2004; Javidan et al. 2006; Jayakody 2008; Lord

& Brown 2001; Lord & Maher 1993; Onea & Tatarusanu 2012; Paris et al. 2009;

Steers, Sanchez-Runde & Nardon 2012). This approach has firmly been established

in the GLOBE study, where middle managers were selected as the sample upon

which to establish comparable cultural dimensions, leadership universals and identify

culture specific aspects of leadership (House, Javidan & Dorfman 2001).

The culture context in management research has led to the recognition that while

leadership, in many ways, can be viewed as universal it cannot wholly be considered

in those terms. Research must go beyond universal aspects and take into account

cultural specifics in order to deepen understanding and provide greater relevance to

organisations and practicing mangers (Dickson et al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog &

Mitchelson 2003; Dorfman 1996; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley &

Mosakowski 2002; Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Osland & Bird 2000; Wang,

Waldman & Zhang 2012; Yeganeh & Su 2006). This argument has been established

as one of the predominant views on where cultural studies of managerial leadership

need to focus in order to address the gap in understanding management from a

cultural perspective. Dickson et al. (2012) explains the need to move in the direction

of having a more local understanding of culture in managerial leadership studies to

make it more practical for organisations. This sentiment is echoed in other reviews of

the current state of organisational studies and cultural research by academics such as

Page 116: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 116

Earley (2006) who notes it is time to move away from large studies that have created

universals and begin to leverage them along with other information to look at

variations in behaviour across cultures.

Based upon these views, it is clear that for leadership research to contribute to the

body of knowledge it will require a cultural perspective be considered that takes into

account culture specific information from cultural studies, from socio-cultural

research, from industry based research and from government. These sources of

information should be applied to explain managerial leadership in a given culture and

be built into exploring theory. Anthropological studies utilised two terms ETIC

(universal) and EMIC (culture specific) to explain cultural values (Berry 1969).

When examining a culture both ETIC and EMIC values need to be considered.

Cultural universals are referred to as ETIC aspects, representing higher-level concepts

that can be looked at comparatively across cultures. Culturally specific values and

constructs are considered EMIC aspects of a culture specific to a culture not directly

comparable to other societies. ETIC may be thought of as generalisable and EMIC as

idiosyncratic (Morrison 2000). There is a growing recognition that greater EMIC

understanding must be developed in a variety of disciplines including management,

entrepreneurship, psychology, marketing, organisational behaviour and health

(Cheung, van de Vijver & Leong 2011; de Jong, Steenkamp & Veldkamp 2009; Farh,

Cannella & Lee 2006; Lau et al. 2012; Skevington 2002).

The GLOBE dimensions, both cultural and leadership, can be viewed as representing

ETIC level concepts of culture and universal types of leadership (House et al. 2004).

However in order to fully understand culture and management in a society extra

information on just what these universals mean is required. Fuller understanding is

gained from looking at EMIC aspects of culture and leadership (Jayakody 2008). This

was done in the second phase of the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy 2007; Chhokar,

House & Brodbeck 2012). By using EMIC level concepts one can understand why a

Page 117: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 117

nation has a preference towards one particular pole in cultural and leadership

dimensions and expands understanding of cultural impact on management.

The inclusion of EMIC aspects of culture has been deemed a significant contribution

from the GLOBE study that can propel managerial leadership studies forward that

look at culture (Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006). The researchers involved in the

Globe study’s EMIC analysis describe the approach of bringing in cultural specific

knowledge as a solution to “address the respective deficiencies of pan-cultural and

indigenous research” (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House 2012, p.1024). From this

perspective, the next necessary extension is to expand the use of the extant literature,

both universal and cultural specific in relation to managerial leadership preferences

and behaviours to build and test models of managerial leadership. In combing ETIC

and EMIC information the understanding generated will include the unique cultural

aspects of managerial leadership to build models that provide a cultural specific

foundation to understanding managerial leadership.

The second book of the GLOBE study describes where cultural studies need to go in

utilising both ETIC and EMIC level information, noting that it is important to

understand to what degree practicing managers reflect the leadership and cultural

constructs that have been identified in the culturally endorsed implicit leadership

theory dimensions (CLTs) (Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013). This is essential to

help provide greater clarity and understanding of the unique nature of management in

a given culture.

The challenge associated with bringing together ETIC and EMIC understandings is

largely a methodological concern (Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010;

Earley 2006; Earley & Singh 1995; Lu 2012). ETIC concepts are the foundation and

basis of cross-cultural studies. The measures serve as generalisable across cultures

and are viewed as common elements that work well when doing cross-cultural

research across two or more nations (Berry 1969). ETIC concepts are largely driven

Page 118: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 118

by positivistic quantitative analysis where surveys are used based on developed

measures and results compared (Morris et al. 1999). EMIC concepts are culture

specific and usually require in-depth analysis that is driven largely by more

qualitative measures (Berry 1990). EMIC studies though are not limited to using

qualitative measures and several have applied a quantitative approach (Morris et al.

1999). EMIC information is gathered through ethnographic approaches and through

the study of extant literature and texts on a culture. This is where the traditional

methodological divide exists, where quantitative studies are the preferred form of

cultural research allowing for comparison and qualitative studies are viewed as

providing deeper level insights that better inform theory on culture specific attributes.

The information on culture specific attributes prove to be of essential use in practical

terms to understanding managers and organisations from different countries (Lu

2012).

The information generated from EMIC studies is considered to be richer and of

greater value, but is constrained by both time and ability to interpret against

universals. Similarly, the ETIC approach allows for study of universals that can

be replicated and applied across different fields, but have not lead to: (1) a significant

number of universals; (2) an overly effective way to provide deeper understanding of

intangible concepts valued in a culture; and (3) have limited practical application

(Yeganeh & Su 2006). This ontological challenge has led to many researchers calling

for the two perspectives to be brought together in order to enhance cultural and

management studies.

Arguments to bring the two perspectives together in conducting cultural based

research call for an approach more akin to anthropology than the ETIC/EMIC

dichotomy that currently exists within management research (Buckley et al. 2014). In

anthropology, the methodological viewpoints are not separate and distinct and do not

let the underlying philosophical constraint drive the research. A variety of

perspectives and classifications of values, attitudes and practices from societal

Page 119: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 119

cultures are utilised that can be compared or applied. These different contexts may be

rooted in related cultural contexts or from another relevant culture in order to develop

a more robust view of the cultural phenomena being studied. This approach is

endorsed by other management and business researchers that call for different and

varied techniques and approaches to research that must include both ETIC and EMIC

level insights to contribute to a stronger understanding of various phenomena (Bala,

Chalil & Gupta 2012; Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010; Cheung, van de

Vijver & Leong 2011; Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley & Mosakowski 2002;

Earley & Singh 1995; Lau et al. 2012; Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Lu 2012;

Morris et al. 1999; Niblo & Jackson 2004; Yeganeh & Su 2006). With such

overwhelming support from within the academic community that considers culture in

management research, it is paramount that an EMIC approach be brought into studies

that are examining something like managerial leadership, identified as having a

significant influence from national culture.

Finally a question should be asked if this can properly be done from a positivistic

perspective. Yeganeh and Su (2006, p.364) note, “the thick description of culture

produced by constructivist/qualitative research can help us define variables and frame

hypothesis in quantitative research”. When speaking about developing models of

management phenomena within a Chinese context, Leung (2009) calls for the use of

all available information and theories in order to bring forward the best theoretical

model possible, going on to note that leadership theory derived by including both

EMIC and ETIC level consideration will generate the most complete description and

expectation of leadership phenomena. Morris et al. (1999) identified several studies

that have used quantitative study to bring EMIC concepts into measures to allow for

understanding of cultural influence. Buckley et al. (2014) explain that data needs to

be put into a holistic context in order to fully understand how the socially constructed

realties and the positivist realities fit together where the categorical features are used

to generate the statistical features to understand perception and relevance. From the

evidence presented it is clear that managerial leadership research that has taken

Page 120: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 120

national culture as a key influence must take in to consideration EMIC perspectives

and it is possible to do this under a positivist paradigm.

Building EMIC insights into understanding managerial leadership 3.1.1

To build EMIC level concepts to understand culture and managerial leadership it is

most appropriate to use a model of managerial leadership that can connect these

various and diverse bodies of work to paint an effective picture of management in a

country. The approaches to building in EMIC understanding into research may

involve a variety of techniques. According to Earley and Singh (1995), there are four

approaches to take: (1) Unitary, or ‘psuedo-emic’ where emphasis is placed only on

culture specific considerations and constructs, not allowing for any universal

perspectives; (2) Gestalt-form, where variables are established by looking at a system

as a whole and relationships are hypothesized and compared between cultures; (3)

Reduced-form, where the understanding of a system is established by forming a

model based on understanding found in the culture, other systems and nations and

interpreted by looking at cultural specifics; lastly, (4) the Hybrid-form, where a

combined gestalt and reduced form are used through a complicated series of steps that

look at results from both a culture specific and a universal perspective across the

nations being studied. The GLOBE study is an example of a model that used the

Hybrid form that allowed for consideration of results around leadership universals

and the country.

There are other methods by which to look at EMIC considerations of culture. The

cultural metaphor method uses a grounded theory approach to develop a specific

culturally based metaphor to explain activities, practices and phenomena (Gannon

2009). The cultural metaphor approach is intense and requires huge amounts of work

in developing and interpreting the metaphor when it is connected to cultural-based

phenomena. Another approach is known as cultural sensemaking as developed by

Osland and Bird (2000), where paradoxes in a culture are processed and

Page 121: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 121

understanding achieved through expansion of knowledge and experience in dealing

with the paradox to build an understanding and course of action that is appropriate for

the given culture. This practical model used by managers is based on experience,

conducting cultural exercises and through knowledge gained from reading

explanations of culture. The cultural sensemaking approach has been identified by

Yeganeh and Su (2006) and Lowe et al. (2014) as a means to understand micro-level

or culture specific understanding that are required when going deeper than a cultural

dimension perspective will allow.

Across all of the different methods to build EMIC level understanding the inclusion

of extensive review of culture specific information through extant literature has been

identified as paramount (Earley 2006; Leung 2009; Morris et al. 1999; Niblo &

Jackson 2004; Osland & Bird 2000). Inclusion of insights from specific cultural study

on a nation; from historic development of the society; from studies that have

specifically looked at managerial practices, organisational culture and employee

perspectives will be required in order to develop a model of Australia managerial

leadership that can be examined that takes into account ETIC and EMIC information.

In this research study, the approach to combining both an ETIC and EMIC

perspective is referred to as cultural modelling, where what is known about culture,

from both an ETIC and EMIC perspective is used to develop a profile of managerial

leadership that is culturally specific (Hinton 1998; Selvarajah et al. 1995). This

approach is similar to the technique used in anthropology and mathematics referred to

as ethnomodelling where what is known as universal or western concepts is expanded

on by inclusion of culture specific information related to the local phenomena

(Maynard & Greenfield 2005; Rosa & Orey 2013). Cultural modelling has overlap

with many of the models mentioned above, including the reduced form by Earley and

Singh (1995) as well as cultural sensemaking developed by Osland and Bird (2000).

The APEL framework introduced by Selvarajah et al. (1995) built on the idea of

understanding excellence in managerial leadership across Asia and established its

Page 122: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 122

four metacategory taxonomy to serve as ETIC level categories of managerial

leadership behaviours. Having established these categories the model has since been

used to develop culture specific models for testing based on ETIC and EMIC

knowledge for each nation that it has been used in (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah

2006; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013;

Selvarajah et al. 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Shrivastava et al. 2013).

In these APEL studies national cultural values have been applied to explaining

managerial views towards excellence in managerial leadership. However due to

limitations within the model it has not been able to look at the impact of managerial

behaviours influenced by culture and their relationship to the behaviours that enable

creativity and innovation. This research study is unique from previous studies using

the APEL framework as it looks at Australian societal values and cultural imperatives

that have shaped impacts on management and can examine how this leads to

managerial perceptions of behaviours that enable creativity and innovation.

The APEL model utilises both ETIC and EMIC approaches in examining managerial

leadership behaviours in a culture. As noted above, the ETIC approach is applied

firstly through the establishment of the behavioural categories that serve as universal

spheres of influence on a manager’s behaviour. It applies the understanding gained

from cultural dimensions, leadership universals and incorporates EMIC information

to establish a relevant cultural model of managerial leadership behaviours.

This study is on Australia, which has a unique managerial leadership paradox that

requires EMIC insights to understand how managerial leadership is manifested

(Ashkanasy 2007). In order to address this, the behavioural categories in the APEL

framework are organised based on what is known about societal culture and

management to determine the specific components that will be tested in the

hypothesised model. The key information on Australian culture will be presented

later in this chapter. First though is an overview of the cultural dimensions and

Page 123: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 123

leadership universals that provides the groundwork to apply culture specific

information.

3.2 Cross-cultural research studies

Numerous cross-cultural studies have occurred providing insightful assessments of

cultural values shaping the behaviours and attitudes in a society. These studies

identify universally applicable cultural dimensions to explain how culture influences

the behaviour of people in society. A review of the key studies that have shaped this

field will be provided in the section below, leading to a review of the most

comprehensive and recent cultural dimension model, the GLOBE study, which is the

primarily study used in this research project to explain cultural and leadership values

from a universal perspective.

Geert Hofstede and cultural dimensions 3.2.1

The starting point for cross-cultural understanding in management research is Geert

Hofstede’s (1980; 1991, 2001) cultural dimensions. His work serves as the pioneer

research effort in developing ETIC dimensions for use in broadly explaining cultural

values in different societies (McSweeney 2002). Values of a culture are not easily

seen. However, values are reflected in the behaviours of the people in a given culture

and these can be categorised into cultural dimensions (Hofstede 1991, 2001).

Hofstede compiled a field-shaping study that identified four cultural dimensions.

Later with additional analysis and data collection a fifth dimension was included, that

together enables comparison of national cultures, as detailed in Table 3-1 (Hofstede

1991, 2001; Hofstede & Bond 1988). The study was initiated to examine differences

in behaviours of IBM employees across cultures. The study ran from 1967 through

1973 and looked at 40 different nations. Initially four cultural dimensions were

identified, though as noted above, through subsequent research by Hofstede and Bond

(1988) a fifth dimension was developed called Long Term Orientation.

Page 124: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 124

Table 3-1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

Cultural Dimension Definition Power Distance Comfort of subordinates with inequality Uncertainty Avoidance Comfort with the unknown

Indivdualism/Collectivism Independent responsibility in life or shared commitment to family and relationships

Masculine/Feminine An assertive traditionally “male” based society or towards a caring or nurturing society

Long Term Orientation Future oriented & relationship focused or emphasis on the immediate and recent past

Adapted from Hofstede (1991, 2001)

The study, initially established for corporate use was extended for academic use to

explain national cultures and should be viewed as significantly dated (Javidan et al.

2006; Jones 2007; McSweeney 2002; Taras, Kirkman & Steel 2010). Overall,

Hofstede sits as the grandfather of cross-cultural research, his study and dimensions

are next to impossible to remove from consideration in other cultural business

research (House et al. 2004). His work is utilised in nearly all other cross-cultural

studies. Hofstede’s contribution notwithstanding, ongoing use of his dimensions

should be limited due to more recent, robust and complete studies.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner cultural factors model 3.2.2

Trompenaars and Hampden Turner’s (2003) cultural factors model identifies cultural

dimensions based on work in organisations. They identify several value orientation

dimensions across organisations around the world summarised in Table 3-2. The

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner model goes on to categorise national cultures in

four orientations (project-oriented; role-oriented; power-oriented, or

fulfilment- oriented) relating to a ‘task versus people’ poll and an ‘equality versus

hierarchical’ poll. By taking into account both orientations and poles, cultures are

categorised to determine how business will likely be conducted within a particular

society. The creators use the model in cross-cultural management training.

Page 125: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 125

Table 3-2: Cultural factors model

Cultural Dimension Definition

Universalism vs Particularism Rules applied universally versus relationship and situational based preference

Communitarianism vs Individualism Interests of the community first versus individual self-interest first

Neutral vs Emotional Deal with people free of emotion versus making emotion a significant part of communication

Diffuse vs Specific Low context view of work & personal world versus high context view with clear separations

Achievement vs Ascription Individual performance based values versus hierarchical, experience or position values

Synchronic vs Sequential Time viewed as interrelated with past present and future or viewed as not interconnected

Inner-directed vs Outer-directed Controlling the environment versus being a part of it and reacting to it

Adapted from: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2003)

There are clear overlaps in the work of Hofstede (1991, 2001) and Trompenaars and

Hampden Turner dimensions (Needle 2010). Power distance and the Achievement

versus Ascription dimensions are similar; as is Individualism/Collectivism and

Communitarianism versus Individualism dimensions. The criticisms of Trompenaars

and Hampden Turner’s (2003) work bear a significant similarity to criticisms of

Hofstede (1999, 2001), related to scientific rigour, western driven thought,

commercial nature of the work and methodological issues (Hofstede 1996; St Claire

2005). Hofstede and Minkov (2011) summarise the issues with the research,

acknowledging its value from a business consulting perspective, but its foundation in

imagination, lack of scientific and statistical rigor make it inappropriate for academic

study.

Schwartz and the theory of human values 3.2.3

Schwartz (1992) developed what is referred to as the Theory of Human Values. His

many publications relating to his cross-cultural research and theory have been

Page 126: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 126

identified by Hofstede (2001, 2006) and House (2004) as foundational theory.

Schwartz’s theory identifies ten types of values that were found to be near universal

across the societies he investigated as detailed in Table 3-3 (Schwartz 2007).

Table 3-3: Schwartz’s theory of human values

Schwartz's Human Values Open to Change Conservatism

Stimulation Security Self direction Tradition

Hedonism Conformity Self-transcendence Self-enhancement

Universalism Achievement Benevolence Power

Hedonism Adapted from Schwartz (2007)

The values as identified can be grouped into two categories with two poles in each

category, as illustrated above. The first category is being open to change versus

conservation. The second category is self-transcendence versus self-enhancement.

Values change between the identified poles of the categories as experiences and

motivations of cultural members shift taking cues from society and their own life

experiences which feed into the values held.

While the model developed by Schwartz has alignment with some of the work of

Hofstede (2001), it is different in how it was developed (Ali, Brooks & AlShawi

2008). While Hofstede utilised values into classified dimensions, Schwartz looked at

how the values relate to each other and later examined them in a cross-cultural

context (Schwartz 1994; Schwartz & Bardi 2001). This creates some interesting

insights however, the ability to apply the findings from Schwartz in cultural studies is

a challenge, in large part due to the lack of a complete publication detailing the

findings from his work (Terlutter, Diehl & Mueller 2006). His work though has had

influence on other cultural studies, in particular the GLOBE study where cross

Page 127: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 127

examination between values and dimensions occurred to increase validity of the

GLOBE framework (House et al. 2004).

Inglehart and the world values survey 3.2.4

Inglehart (1990) created the world values survey in order to study how societal values

were shifting. The work was first established in Europe and later extended globally to

include 97 cultures (Inglehart 2010). It examines how cultures are shifting views on

religion, political, economic and social issues. The survey uses two dimensions as

illustrated in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4: Inglehart’s world values

Adapted from Inglehart (2010)

This widely accepted approach to measuring current societal values is, again, created

and based on western values. It provides insight into how cultures are shifting social

values year by year. These shifts are of relevance to managerial leadership research as

illustrated by managers’ awareness and reaction to the growing importance of

corporate social responsibility (Inglehart 2010). However, even though Inglehart’s

research provides the ability to interpret and compare the two primary dimensions

against managerial leadership practices, the broadness of the categories does not

provide significant insights for the purposes of this research study.

The GLOBE study 3.2.5

The GLOBE study is the largest and most recent study that has investigated

developing cultural dimensions (House et al. 2004). For this reason it is the most

relevant to this research study which uses cultural dimensions to help frame

Traditional Secular/Rational AthouritySurvival Self-expression

Inglehart's World Values

Page 128: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 128

managerial leadership practices in Australia. The GLOBE study spearheaded by

Robert House and a host of established and respected researchers internationally, set

out to build a more complete, dynamic and robust series of cultural dimensions and to

examine and establish dimensions associated with leadership universals (House,

Javidan & Dorfman 2001). The study, surveyed over 17,000 managers from three

industries (telecommunications, financial services, and food processing). These

industries were viewed as being present in all societies (House et al. 2004). The study

had two principal outcomes, nine cultural dimensions and six implicit leadership

dimensions that could be viewed as universal. The nine cultural dimensions included

two categories, “As-is”, how a country currently values associated dimensions and

“Should-Be” how it should value said dimension in the future. The six culturally

implicit leadership dimensions were based upon 21 broader leadership dimensions,

discussed later in this chapter.

3.3 GLOBE cultural dimensions

The GLOBE study’s nine cultural dimensions are summarised in Table 3-5 and

explained below. Largely sourced back to and extended from Hofstede (1999, 2001),

they also incorporate the work of others such as Schwartz (2007) and Triandis (1995).

Uncertainty avoidance 3.3.1

The preference for certainty against higher levels of risk make up the poles of this

dimension (House et al. 2004). Societies have more positive or negative attitudes

towards risk. It is important to consider the attitudes as these have strong implications

on organisations in a given culture. Countries that have a high score in Uncertainty

Avoidance are viewed as being more formal; prefer lower risk and resist change

(House et al. 2004). Those cultures with low uncertainty avoidance scores are less

formal; take greater risks; and more open to change.

Page 129: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 129

Table 3-5: GLOBE cultural dimensions

Cultural Dimension Definition

Uncertainty Avoidance Similar to Hofstede - Comfort with the unknown

Power Distance Similar to Hofstede - Comfort of subordinates with inequality

Collectivism I Institutional

Combing work of Hofstede & Triandis - Collectivism in the sense of shared rewards

Collectivism II In-Group

Combing work of Hofstede & Triandis - Collectivism in the sense of loyalty to family & organisations

Gender Egalitarianism Part of Hofstede's Masculine/Feminine dimension - How equal are genders in society

Assertiveness Part of Hofstede's Masculine/Feminine dimension - How aggressive is business behaviour

Performance Orientation

Based on McClelland - How society and organisations reward success

Future Orientation Similar to Hofstede - Long term planning and relationship oriented

Humane Orientation Based on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck - Level of care and concern in society among its members

Adapted from House et al. (2004)

Power distance 3.3.2

Power distance refers to the level of acceptance of inequality within a culture (House

et al. 2004). Easily understood, there are many ways power is viewed in a society.

These include: social inequalities exist with high power distance, while a low power

distance score would mean less class differences. Power is stable and difficult to gain

in high power distance societies, while in low power distance societies power can be

obtained based on effort, skills and knowledge. Social mobility is possible in a low

power distance country, but difficult in a high power distance society. Equality and

civil liberties may be lower in high power distance countries and higher in low power

distance countries.

Page 130: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 130

Collectivism I & II 3.3.3

Collectivism in the Globe study expands on Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) original cultural

dimension (House et al. 2004). The GLOBE study wanting to address the

shortcomings and issues of interpreting the Collectivism dimension consequently

expanded it into two separate dimensions building in the work of Triandis (1995).

3.3.3.1 Collectivism I or institutional collectivism

Institutional collectivism refers to collectivism in the sense of shared resources,

reward and action. Cultures with a high Collectivism I score tend to place emphasis

on communal ideals (House et al. 2004). This may take the form of high levels of

group loyalty; group interests over individual interests; and the economic system

emphasising the group over individual interests. Low scoring cultures emphasise

individual interests, effort and activities.

3.3.3.2 Collectivism II or in-group collectivism

In-group collectivism refers to the connection of the individual to their organisation

and families. Countries with high scores for Collectivism II take pride in being part of

an organisation. Emphasis is placed on the wellbeing of the organisation and

individuals emphasise group achievement. Low scoring countries on the other hand

place the individual and their needs at the centre of responsibility and decision

making focused on the individual.

Gender egalitarianism 3.3.4

Established separately from Hofstede’s (2001) masculine/feminine dimension the

gender egalitarianism dimension looked at the way society enforces and endorses

gender equality (House et al. 2004). Cultures that rank high in gender egalitarianism

are striving for complete equality between genders, meaning equal opportunities in

Page 131: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 131

terms of education, employment, authority and community. Low scoring societies

place women in a reduced or diminished societal role with lower education, lower

authority and less career opportunities.

Assertiveness 3.3.5

Assertiveness relates specifically to “the degree to which individuals, in organisations

or societies are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in social relationships”

(House et al. 2002, p. 6). It is a unique cultural identifier that differs dramatically

between countries (House et al. 2004). A high score in assertiveness will reflect a

culture that places a high value on competition, control over the environment, values

risk taking and initiative, with rewards based on results and performance. A culture

with a low assertive score will look for cooperative models and solutions, appreciate

establishing and maintaining respectful relationships and place individuals as a part

of the environment with little control over it.

Performance orientation 3.3.6

Performance orientation according to the GLOBE definition “reflects the extent to

which a community encourages and rewards innovation, high standards and

performance improvement” (House et al. 2004,pg 239). The dimension is framed in

the context of Weber (2012) and McClelland’s (1967) work on Protestant work ethic

and achievement orientation where societal emphasis is on results and improvement.

The dimension again relates to some of what Hofstede (2001) included as a

component of his masculinity/femininity dimension, but expands on it substantially

(House et al. 2004). High scoring cultures emphasise rewards to individuals; results

focused on improvements; stress initiative; value training; and value directness in

communication. Low scoring cultures on the other hand place greater emphasis on

family and harmony; the individual as opposed to their work; are hierarchical and

cooperative.

Page 132: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 132

Future orientation 3.3.7

The GLOBE study defines Future Orientation as the “degree to which individuals in

organisations or societies engage in future-oriented behaviours such as planning,

investing in the future and delaying individual or collective gratification” (House et

al. 2004, p. 12). This dimension builds on the work of many other studies. The

concept was first studied in the early 1960s with the work around time orientation by

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and Hall (1988). High future orientation cultures

save for the future; emphasise long term strategy in organisations; connect spirituality

to economic success; defer short term gratification; and recognise the importance of

visionary leadership. At the other end of the scale are low scoring countries which

reflect a culture less focused on saving or long term planning, oriented towards

instant rewards.

Humane orientation 3.3.8

The GLOBE study defines it as “the degree to which individuals in organisations or

societies encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly,

generous, caring and kind to others” (House et al. 2004, pg 13). The dimension again

has components related to Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) masculine/feminine dimension,

identifying toughness and tenderness of a society. Schwartz’s (2001) values study

includes a similar dimension, self-transcendence, emphasising a strong humane

orientation and self-enhancement having a low humane orientation. A society with a

high score in humane orientation places importance on people, in particular family

and friends; the government plays a policy-oriented role in promoting well-being; and

a more paternalistic set of norms exist with high levels of respect and obedience on

the part of children and control on the part of parents. Low scoring countries place

emphasis on the individual; view motivation as related to wealth and power; a welfare

state infrastructure exists, where everyone is expected to meet their own needs.

Page 133: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 133

3.4 GLOBE study - primary leadership dimensions

The GLOBE study’s second outcome was the development of six universal

leadership dimensions, based on implicit leadership theory (Den Hartog et al. 1999;

House et al. 2004; Lord & Brown 2001). The manager will in a sense build a

“prototype” from cultural values as to what an effective leader should be and acts

accordingly to motivate subordinates and accomplish goals (Lord & Maher 1993).

The GLOBE study takes this idea and argues that examining different

leadership preferences within cultures creates culturally endorsed implicit leadership

dimensions (CLTs) (House et al. 2004). GLOBE identified a total of 21 leadership

attributes as being universally positive or negative in contributing to leadership

effectiveness resulting in different styles of leadership being emphasised across

cultures. Through these 21 first order dimensions, six second order dimensions were

identified, referred to as CLTs and represent six dimensions of leadership which are

universally accepted to either enable or hinder effective leadership. The six are

compiled in Table 3-6.

Table 3-6: GLOBE CLT dimensions

Leadership Dimension Definition Charismatic/Value-

based Ability to inspire, motivate & expect high performance outcomes from others based on core values

Team Oriented Emphasis on effective team building & implementation across a goal among team members

Participative Degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions

Humane Oriented Reflects supportive and considerate leadership that includes compassion and generosity

Autonomous Refers to independent and individualistic leadership

Self-protective Ensures the safety and security of the individual or group member

Adapted from House et al. (2004)

Page 134: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 134

The results from the GLOBE study show that Charismatic/Value-Based leadership is

a universal positive contributor to effective leadership; while Self-Protective

leadership is a universal inhibitor. The other four CLTs fluctuate in terms of how they

are interpreted across cultures. Team oriented leadership is viewed as a substantially

positive contributor to effective leadership. Participative leadership was viewed as

predominantly positive to marginally positive. Humane oriented leadership was also

viewed as a reasonably positive dimension contributing to effective leadership.

Autonomous leadership was largely viewed to be a moderate to negative constraint to

effective leadership. Taken together these categories create a snapshot of primary

styles that managers employ in a culture, further augmented by culturally contingent

leadership attributes. The culturally contingent leadership attributes provide a greater

context to understanding leadership and contribute substantially to understand how

management manifests itself in a culture (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House 2012).

The Australian aspects of these will be presented towards the end of this chapter. The

reason for this is that in order to have significance beyond comparing rankings with

other nations, it requires more EMIC insight. ETIC level constructs are primarily

useful to compare across societies. Before getting into explaining the results from an

Australian-specific perspective, EMIC level Australian values and cultural insights

need to be presented.

3.5 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its cultural dimensions

The GLOBE project and its cultural dimensions have had flaws identified related to

the size and scope of the project. The complexity of the whole project, involving so

many researchers; the number of countries being studied; differences in scores

between categories; and confusion over the way questions were asked, interpreted

and answered (Graen 2006; Hofstede 2006; Hofstede 2010; Peterson 2004). It has

been argued that the data collected does not relate well to the big five personality

Page 135: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 135

measures across countries (McCrae et al. 2008). Issues of stereotyping and

measurements based on personal assumptions and interpretations of culture were

identified as negative consequences of how the GLOBE study was handled (Minkov

& Blagoev 2012). These shortcomings though do not preclude its use as a high

quality means of understanding culture and are arguably the most complete measures

of universal cultural dimensions developed, it provides an expanded and updated

model of cultural dimensions that can be easily understood and is the most recent and

relevant study to use when exploring managerial leadership in different cultures.

3.6 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its leadership dimensions

The six leadership dimensions represent broad categories or styles of leadership that

are viewed as universally applicable. The first issue identified is that the CLTs as

developed represent an average leadership style found in cultures (Graen 2006). The

principle issue is that emphasis is placed on universals and does not take into account

culturally specific differences of more relevance to understanding managerial

leadership. A general stereotype of leadership is what is dominant, when a more

dynamic understanding of leadership is needed (Jepson 2009). This argument reflects

the same ETIC and EMIC issue that was discussed at the beginning of the chapter.

EMIC understanding is required in order to provide greater context, practicality and

knowledge on managerial leadership in different cultures.

As this study is looking at Australia it will be used to illustrate these issues. In the

research on Australia a sample of 344 respondents was used (Ashkanasy 2007;

Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003). However, the decision to use only two

sectors, finance and telecommunications with a total of 15 large Australian based

firms considered, with an average of 24 respondents from each organisation is

limiting in application across the nation and in industry sectors. Selecting managers

from such a small number of firms and sectors may not necessarily lead to a fair

Page 136: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 136

representation of Australian managerial leadership. Organisations that have an

average of 24 middle managers, the target sample, are likely to be large.

Considering the large number of small firms that make up the Australia economic

landscape and that only 15 large firms from two sectors were looked at, the resulting

profile is more representative of organisational managers in large organisations than

all Australian organisational managers (Ashkanasy 2007; Clark et al. 2012). This

shortcoming creates questions about the results explaining Australian managerial

leadership. While being of significant value, understanding Australian managerial

leadership is complicated and needs further study. Ashkanasy (2007) explains the

challenge in understanding Australian leadership as an enigma, where paradoxes exist

and subtleties need to be examined to be understood. By utilising different

approaches that are complimentary to the work of GLOBE, and specifically to

Australia, advances can be made to investigate how managerial leadership manifests

itself in Australian organisations.

3.7 Country cluster issue

Australia has been included as a part of the Anglo-country cluster in the GLOBE

study and recently increased debate has occurred surrounding the most

geographically dispersed cultural cluster used in the GLOBE study. Diverging values

and growing diversity in trade relationships highlight fundamental shifts occurring

between the countries (Egri et al. 2012). The dominant locations for much of the

research that relates to the Anglo cluster are the United States and the United

Kingdom. This is an issue as leadership and management practices originating from

these countries continue to be identified as contributing to poor managerial training,

ineffective organisational practices, lack of acceptance by subordinates and confusion

in Australia (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Parry 1996). Graen

(2006) identifies that differences in business culture would largely be ignored when

looking at individual countries in the Anglo cluster. Cultural imprint studies

Page 137: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 137

conducted in Australia in the mid 90s indicate the use of American style managerial

leadership practices as a mistake for Australian organisations (Australian Quality

Council 1994; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). Australian

managers need to use approaches suited specifically to the culture, not another

nation’s culture. This requires a better understanding of how Australian managers

view leadership. This study will be able to address some of the gap in knowledge that

exists with respect to how managers in Australia view leadership of their

organisations by taking into account a greater variety of cultural imperatives that

impact on society and in turn management.

3.8 Australia as a part of Asia

Alongside the country cluster issue is Australia’s changing relationship with Asia,

which highlights the potential beginnings of a cultural shift. More and more there is a

growing recognition and connection between Asia and Australia. This was strongly

recognised as early as in the Enterprising Nation report (Karpin 1995b). The report

recommended Australian organisations needed to adapt to increase opportunities and

interaction with Asia. As well, the importance of trade linkages, increased cultural

understanding and positive social and economic relationships have been stressed as

reasons that Australia should identify and interact more with Asia (Australia in the

Asian Century Task Force 2012). Australian society too has shifted, with now one in

ten Australians having Asian ancestry. Further illustrated by the fact that two million

of the five million foreign born residents in Australia are Asian born. This is a tenfold

increase over 30 years representing a large part of the labour force, increasing the

influence of Asian cultures in organisations.

Australia, while geographically located in the Asia Pacific region has never formally

been identified as a part of Asia either by Australia or by Asian nations. A leading

academic in Australian studies, Stephen Alomes (2012, p.116), summarises the

current position of Australia in context to being part of Asia using the analogy of

Page 138: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 138

Australia being of two interconnected, but separate perspectives that highlights the

uniqueness:

Australia IS and is not in Asia although it is in the Pacific 

Australia  IS  and  is  not  an Asian  society  although  it  has  a  growing 

Asian population 

Australia is and is not a multicultural society (p.116) 

Transcending this gap, as noted by Alomes, is in large part why research looking at

Australian culture in a more complete and culturally relevant manner is required.

Given the APEL model originated in the ASEAN nations, Australia’s closest Asian

neighbours, its use in Australia is also logical (Selvarajah et al. 1995). With Australia

having greater economic dealings with Asia, including a growing level of foreign

investment from Asia; a growing population and labour force of people of Asian

origin there is potential for Australian culture to shift over time and a view of

Australian managerial leadership based on an Asian framework could prove

beneficial to reflect on as these changes become more pronounced.

3.9 Australian culture

Australia has been identified as “a land of contradiction and paradox” in the GLOBE

research (Ashkanasy 2007, p. 78). There is a need to further explore Australia’s

managerial leadership from a perspective that includes both ETIC and EMIC

consideration. This research project, using the APEL framework, will utilise the

existing cultural understanding and insights on Australia and Australian management

to explore managerial leadership in Australia.

This portion of the literature review will provide an understanding of Australian

culture and how it impacts on managerial leadership. To begin with, a high level

overview of Australia and its development will be provided followed by a review of

Page 139: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 139

relevant EMIC cultural values unique to Australia. An examination of studies

involving Australian management will be presented. Finally a review of the GLOBE

dimensions of culture and leadership attributes will be produced, providing an ETIC

and EMIC understanding of Australian culture.

Indigenous Australians 3.9.1

The researcher would like to recognise the Australian Aboriginal population and their

unique culture. The Aboriginal people of Australia are the continents first inhabitants

and traditional owners of the land. Aboriginal culture is unique and may be viewed as

both connected to and separate from the broader context of Australian culture. This

research study is focused on understanding the broader culture and Australian

managerial views on leadership from a national perspective.

3.10 EMIC Aspects of Australian Culture

Settlement 3.10.1

Australia was claimed as a British colony in 1770 (Department of Immigration and

Citizenship 2007). Settlement was initially tied to the decision by the British crown to

use Australia as a penal colony, with settlement beginning in 1788 with the arrival of

approximately 1500 people, half sent as convicted criminals. The other arrivals were

employees of the Crown and free settlers. Migration to the country was not limited to

convicts or people from the UK, and throughout the 1800s, migration included others

from Europe, as well as a significant number from China. In 1840 the population of

the country was 430,000 and in 1871 approximately 1.7 million people. Early

migration was driven by economic opportunity tied to agriculture and the gold rush

(Duarte 2008). As a young nation Australia continued to experience migration from

other countries, again predominantly European during the late 19th century. Policies

towards migration were relatively open during Australia’s early development as a

colony of Britain.

Page 140: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 140

Economic recession and growing feelings of nationalism resulted in the settled white

population having increasing concerns over wealth generation and employment of

non-European migrants. The country established new migration rules and identified

itself as a “white colony”. This resulted in already landed Chinese migrants leaving

the country with the launching of Australia’s white only policy, named the

Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 (Thompson 1994). Immigration remained stable,

and primarily British and Irish through to World War 2, when there was a shift to

allow for refugees and people displaced during the war.

Following World War 2, a wave of increased migration occurred due to skill

shortages, to promote permanent residence from Europe and increase migration

beyond the traditional immigration source, the UK (Department of Immigration and

Citizenship 2007). This result was the establishment of large Italian and Greek

communities in Australia. The last significant change that impacted on settlement

occurred with the relaxation of the Immigration Restriction Act that saw the white

only migration policies end which opened up Australia to a more diverse group of

migrants and refugees beginning in the early 1970s that have led to its diversified

ethnic population of today.

Australia’s unique shared identity was built on its settlement and British values.

However, from very early on, the distinctive mix of settlers and convicts developed a

society where freedoms and opportunity were granted outside of what would have

been acceptable in class oriented Britain (Thompson 1994). This independent way of

doing things, along with a sense of nationalism and a geographic displacement from

the UK, impacted on the colony as it established its own sense of identity and cultural

mores (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). What emerged was a

society that emphasised equality for all through Australia’s uncompromising and

unique approach to egalitarianism.

Page 141: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 141

Australian egalitarianism 3.10.2

Egalitarianism by definition means that all people are equal, a relatively simple

concept, that is found in many nations and societies today (Moore 2011). In Australia

this concept is imbedded in the culture to the point of being the most defining

characteristic at the heart of its political, legal and economic systems (Department of

Immigration and Citizenship 2007). According to the Department of Foreign Affairs

and Trade (2012), Australian egalitarianism in its politically correct sense can be

summarised as follows:

…there are no formal or entrenched class distinctions in Australian

society, as there are in some other countries. It also means that with

hard work and commitment, people without high-level connections

or influential patrons can realise their ambitions.

This concept though has greater meaning and cultural impact when described from a

historic and anthropological perspective. Thompson (1994) has detailed the

development and application of egalitarianism in Australia and notes that much of

Australian egalitarianism relates to a sense of collective ‘sameness’. Sameness in this

context means Australians are equal as long as they are the same, holding Anglo

values, primarily meaning “socially and culturally homogenous” (p. 252), resulting in

a paradox where “Australia was egalitarian because it was xenophobic and sexist” (p.

252). This concept may also be considered exclusionary egalitarianism. In today’s

Australian society, this exclusionary concept is an inappropriate assessment of

Australian egalitarianism. However, a sense of egalitarian sameness remains. There

has been a concerted effort to revise all relevant legislation and improved political

commitment to ensure that egalitarianism exists for all in the multicultural country

that is Australia (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). This has resulted

in an egalitarian society that does fundamentally treat all as equals, though the

sameness value remains (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994).

Page 142: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 142

The concept of ‘sameness’ is reflected in the culture as a shared mindset towards

egalitarianism that all should be given the same opportunities, but that those

opportunities should not be outside the ascribed achievable goals of the population.

However, this does not mean a belief in traditional collectivism or socialism, where

differences in wealth, property ownership or other noticeable income distinctions are

not tolerated (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). Rather hard work,

achievement and differences in income are expected and based on individual effort.

Similarly, equality is recognised as having limits in Australian organisations with a

limited, but still supportive attitude towards hierarchy (Irwin 1996; West & Murphy

2007). To gain support for hierarchy respect is needed, something that impacts

significantly on how Australian managers chose to lead, showing respect and

minimising power distance. Australian egalitarianism is interconnected with other

concepts that are unique cultural attributes. The sameness as defined above is related

to other cultural values, detailed in greater context in the next sections.

A fair go 3.10.3

When looking at egalitarianism it comes with an expectation of equal opportunity. In

Australia this concept is communicated culturally through the idiom of ‘A Fair Go’, a

unique term found in Australian language (Australian National Dictionary Centre

2013). It has come to mean “what someone achieves in life should be a product of

their talents, work and effort rather than an/as/a result of their birth or favouritism”

(Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007, p. 32). When taken in the context

of Australian culture this means that there is an acceptance of all people having the

right and opportunity to achieve encouraged by society. This is connected to other

aspects of Australian culture that need to be understood to provide greater context:

the ‘Australian Dream’, the ‘Tall Poppy’ and the concept of ‘the battler’.

Page 143: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 143

The Australian dream 3.10.4

Often when a national dream is mentioned the “American dream” is thought of and

considered. The American dream is the right for everyone to achieve all one can

(Adams & Schneiderman 2012). The American dream is “…that each man and each

woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable,

and be recognised by others for what they are…” (pp.214 – 215). This further

definition explains why wealth, status, designation and prosperity are of value in the

United States and reflects their culture.

From an Australian perspective a national dream has different boundaries and reflects

the cultural values already discussed. While not formally established or enshrined in a

declaration of independence, the Australian dream has long been held as the goal of

home ownership, in particular a large block of land in a suburban location with access

to all necessities and amenities (James 2007; McInnes 2012). The importance of the

Australian dream from a cultural perspective is that it establishes a standard for

Australian success that reinforces ‘sameness’. It clearly frames the proposed level of

achievement for all. This standard is not enforced in any formal way, there is nothing

preventing greater levels of personal achievement however, the ‘sameness’ required

of egalitarianism in Australia has played a role in shaping this dream. To this day it is

viewed as fair, relatively attainable and in a country of significant size achievable for

all (McInnes 2012). It is a dream that all could embrace and accept.

Another important aspect is the Australian dream does include the attainment of all

desired amenities and necessities. It is a consumer culture, where people enjoy the

items that come with a middle class lifestyle. Depending on how affluent the

individual is there exists interest in attaining status symbols associated with that level

of wealth, accepted by all (Duarte 2008). Similarly at an individual level, most people

are accepting of income discrepancies. When explaining the Australian dream in the

context of Australian culture it may be viewed as a level that society views as an

Page 144: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 144

acceptable accomplishment or standard for all. To add context, this is where the

concept of the tall poppy must be explained.

Tall poppies 3.10.5

Tall poppy is another unique cultural attribute and phrase strongly associated with the

Australian language. A tall poppy is a person who has achieved success, fame and/or

fortune that can be identified for these achievements (Australian National Dictionary

Centre 2013). To understand the concept and the consequences of achieving this

status one has to understand the inherent cultural desire to look down on high

achievers in Australian society. The egalitarian nature of Australia that promotes both

sameness and opportunity uses humour and attitude in order to ensure that those that

are high achievers do not take themselves too seriously (Goddard 2009). This type of

‘levelling humour’ goes even further in extreme cases of success and manifests itself

in a uniquely Australian way.

Once identified, an individual that has been deemed a tall poppy will be subject to

criticism and ridicule, known as Tall Poppy Syndrome (Feather 1989; Peeters 2004).

This Australian cultural value goes against what is the dominant behaviour in other

western cultures, where a high achiever is placed in a higher position of adulation and

respect (Feather 1989). The Australian tall poppy often times is associated with

boastful behaviour and a person may be deemed a tall poppy simply from being in a

position of power and denigrated by others in society (Duarte 2008). The result is a

culture where achievement, success and dreams need to be kept in check and not

flaunted to avoid criticism.

This has major implications for people in authority and must be a consideration in

how people manage Australian organisations. Feather (1989, 1998) has warned that

“attitudes that people have towards tall poppies may be an important ingredient that

influences the stability and advancement of groups and societies” (Feather 1989,

Page 145: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 145

p.365). A 2003 study looked at tall poppy attitudes against value-based leadership

and found there to be a need for Australian managers to consider the cultural attitudes

associated with tall poppy syndrome (Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003). There is

clear indication that managers must consider tall poppy syndrome as a constraint in

efforts to grow and succeed beyond a certain level. Understanding this attitude has an

impact on how best to approach innovation efforts.

Battlers & punters 3.10.6

While a tall poppy in Australia represents an excessive level of achievement and

where boldly celebrating ones achievements is frowned upon, the cultural values of

the nation do show support for individuals and societal groups at the other end of the

spectrum, those referred to as ‘battlers’ and ‘punters’. The term ‘battler’ has come to

mean a person who works hard for little reward, that struggles to reach their goals,

earns a living and does so with courage (Australian National Dictionary Centre 2013).

Australian values place great emphasis on supporting the battler and place them in a

position that commands a sense of respect and a desire to see them succeed (Duarte

2008). The concept of supporting the underdog, a less colloquial term for a battler,

has been found to be used frequently in the media and in cultural studies as the type

of citizen Australians will support (Ashkanasy 2007; Department of Immigration and

Citizenship 2007; Thompson 1994).

This relates to the ‘fair go’ cultural idiom, in that what battlers need and deserve is

the opportunity to work towards achieving the agreed upon dream, or acceptable

achievement in Australian terms. It can be extended through to another term which is

used to describe people who are average, a ‘punter’ (Yallop 2005). While most often

associated with someone who gambles, the term has become a colloquialism for those

that are trying hard and deserving ‘a fair go’. The context of the battler and the punter

is one that Australian managers will need to relate to in their organisations. There is a

sense of connection among Australian people to the idea of supporting a battler

Page 146: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 146

(Ashkanasy 2007). The support towards a manager who understands this cultural

value may increase success in positioning the organisation and its members to

achieve goals.

When taken together, the cultural constructs presented pertaining to a fair-go, battlers,

tall poppies and the Australian dream represent the context in which Australian

egalitarianism exists. Tall poppies and battlers serve as the poles where one is

heckled and the other is supported. The Australian dream sits as the benchmark of

achievement that all citizens should strive towards. In this context, citizens work hard

as a battler or punter to achieve, but not to a point where they will become a tall

poppy. This may serve well as a gauge against which Australian managers need to

position efforts to be innovative without pushing so hard that employees disconnect

from the efforts and view it as excessive.

Mateship 3.10.7

It is important to note that many key concepts identified at the heart of Australian

culture are not necessarily egalitarian. The imagery of the Australian bushman, the

larrikin, the digger, the sports fan are all male archetypes with little connection to

females (Duarte 2008). Arguably, one of the strongest cultural aspects of Australia

that is interlinked to its history, its citizens and relationships is ‘mateship’. Mateship

is defined as “a code of conduct amongst men stressing equality and fairness” (Yallop

2005).

Its origins date back to Australia’s settlement and early development. Challenging

times and the need to depend on fellow settlers has been identified as a potential point

of origin for the concept in the Australian collective mind (Duarte 2008). The concept

was strengthened through Australia’s economic development where it served as a

sense of connection and community among men and a form of solidarity among

workers (Thompson 1994). During both World Wars the concept deepened in the

Page 147: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 147

Australian psyche with Australian’s fighting men, known as diggers encouraged to

place their trust and faith in one another, further infusing mateship into Australian

culture (Duarte 2008).

Mateship reflects a mandatory aspect of relationships that even managers must

subscribe to. It reflects connection to each other and a degree of respect among peers.

The concept sits above other relationship paradigms in Australia, where mateship

comes first, above a commitment to an organisation. Mateship in Australian culture

extends beyond positions of power and across both genders even though it is a

masculine concept (Thompson 1994). The result of this concept is a strong bond

between Australians, it can be viewed in a positive light, but also has many negatives

associated with it; a lack of emotional connection, lack of verbal communication, a

tendency of violence towards women, exclusion of minorities and those that are

different (Pease & Pringle 2001).

Women also share this mateship sense of bond with their co-workers and friends

(Duarte 2008). Mateship, as a defined concept can be separated as male oriented, but

its application in Australian culture includes both genders. Establishing a positive

working relationship built on respect and support between co-workers is of

paramount importance. The impact of mateship in Australian organisations can be

found in camaraderie among workers and a sense of being in it together. Duarte

(2008) explains this by referring to the negatively viewed practice of “dobbing in” or

reporting actions of a co-worker being looked down upon and should be avoided,

even if the other party is against the actions because the relationship comes first

(West & Murphy 2007).

Australian humour supports mateship, communicating a connection between people.

Viewed as unique, it is characterised as dry, self-mocking, anti-authoritarian and

ironic (Government of Australia & Big Black Dog Communications 2007). Humour

is an essential shared aspect of Australian culture. Managers must use humour as a

Page 148: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 148

levelling tool as it creates a sense of mateship and a connection between subordinates

that does not negate the power difference. Australians take great pride in their sense

of humour and view it as a strong part of relationships.

She’ll be right and no worries 3.10.8

A unique expression found in Australian culture that is well known the world over is

‘She’ll Be Right’ (West & Murphy 2007). According to the Macquarie dictionary it is

a colloquialism that is an “expression of confidence that everything is in order”

(Yallop 2005). It can also be viewed as a reflection of Australians indifference

towards details and a blind trust that overall things are positive (West & Murphy

2007). This concept is illustrated by an example of work that may have errors and

inconsistencies, but is still accepted as sufficient. Still others view it as a reflection of

the Australian relaxed attitude to life (Duarte 2008). Ashkanasy (2007) connects the

concept of Australia as “the lucky country” created by Horne (1964) and notes the

‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude takes the place of long term vision. From these various

contexts it is clear that ‘She’ll Be Right’ represents an optimistic and laid back

approach to life, work and business in Australian culture that managers must be

aware and work with.

The result is that this attitude has been identified as a reason why Australian

organisations may be passive towards change (Turnell & Washbourne 1991). This

can further be seen with another popular expression in Australia, ‘No Worries’, which

has developed to mean that one should not worry as everything will turn out fine or

positively (Australian National University 2013). The impact of this prevailing

attitude on management is explained in studies that have found an American ‘crisis

style’ approach to change and management disconnects with Australian workers

(Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996).

Page 149: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 149

3.11 Summations of Australian culture

As earlier cited Donald Horne (1964, 1987) was an Australian academic, journalist

and social critic that wrote a critical analysis of Australian culture. First published in

1964, The Lucky Country represents one of the first explanations of what Australian

cultural values were. Horne was very critical of Australian culture placing it in a light

that reflected negative aspects preventing Australia from reaching its full potential.

While the title of his book has been taken to mean that Australia is a country full of

wealth and opportunity, he presented it in an ironic sense. His meaning was that

Australia was achieving its success not through greater levels of economic

development and innovation, but rather was simply utilising its natural resources and

failed to capture the higher value-added opportunities that could propel the country

forward.

The areas touched on by Horne were numerous and have been summed up effectively

by Milton , Entrekin and Stening (1984,p.38):

Horne has argued that Australia and Australians are characterised by

a number of significant features among which are the following: anti-

intellectualism; a strong materialistic streak; assertion of toughness

and masculinity; belief in the need for everyone to have a “fair-go”;

an extraordinary stable society; little innovation and originality;

public tolerance; beliefs in the virtues of being ‘ordinary’; mediocrity;

low levels of nationalism; fanatical attitudes towards sport in general;

and deep scepticism. (p.38)

Cultural values are identified by the government of Australia and outlined in the

Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2007) document Life in Australia. It

summarises Australia as a completely democratic and free society where equality

exists between all residents. It identifies equal opportunity for all, represented by the

Page 150: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 150

term ‘a fair go’ and the strong egalitarian nature of the nation is clarified through

there being absolutely no class system, though differences in wealth exist.

This has been identified as part of the paradox that exists in Australia where all are

equal with opportunity, but this opportunity is limited by cultural constraints difficult

to move past (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994). The Department of Immigration and

Citizenship (2007) document continues to explain the challenge of defining Australia

and Australians through a few words, making a point of reasserting the egalitarian

values and importance of ‘a fair go’ and acknowledging the historic connections to

British heritage and culture while becoming more multicultural and connected to

Asia.

The two summations presented above help paint a picture of what makes up

Australian culture, the positive views of a strong egalitarian culture and the problems

associated with the cultural attitudes inherent in that egalitarianism. From a

managerial leadership perspective these assessments highlight why it is a challenging

reality to lead organisations in Australia. This requires further investigation of

Australian culture from a management perspective.

3.12 Early commentary and studies on Australian management

One of the earliest profiles of Australian middle managers was published in 1974,

which like Horne (1964), provided a rather negative assessment of Australian

managers (Byrt & Masters 1974). In the book it notes that Australian managers are

impacted by the bureaucratic nature of Australian society; influence from government

highlighting a lack of initiative; being highly egalitarian; conservative; critical of

authority; and focused inward towards their organisation and Australia. From this

assessment, it can be argued that many of the dominant components of Australian

culture earlier discussed can be found in Australian organisations including ‘She’ll

Page 151: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 151

Be Right’, egalitarian sameness and tall poppy syndrome. This profile however, is

significantly dated.

A cross cultural study of personal management values was conducted by England

(1978) examining Australia alongside the US, India, Japan and Korea. The study

linked the values of managers to how they lead and behave in their managerial role.

Australians were found to have a clear and distinct profile from the other cultures.

Australians had high moralistic orientation and a high humanistic orientation; placed

low value on organisational growth and profit maximisation; placed low value on

concepts as achievement, success, competition and risk (England 1978, p.39). There

are again strong similarities in the assessment relating to Australian culture and

management practices.

Other early studies related to Australian management demographics, management

practices, organisational behaviour, and attitudes towards industrial relations

indicated that Australian managers were in many ways unique and potentially lacking

in terms of global competitiveness and competencies (Australian Graduate School of

Management et al. 1990; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Lansbury & Quince 1988;

Lansbury & Spillane 1991; McNair Anderson Associates 1979, 1981). Based upon

these and the earlier mentioned studies there was a growing recognition that

education in Australia must change in order to better enable managers to deal with the

changing world.

The first report in regards to shifting managerial education is referred to as the Ralph

report from 1982. It identified the need to develop improved managerial training

programs to address a variety of issues related to management education (Ralph

1982). With the arrival of this report, increasing management training related to

improving behaviours and skills was deemed important to Australia’s economic

success.

Page 152: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 152

3.13 Modern studies of Australian management

Australian leadership in a competitive world 3.13.1

Sarros and Miller (1992) released a study detailing the strengths and weaknesses of

Australian managers. The impacts of Australian cultural values are clearly seen in this

study. Strengths were related to egalitarian values; willingness to introduce

innovative work practices; being strong communicators; the ability to adapt; being

forthright and aware. These strengths were offset by weaknesses such as short-term

focus; lacking vision; limited risk taking; poor team players, concern about personal

image; and lack of empathy. Australian cultural values inherent in managers can be

seen between the strengths and weaknesses. Strong communication skills are

necessary to be positively viewed in an egalitarian fashion. The ability to relate and

connect, through communication is a sign of mateship, essential for all Australian

managers. The willingness to introduce innovative work practices is somewhat

outside the findings of previous studies. This may be a result of the context in which

innovative work practices were viewed, either as large scale change or adjustments to

simple operating practices.

Working closely with the Australian Institute of Management, Sarros and other

researchers continued to contribute to the understanding of Australian managerial

leadership and how it applies itself in organisations (Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002).

The research highlights the recognition and importance of transformational leadership

to Australian managers, but notes how organisational culture places less value on

innovation and competitiveness. This reflects a challenge where Australian managers

understand higher levels of leadership, but organisational emphasis does not

necessarily focus on innovation.

Australia top quality management study 3.13.2

The impact of Australian culture on change related behaviours of firms was looked at

in a study of Australian Top Quality Management (TQM) implementation programs.

Page 153: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 153

Turnell and Washbourne (1991, pg 248) note several cultural inhibitors to an

aggressive change approach applied to TQM changes: ‘she’ll be alright mate’ attitude

results in a passive attitude towards change; the tall poppy constraint creates an

ambivalence towards change; a self-interest constraint results in short-term mindset;

and a rebellious attitude towards change. They note a strong commitment from senior

management to start change is essential for the change to be effective. This entails

working in conjunction with communication, resource allocation and training to

demonstrate why the change is needed. Lastly, they note that management needs

freedom to choose what is most important with only a minimum of mandated changes

to avoid rebellion against the change. This study again reflects the unique challenge

of managing an Australian organisation in the context of cultural values.

Cultural imprint studies 3.13.3

In the mid-1990s two cultural imprint studies were conducted in Australia

(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a). The reports were developed in order

to examine national culture in the workplace. The first report focused on what is total

quality management in Australia from a leadership-management perspective

(Australian Quality Council 1994). The second report examined what leadership in

Australia looked like, taking into account culture (Irwin 1996). A key finding in both

studies was that in order for Australian managers to be effective, they must lead in a

way reflective of the culture, as opposed to synthesising managerial leadership styles

and tactics from other nations, in particular styles dominant in the US and Europe

(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a).

The quality management study of 1993 begins by noting that when the concept of

total quality control was introduced into Australia there were problems with the

name, the term control was offensive and immediately resulted in reservation and

resistance to what were believed to be universal techniques (Australian Quality

Council 1994). The result was a change of name to ‘total quality management’. The

Page 154: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 154

importance of personal relationships needing to be established in Australia was

discussed at length. For Australian employees to enact change and improvement

programs they must become “volunteers” and move from behaviours associated with

being a ‘whinger’ (disgruntled) or a ‘conscript’ (prisoner).

Managers must find a balance to connect as a mate to have the respect of their

employees and utilise the relationship to link efforts to adaptation in the organisation.

This requires a secure, comfortable and ‘acceptable’ relationship to exist between the

manager and employees; failure to do these results in a quick detachment among

employees. The ‘acceptable’ component of relationships refers to the need to control

praise, as it goes against the egalitarian nature and positions employees into tall

poppies. Trust and communication efforts need to be maintained that allow for

understanding and dialogue ensuring the individual and not the organisation is seen to

be delivering the information. This places communication directly as a personal

quality as opposed to an organisational role.

Two management styles were identified in the study, the negative “taskmaster” and

the positive “captain-coach”, which can be viewed as opposite ends of the Australian

managerial leadership spectrum. The taskmaster is an autocratic type of manager that

provides inadequate communication, presents change efforts in a crisis context and

provides little feedback, but supports blame. The captain-coach provides clear

rational behind changes and puts it in the context of a cause and goals; they provide a

focus for change efforts, provide clear and effective communication that offers

support and viewed by staff to be acting in a participatory role.

The captain-coach leadership style, much like its sports related counterpart, means

being an active and engaged leader, with a supportive character that creates a sense of

team among an organisation’s members; provides individual support and acts in an

inclusive way towards all. The captain-coach style leads to greater success when

pushing towards organisational change. The term “winning the hearts and minds of

Page 155: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 155

the people involved” (p.11) sums up the role of an Australian managerial leader, this

ties directly to transformational leadership. Respect is also a fundamental component

and must be at the heart of all efforts as viewed by employees. Egalitarianism is

demonstrated through respect and is expected to be there as opposed to just be given

lip service, in order for it to be believed by co-workers.

The second study was focused on the specific question of what is Australian

leadership (Irwin 1996). The first important finding relates to the fact that no

significant differences exist across gender and age as to what leadership in Australia

involves. This is an important finding as it reiterates the presence of the significantly

strong egalitarian nature of sameness in the country. The study identifies clear

distinctions between a leader and a boss. Three profiles were created as part of the

study and describe a good boss, a bad boss and a leader.

A good boss has many overlapping characteristics as a leader, including the ability to

connect with staff at a personal level, engage in activities and be a participant not an

overseer. Good bosses are engaged in strategy development and are accepted for their

efforts to connect and create a captain-coach approach to management (Australian

Quality Council 1994). The key for a good boss is to act in a manner that will

maintain a positive relationship with co-workers and contribute towards organisation

objectives (Irwin 1996). The concept of a bad boss had managers focused more on

themselves than subordinates or the organisation. They act in a self-preservation

mindset where they do not provide sufficient or quality communication, take a more

authoritarian approach to management and focus solely on results.

The distinction between boss and leader relates to the level of connectivity and

empathy towards subordinates. A boss remains focused on the ‘task at hand’ and has

a reduced connection to subordinates and co-workers. In comparison, becoming a

leader requires a greater commitment and emotional connection to the people in the

organisation. Specific to change efforts, a leader showing consistency in character

Page 156: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 156

and behaviour, along with a strong commitment to efforts and positive relationships

will be able to effectively deliver direction and instruction that is not viewed as

mandated and will find success. Interestingly, a point made is that many Australians

prefer to work for a good boss as opposed to a leader. While no rationale is provided

for the comment reflecting upon the identified EMIC cultural factors in Australia, a

good boss could be preferred for several reasons relating to egalitarianism, tall poppy

syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes where a leader may be too strong a

personality.

In 2011, the two cultural imprint studies were re-examined to look at their impact and

relevancy of the results (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a). The

identification of the impact of cultural factors associated with mateship and

egalitarianism are noted as being an important outcome that illustrates the Australian

preferences in managers. The review compliments the study as beneficial in

providing understanding why the application of management techniques and tactics

from other nations often failed in Australia, as these practices would not fit or work in

the context of Australian culture.

The use of the study beyond this important conclusion has been limited and is viewed

as a shortcoming explained as follows, “the findings had extraordinary face

validity…massive resonance. People loved hearing the material. BUT…just how can

the findings be used?” (p.14). The review concluded by identifying the continued

relevancy and appropriateness of the study’s findings, again noting the importance of

connecting this work to management training for the 21st century and the continued

importance of relationships for Australian employees. Finally recommendations are

noted that training related to this work needs to be developed around Australian

specific managerial leadership tactics, learning, teams, reward, recognition, with

appropriate measurement instruments to conduct research that builds on these results.

Page 157: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 157

Enterprising nation 3.13.4

Titled “Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia’s Managers to Meet the Challenges

of the Asia-Pacific Century”, or the Karpin report, as it is often referred to, was the

largest ever study of Australian managerial leadership (Karpin 1995b). The project,

initiated in 1992, with the establishment of an Industry Task Force had 27 research

topics and 24 research reports, resulted in the identification of recommendations to

enhance and prepare Australian organisations for the future. While all pertinent to this

research study, one of the research reports is of particular relevance to explaining

Australian managerial views on leadership.

3.13.4.1 Experienced insights into management - opinions of Australian managers

The “Experienced insights into management: opinions of Australian managers”

report utilised feedback directly from practicing managers on how Australian

managers lead and why they act the way that they do (Barraclough & Company

1995). Opinions on Australian managerial leadership were sourced through focus

groups and structured interviews. The report detailed where leadership is strong,

weak, in need of improvement and why managers lead the way they do.

The study provided an overview of the skills of an ideal manager. In order of

importance they were: people skills; strategic thinker; visionary; flexible and

adaptable to change; self-management; team player; ability to solve complex

problems and make decisions; and ethical/high personal standards. This ideal, as

explained reflects the high level skills that should be present and emphasised in

Australia in order to be a strong leader. These were split into two broader categories,

strategically focused in nature and those that place emphasis on organisational

management, development and consistency. These categories provide some clear

indication of the value behaviours most likely to dominate when considering what

constitutes an excellent managerial leader in Australia.

Page 158: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 158

The study looked at Australian management strengths and weaknesses and compared

this with the ideal described above. Identified strengths of Australian managers

included (in order): being hardworking; flexible and adaptive;

innovative/inventive; technically sound; egalitarian; independent thinkers; open,

genuine and direct; honest and ethical (Barraclough & Company 1995, p.15). Some

of these identified attributes support previous studies, while others counter previously

stated assessments of Australian management. Innovation in the study is in the

context of working with a lack of supports and resources, not in the context of

initiating development and change conducive to greater levels of productivity.

Similarly, flexibility as a strength relates not to adaptation and change, but the ability

to juggle multiple requirements.

Weaknesses identified (in order) relate to: a short term view; lack of strategic

perspective; being inflexible and rigid; complacency; poor at teamwork and

empowerment; inability to cope with differences; poor people skills; and lack of

self-confidence (p.18). Similar to the strengths, the weaknesses reflect back

Australian culture. The short term view, complacency and lack of strategic

perspective again reflect what has been discussed relating to Australia’s ‘She’ll Be

Right’ attitude and insular outlook and preference for sameness. Egalitarianism and

tall poppy syndrome were identified as preventing growth. Other important negative

insights were the inability to deal with diversity and the inability to pick up cues from

the environment.

In comparison between the ideal and the actual Australian manager, the study

identified, a shortcoming existed in six of eight areas including: lack of vision, short

term view orientation and complacency reflecting the Australian nature to be less

focused on long term planning. In the skills relating to people: teamwork; people

skills; and inflexibility reflect issues related to problems with masculinity and

mateship.

Page 159: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 159

3.14 Australian culture from the GLOBE study

Australia was included in the GLOBE study as part of the Anglo Cluster (House et al.

2004). Table 3-7 summarises the Australian cultural dimension scores and ranking.

Table 3-7: GLOBE cultural dimensions for Australia

Cultural Dimension

Societal Practices Societal Values Difference

Score “As society is” “As society should be”

Score Rank Score Rank

Power Distance 4.74 53 2.78 25 -1.96

Collectivism I 4.29 28 4.4 42 0.11

(Institutional Collectivism)

Collectivism II 4.17 52 5.75 26 1.58

(In-Group Collectivism)

Gender Egalitarianism 3.4 30 5.02 8 1.62

Future Orientation 4.09 19 5.15 49 1.06

Performance Orientation 4.36 16 5.89 38 1.53

Humane Orientation 4.28 21 5.58 19 1.3

Uncertainty Avoidance 4.39 19 3.98 51 -0.41

Assertiveness 4.28 22 3.81 25 -0.47

Adapted from Ashkanasy (2007)

As a follow up phase to the GLOBE study, which provided ETIC insights, a second

report took into account the EMIC perspectives in a culture (Chhokar, House &

Brodbeck 2012). A principle researcher behind the GLOBE study in Australia, Neal

Ashkanasy (2007), provided the further examination of Australian culture and

leadership utilising the GLOBE model and provided a highly effective summary of

what was found.

Page 160: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 160

Australia and the performance orientation dimension 3.14.1

Australia ranks 16th out of the 60 countries studied in GLOBE from a societal practice

(As-is) perspective for the performance orientation dimension; while from a societal

values perspective (Should-be) they are ranked 38th. This discrepancy between

practices and values highlights a unique aspect of Australian culture. As a capitalist

country, wealth is a key driver in society reflecting the value of hard work and

achievement found in the work ethic of British migrants and other major migrant

groups (Duarte 2008). These alongside a capitalist market economy provide a

snapshot as to why the practices score sits relatively high and are closely related to

other Anglo nations (House et al. 2004).

The more moderate score in terms of values is reflective of the unique nature of

Australia as discussed in this chapter. Ashkanasy (2007) highlights that Australian

ideals and values place less emphasis on having to be aggressive in terms of

performance orientation emphasising a mindset of a fair go. From a performance

perspective this means an individual’s achievements are a result of determination and

effort and that they have a right to be rewarded for those efforts, seen as an unwritten

right for all people in Australia.

The moderate score in terms of the importance of this orientation may be associated

with the largely positive economic fortunes of Australia since World War 2. Australia

has had numerous periods of economic expansion over the last 50 years and limited

experiences of contraction (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Since the 1960s Australia has

only had three brief periods of recession and rather long sustained economic growth

cycles (Gillitzer, Kearns & Richards 2005; Kearns & Lowe 2011). This includes the

current economic cycle which has been positive since 1991, with positive growth for

over 22 years, the only developed nation in the world to experience such a sustained

period of growth in this period.

Page 161: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 161

The positive economic fortunes of Australia, coupled with the laid back attitude of its

people and the presence of the tall poppy and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes work

together to explain the moderate cultural importance of the performance orientation

score. Positive economic gains result in lower unemployment and higher national

income levels indicating current practices are sufficient. The laid back attitude, as

described by Duarte (2008), highlights an approach to management and strategy that

supports lower levels of risk and limits willingness to act aggressively in pursuing

economic gains. Lastly, the tall poppy concept referring to the dislike of high

achievement plays a role in shaping the leadership behaviours of its managers

(Ashkanasy 2007; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003).

Australia and the collectivism dimensions 3.14.2

Early settlers faced a tough unforgiving climate and country requiring communal

support (Duarte 2008). The political leaders and decision makers in the nations early

years focused on supporting egalitarianism and developed social welfare and

infrastructure so that residents could work towards their individualistic goals. Built on

the British parliamentary system and laws, Australian society, is founded on

individual freedom and opportunities (Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts & Earnshaw

2002). Strengthened by the concept of a fair go and egalitarianism, Australia is a

more individualistic society less concerned with collectivist ideals (Ashkanasy 2007;

Duarte 2008). In Australia, the government creates an equal foundation for all, but

not at the expense of individual efforts.

In-group collectivism has a unique connection to the egalitarian nature of Australian

culture. The concept of mateship combined with egalitarian values creates a unique

mix of influence on this dimension in Australia. Mateship is a form of group

connection in Australia, where individuals in an organisation are connected to one

another through a sense of loyalty, creating a collective mindset in terms of the

Page 162: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 162

treatment of others (Duarte 2008; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003).

However, this is offset by the individualistic tendencies associated with

egalitarianism; everyone can achieve what they want. Australian organisations exist

in a space where there are shared goals, but individual effort is encouraged, but not at

expense of one’s mates.

Australia and the gender egalitarianism dimension 3.14.3

Australia, has made substantial efforts to establish equal participation and opportunity

for both genders (Ashkanasy 2007; Thompson 1994). Australia is not without gender

equality issues, many persist, in particular issues have been noted around female

roles, the glass ceiling, remuneration, and politics across all sectors (Wood 2011).

The results of the GLOBE study suggest that Australia has strong values towards

gender egalitarianism (House et al. 2004). Australia ranks 8th in the “should be”

category for gender egalitarianism, in line with a majority of other countries in the

Anglo cluster. This value reflects a very strong sentiment of equality among the

genders (Ashkanasy 2007). The “as is” ranking, 30th, reflects that gender

egalitarianism is a value not yet achieved. This is validated in looking at statistics

related to women in society and the economy, with lower levels of participation and

pay (Wood 2011). The presence of these inconsistencies between highly valued

egalitarianism and unique cultural mores associated with mateship is likely to have

impacted on women in organisations. This could lead to Australian female managers

having more in common with male managers than differences.

Australia and the assertiveness dimension 3.14.4

Australia ranks in line with other Anglo cluster nations according to the GLOBE

study for its current views on the assertiveness dimension (House et al. 2004). Its

score of 4.28 places it 22nd among the 60 countries studied, ahead of England,

Canada, Ireland and New Zealand; and behind South Africa and the United States.

Page 163: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 163

Australia values directness and practices clarity in business dealings. From the future

oriented side of the dimension, Australia does not view itself as needing to be

significantly more aggressive, it ranks at 25th of the 60 cultural groups. Rather it takes

a more moderate approach, according to Ashkanasy (2007), reflecting the principles

of egalitarianism and collectivism where the attitude towards individual achievement

is tempered by a collective mindset where equality is desired. The tall poppy effect

also plays a role where the associated behaviours of being an aggressive and

successful person are looked upon in a somewhat negative fashion (Feather 1989;

Peeters 2004). The impact of this is a nation which has a pragmatic approach to

assertiveness, being direct when necessary, but maintaining a laid back orientation.

Australia and the future orientation dimension 3.14.5

Australia, again, has a mixed view on future orientation according to the GLOBE

study. It ranks 19th in the “As-is” category and 49th out of 60 in the “should be”

category. The country, which has been riding a long term economic growth cycle,

may be finding a lower focus in future orientation for several reasons. Ashkanasy

(2007) notes that the country had a strong future orientation that has decreased due to

pressures from globalisation, the shifts away from protective economic policies and

refers to Mackay (1993) to note that societal changes preoccupy Australians shifting

focus from planning to coping.

Australia’s economy has been relatively constant over the last 35 years with a large

commodity sector (mining and agriculture) focused on exporting and a strong service

sector supporting the domestic market (Stevens 2008). Outside of a decline in

manufacturing little has changed since 1977. As economic growth picked up in

developing nations in Asia, particularly in China, Australia found itself positioned to

serve many of Asia’s needs and commodity demands. The argument can be made that

this long term stability in the economy, highlighted by low levels of unemployment

and high levels of foreign investment may have allowed Australia to let its relaxed

Page 164: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 164

attitudes to life impact on this dimension. While the country understands the

importance of long term planning, there appears to be limited desire to make it a

greater priority in Australian organisations.

Australia and the uncertainty avoidance dimension 3.14.6

Australia is ranked 19th and 51st respectively in the categories of Uncertainty

Avoidance. These rankings reflect a culture where uncertainty is tolerated, but still

controlled. Its founding as a colony and long period as an economic servant of the

British Commonwealth provided Australia a relatively protected position (Mascitelli

& Tinney 2013). This was followed by the Gold rush. Those that came to Australia

during the gold rush to seek their riches were taking a risk, but the positive economic

times provided them with a safe environment in which to live.

The period in Australia’s existence that had the most uncertainty was the end of the

1960s and early 1970s when the UK officially joined what was to become the EU and

Australia was left on its own. A protectionist trade policy and a strong export

relationship with the economic powerhouses of the US and Japan positioned

Australia in a stable position. The movements away from protectionism (floating of

the dollar, reducing tariffs, and embracing free trade) also showed a low risk

tolerance with a slow and well managed process in trade liberalisation and entry into

the floating currency market. These efforts while not without ups and downs resulted

in Australia managing to see long periods of economic growth without needing to be

aggressive in their efforts.

In the Karpin (1995) study of Australian Leadership it was noted that Australian

managers and businesses are not aggressive in pursuing innovation rather taking a

more pragmatic approach. Today though there is clear recognition on the part of the

Australian government and organisational leaders that this is of paramount

importance and a strong desire exists to make it change (Department of Industry

Page 165: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 165

Innovation Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Innovation & Business

Skills Australia 2011b). This position is supported by the GLOBE findings where

Australia has a significant difference in ranking for its “should be” position in relation

to the other cultures studied (House et al. 2004). This though may be a feeling

primarily found in managers, Australian society may not be so willing to shift their

collective attitude towards uncertainty given their inward nature and relaxed approach

to life (Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003).

Australia and the humane orientation dimension 3.14.7

As noted earlier Australian culture is a mix of egalitarian values that has a collectivist

approach in equality for all, which push it toward the higher end of the scale; this is

offset by a strong emphasis on individual effort and a modern Australian culture less

supportive of welfare programs (Ashkanasy 2007). The result of this has Australia

ranked 21st and 19th respectively on the “as-is” and “should-be” categories of GLOBE

(House et al. 2004). These scores reflect a similar nature to most of the other nations

in the Anglo cluster. Australia has strong values associated with ‘a fair go’ for all and

partially explains why being humane is an important cultural value, but belief in

individual effort to succeed is also strong.

Australia and the power distance dimension 3.14.8

Australia ranks 53rd in power distance in the “as-is” category and 25 in the

“should-be” category. The established view, reinforced by the GLOBE study, is that

Australia is a low power distance country that wants to retain the egalitarian nature

that comes with this dimension (Ashkanasy 2007). Managers, while operating in

hierarchical organisations must have a strong respect for people in order to create a

positive relationship that allows for expression of differences in opinion. Failure to do

this has been identified as an issue that leads to decreased organisational commitment

and productivity of employees (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). This

Page 166: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 166

characterises a society where power differences are accepted, but will not allow an

abuse of power or a decrease in freedoms for others.

3.15 Australian leadership – GLOBE leadership dimensions

The GLOBE study also created a view of Australian leadership which is impacted by

Australian cultural values (Ashkanasy 2007). The Australian profile finds leadership

attributes that rank highly include leadership that is inspirational, having high

integrity and is visionary, further supported by being performance orientated and

decisive. Low ranking attributes viewed as not applicable to Australian leaders

include being self-centred, autocratic and procedural. This reflects the high level view

of what leadership attributes are and are not valued in Australia, to be discussed

further in the next chapter. When compared with the media analysis used in the

Australian specific phase of the GLOBE study a majority of the attributes were

supported and inconsistencies were largely attributed to the nature of media coverage

reporting news for acting against the grain of what is desired leadership.

Nine additional dimensions associated with leadership in Australia were identified.

These nine are broken into three separate categories. Firstly, the traditional concepts

associated with egalitarianism and mateship, are relevant and present in discussions

around leadership providing further evidence these cultural imperatives have a huge

impact on managers. Secondly, a work ethic dimension was identified that Australian

managers must look to address issues around unemployment and opportunity as part

of their role. This work ethic role, when carried out by a manager has focus confined

to the constraints of that organisation. Thirdly, a category reflecting political

leadership issues was found that highlighted the unique nature of Australian views on

leadership. It included leadership behaviours of aggressive and adversarial and

leadership behaviours of cautious and pragmatic at the same time.

Page 167: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 167

3.16 Chapter summary

This chapter began with an overview of the explanation of ETIC and EMIC measures

of culture, where ETIC information is deemed as directly comparable between

cultures and EMIC information is culturally specific. The importance of EMIC

information to explain culture in management research was presented and identified

that more effort is placed on establishing means to include EMIC nformation to make

studies on a society more relevant and practical for organisations and managers both

in and outside of the society. Researchers have called for more EMIC insights to be

built into models that are exploring national culture influence.

The methodological divide between ETIC and EMIC research was explained. Though

founded in different paradigms, the approach being suggested to deal with this is for

management research is to look to anthropological approaches that combine both

ETIC and EMIC insights. Various methods to do this were explored and explained.

The method used when the APEL framework is applied is named cultural modelling,

where the ETIC categories in the model are adapted based on EMIC insights in order

to make culture specific components.

Having established the required process to address the gap in understanding how

managerial leadership is shaped by Australian culture, the chapter next provided an

overview of the many cultural models developed to understand universal

cross-cultural differences. The work of the GLOBE study forms the strongest

foundation to understand national culture and leadership differences at a universal

level. The GLOBE measures provide an effective base upon which to examine

Australian managerial leadership at the ETIC level.

Following the review of the various cross-cultural dimension models, an exploration

of EMIC aspects of Australian culture were presented along with reviews of relevant

management studies on Australia. The chapter concluded with an examination of the

Page 168: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 3 – Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 168

Australian results found in the GLOBE study relevant to managerial leadership at

both an ETIC and EMIC level.

Based upon the cultural insights provided in this chapter, a conceptual framework

will be proposed in chapter 4 based on the APEL framework (Selvarajah et al. 1995).

The APEL model has been selected for its unique perspective, as it builds on what is

known at both the ETIC and EMIC level to create a profile in line with a nation’s

culture shaping the behaviours of management.

Page 169: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 169

4. Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

4.1 Introduction

Chapter 2 provided an understanding of the change leadership metacategory and

categorised the behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation in the

same framework as the APEL model. Chapter 3 provided an understanding of how

cultural dimensions provide an ETIC understanding of cultures, followed by an

explanation of EMIC cultural insights that are necessary in management research to

provide deeper cultural understanding of managerial leadership. Australian cultural

values and management studies were reviewed to provide the necessary EMIC

understanding in order to develop an Australian managerial leadership profile for

exploration. This chapter provides the conceptual framework for the research study.

Figure 4-1 provides an overview of the chapter.

Figure 4-1: Chapter overview

By using the information provided in chapter 2, a new categorisation related to

behaviours that enable creativity and innovation is developed and an associated scale.

Based on the review of Australian culture presented in chapter 3, the model and

hypotheses for investigation in this study are identified and explained.

Conceptual Framework, Scale Development and Hypotheses

Use of APEL Model to look at creativity and innovation enabling behaviours

Creativity and Innovation Scale Development

Hypotheses 

Page 170: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 170

4.2 Utilisation of the APEL framework to categorise creativity and innovation enabling behaviours

At the time the APEL model was developed and behaviours were selected for

inclusion, the mid-1990s, very little work had been published on the requirements of

change leadership, specifically around managers enabling innovation and creativity.

Yukl (2010, p. 375) explains that “success in achieving potential synergies requires a

good understanding of the complex relationships among performance determinants,

leadership behaviours and management practices”. Applying behaviours associated

with leading change into the APEL framework brings into view a picture of

excellence in managerial leadership that includes the emergence of change leadership.

The development of change leadership with respect to how managers enable

creativity and innovation was discussed in chapter 2 and a categorisation that treated

the APEL categories as an artefact to consider the extant literature was completed

(see Table 2-7). From the categorisation a foundation to apply the new category into

the APEL model. Figure 4-2 illustrates the conceptual addition to the model.

Figure 4-2: Expanded APEL model with new enabling behaviours category

Adapted from Selvarajah et al. (1995)

Page 171: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 171

The identified enabling behaviour category currently sits alongside the existing

model. This extension is based on the knowledge that enabling creativity and

innovation are important aspects of change leadership behaviours that should relate to

excellence in managerial leadership. Similarly, the relationship between this new

category and the existing categories in the APEL framework is also unknown and

needs to be explored. As a result of the wide-ranging research on enabling creativity

and innovation, a clear picture has emerged of what behaviours are associated with

enabling creativity and innovation in organisations; see for example de Jong and Den

Hartog (2007). The behaviours considered in the new category associated with

enabling both innovation and creativity are vast and must be selected against the

behaviours included in the APEL framework.

Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in an APEL context 4.2.1

The APEL model provides the framework upon which the behaviours associated with

enabling creativity and innovation were considered as presented in chapter 2. The

four categories established by Selvarajah et al. (1995) in the APEL model (Personal

Qualities, Managerial Behaviours, Organisational Demand and Environmental

Influence) were used to do this. These categories are interconnected, as in the APEL

model, and influence one another illustrated in Figure 4-3.

Page 172: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 172

Figure 4-3: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in APEL context

As noted, the APEL model already has a well developed category of behaviours

associated with the external environment. Inclusion of additional behaviours linked to

this change-related subcategory would be largely redundant and have not been added

resulting in a revised framework to develop the new category, shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours under investigation

Page 173: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 173

In this model the managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling

creativity and innovation are considered in three contexts, in order to expand current

understandings and provide alignment with the APEL model. The dashed lines

between the constructs represent the recognition on the part of the researcher that

managerial leadership behaviours are not singular in nature, but rather impact on a

larger scale (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). The behaviours will be considered in terms of

the category in which they best fit.

The three broad categories in Figure 4-4 have had the associated theory explained in

subcategories based on empirical study, expert analysis and synthesis of the existing

research. These have been used to help identify the specific categories, as presented

in chapter 2. They are summarised in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1: Subcategories of enabling creativity and innovation

Personal Qualities

Managerial Behaviours

Organisational Demands

Role Modelling Team Management Organisational &

Executive Support & Practices

Tolerate Ambiguity &

Risk Resource Allocation

Organisation Vision, Goals, Strategy

Relationships Framing of Work Human Resource

Practices & Policies

Communication Leadership Expertise

Rewards & Incentives

Enabling creativity and innovation scale development 4.2.2

Through a review of relevant and existing literature a comprehensive list of creativity

and innovation enabling behaviours was developed and categorised. Approximately

Page 174: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 174

160 behavioural statements were identified that enable creativity and innovation

across the identified categories, included as Appendix 1.

This list was reduced eliminating overlap, duplication and indirect behaviour

statements where additional context was needed or where supporting research against

literature was insufficient. Once the behaviour list was processed in the above manner

it was analysed alongside the APEL behaviour statements. The APEL

statements were reviewed and items that had an impact on enabling creativity and

innovation were identified. They were considered in conjunction with the other

identified creativity enabling behaviours and where significant overlap existed

behaviours were removed from the developed categorisation.

The APEL behaviours reflect behaviours which are empirically validated as being

relevant to excellence in managerial leadership. The APEL behaviours already

address some of the stated aspects related to enabling creativity and innovation;

though they have a wider impact and application in an organisation. For example the

behaviour of “having a strategic vision for the organisation” clearly relates to

establishing a vision critical when enabling innovation at the organisational behaviour

level. Inclusion of a similar behaviour in the new scale is not necessary because it is

already in the APEL model and can lead to measurement problems. According to

Devellis (2012) this can result in issues associated with validity, bias and

overrepresentation. The overlapping behaviours were removed from the list of

identified behaviours.

Examining creativity and innovation enabling behaviours using the APEL framework

provides significant insight into the way behaviours relate to enabling creativity and

innovation within organisations. A total of 15 new behaviours were selected to be

added to the newly created scale based on the categorisation, listed in Table 4-2.

Page 175: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 175

Table 4-2: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours scale

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours Scale

Personal Qualities Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences

Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another

Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

Managerial Behaviours

Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation

Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions

Spread team membership across all departments in the organization

Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted

Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work

Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals

Organisational Demand

Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation

Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

Encourage management to embrace change and innovation

Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation

Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

The scale is a summation of the three aspects of creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours. From a personal qualities perspective items relating to engaging in

creative work; establishing a positive and challenging relationship with co-workers;

establishing reward structures that reflect intrinsic motivation; and provision of

recognition to individuals. From a managerial behaviour perspective items associated

with this category were added to the scale including encouragement to consider

alternative information; spreading team membership across the organisation;

providing abundant resources; instructing subordinates to be creative; ensure decision

making protocols are understood; and ensure information is shared across the

organisation.

Lastly, behaviours added that connect to organisational demand include bringing

diverse skills into the workplace; encouraging management to embrace change;

Page 176: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 176

linking innovation efforts with organisational goals; establishing decision making

practices that focus on innovation and creativity; and ensuring professional

development occurs that relates to innovation and creativity.

The goal of the scale development was to take a broad range of creative enabling

behaviours which are known to impact across the various categories of influence on

managers. Based upon the diverse research and the APEL model these categories

were used to reflect both the literature and the framework. However, given the

specific outcome of these behaviours and the overlap in impact across the categories,

separate components are not expected and it will be treated as a single category and

construct in this study.

4.3 Hypotheses development: Australian excellence in managerial leadership components

Excellence in managerial leadership in the APEL model is defined as leadership seen

as a combination of factors desirable for good leadership within a contextual

framework (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Specifically, excellence refers to “surpassing

others in accomplishment or achievement” (Taormina & Selvarajah 2005, p. 299).

The context in which excellence in managerial leadership emerges will be different

between cultures as it holds both an ETIC and EMIC perspective. This process allows

for a context based approach to cultural management research, which has been

identified as necessary by a number of researchers (Chhokar, House & Brodbeck

2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson 2003; Hinton 1998; Liden & Antonakis

2009; Scandura & Dorfman 2004; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 2003; Yukl

2012).

A review of recent cross cultural studies that have examined leadership preferences as

being universal or culturally contingent, found that both universal and culturally

contingent leadership or culture-specific approaches are dominating the direction of

Page 177: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 177

cultural leadership research (Moan & Hetland 2012). The study found that the use of

a universal foundation alongside a culture specific approach is the dominant direction

and provides a more specific level of understanding management and culture.

Use of the APEL cultural modelling approach has been demonstrated in studies

across Asia and into Europe (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah &

Meyer 2008b; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012;

Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013). To do this requires an extensive review of

literature on the culture and management in a given nation to identify cultural context

in establishing the model. This approach has been used in establishing the

components of managerial behaviours utilised in understanding Australian excellence

in managerial leadership. Having explained the conceptual framework used in the

model earlier, the first step in the process is the proposal of the hypothesised

components of excellence in managerial leadership found in Australian managers.

Excellent leader category 4.3.1

The Excellent Leader category was established in the original APEL study based on

the highest scoring items in the research project (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The category

that emerged is strongly aligned to established universal measures of leadership

behaviours. Transformational leadership as established and expanded by Burns

(1978) and Bass (1985a) respectively represents a visionary form of leadership that

empowers followers to feel connected and work towards organisational goals. The

APEL Excellent Leader category, as shown in Table 4-3, is more robust than the

above mentioned transformational leadership as it also connects to the previously

established metacategories of both being task and relationship focused (Yukl, Gordon

& Taber 2002).

Page 178: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 178

Table 4-3: Excellent leader category

Excellent Leader

10. Be honest

20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place

29. Give recognition for good work

32. Have a strategic vision for the organization

42. Motivate employees

82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry

89. Continue to learn how to improve performance

91. Organise work time effectively

93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people

In the context of the GLOBE study, the Excellent Leader category is in line with two

of the universal CLT dimensions: (1) Charismatic and (2) Team Oriented leadership

(House et al. 2004). Both of these are considered to be universally positive

dimensions of leadership. For Australia, as detailed in Table 4-4, highly ranked

leadership dimensions relate to Charismatic/Value-based Leadership, Team Oriented

Leadership and Humane Oriented Leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). The top five

primary dimensions are Charismatic/Value-Based related and are followed by three

Team Oriented dimensions. The top ten are rounded off with one more Charismatic

dimension and one Humane Oriented dimension.

Table 4-4: GLOBE leadership dimension rankings for Australia

Adapted from: Ashkanasy (2007)

GLOBE Primary Leadership Dimension Australian Rank GLOBE CLT DimensionInspirational 1 Charismatic/Value-Based

Integrity 2 Charismatic/Value-BasedPerformance Orientation 3 Charismatic/Value-Based

Visionary 4 Charismatic/Value-BasedDecisive 5 Charismatic/Value-Based

Diplomatic 6 Team OrientedCollaborative Team Oriented 7 Team OrientedAdministratively Competent 8 Team Oriented

Self-sacrificial 9 Charismatic/Value-BasedHumane 10 Humane Oriented

Page 179: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 179

Additional research relating to Australian management identifies that managerial

leadership in Australia cannot be summed up in a singular manner. Sarros et al.

(2011) identify Australia as having three leadership dimensions: transformational

leadership, universalism and benevolence. In a study looking at Australian tall poppy

attitudes and American value based leadership theory, Meng, Ashkanasy and Härtel

(2003, p.55) note “inspiring high levels of performance” as important, where

performance connects to the organisation through the managers inspiration. Similarly

Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts and Earnshaw (2002) include being visionary and

inspirational as necessary components that are constrained by mateship.

In the extended GLOBE analysis on Australian leadership, the research reports that

when vision is identified as lacking it can be explained by the increased emphasis on

short term and specific issues (Ashkanasy 2007). The GLOBE analysis goes further,

highlighting the need to find a balance that does not go against the unique aspects of

Australian culture of a fair go and egalitarianism. Rymer (2008) identifies four

components of Australian management: communication; emotional togetherness;

values and characteristics; and strategic movement and change. These four represent

both strategic level and organisational level attributes of Australian managerial

leaders.

Based on the specific nature of Australian managerial leadership under consideration

in this study and the assessments reported above, the Excellent Leader category is

identified by two components: Visionary Leader representing behaviours associated

with transformational leadership, change and adaptation; secondly Organisational

Leader representing more task and organisational oriented behaviours associated with

organisational functioning. The two components, as proposed, lead to the following

hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent

Leader category in Australia

Page 180: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 180

Hypothesis 1.2 Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader

category in Australia.

Personal qualities category 4.3.2

The Personal Qualities category is made up of 19 behaviours, as illustrated in Table

4-5. According to the GLOBE study Australia has low power distance and is

individualistic, alongside moderate scores in performance orientation and humane

orientation dimensions and a strong belief in greater gender equality (Ashkanasy

2007). In Australia, based on these cultural dimensions individualism is high, a level

of equality exists and a laissez-faire attitude is present towards differences in

society’s members.

This interpretation is accentuated by EMIC level cultural values within Australia.

Firstly, egalitarianism is inbuilt into all individuals, there is an expectation that

equality among societies members is always maintained (Thompson 1994). The right

to be seen as equal is a core value in Australian society (Department of Immigration

and Citizenship 2007). This has been identified as shown by managers through

respect, trust and information sharing according to the cultural imprint studies

(Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). An Australian manager is able to

encourage others to act in these ways by role modelling these behaviours, identified

as essential in Australian managerial leadership (Parry 1996). The original cultural

imprint study acknowledges that people will always be treated with respect even

when they do not connect to organisational good (Australian Quality Council 1994).

This idea is further supported by the research component of the Enterprising Nation

study of Australian Managers where “people skills” were the highest valued

characteristic of an ideal manger (Barraclough & Company 1995). People skills in

this context mean strong communication skills and the ability to empower a person

that allows autonomy in a safe environment. Establishing that sense of safeness is

largely achieved through respect to individuals and effective communication.

Page 181: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 181

Table 4-5: Personal qualities category

Personal Qualities

1. Accept responsibility for mistakes

2 Accept that others will make mistakes

5. Be an initiator – not a follower

6. Be consistent in dealing with people

8. Be dependent and trustworthy

11. Be informal when with employees outside work

14. Be practical

18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs

21. Deal calmly in tense situations

25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters

26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization

31. Have a sense of humour

36. Listen to the advice of others

44. Respect the self-esteem of others

45. Return favours

49. Speak clearly and concisely

53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest

57. Work long hours

58. Write clearly and concisely

Communication is an important part of establishing and maintaining challenging

relationships between subordinates and managers. Communication and relationships

are closely associated with the people skills in the Enterprising Nation study and in

the cultural imprint studies where relationships and communication were identified as

being characteristics necessary for people to contribute to organisational success

(Australian Quality Council 1994; Karpin 1995a). A relationship built on strong

communication creates a sense of trust; provides opportunities for both recognition

and feedback, and leads to a shared bond. West and Murphy (2007) indicate that in

Australia respect is earned though mentoring and support efforts on the part of a

manager. Communication and relationships will also allow for the ongoing

endorsement of mateship (Ashkanasy 2007). As noted by Densten and Sarros (2012)

Page 182: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 182

Australian CEOs must always attempt to maintain friendships and loyalties as a

recognition of the importance of mateship.

Being a person of integrity also carries weight in an Australian manager being viewed

positively. In the Enterprising Nation study, being open and genuine along with being

honest and ethical were viewed as strengths (Barraclough & Company 1995). More

recent studies of Australian managers echo the importance of integrity. A category

that includes integrity and corporate governance was the strongest managerial

capability in the 2012 Australian Management Capability Index (Australian Institute

of Management 2012). An examination of differences in managerial culture in

Australia and America identified that Australian managers prefer to work hard and

show strong values, this illustrating integrity and commitment (Department of

Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001).

Based upon this understanding the Personal Quality category has been split into three

specific components. Firstly, a Relationship component that emphasises

communication is necessary for excellence in managerial leadership. Showing

Respect is identified as necessary and integral to be a good leader in Australia. Lastly,

a high level of Integrity in managers is expected in their roles and is an identified

strength. Based upon these arguments, three hypotheses have been proposed:

Hypothesis 1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities

category in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category

in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category

in Australia.

Page 183: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 183

Managerial behaviours category 4.3.3

As a managerial leadership category Managerial Behaviours bridge a gap between the

more traditional transactional leadership and the highly valued transformational

leadership. As identified, managers acting as leaders must exist in a space where they

need to be both transactional and transformational (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999).

Balancing these needs ends up being an expectation of a managerial leader as

demonstrated in a study of Australian CEOs by Denston and Sarros (2012), where

both categories of behaviours were found to be practiced and necessary to maintain

and achieve organisational goals. The category has 27 behaviours listed in Table 4-6.

Table 4-6: Managerial behaviours category

Managerial Behaviours

4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy

7. Be consistent in making decisions

9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work

12. Be logical in solving problems

13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts

17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees

19. Consider suggestions made by employees

22. Delegate

24. Focus on the task at hand

34. Keep up-to-date on management literature

35. Listen to and understand the problems of others

39. Make decisions earlier rather than later

40. Make decisions without depending too much on others

41. Make work decisions quickly

43. Persuade others to do things

46. Select work wisely to avoid overload

51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it

52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem

54. Trust those to whom work is delegated

55. Try different approaches to management

56. Use initiative and take risks

Examining the Managerial Behaviour category in the context of Australian culture

showed the emergence of several managerial behaviour components. As earlier

Page 184: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 184

mentioned egalitarianism plays a large role in how management behaviours will be

performed in Australia (Ashkanasy 2007; West & Murphy 2007). This will take the

shape of Teamwork being emphasised by managers working with a group, where

respect for individuals, the team as a whole and their contributions is shown. This is

further supported by the low power distance found in Australia where subordinates

expect to be heard and ideas listened to (Ashkanasy 2007; Irwin 1996).

The Teamwork component highlights social justice and team oriented management is

offset by an identified shortcoming found in Australian managers, that associated

with formally being “the boss” or a “taskmaster”, as defined in the Australian cultural

imprint study (Australian Quality Council 1994). This type of manager was

autocratic, disconnected from staff and used demotivating behaviour.

This shortcoming was further confirmed in the Enterprising Nation study, where

several areas relating to managerial behaviours were highlighted as weaknesses

including: being inflexible and rigid; complacency; poor at teamwork and

empowerment; and poor people skills (Karpin 1995a). These managerial shortcoming

in Australia have been historically identified by academics and social commentators

(Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). It continues to be noted today as an area where

skill development is needed (Australian Institute of Management 2012). These

findings relate to an Officious component in Australian managers where they

emphasise self-interest, power and authority.

Alongside being Officious, but required by the very nature of the organisational role

of manager, is a Decision Making component. Given the identified Australian

attitudes associated with the ‘She’ll Be Right’ mindset; the recognised dislike

towards change; and the constraints of mateship, a manager must maintain a decision

making role to ensure results are achieved (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Lansbury

& Spillane 1991; Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). Unlike the Officious

Page 185: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 185

component, this is not an identified shortcoming, but an inherent attribute that all

managers must have (Zaleznik 2004).

Addressing Australian managerial shortcomings was a driving principle behind the

Enterprising Nation report and recommendations (Karpin 1995a). This document,

now nearly 20 years old, emphasised expanding Australian management training. The

project made numerous recommendations relating to increasing education for

Australian managers. It included focusing education on areas related to developing

new skill sets, expanding global awareness and being more innovative and

entrepreneurial to name a few.

In a follow up study it was found that many of the items relating to training and

development have been acted upon through universities, private training providers

and the managers themselves engaging in education (Innovation & Business Skills

Australia 2011b). This is further supported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics

figures that show since 2001 there has been an increasing number of people in the

managerial profession with both informal and formal types of education (Australian

Bureau of Statistics 2007b). The result should be a more dynamic managerial profile

that brings with it alternative ways to lead and motivate. The importance of

developing and enhancing managerial skill has become a foundation for groups like

the Australian Institute of Management (2012) to build training, monitor and measure

skills to ensure the right type of capabilities are increasing in Australian managers.

Based upon these efforts and promotion of enhancing management in Australia, a

component focused on Progressiveness should be present.

Given the above discussion on the Managerial Behaviours, four components within

the Managerial Behaviours category are hypothesised to emerge: a Progressiveness

component reflecting the diverse tactics to lead in new ways; Decision Making, the

need for a manager to maintain authority; Teamwork, associated with managing

independent and diverse people to accomplish goals and stay on task; and Officious, a

Page 186: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 186

traditional hard-line managerial approach has been identified as present in Australia.

Four hypotheses are proposed relating to the Managerial Behaviour category:

Hypothesis 1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial

Behaviours category in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial

Behaviours category in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours

category in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours

category in Australia.

Environmental Influence category 4.3.4

The behaviour statements associated with Environmental Influence category are

included in Table 4-7.

Table 4-7: Environmental influence category

Environmental Influence

15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment

16. Be socially and environmentally responsible

27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation

30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach

33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work

38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures

66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes

70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work

77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies

78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities

Page 187: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 187

In examining the category, two perspectives have been identified as present in

Australian managerial leaders. Those behaviours that are associated with the larger

society and can be considered as part of the Macro-Environment and those that relate

more to industry as Micro-Environment oriented.

Australian organisations have been criticised as not placing enough emphasis on

connecting to the wider world around them. Australia has historically identified with

the notion of the ‘tyranny of distance’, being geographically disparate from a majority

of its trading partners, its colonial homeland and culturally similar countries

(Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Along with this concept is the identified need for

Australian managers to take on a more global perspective (Karpin 1995b). In the

Karpin report, significant shortfalls were identified with respect to the global

perspective of managers (Karpin 1995a). While a significant aspect of the report’s

recommendations, no formal practice has been established to ensure all managers

understand international business (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).

In the recent white paper on the Asian century, it was again noted that Australian

business must pick up on signals to embrace shifts in the global environment in

particular to engage more with Asia (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force

2012). Based on the identified need to do this a Macro-Environment component

should be present. This is additionally supported by the increasing population

diversification since the early 1970s, alongside other social changes that have been

embraced (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c; Department of Immigration and

Citizenship 2007; Salt 2007). The result is a more multicultural and cosmopolitan

nation.

Australian organisations have been and continue to be viewed as leaders in their

respective industries, having employed new technologies and recognised the

importance of maintaining competitive advantage. This is illustrated in productivity

measures from Australia (Australian Industry Group 2013; McNair Anderson

Page 188: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 188

Associates 1981). Similarly, Australian organisations are quick to adopt technologies

including mobile services and internet technology to remain competitive (Department

of Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001). As a result of

these perspectives, an industry specific environmental component will be included,

named Micro-Environment. Based on these two components, two hypotheses have

been proposed:

Hypothesis 1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental

Influence category in Australia.

Hypothesis 1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental

Influence category in Australia.

Organisational demand category 4.3.5

The Organisational Demand category, see Table 4-8, across the various APEL

studies, in all cases has been singular in nature (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006;

Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer

& Donovan 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung

2010; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e).

Table 4-8: Organisational demand category

Organisational Demand

3. Adaptability

23. Focus on maximising productivity

28. Give priority to long-term goals

47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public

48. Share power

50. Support decisions made jointly by others

59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation

83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice

94. Act as a member of a team

Page 189: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 189

Australian managers, the same as managers in other nations, have organisational

directives, strategies and goals that are their responsibility to achieve (Hitt, Ireland &

Hoskisson 2012).

When one examines organisational related vision, goals and strategies, the conclusion

is that they need to be thought of as interconnected and not singular in nature (Hitt,

Ireland & Hoskisson 2012). While diverse in terms of direction that each take, all

organisational related mandates should be looked as connected and an integral part of

the greater whole. Failure to do that would result in an organisation operating in

different directions and reducing efficiency, competitive advantage and ability to

achieve the diverse and required mandates. Given the singular context of

organisational directives and the consistency of the Organisational Demand category

across numerous countries the APEL model has been used in; a single component is

hypothesised for the category:

Hypothesis 1.12 Organisational Demand will be a single component of the

Organisational Demand category in Australia.

Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours category 4.3.6

As discussed in Section 4.3.2 of this chapter, the creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours have been structured into a single category. These behaviours are

associated with change-oriented leadership and are viewed as a required aspect of

managerial leadership (Yukl 2012). Based on what is currently known about enabling

creativity and innovation, it is viewed as a single category in this study and the

associated scale.

In Australia, there have been numerous calls for managers and organisations to

embrace innovation and adapt to the changes being faced in the economy from a

global perspective (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian

Page 190: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 190

Institute of Management 2010; Department of Industry Innovation Science Research

and Tertiary Education 2012; Department of Innovation Industry Science and

Research 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a, b; Karpin 1995a;

Lansbury & Quince 1988; Sarros et al. 1992). Given the view of change-oriented

leadership as a universal aspect of management and the importance that Australia has

been placing on innovation, a single hypothesis is proposed.

Hypothesis 1.13 Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours will be a single

category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia.

Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile summary 4.3.7

Based upon the above sections, the Australian perspective of excellence in

managerial leadership being investigated will be made up of 13 components

summarised in Table 4-9.

Page 191: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 191

Table 4-9: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile

Component Associated HypothesisExcellent Leader

Organisational Leader1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia

Visionary Leader1.2: Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia

Personal Qualities

Relationship1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia

Integrity1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia

Respect1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia

Managerial Behaviours

Progressiveness1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Decision Making1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Teamwork1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Officious1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Environmental Influence

Macro-Environment1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia

Micro-Environment1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia

Organisational Demand

Organisational Demand1.12: Organisational Demand will be a single component of the Organisational Demand category in Australia

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB)

CIB1.13: CIB will be a single category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia

Page 192: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 192

4.4 Hypotheses: Relationships between independent and dependent variables

Having identified the components of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia

the expected relationships will now be explored between the independent variables

and the dependent variables. Of the 13 components, three are considered dependent

variables in this study: the two components of Excellent Leader; and the new

category of Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours. The hypothesised

relationships between the ten independent variables and the three dependent variables

will be explained in the following sections.

Personal qualities 4.4.1

Relationship

Literature on Australian management emphasises the balance that needs to be

maintained between being viewed as a mate, visionary and fair to employees while

still securing organisational goals and ensuring productivity (Ashkanasy 2007;

Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).

Australian management has placed importance on the concept of egalitarian

leadership and charismatic leadership to be effective and to avoid bureaucratic and

narcissistic behaviours that impede leadership (Ashkanasy 2007; Trevor-Roberts,

Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003). The importance of having a personal relationship and

being viewed as a mate, part of the team and communicating openly were found to be

key for mangers ability to succeed in a leadership role (Irwin 1996).

Supported by Sarros, Cooper and Santora (2008) and Sarros et al. (1992)

communication was a major strength of Australian managers, reflecting the ability to

personalise the delivery of information and mandates to employees rather than

present them as directives. It is important to note that in order for communication to

work in Australia, communication should not be limited in scope to speaking directly

to subordinates, but also must involve listening to ensure employees are heard (West

& Murphy 2007). This is in large part due to the low power distance in Australia,

Page 193: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 193

where members of a culture expect to have a relatively flat relationship with

managers (House et al. 2004). The result of this communication approach should

connect subordinates to achieving organisational goals associated with Visionary

Leader, largely due to the alignment in managerial studies of relationship building

with transformational leadership (Bass 2008).

Hypothesis 2.1: The Relationship component is directly related to Visionary

Leader.

The LMX theory has shown that when a positive leader–member relationship exists

there is a positive impact on almost all organisational aspects (Graen & Uhl-Bien

1995). This has been shown in particular around enabling creativity across

organisations (Graen 2006; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999;

Zhou & George 2003). Managers that have a good relationship have influence over

subordinates, are able to criticise work and challenge them to be more creative. Baer,

Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify the importance of assigning roles that

enhance intrinsic motivation and working on projects related to one’s interests.

Intrinsic motivation is directly tied to creativity (Amabile et al. 1996; Oldham &

Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004). Only through a strong relationship

can the type of motivation required in subordinates be understood. This includes

strengthening the connection to the organisation according to Zhou and George

(2003), where communicating information to employees leads to greater creativity as

it includes and engages them in creative endeavours simply by awareness and

connection.

Hypothesis 2.2: The Relationship component is directly related to enabling

creativity and innovation.

Page 194: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 194

Respect

Respect in Australia is a fundamental component and needs to be a foundation of a

manager’s approach to leadership (Australian Quality Council 1994). It should be

understood that respect is expected to be given and felt to exist by co-workers

resulting in a supportive attitude towards the hierarchy (Irwin 1996; West & Murphy

2007). Mateship as established is built on both trust and respect (Duarte 2008).

Mateship is often viewed as something that exists between most organisation’s

members including managers and subordinates (Duarte 2008; West & Murphy 2007).

As with the view hypothesised regarding Relationships, given the importance of

charismatic leadership identified in the Globe study there will be a connection to

Visonary Leader (House et al. 2006). This is further supported by the connection of

Visionary Leader with transformational leadership and LMX theory (Avolio, Bass &

Jung 1999; Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995).

Hypothesis 2.3: The Respect component is directly related to Visionary Leader.

The importance of interactional justice has been identified as important to continuous

creativity in organisations (George & Jing 2007). Interactional justice from a creative

work perspective refers to showing respect to people involved in the creative process

through a positive relationship, recognition of emotions and sharing all information

(George & Jing 2007). Without this, employees may become unwilling to continue in

a creative mode if they believe their efforts are not respected. Mumford and

Gustafson (1988) identify the creative individual may become critical of themselves

and their co-workers. A manager must show respectful understanding of the

motivations and pressures on subordinates to ensure negativity and internal

demotivation does not occur.

Social skills pertaining to respect are required to reduce negativity towards creative

people and efforts (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Mumford et al. 2002). This

means a manager needs to instil respect towards creative efforts among organisational

Page 195: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 195

members. Showing respect through role modelling has been identified as a method of

achieving this aim (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Simonton

1975; Sternberg 1998, 2006). The manager uses respect and role models it in

relationships alongside related cognitive and technical skills, largely through

emotional intelligence in their consideration on how to act and maintain support for

their subordinates (Goleman 2005).

Hypothesis 2.4: The Respect component is directly related to enabling creativity

and innovation.

Integrity

According to some opinions of Australian managers, being ethical and having high

personal standards is ideal (Barraclough & Company 1995). This involves having a

strong commitment to the company, acting in a way that leads to trust and sends the

message that managers ‘walk the talk’. In the same study, identified strengths of

Australian managers include: hard working, open, genuine and direct along with

being honest and ethical. A similar result in the cultural imprint studies also promotes

being ‘fair dinkum’ or to put it another way being true to oneself and co-workers as

necessary for managers to achieve transparency (Australian Quality Council 1994;

Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). Australian Institute of

Management’s ongoing managerial capabilities study identifies integrity and

corporate governance as the highest rated category (Australian Institute of

Management 2012).

Hypothesis 2.5: The Integrity component is directly related to Organisational

Leader.

Identified across a range of studies and one of the categories that was singled out by

de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) was high ethical standards associated with doing a

good job. Doing a good job means acting in an ethically sound manner, working

Page 196: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 196

proactively and cooperatively. A manager is expected to role model not only being

creative, but also these ethical standards. Amabile (2004) notes that the direct

involvement of supervisors takes many forms including planning, clarifying,

monitoring or networking. In doing this it will lead to consistency of expectations of

subordinates on how to act. Several studies have pointed out being engaged in

creativity and being fully committed as key aspects of Integrity that relate to enabling

creativity and innovation (Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Simonton 1975; Sternberg 1998,

2006).

Hypothesis 2.6: The Integrity component is directly related to enabling

creativity and innovation.

Environmental influence 4.4.2

Macro-Environment

In the Enterprising Nation report, significant shortfalls were identified with respect to

the global perspective of Australian managers (Karpin 1995a). Whilst a significant

recommendation, no formal practice has been established to ensure all managers

understand international business (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).

Given the report is nearing 20 years since release there should be an increase in

awareness of the importance of accepting cues to adapt and change from the

Macro-Environment.

In the recent white paper on the Asian century, it was noted that Australian business

must pick up on signs and look to embrace shifts in the global environment in

particular to engage more with Asia (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force

2012). The emphasis placed on the external environment in the above mentioned

reports reflects a need for Australian managers to extend their awareness and

addresses the identified shortcoming of being insular in focus when it comes to the

external environment. On the other side of these issues, Australia’s population shows

Page 197: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 197

a shift is occurring with now over 20% of Australians being foreign born with an

increasing population not coming from Anglo nations, but primarily Asia (Australian

Bureau of Statistics 2012b). Along with this shift is the increasing education of

Australian managers which should indicate an increase in having a global perspective

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). This is increasing the necessity, awareness

and importance of having a multicultural perspective. The above mentioned reports

indicate that emphasis on globalisation should relate to the strategic direction of

organisations as opposed to operational considerations, focusing this component with

Visionary Leader.

Hypothesis 2.7: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to

Visionary Leader.

Micro-Environment

The importance of applying technology and knowledge has been found to be a

moderate capability of Australian managers (Australian Institute of Management

2012, 2013). Discussion over productivity gains in Australia and the connection to

technology investment have been identified as something that has been occurring, but

needs to occur at a greater pace (Australian Industry Group 2013; Enright & Petty

2013). Over the last thirty years productivity gains have been made in Australia.

Traditionally, Australian managers have worked to maintain and enhance competitive

advantage as well as adopt new technologies effectively to remain competitive

(Australian Industry Group 2013; Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade &

Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).

Technical expertise was identified as present in Australian Managers assessments of

themselves (Barraclough & Company 1995). This reflects an emphasis on the

industry specific Micro-Environment component to identify change opportunities in

organisational practices.

Page 198: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 198

Hypothesis 2.9: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment to Creativity and Innovation

Enabling Behaviours

As discussed earlier it is the external environment in many instances which signals an

organisation to evolve or change through creativity and innovation (Westwood &

Low 2003; Zhou & George 2003). Studies have shown that in order to launch

products and change offerings, it is essential for a broad range of external

stakeholders to be examined and consulted for success to occur (Elkins & Keller

2003). Managers wanting to enable creativity and innovation must look to the

external environment from both a Micro-Environment and a Macro-Environment

level. This means searching for a wide variety of information and procuring the right

type of supportive external resources (Damanpour 1991; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007;

Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004).

Hypothesis 2.8: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to

enabling creativity and innovation.

Hypothesis 2.10: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to

enabling creativity and innovation.

Managerial behaviours 4.4.3

Decision making

Australian managers have historically been viewed as operating from a traditional

managerial perspective (Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Milton, Entrekin &

Stening 1984). The manager in this context is largely operating in a transactional

style (Kotter 1990; Kotterman 2006; Zaleznik 2004). In looking at cultural

dimensions, the GLOBE study found that Australians managers are in the highest

Page 199: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 199

scoring grouping of societies for Assertiveness and ahead of all but two of the other

nations that make up the Anglo cluster (Ashkanasy 2007; House et al. 2004). This

reflects a culture that values directness and assertiveness as necessary aspects of

Decision Making. The ranking of managerial capabilities in Australian managers

highlights the importance of maintaining decision making power along with financial

management as two areas where they are the most capable (Australian Institute of

Management 2012, 2013). Decision making power is important for managers to

maintain to ensure that organisations operate within acceptable practices and

budgetary restrictions respectively. The Decision Making component, as noted

largely aligns itself with an organisational influence as opposed to a transformational

or strategic style of leadership.

Hypothesis 2.11: The Decision Making component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

Teamwork

In GLOBE’s Australian leadership findings, teamwork and being visionary are very

strongly identified (Ashkanasy 2007). This idea of teamwork fits with the cultural

dimension of low power distance where all people have a right to contribute input and

to be heard. Egalitarianism in Australia, along with giving people a fair go, lead a

manager to making sure that subordinates are given a voice and role in completing

work (Irwin 1996). This reduces the risk of a manger being viewed as too visionary

or a tall poppy as subordinates are included in developing solutions and being

innovative (Duarte 2008). Finding the right balance between being a mate and a

manager is difficult for Australian managerial leaders because there is a preference in

many cases for a “good boss” acting as a captain-coach encouraging both consistent

and supportive behaviour (Irwin 1996). The above information indicates that the

Teamwork component will be used by Australian managers to achieve organisational

goals and priorities.

Page 200: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 200

Hypothesis 2.12: The Teamwork component is directly related to Organisational

Leader.

Teamwork that is positive, supportive and challenging is the best situation for

generating creative output in an organisation (Damanpour 1991; Woodman, Sawyer

& Griffin 1993). It is the managerial leader’s responsibility to establish supportive

teams if they want innovation efforts to succeed. Shipper and Davy (2002) studied

management skills used and found that a mix of both interactive and work structuring

skills were needed. Procedural justice in an organisation refers to the decision making

processes being viewed as just and fair which results in greater levels of creativity

and shapes a positive climate for team work (Tyler & Lind 1992). In a study by

Mumin and Mustafa (2008) it was found that procedural justice was indeed positively

related to creativity and innovation in new product development.

The importance of having responsibility for idea generation, problem solution or

other forms of creative effort is fundamental for team involvement (Basadur 2004).

When a manager establishes this, it allows the team a sense of responsibility. From an

employee perspective when they are meaningfully involved in the work they will be

more productive and committed (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008; Sims 2002).

Subordinates need to have freedom in order to get the creative ideas flowing

(Amabile et al. 1996; Elkins & Keller 2003). Zhou (1998) examined high task

autonomy in a laboratory experiment and found that it led to higher levels of

creativity. Another study by Jung, Chow and Wu (2003) had shown this same

connection between autonomy and creativity. At the same time as giving them

freedom to work, it is giving them the freedom to be involved in organisational goal

setting and problem definition (Mumford et al. 2002). Together these studies indicate

that Teamwork will directly relate to enabling creativity and innovation.

Hypothesis 2.13: The Teamwork component is directly related to enabling

creativity and innovation.

Page 201: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 201

Officious

In Australia, studies have found that a more traditional managerial role is presently

identified by the bureaucratic nature of managers in the country (Milton, Entrekin &

Stening 1984). Cultural dimensions in the GLOBE study indicate that assertiveness

remains strong from an “as-is” perspective; gender equality is viewed as needing to

be stronger from a “should-be” perspective, as is future orientation and uncertainty

avoidance (Ashkanasy 2007; House et al. 2004). Taken together these show signs that

within Australian managerial leadership a more managerial oriented form is present.

This is supported in many studies of Australian management that found managers

strengths more aligned with practical roles and organisational level goals, as opposed

to being visionary or strategic (Australian Institute of Management 2012; Australian

Quality Council 1994; Barraclough & Company 1995; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995b).

This connects back to cultural contingencies such as tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll

Be Right’ attitude, where often times a good boss is preferred over a leader due to the

increased level of personal connection and emphasis on higher order strategies that

are unwanted (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996).

Hypothesis 2.14: The Officious component is directly related to Organisational

Leader.

Progressiveness

As earlier discussed the most important leadership universal identified in the GLOBE

study for Australia was charismatic leadership (House et al. 2004). In order to be

charismatic a manager must find ways to bring employees along with them to create a

sense of shared purpose and enthusiasm. When examining the characteristics of an

ideal manager the four highest scoring items involve having people skills, being a

strategic thinker, being visionary and lastly flexible and adaptable to change

(Barraclough & Company 1995). The final one, being flexible and adaptable, was

also identified as a perceived strength of Australian managers in the same study.

Page 202: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 202

According to a recent assessment of the recommendations of the Enterprising Nation

report, it notes managers have continued to engage in learning opportunities to

expand their skill set over the last 15 years (Innovation & Business Skills Australia

2011b). Further evidence that Australian managers are becoming more skilled can be

found when examining the education level of managers in Australia. Education levels

have shown to be steadily increasing over the years (Australian Bureau of Statistics

2007b). There is and continues to be industry recognition that enhancing managerial

skills is necessary (Australian Institute of Management 2012). By utilising new

management skills and tactics, Australian managers will demonstrate a visionary

approach to leading.

Hypothesis 2.15: The Progressiveness component is directly related to Visionary

Leader.

The growing emphasis on being progressive and developing new skill sets and

approaches to management, as detailed above shows that managerial leaders in

Australia are attempting to use a variety of skills in driving innovation and creativity

in Australia. Acting progressively through role modelling and engagement in creative

endeavour, along with transferring responsibility are ways a manager enhances

innovation efforts through non-traditional management practices (de Jong & Den

Hartog 2007).

Hypothesis 2.16: The Progressiveness component is directly related enabling

creativity and innovation.

Organisational demand 4.4.4

Organisational demand is closely connected category to visionary or transformational

leadership. Transformational leadership requires the organisation to have a strong

Page 203: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 203

vision that can be communicated and support developed among subordinates (Bass

1985a, 1990b; Bass 2008; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008).

Under the GLOBE study Australian managers strongly connect to charismatic

leadership where leadership dimensions of inspirational, integrity, visionary,

performance orientation and decisive rank highest (Ashkanasy 2007). This however is

tempered from the identified reality that Australian vision is often focused on the

short term and problem solving as opposed to long term strategic direction

(Ashkanasy 2007; Karpin 1995a). This category will be present in Australian

managerial views of excellence in leadership and it will take on an Australian specific

context, where a connection will exist to both components of being an Excellent

Leader:

Hypothesis 2.17: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

Hypothesis 2.18: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

Visionary Leader.

Organisational directives are the first step towards managers acting in a manner that

will enable creativity and innovation. It is from the organisation itself that directives

to change and innovate originate (Damanpour 1991). When managerial leadership is

considered in today’s organisations, it needs to be flexible and adaptive to deal with

these organisational demands (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004; Yukl & Mahsud 2010).

Failure to bring innovation and creativity into organisational goals would result in

organisational stagnation; therefore it is essential to have a relationship between the

organisational goals and innovation efforts.

Hypothesis 2.19: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

enabling creativity and innovation.

Page 204: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 204

Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours 4.4.5

Having identified the importance of change related leadership and enabling creativity

and innovation, recognition exists that there is a direct connection to excellence in

managerial leadership (Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002; Yukl &

Lepsinger 2004). As identified in studies relating to change leadership, behaviours in

line with change leadership may be viewed as focused on relationship centred, task

oriented and visionary behaviours working together to create an environment for

change to occur. This has been established as occurring predominantly through the

practice of enabling innovation and creativity (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999; Ekvall &

Arvonen 1991; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). Based upon the hypothesised

relationships there is a strong connection established between the innovation enabling

behaviours and the Excellent Leader components. There is evidence that a link

between the newly established category and both aspects of being an Excellent

Leader will be present.

Hypothesis 2.20: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly

related to Visionary Leader.

Hypothesis 2.21: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly

related to Organisational Leader.

The hypotheses are detailed graphically in Figure7-10.

4.5 Hypothesis on a shared view of leadership across groups

In managerial leadership studies examination of group differences have provided

interesting insights into differences in leadership across demographic and managerial

roles (Bass 2008). In Australia this is no different, with some studies having

identified differences across groups (Ashkanasy 2007; Sarros et al. 2011; Sarros,

Gray & Densten 2002; Sarros et al. 1992; Wood 2011). However, there are cultural

Page 205: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 205

imperatives in Australia that may lead to a shared perspective on what is excellence

in managerial leadership. This research study proposes that given the strong and

unique nature of these cultural values, in particular egalitarian related items and

mateship, that the profile developed will be shared across groups.

Australian egalitarianism pushes towards a sense of sameness in society that could be

extended to views on managerial leadership (Thompson 1994). Mateship is a

masculine concept that represents expected relationships between people that has

been shown to be applicable to both men and women and supported by cultural

dimension studies that found Australian to be a masculine culture. This is also

identified in additional leadership research (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Hofstede

2001; Peeters 2004; Thompson 1994). The cultural imperative studies found there to

be no significant differences in how leadership was viewed between groups in

Australian organisations (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). To

investigate the shared view of managerial leadership four groups will be examined to

see if any significant differences on excellence in managerial leadership emerge:

gender, education, age and managerial role. The selection of each will be explained

below.

Historically, Australian culture has emphasised masculine nature over feminine and

women have not had the same status in society (Thompson 1994). It has also been

identified that women in Australia do face a glass ceiling and face an “old boys

network” (Duarte 2008; West & Murphy 2007). These realities may mean that

women managers in Australia may share the same view on managerial leadership as

men. Something other leadership research shows is not always the case (Bass 2008).

The importance of an educated workforce to management is well established with

Bass (2008) providing a detailed overview of how education impacts on managers

and their organisations. The Enterprising Nation report established that Australian

managers needed to be better educated in order to better lead and prepare for change

Page 206: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 206

(Karpin 1995a). Since the report there has been an increase in managers with an

education, which could result in different managerial leadership approaches

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). Given the knowledge that education will

impact on leadership preferences and styles, the identified cultural attribute of

sameness present and the recognition that education will change Australian managers

styles and skills this group is therefore appropriate for comparison (Innovation &

Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Thompson 1994).

Australia has grouped generations of people based on age, experiences, technological

knowledge and historic events (Salt 2007). Australian managers would primarily

come from three generational groups: Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation

Y. However this research study identifies managers can be split into two groups

based upon age, experience with technology and shifts in the global landscape.

Commercial access to the internet and electronic communications was available from

the early to mid-1990s in Australia and younger users were its earliest adopters

(Clarke 2004). This places a majority of managers under the age of 40 having spent

their entire working career with access to electronic communications. The Cold War

ended with the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and this impacted globally and on the

Australian economy (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). The timing of this event means that

almost all managers under 40 would have spent their entire working career after the

end of the Cold War and consequently experienced a globalised world economy.

While this age division sits slightly outside of the traditional split between Generation

X and Generation Y, it is within an acceptable bounds to be considered as a

generational split in age for managers (Graen & Schiemann 2013).

Lastly, managers have been examined and found to be different based on the

managerial role that they play (Bass 2008). These differences are found in areas like:

approaches to management, attitudes towards change, area of focus and willingness to

transfer authority. Three categories of manager are included in this study, frontline or

Page 207: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 4 – Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 207

first level mangers; middle management and senior management. Given where the

largest differences in literature have been found, it was decided to examine those in

front line roles versus those in middle and senior management roles as this represents

a clear difference in responsibilities and involvement in strategic development.

Hypothesis 3.0: The perception of Australian Excellence in Managerial

Leadership will be perceived consistently across different managerial groups.

4.6 Chapter summary

This chapter has presented the development of a conceptual model that extends on the

APEL framework to include a category of behaviours associated with enabling

creativity and innovation. The expanded model adds a category of managerial

leadership behaviours focused on enabling creativity and innovation. This extension

used the APEL framework as an artefact to build a new scale reflective of change

oriented leadership, focused on enabling creativity and innovation. The scale

development was explained and the new scale presented.

This was followed by three sections detailing the hypotheses under investigation in

this study. Firstly, the hypotheses relating to the profile of Australian excellence in

managerial leadership were presented. In total 13 components are proposed to be

present, 10 components were identified as independent variables and three were

identified as dependent variables. The relationships between the independent and

dependent variables were presented. Lastly, the hypothesis on Australian

managers having a shared view of excellence in managerial leadership was presented,

to be tested across four groups.

Having presented the conceptual framework and the hypotheses to be investigated the

next chapter will present a review of the methodology used in the study.

Page 208: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 208

5. Methodology

5.1 Introduction

The previous chapters provided the theoretical background across the fields of

managerial leadership behavioural research, a review of understandings of Australian

culture and management in chapters 2 and 3 respectively. Chapter 4 presented the

conceptual framework and the hypotheses to be investigated. The purpose of this

chapter is to provide an overview of the methodology, research design and the data

analysis plan. An overview of the chapter’s contents is included in Figure 5-1.

Figure 5-1: Chapter overview

The basis of selecting the research method for a research study is determined by the

information required to address the research questions. It is important to clearly

understand the desired outcomes and results required to ensure the appropriate

research design is selected (Creswell 2009). The research questions in this study

relate to understanding how managers enable creativity and innovation and how

excellence in managerial leadership is perceived by Australian Managers. By looking

at the individual perspectives, a shared perception of excellence in managerial

Methodology Chapter

Research Methodology

Research Context

Design of the Survey Instrument

Data Analysis Plan

Page 209: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 209

leadership and the relationship between its components can be determined. To

achieve this understanding, the components found in Australian managerial

leadership need to be confirmed and a model developed which can be used in

exploring the relationships between the components.

5.2 Research methodology and design

A research paradigm in its simplest sense is a model that can be used to guide

investigators on how to conduct a research project. In the larger philosophical sense a

paradigm, also referred to as epistemology or ontology represent the beliefs held that

outline the methodological view of the world at large (Creswell 2009). The paradigm

could fall into one of two broad categories: positivism or interpretivism.

Interpretivism is a qualitative paradigm and attempts to gain knowledge from

understanding shared and different perspectives. The interpretivism paradigm largely

emphasises researching differences as most essential and important, making it

difficult to apply findings across a larger population. Positivism is a natural science

based approach to research focused on an objective viewpoint, where hypotheses can

be developed based on known theory, tested and results explained in conjunction with

the theory (Collis & Hussey 2009).

The research approach employed in this research study, given the goals of the

research, is from a positivist perspective. It is built on deductive theory utilised under

the positivist research paradigm. Deductive theory builds on what is known and

explores different theoretical connections and extensions based on hypotheses derived

from literature and existent knowledge (Bryman 2012). The deductive approach is

focused on quantitative research and requires a succinct process to be applied to

research following this paradigm. The application of the deductive theory approach

results in the process as detailed in Figure 5-2.

Page 210: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 210

Figure 5-2: Positivist research approach

The above process has been used in establishing the theoretical background upon

which the research questions have been proposed and hypotheses developed. In order

to establish the hypotheses, an exploratory study has been developed that recognised

a gap in understanding the importance of creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours and how these behaviours relate to excellence in managerial leadership.

Additionally, an identified gap the research study aims to address is to increase

understanding of Australian culture and its influence on views on excellence in

managerial leadership and creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.

The research study will be utilising quantitative data collection and analysis, with

data collected through a survey. The objective nature of quantitative design, when

utilising a survey approach, is to examine behaviours of individuals to understand the

attitudes of a population through a sample (Collis & Hussey 2009). The perceptions

of managers in this study are examined collectively in order to determine causal paths

Positivist ‐ Deductive Approach

Examination of Theory

Gap identification and Hypothesis development

Research design

Data Collection

Analysis

Findings

Application of findings to theory

Page 211: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 211

of Australian managerial leadership behaviours that can effectively be measured

under a survey methodology (Creswell 2009).

5.3 Research context

This section outlines the setting for the research study, including its environment. The

study is being conducted in a single country, Australia. Australia is largely viewed as

being western, Anglo and regionally aligned as a part of the larger geographic region

of the Asia Pacific (Alomes 2012; Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012;

House et al. 2004). Given the fact that Australia shares much of its cultural values

with those of the Anglo cluster and in a wider context the western world, it is a nation

where managerial leadership is highly developed and where innovation and creativity

are regularly identified as organisational necessities (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian

Industry Group 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a).

Globally, organisational leaders are aware of the need to innovate and adapt in the

face of a changing world. In an IBM study of CEOs from organisations around the

world, 86% believed that substantial change was the reality and dealing with change

has been tagged as “the new normal” (Jørgensen, Owen & Neus 2008,p. 6). In

Australia it is no different. Both organisations and government have identified the

need to change and adapt in part through innovation and creativity in order to remain

sustainable and prosper (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian

Industry Group 2013; Australian Institute of Management 2012; Department of

Industry Innovation Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Department of

Innovation Industry Science and Research 2013; Karpin 1995a). This is a result of

increasing global competition faced by Australia, shifting trading partners and

increasing global competition for Australian business (Australia in the Asian Century

Task Force 2012; Enright & Petty 2013; Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Given these

reasons Australia is an ideal country to investigate the importance of managerial

behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation.

Page 212: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 212

As has been established, what these enabling behaviours involve is largely

understood from a variety of perspectives reflective of the influences that managers

must take into consideration. The APEL framework was selected as an artefact to

consider these newly categorised enabling behaviours as the framework includes the

primary areas of influence on a manager (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Three of the APEL

categories (Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational Demand)

were used to develop a single category reflective of enabling creativity and

innovation behaviours and an associated scale has been added to the APEL

instrument in order to test these behaviours quantitatively and address the research

questions. A survey is used to do this as it is an established quantitative technique that

has proven to be effective in addressing the needs of the research in this exploratory

study (Bryman 2012).

An ‘Australian-centric’ sample is required in order to ensure a range of organisational

managers working in Australia are included. This includes a variety of managers,

different industries, different sized organisations, geographic locations and other

demographic variables to establish a cross section of managerial types. This is a

challenge given the diversity of industry, size of organisations, managerial types and

demographics in Australia. In order to address this diversity, the 2006 Census results

on the managerial occupation and other business statistics relating to size of business

are used as a foundation to address the adequacy of the sample for the study to build a

baseline Australian managerial leadership profile (Australian Bureau of Statistics

2007a, b, c, 2012b; Clark et al. 2012). Once the diverse sample of respondents is

collected, the sample can be analysed collectively in order to determine the Australian

managerial leadership profile and the shared or different perspectives on excellence in

managerial leadership.

Page 213: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 213

5.4 Ethical considerations

The research study has followed Swinburne University of Technology’s ethical code.

Details of the research study including information on the data collection procedures,

the treatment of respondents, the reporting of the research results and the treatment of

the data once collected was provided to Swinburne University’s ethics committee. In

the case of this research study, a market research company had complete control over

access to respondents and ensured their privacy that met both industry and national

standards. The participants were informed in the introduction of the questionnaire on

how the research findings would be used and that their participation implied consent.

A copy of the ethics approval letter has been provided in Appendix 2.

5.5 Design of the survey instrument

The survey instrument utilised in this study is an expanded version of the validated

APEL questionnaire. The expansion to the survey instrument to include a new scale,

as detailed in chapter 4, was developed through extensive literature review and

consideration of behaviours associated with enabling innovation and creativity. This

section will detail the development of the expanded questionnaire.

One of the most important aspects of scale and instrument development is to ensure

that the associated statements clearly represent the specific behavioural domain

(DeVellis 2012). This is particularly important for studies where an instrument is

used across various cultures and efforts need to be made to ensure that context and

readability are understood and transferable (Harkness et al. 2003). Through review

and application of best practices in cross-cultural research, as detailed by Harkness et

al. (2003), the APEL questionnaire was determined to be feasible to use in its

extended form, with specific behaviours identified and included for analysis

purposes. The complete questionnaire is included in Appendix 3.

Page 214: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 214

APEL questionnaire 5.5.1

The APEL questionnaire was first developed and established in the ASEAN nations

(Selvarajah et al. 1995). The questionnaire was developed through an extensive

literature review process. A Q-sort process was instituted to categorise behaviours

into four dimensions or categories: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours,

Organisational Demands and Environmental influence. The survey to confirm the

Q-sort results was administered to practicing managers in the ASEAN nations. The

survey instrument included 94 behavioural statements. Across numerous studies since

the instrument was developed, approximately 68 behaviours have been consistently

confirmed to relate directly to the specific allocated category and were selected for

investigation in this study (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah et al.

1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008c; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah, Meyer &

Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar

2011; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung 2010).

Along with the existing 68 behaviours were the additional 15 new behavioural

statements representing the Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB),

bringing the total number of behavioural statements under investigation to 83.

Utilising best practices in cross cultural research methods, these behaviours were

selected in order to ensure consistent measures existed that were both valid and

reliable (Harkness et al. 2003). The research instrument was delivered in its original

format that included all previously identified 94 behaviours, as it is important that the

validated instrument be used consistently across cultures. In chapter 4, a review of the

components and the associated behavioural statements was provided and is

summarised in Table 5-1.

Page 215: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 215

Table 5-1: APEL scales from the survey instrument:

APEL Instrument Components # of Statements

Excellent Leader 9

Visionary Leader 4

Organisational Leader 5

Personal Qualities 19

Relationship 9

Respect 4

Integrity 6

Organisational Demand 9

Organisational Demand 9

Environmental Influence 10

Macro-Environment 6

Micro-Environment 4

Managerial Behaviours 21

Progressiveness 4

Decision Making 4

Teamwork 8

Officious 5

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours 15

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) 15

The behavioural statements are randomly distributed across the survey instrument and

have been given an associated number to aid in analysis. Numbers for behavioural

statements range from 1 to 109, represented with the letter ‘a’ in front in the analysis

section during procedures in AMOS. The associated behavioural statements for the

APEL categories are separated into their respective components established in

chapter 4 and summarised below. Excellent Leader has two components as detailed in

Table 5-2. The Personal Qualities Category has three separate components

summarised in Table 5-3.

Page 216: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 216

Table 5-2: Hypothesised excellent leader category

Excellent Leader Category

Organisational Leader

10. Be honest

29. Give recognition for good work

89. Continue to learn how to improve performance

91. Organise work time effectively

93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people

Visionary Leader

20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place

32. Have a strategic vision for the organization

42. Motivate employees

82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry

Table 5-3: Hypothesised personal qualities category

Personal Qualities - 3 Components

Relationship

1. Accept responsibility for mistakes

2 Accept that others will make mistakes

5. Be an initiator – not a follower

6. Be consistent in dealing with people

8. Be dependent and trustworthy

14. Be practical

21. Deal calmly in tense situations

49. Speak clearly and concisely

58. Write clearly and concisely

Integrity

11. Be informal when with employees outside work

18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs

25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters

26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization

31. Have a sense of humour

45. Return favours

57. Work long hours

Respect

36. Listen to the advice of others

44. Respect the self-esteem of others

53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest

Page 217: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 217

Managerial Behaviours have four components, summarised in Table 5-4.

Table 5-4: Hypothesised managerial behaviours category

Managerial Behaviours - 4 Components

Progressive

34. Keep up-to-date on management literature

55. Try different approaches to management

56. Use initiative and take risks

Decision Making

39. Make decisions earlier rather than later

40. Make decisions without depending too much on others

41. Make work decisions quickly

43. Persuade others to do things

Principled/Transparency/Teamwork

4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy

7. Be consistent in making decisions

12. Be logical in solving problems

13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts

19. Consider suggestions made by employees

22. Delegate

35. Listen to and understand the problems of others

54. Trust those to whom work is delegated

Officious

9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work

17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees

24. Focus on the task at hand

51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it

52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem

Organisational Demand is a single category, as detailed in Table 5-5.

Page 218: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 218

Table 5-5: Hypothesised organisational demand category

Organisational Demand

3. Adaptability

23. Focus on maximising productivity

28. Give priority to long-term goals

47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public

48. Share power

50. Support decisions made jointly by others

59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation

83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice

94. Act as a member of a team

Environmental Influence is made up of two components, Macro-Environment and

Micro-Environment detailed in Table 5-6.

Table 5-6: Hypothesised environmental influence category

Environmental Influence

Macro-Environment

15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment

16. Be socially and environmentally responsible

27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation

30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach

33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work

38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures

Micro-Environment

66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes

70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work

77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies

78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities

5.6 Operationalising the creativity and innovation enabling behaviours construct

As presented in chapter 2 and 4, an intensive process went into reviewing existing

literature and understanding of how managers enable innovation and creativity across

different organisational roles and responsibilities. The researcher collected and

Page 219: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 219

catalogued the identified behaviours to reflect the managerial leadership categories

utilised in the APEL framework. This process resulted in the establishment of a scale

with 15 behavioural statements added. As detailed in Table 4-2, three of the four

categories used in the APEL framework are used as broad categories for the CIB

scale development. These are: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and

Organisational Demand. The scale as developed represents a single category of the

entire domain of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation.

In reviewing and studying the literature a total of approximately 160 behavioural

statements across these three categories were identified. These have been included in

Appendix 1. Managerial behaviours, rarely impact solely in one area or category,

rather impacting across organisations and managerial influences (Yukl, Gordon &

Taber 2002). As this was expected to occur, overlap needed to be addressed between

the identified behaviours. The identified CIB behaviours were cross referenced

against the literature and overlap eliminated in order to decrease the number of

behaviour statements.

The existing APEL behaviours were next considered against the additional CIB

behaviours. The APEL behaviours were examined and the additional CIB behavioural

statements were dropped where redundancy or significant overlap existed. By way of

this process a total of 15 behaviours were selected. In order to be considered for

inclusion the behavioural statements were articulated to address the following

statement, as detailed in the questionnaire in Appendix 3, “to be an excellent leader

how important is it to” (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The 15 statements were added to the

APEL instrument and identified as the CIB scale as detailed in Table 5-7, and have

been given an identification code from a95 to a109.

Page 220: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 220

Table 5-7: CIB scale

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) Scale

95. Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation

96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation

98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation

99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions

101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization

102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted

103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation

104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work

105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals

106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences

107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

109. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

5.7 Description of the survey instrument

The survey instrument, shown in Appendix 3, is comprised of an introduction with

details on the study and two separate sections detailed below.

Section one - demographic and managerial information 5.7.1

Demographic information and managerial categories were selected to address the

hypotheses and to ensure the sample developed in some ways reflects the managerial

occupation in Australia. Detailed breakdowns of each are included in the following

sections.

5.7.1.1 Minimum years of Australian work experience

To ensure that all respondents understand and are operating from an Australian

perspective, a minimum of five years’ work experience in Australia was selected as a

Page 221: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 221

requirement for all respondents. As Australia has open and inviting policies towards

the migration of skilled workers, potential respondents could consider managerial

leadership from a non-Australian perspective and this needed to be addressed.

Various standards are used to categorise migrated skilled labour to be deemed a long

term migrant. According to the OECD (2013), the UN indicates a person to be a long

term migrant after 12 months. However, it is felt that this is too brief a period for a

manager to adopt a culturally specific view. In an OECD study on the localisation of

migrants, it defined migrants with less than five years of settlement in a country as

‘recent’ and those residents with five years settlement ‘localised’ (Brezzi et al. 2010).

This context is used for this study and the five year mark is extended to work

experience. The five year figure for country-based work experience provides a

sufficient period of time working in organisations based in Australia to understand

cultural values that impact in the work place. Managers with five years’ work

experience should be operating in an Australian context.

5.7.1.2 Country/Region of birth

From a related perspective, it is also important to ensure that the sample reflects the

multicultural aspects of the country. If only Australian born residents were included it

would exclude a portion of the population that are foreign born, but are also an active

part of the management profession. The inclusion of the country of birth variable is

used in targeting respondents that fit the 2006 Census results (Australian Bureau of

Statistics 2007c).

5.7.1.3 Australian state/territory of residence

Australia’s population is distributed unevenly across the country, with greater

numbers living in large capital cities in the urban states of New South Wales

(Sydney) and Victoria (Melbourne). Smaller populations are located in the major

urban centres across the remaining States and Territories and in rural communities

Page 222: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 222

nationwide (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). Given the geographic distance,

the differing levels of urbanisation and industry between States and Territories it is

important, in order to allow for a cross section of respondents that are similar to the

distribution of managers found in the Census. This is monitored in the data collection

process. Inclusion of this demographic variable is important to ensure a baseline

Australian-wide view of excellence in managerial leadership emerges.

5.7.1.4 Industry and industry sector

The Industry Sector variable is included to ensure respondents come from diverse

industries and sectors reflective of the economy and management profile.

Damanpour’s (1991) meta-analysis of organisational innovation found that private

sector firms are more apt to be engaged in innovative activities than public sector and

NGO firms. However, government and NGO organisations are present in Australia

and need to be considered when developing a profile of a national perspective on

managerial leadership.

Similarly, specific industries can be viewed as being creative and innovative. Certain

industries have been identified and studied specifically in the context of creativity and

innovation because of their greater inherent connection to these fields. De Jong and

Den Hartog (2007) looked at knowledge intensive service industries, including

engineers and consultants when assessing innovation enabling behaviours of

managers. Leadership research on R & D organisations was compiled by Elkins and

Keller (2003) to build a conceptual framework related to LMX theory. In a study

outlining efforts to map Australia’s creative industries, several broader industry

sectors are identified including: marketing; advertising, software, television and film

production along with specific arts related industries (Higgs & Cunningham 2007).

Other studies, such as those done by Sternberg (2005a) include the education sector

as a highly innovative and creative sector. If this research study is limited in scope to

a singular sector or a group of these sectors the results would potentially be biased

Page 223: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 223

towards the importance of enabling creativity and innovation behaviours and not

reflect a broader Australian view on excellence in managerial leadership. The use of

Standard Industry Classification codes in this study allows for a diverse range of

industries to be included, but makes it difficult to specify the level of creativity and

innovation. By ensuring various sectors are included it allows for a result that more

reflective of how the CIB category fits into excellence in managerial leadership.

5.7.1.5 Gender

Gender has emerged as being relevant in many managerial leadership studies, in

particular around transformational leadership (Bass 2008). Women are often viewed

as emphasizing transformational leadership, while men emphasise a transactional

style (Bass, Avolio & Atwater 1996). In other studies using the APEL model, there

has shown to be differences between men and women (de Waal et al. 2012;

Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah et al. 2013). Examining this demographic

group is necessary and has been included to partially address Hypothesis 3.

5.7.1.6 Age

Similar to gender, age may play a role in attitudes towards managerial leadership

behaviours and CIB. There have been studies on age and its impact on managerial

leadership (Bass 2008; Ralston et al. 1999; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d). Examination

of age is used in this study to examine if differences exist at the generational level,

where working experiences have been shaped by technology, economic and political

shifts. As discussed in chapter 4, there is a distinct and recognisable difference in the

experiences between those under 40 and those 40 and over. This will be used to

examine Hypothesis 3.

Page 224: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 224

5.7.1.7 Education level

Included alongside breakdowns of gender and age is level of education. It is believed

that including level of education as a variable is worthy of investigation, given

Australia’s long term push to increase the education of managers to better lead

organisations in a competitive world (Karpin 1995a). In particular, managers with and

without a formal university education will be used in comparison between groups to

partially address Hypothesis 3, comparing those with a degree and those without.

5.7.1.8 Organisational role and size

The remaining demographic variables relate to managerial position, size of

organisation and size of department. There are clear differences in roles and

responsibilities between first line, middle and senior management (Bass 2008).

Ensuring a portion of the sample from each group is included will establish a cross

section of opinions across managerial roles. It will allow for investigation to see if

there is a difference between front line managers and the other two categories in

response to Hypothesis 3.

Similarly, size of organisation and department are included to ensure that managers

are from a cross section of different sized departments and organisations as a majority

of Australian organisations are small to medium enterprises, rather than large

corporations (Clark et al. 2012). The sample should attempt to reflect this and both

department size and organisation size will be used in the data collection phase to

ensure diversity in respondents.

Section two – managerial leadership behaviours 5.7.2

The second section of the instrument, the managerial leadership behaviour statements

are the core component of the survey. The survey includes all behavioural statements

included in the APEL model, along with the new CIB behavioural statements. The

Page 225: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 225

questions were split into groupings of 10 in order to ensure they were easy to read

and avoid survey fatigue. All behavioural statements use the same five point Likert

scale.

5.7.2.1 Likert scales

Ranking scales have long been used in measuring attitudes and behavioural

preferences in quantitative studies (Collis & Hussey 2009). Named after its creator,

Rensis Likert, this measurement scale measures intensity or strength of feelings

towards a specific area of inquiry (Bryman 2012). This type of scale has been used

for a variety of research including management, psychology and marketing to

measure the importance of behaviours. In the case of this research a five point scale

has been selected to maintain consistency with previous use of the APEL framework

as it has been effective in measuring managerial leadership behaviours (Selvarajah

2010). The five point scale, as shown in the questionnaire, is displayed in Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3: Likert scale descriptor and question structure

Importance

Low High

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

Leadership behaviour statement

The level of importance of each behavioural statement is measured with a 5

indicating high importance and a 1 indicating low importance, with 3 representing

uncertainty on the importance of the behaviour. A complete breakdown of the scale is

included in Figure 5-3.

Numeric Code

5

4

3

2

1

Scale Descriptor - Importance

High importance

Moderate importance

Unsure of importance

Less importance

Low importance

Page 226: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 226

5.8 Testing of the questionnaire

Prior to collecting data, testing of the questionnaire was conducted in two stages.

Pilot testing is an integral part of ensuring the instrument is working as planned and

that questions are understandable and resulting in expected responses (Bryman 2012).

The survey questionnaire was tested by Academics at Swinburne University of

Technology to check reliability and appropriateness of the statements for syntax,

grammar and comprehension. Feedback received from this resulted in minor changes

to the layout of demographic variables to ensure a smooth flow between topics.

The second stage of testing occurred when the research firm, providing the online

panel, piloted the survey. Senior and project management staff at Research Now also

reviewed the survey to ensure comprehension and readability among respondents.

Research Now drew the sample from a specific Australian ‘Business-2-Business’

panel, used solely for business related research (ResearchNow 2012). In order to

maintain high response rates the survey was tested to ensure technology worked

properly across different systems and interfaces; and to maintain industry based

standards with respect to panellists. Upon completion of testing a guideline was

established for the time required by panellists to properly complete the questionnaire.

Instructions to participants were also adjusted to reflect the levels of awareness on

how online surveys work. Survey layout was confirmed as having the correct flow to:

reduce survey fatigue, respondent drop out and appropriate questionnaire length. This

is important in appropriately utilising and managing a panel (Cape 2010). These

changes and information could only be gathered through pilot testing directly with the

panel company. It is essential for pilot testing directly with the panel provider to

insure issues which may impact on results are addressed prior to going into field. Any

potential issues need to be understood and addressed in order for it to be delivered

effectively to panel respondents.

Page 227: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 227

5.9 Sample development

The target group of this research project, as earlier discussed are Australian

organisation managers. As discussed in the first chapter, the study is looking at

managerial leadership, specifically how managers view the importance of behaviours

associated with managerial leadership. Managers have been selected as the target

respondents as they are in some ways expected to act as leaders in their organisations;

as part of an organisation managers deal directly with organisational leadership; and

leadership has been identified as a part of a managerial role (Bass 2008; Kent 2005;

Kotterman 2006; Nienaber 2010; Simonet & Tett 2013; Zaleznik 2004). Additionally,

managers were selected as they have been identified to reflect cultural values, which

they take into consideration based on implicit leadership theory, where they act in a

manner reflective of that culture (House et al. 2002; Lord & Brown 2001).

In order to determine an appropriate sample size, consideration was required in

advance of data collection with regard to the research questions, hypotheses and

statistical techniques. As a profile of Australian managers was being generated, a

sample reflecting the presence of the occupation in Australia was needed. According

to Census data there are approximately one million people employed as managers in

Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). The consideration of feasibility and

cost needed to be considered in deciding on a sample size (de Vaus 2013). Taking

these limitations into account and the population size an absolute minimum sample

size of approximately 400 was initially considered to have a confidence level of 95%,

with a confidence interval of 5% (Rea & Parker 1997).

Given the statistical procedures being used and hypotheses to be tested, a sample size

larger than 400 was required. A sample of at least 200 is required in order to properly

conduct path analysis using structural equation modelling (Hair et al. 2006). As

invariance testing will be completed, there needs to be a minimum of 200 respondents

per group being investigated. A separate portion of the sample is required for new

Page 228: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 228

scale validation as well. These issues require a sample of greater than 400 to be

sufficient to address the required statistical techniques.

In working with the panel company, efforts were made, based on size of available

sample and the research requirements to reach all of the targeted groups and the

decision was made that 1000 responses would be collected. The larger sample would

address the needs of the study and take into account incomplete and poor quality

respondents. In total, from the sample, 690 quality responses were collected and used

in order to accomplish the research objectives. From the sample, 100 were removed

in order to conduct a separate exploratory factor analysis on the newly developed CIB

scale. This provided a sample of 590 respondents for the remainder of the analysis.

5.10 Data collection and sampling frame

Online surveys have greater acceptance and preference as a convenient and effective

survey method (Evans & Mathur 2005). Online surveys allow for a convenient,

timely and effective way to gather information from respondents who are

geographically dispersed (Biffgnandi & Bethlehem 2012). Online data collection has

now been deemed to be the dominant form of data collection in many nations,

including Australia (Menictas, Wang & Fine 2011). For the delivery of the expanded

survey instrument an online survey was developed using Swinburne University’s

licensed Opinio software.

Considering the participants are organisational managers, the question of how best to

obtain a sample needed to be addressed. There is a recognised difficulty in reaching

people Australia wide in a managerial role. The most effective manner in which to

reach them and participate is via an online survey. This method allows for complete

anonymity. After discussion with the supervisors a decision was made to select an

online panel developed specifically for business to business (B2B) surveys.

Page 229: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 229

Several issues with online surveys have been identified and best practices in

mitigating these were taken into account when determining the survey method used

(Evans & Mathur 2005). Concerns over the feasibility of an online sample;

technological and access concerns; along with privacy issues were primary issues to

adequately address in this research project. Online samples are said to exclude people

who do not have internet access, as well as possibly a limited ability to use the

internet.

According to the ABS (2012c) in 2010 and 2011 approximately 92.1% of all

businesses have internet access, for those with more than 200 employees this rate is

100%; and for those between 20 and 199 employees the rate is 98.2%. Surveying

Australian managers exclusively through an online method is a reasonable decision.

Given these facts a single sample sourced from online responses was acceptable.

5.11 Online panel

The selection of an online panel specifically made up of business professionals was

deemed to be most appropriate when addressing issues around ensuring the

demographic and other selected attributes could be addressed. Evans and Mathur

(2005) have supported the view that a panel be used to avoid issues with regard to

open surveys addressing the general population and to avoid skewed responses

towards a single group. Many online panels developed and maintained by research

companies are focused on consumer research. Research Now (2012) has developed a

specific Business to Business (B2B) panel to address the need for research directly

with business professionals and business related topics. The panels have been

established globally and are maintained according to ESOMAR standards. ESOMAR

is the internationally recognised industry body for market research firms and

professionals (ESOMAR 2013). It provides code of conduct, ethical guidelines and

best practices that must be followed in order to maintain their membership and to be

Page 230: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 230

viewed as a leading service provider. The panel provider abides by these standards in

developing, monitoring, and maintaining its online panels (ResearchNow 2012).

Research Now was contacted and developed a sampling frame for the target group

from its ‘Australian Business Panel’. Research Now had pre-screened and categorised

potential respondents that included; all active members of the panel working full time

in an Australian based organisation in a managerial role. If the potential respondent

met the selection criteria identified (in a management role, living-in and working-in

Australia for set period of time) an invitation to participate was delivered. First, the

researcher selected the broad ‘Occupational Groups’ of (1) Manager, (2) Professional

and (3) Associate Professional. These broad categories were then referenced against

the narrower panel category of ‘Organisational Role’, with the following options

selected: Company Owner/Founder; Partner; Board Director; Senior Manager;

Middle Manager/Department Manager; and Junior Manager/Supervisor/Team Leader.

As earlier noted, the criteria of a minimum five years national work experience was

used, to attempt to address any issues around recent migration and cultural context.

The acceptable and correct recruitment process involved in developing a sample from

an online panels has been detailed by Callegaro and Disogra (2008). Once an active

panel has been selected, pre-screening criteria are used resulting in a sample frame.

From here the eligible list of respondents is identified and invitations sent. In this

survey only complete responses were collected. While data collection was occurring

measures were put into place to develop a balanced sample between the earlier

identified demographic and managerial variables. As data was collected, it was

reviewed and totals for demographic variables were adjusted for the delivery of the

next set of invitations. Invitations were distributed to potential respondents in small

quantities, with a new group invited every few days until approximately 1000

complete responses were received. After cleaning the data a total sample of 690

quality responses were collected, a response rate of 69%.

Page 231: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 231

Privacy requirements along with meeting all industry established ethical guidelines

were executed by the service provider. Respondent are unable to be identified by the

researcher and no mention of a specific business was collected. This protects their

identity and assures complete anonymity. The responses were not provided to

Research Now, instead only a unique identifier was provided for those that

successfully completed the survey. Completion of the survey was monitored to ensure

no duplication in respondents occurred and surveys were completed correctly.

5.12 Data analysis plan

The data analysis plan has been developed in order to address the research questions

and hypotheses as detailed in Figure 5-4. The details about the specific steps and

requirements for each phase of analysis will be discussed in the appropriate section in

the remainder of this chapter. Data analysis occurred using two software packages

SPSS Version 21 and AMOS 21.

Figure 5-4: Data analysis plan

Page 232: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 232

Preliminary analysis 5.12.1

Once a complete sample is achieved preliminary analysis would occur. Preliminary

analysis is essential to ensure that the data meets statistical assumptions for further

analysis and includes: ensuring normality of the data, cleaning and coding the data

and examination of data for outliers (Field 2009). Details about the initial steps in the

analysis are discussed in detail in chapter 6, the preliminary analysis chapter. The

preliminary analysis chapter also includes a review of the demographic and

managerial variables of the data collected. Upon completion of these preliminary

exercises, an Exploratory Factor Analysis using SPSS Version 21 would be

completed to provide support for the hypothesised components and the newly

developed CIB scale (Hair et al. 2006).

Factor analysis 5.12.2

In order to examine the structure of latent variables a decision was made to utilise an

interdependence technique employing factor analysis (Hair et al. 2006). The term

interdependence technique refers to types of statistical analysis that looks at all

variables at once as a single set. This includes both Exploratory Factor Analysis

(EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Under both types of factor analysis

the constructs that emerge are referred to as factors. In this research study the term

“component” is often used to describe each factor.

EFA should be used as the primary type of factor analysis only when establishing the

undetermined underlying structure of multiple variables in a data set. In other words,

using multivariate analysis to identify the latent constructs found in the data when it

is unknown how the latent variables will emerge (Field 2009). The unknown aspect is

the key to determine the appropriate use of EFA. When a new model is being

developed or an existing model is applied in an entirely new field, EFA is the

appropriate tool to use. EFA is best used when the researcher has no real

understanding or knowledge of the latent variables that will emerge (Hurley et al.

Page 233: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 233

1997). In the case of this research study, the scales that have been proposed are built

on theory and, in all but one case, have been tested and verified extensively. The

newly developed CIB scale was built on extensive literature review and has

significant face validity and will undergo additional steps for validation, to be

discussed later in this chapter.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the other hand is based on theoretical consideration

(Hair et al. 2006). Hypotheses are developed with a priori consideration of existing

theory and literature. The result is research that is both more powerful in expanding

and connecting existing knowledge (Hurley et al. 1997). The APEL framework and

its scales were initially established across a cluster of nations in a joint study and

utilised and validated in several additional countries (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah

2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer &

Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e;

Selvarajah et al. 2006). The newly created CIB category is rooted in strong theoretical

context across the fields of managerial leadership, psychology, organisational studies

and human resources. It provides a priori foundation that makes CFA the appropriate

means to conduct a majority of this analysis.

There is however value in looking at an EFA on the hypothesised components of

Australian managerial leadership to provide additional support to the hypothesised

measures. While CFA emphasises goodness of fit measures in confirming the model,

the EFA process identifies the factor structure though visual representation of a scree

plot or eigenvalues and also identifies issues with cross loading (Hurley et al. 1997).

The strength of using both tools is that potential problems with variables can be

identified in advance before data reduction occurs in CFA to achieve acceptable

goodness of fit.

Page 234: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 234

5.12.2.1 Exploratory factor analysis on hypothesised components

EFA is not designated for variable reduction in this study or to establish goodness of

fit for each category. Rather the EFA is conducted in order to verify the

dimensionality of the hypothesised constructs of managerial leadership behaviours

based on the cultural values of Australia. The APEL framework and validated

measures used in this study have been found to be consistent across the previous

studies that have used the APEL instrument (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006;

Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth

2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Selvarajah et

al. 2006; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). As established, the components in this study

are built on a priori understanding and have all been established as valid. Given this

CFA would be used for refinement and confirmation of measures, data reduction and

factor modification to allow the exploration of the hypothesised model of Australian

excellence in managerial leadership.

5.12.2.2 Dimensionality

In this research, EFA is used as a first step in the analysis process and applied on the

data in order to verify that the established and validated scales are correct and free of

any significant problems (Hair et al. 2006). By looking at the data first in EFA the

dimensionality of the categories is verified.

5.12.2.3 Reliability

A benefit of completing an EFA on the data is to provide an assessment of the

reliability on each individual measure. Reliability assesses the consistency of the

measures of the latent variable in numerous ways (Hair et al. 2006). As a result of

completing the EFA, potential issues with the internal consistency can be looked at

on the individual indicators and the latent variable. Reliability of the latent variable

can be considered by looking at the reliability coefficient, measured with Cronbach’s

Page 235: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 235

alpha (α). This provides information on the internal consistency of the hypothesised

components.

5.12.2.4 Construct validity

Construct validity relates to how well the proposed models represent the theoretical

construct themselves (Hair et al. 2006). There are several aspects of construct validity

that are looked at during the CFA process. Several measures are examined through

the analysis process in AMOS according to Byrne (2009), which will be discussed

later in the data analysis plan. According to Hair et al. (2006) there are three types of

validity that should be considered, face validity, convergent validity and discriminant

validity.

Face validity relates to establishing theoretical support for the hypothesised

constructs a priori (Hair et al. 2006). This was done early in the research process and

is considered to be the most important validity test as it is built upon theory. As

detailed in chapter 4, each component has been shown to be supported by existing

literature on management and Australian culture.

Convergent validity relates to how well the specific indicators load on the latent

construct. Convergent validity is measured by the factor loadings, the variance

extracted and the reliability. Factor loadings are selected as the means by which the

researcher examined convergent validity. While it is suggested that indicators should

have a loading of at least 0.5 or higher, given the scales have been validated and the

study has a large sample, using measures as low as 0.3 or 0.4 are acceptable, however

should not be included if they fall below 0.3 (Hair et al. 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell

2012). In this study convergent validity is considered during the CFA process in

establishing goodness of fit for each factor, notable low loading behaviours are

removed. As noted earlier the EFA allowed for the identification of potential problem

indicators in advance.

Page 236: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 236

Discriminant validity relates to how unique the factors being examined are from each

other (Hair et al. 2006). It can be measured by looking at the correlations between the

constructs and when correlations are above 0.8 it is prone to be problematic

indicating that discriminant validity is not supported. In the EFA an observation of

any indicators cross loading between factors is used to flag a potential issue with

discriminant validity, to be fully addressed during the CFA process. Discriminant

validity is examined during the establishment of the measurement models during the

CFA (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011).

5.12.2.5 Separate EFA on the new creativity and innovation enabling behaviour scale

In developing a new scale the first steps, according to Devellis (2012), were followed

involving establishment of the purpose of the measure, generating an appropriate item

pool and developing the items to be included in the measure based on existing

knowledge and review. The next stage requires testing of the new scale in order to

provide an initial validation of it in EFA, followed by its use in CFA on a separate

sample (Worthington & Whittaker 2006). There are many considerations on the size

of the sample used in validation at the EFA level, with suggestions of samples as

large as 200 to as small as 50. A primary consideration reported by Gorsuch (1983) is

that there are at least 5 to 10 responses per item on the scale (Hair et al. 2006). Given

the data set available and the requirements of other steps in the analysis process, a

separate sample of 100 respondents was removed from the main data set and used

solely to validate the scale in EFA. A sample of 100 will allow for 6.67 observations

per item, deemed acceptable for the purpose of this EFA (Hair et al. 2006).

Confirmatory factor analysis 5.12.3

As earlier stated, CFA is driven by theory (Hair et al. 2006) In order to properly

establish measurement models, literature must be used to firstly establish a theoretical

Page 237: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 237

level of construct validity and secondly, to ascertain which variables will

hypothetically load on the factors. The result of the CFA process is what is termed a

measurement model that reflects the latent construct being examined (Kline 2011).

Once established the measurement model is assessed for goodness of fit through a

variety of statistical measures that can be used to confirm or reject the hypothesised

model against the sample data (Byrne 2009; Hair et al. 2006). The measurement

model is systematically adjusted in order to achieve an acceptable level of fit and

validity. If acceptable goodness of fit and validity does not occur, the hypothesised

model is rejected.

The CFA is a step towards structural equation modelling, referred to as SEM. SEM

has been established as the preferred means of testing theoretical relationships

between constructs (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011). The term path analysis is also

associated with structural equation modelling as relationships, or paths, are

hypothesised and tested through the modelling process (Kline 2011). To be discussed

in greater detail later in this chapter, the benefit of using SEM is largely that it

combines factor analysis and path analysis through a series of separate processes that

when followed allows for the testing of hypothesised relationships graphically, which

is significantly difficult with traditional types of multivariate analysis techniques

(Hair et al. 2006). The first step for testing of the measurement models through CFA

in AMOS is to draw the latent constructs represented by the specified indicator

variables, running the data and confirming or adapting the hypothesised constructs to

attempt to achieve goodness of fit.

5.12.3.1 CFA and goodness of fit measures

One of the powerful tools associated with CFA is its ability to determine the level of

model fit against a series of measures referred to as goodness of fit indices. Goodness

of fit indices compare the hypothesised models to the reality found in the data (Hair et

al. 2006). The strength of the SEM process is that numerous goodness of fit measures

Page 238: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 238

can be used to capture the true extent to which the theory represents the data. By

utilising several measures a strong argument can be made that the measurement

model fits the data.

The basic goodness of fit measure is referred to as Chi-square (χ²). This measure is

used to calculate the differences in the observed and estimated covariance matrix. It

may also be reported using the normed χ² measure. χ² is represented by the p-value in

the calculations utilising the degrees of freedom and χ². P-value is expected to be at or

above 0.05 in order to deem a model to have a good fit. The problem with this

measure is that a perfect population fit rarely occurs and it rarely results in a

satisfactory fit when sample sizes are large (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011). Given that

the sample size in this study is large the usefulness of this goodness of fit measure is

diminished significantly.

This means other goodness of fit measures must be used, which is suggested as best

practice regardless of sample size (Hair et al. 2006). A number of alternative indices

should be used including an absolute fit index; an incremental fit index; a goodness of

fit index and one badness of fit index. When taken together these measures provide

satisfactory support that goodness of fit has been achieved in both the measurement

model and in the final structural model. Individual goodness of fit measures may

represent more than one of the various types of fit indices, for example the Goodness

of Fit Index (GFI) serves as both an absolute fit index and a goodness of fit index,

similarly RMSEA is an absolute fit index, however is more often associated and used

as a badness of fit index. In this study, in order to achieve satisfactory goodness of fit,

three separate goodness of fit measures are used and are reported; one for absolute fit,

one for incremental fit and one for badness of fit.

In this study the GFI measure has been selected to represent the absolute fit index and

also the goodness of fit index. The absolute fit measure provides an independent

measure of how well the model fits the data. It does not compare alternative models,

Page 239: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 239

but instead serves as an objective measure of the model and the data. An incremental

fit index measures how well a model fits compared with an alternative model. In this

study the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is selected as it is one of the most widely used

incremental measures and does allow for significant complexity in the model. The

badness of fit index that is utilised is the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

(RMSEA) measure. This measure reports a higher number with a worse fitting model

and a lower number with a good fitting model. Between these three indices, measures

of model fit will be examined.

Each goodness of fit index used has an identified point when goodness of fit is or is

not achieved. There is no clear consensus among statisticians on what the identified

points should be, The identified points to achieve fit have been deemed statistically

relevant and acceptable through numerous studies and have been used consistently

across studies using the APEL framework (Bollen & Stine 1992; Byrne 2009; de

Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan

2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011). Both GFI and CFI are reported

between 0.00 and 1.00, both require a result above 0.90 given the size of the sample

and as suggested by numerous key statistical sources (Byrne 2009; Hair et al. 2006;

Kline 2011). RMSEA is reported between 1.00 (bad fit) and 0.00 (good fit) (Hair et

al. 2006). RMSEA is considered to indicate extremely good fit when the result falls at

or below 0.05. However, this level is often deemed too rigorous, resulting in a chase

for model fit at the expense of theoretical integrity and higher levels have been

suggested (Hair et al. 2006). Byrne (2009) indicates that while below 0.05 is ideal,

that values of 0.08 are reasonable and those between 0.08 and 0.1, while not

reasonable still indicate mediocre and acceptable fit and above 0.1 representing bad

fit. In the case of this research project the RMSEA of 0.08 is selected as it has been

deemed to still suggest good fit. A summary of the Goodness of Fit measures and

allocated levels of fit used in this study are listed in Table 5-8.

Page 240: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 240

Table 5-8: Goodness of fit measures

CFA and discriminant validity testing 5.12.4

Following confirmation of the goodness of fit measures, additional discriminant

validity testing is required at the CFA level between each construct. To test

discriminant validity a chi-square difference test is utilised with each component

being tested against each other. This is identified as one of the strongest tests of

discriminant validity that can be done when using CFA (Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips

1991). Each measure can be confirmed to be statistically significant and any

individual items that may cross-load can be identified and removed. After

completing these tests discriminant validity will be confirmed.

Development of composite measures of excellence in managerial 5.12.5leadership

Summated scales are often used in managerial research in order to reduce the

complexity of concepts into a single measure that will reduce measurement error

(Hair et al. 2006). Given the large number of behaviour statements and factors that

are utilised in this study, a decision has been made to utilise composite variables and

path analysis to explore the relationships between the independent variables and the

three dependent variables. As established by McDonald (1996) it is rational to

interpret path model analysis that utilises composites as similar to structural equation

modelling that utilises latent variables.

Name Measure Good Fit

Absolute Fit Index GFI ≥ 0.90Incremental Fit Index CFI ≥ 0.90Badness of Fit Index RMSEA ≥ 0.08

Significance of Fit P ≥ 0.05

Bootstrap P-value Bootstrap P ≥ 0.05

Goodness of Fit Measures

Page 241: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 241

The process used in this research study to create a composite measure involves

utilising the results of the CFA by taking the behavioural variables that load

significantly on a factor and combining them to compute a weighted average factor

score based on the standardised factor loading. The weighted average factor score is

used as the value for the composite variable. This method, along with two other

methods as described by Hair et al. (2006) were considered. Other options include use

of a single surrogate variable or utilising a mean score. Given the data is looking at

latent constructs of related, but different behaviours, the use of a single surrogate

option was deemed inappropriate. A single surrogate would remove the constructs

from the cultural perspective of Australian managers. For the use of the mean score

approach, a similar issue exists where the mean score does not adequately reflect the

the importance of each behavioural statement. Given the CFA results should reflect

the preferences of Australian managers found in the data the weighted average factor

score is more appropriate than the mean approach.

The benefits associated with using a composite variable based upon a weighted

average factor score are three fold according to Hair et al. (2006). First it represents

all of the variables loading on a factor; it is the best method for complete data

reduction and is orthogonal avoiding any complications that may arise with

multicollinearity. These benefits are offset by the primary difficulty of trying to

replicate across studies. Given the nature of the research as culturally contingent and

that the managerial behaviours reflect a ranking of importance it reduces concern

over multicollinearity (Hair et al. 2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Yukl & Lepsinger

2004). As relationships between the independent and dependent variables need to be

explored, the use of the composite measure for each managerial leadership behaviour

component is an acceptable and logical decision. For a composite measure to be used

there are four key issues that need to be considered, concept definition; validity,

dimensionality and reliability (Hair et al. 2006). In completing the analysis stages,

these four components have been addressed to a satisfactory degree and associated

statistics will be reported in the composition process.

Page 242: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 242

Structural equation modeling and path analysis 5.12.6

Structural equation modelling is a statistical tool that explains relationships between

variables (Hair et al. 2006). It is used to visually depict the causal paths between

variables and provide a clear representation of theory driven relationships through a

series of regression equations (Byrne 2009). This research study explores

hypothesised components surrounding Australian managers’ leadership behaviour

preferences established through the CFA process. The relationship of these

components to the dependent variables is examined using path analysis, a special case

or sub-model of SEM (Savalei & Bentler 2010). CFA followed by path analysis is an

ideal statistical solution to the research questions.

Path analysis is used for the composite variables described above as an alternative to

a full SEM on the latent constructs due to the complexity found in the model with the

large number of indicator variables and constructs. It has been determined that path

analysis can be viewed as equivalent to SEM in terms of the resulting structural

model (McDonald 1996). This method takes into account the measurement models

and treats the latent variables found in the CFA process as observed variables based

on the weighted average factor score. This allows the hypothesised relationships to be

examined in order to answer the second and third research questions (Bollen & Stine

1992; Savalei & Bentler 2010).

Invariance testing 5.12.7

The final research question and hypothesis related to examining if group differences

existed between Australian managers’ perceptions of excellence in leadership or if a

homogenous view existed. Key Australian cultural constraints including

egalitarianism, mateship, tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude were

identified as playing a role in making a homogenous view of managerial leadership as

Page 243: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 243

hypothesised. In order to examine this, invariance testing was done on four specific

groups: gender; age (under 40 and 40 and over); education level (no university degree

or a university degree); and lastly managerial role (first level managers compared

with senior and middle managers).

The sample size for the research project was 590; and issues have been identified

with completing invariance testing on samples below 200. The decision was made to

examine group comparisons that were logical, based on prior literature and suggested

statistical guidelines (Hair et al. 2006). In all instances each group has 200 or more

respondents. Three levels of analysis are used in order to test across groups to address

the final hypothesis. Firstly, invariance testing is completed in order to establish

factorial invariance for the measurement models. Secondly a t-test is done on the

difference in mean values of the composite variables used for path analysis to see if

differences are significant. Lastly the path model itself is run though the invariance

testing procedures.

Invariance testing is an aspect of multiple group analysis that provides a cross

validation across groups within a population (Hair et al. 2006). The process involves

a series of increasingly more rigorous statistical tests that compare the identified

groups. A three step process is used to complete this level of testing. A loose cross

validation is initially completed where a variety of fit statistics are examined to

determine if the cross validation criteria are met. In the first test differences in the

behavioural statements of the components are examined.

Second, a test of the factor structure equivalence is done examining if the factors are

equivalent across groups; lastly factor loading equivalence is checked to see if there

are any significant differences in loading across the groups. A minimum of two fit

statistics is suggested as appropriate, including the Chi-square difference test, CFI

and RMSEA. The Chi-square difference test has been identified as over-rejecting of

invariance at factor and model levels so the CFI and RMSEA were selected as the

Page 244: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 5 – Methodology

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 244

primary goodness of fit measures examined (Hair et al. 2006). The earlier stated

goodness of fit guidelines utilised in this study with CFI >.90 and RMSEA <.08 were

again considered as guidelines for use in these tests (Byrne 2009).

The t-test is a simple comparison measure of the sample means for two independent

samples for a population (Hair et al. 2006). In the case of this research project a t-test

is utilised to compare the identified groups against the composite variables. Lastly, a

repeated series of invariance tests is completed on the final model (Hair et al. 2006).

This allows for the comparison between groups and the identified paths, similar to the

process described by Byrne (2009) that provides for testing of the equivalence of

causal structure.

5.13 Chapter summary

This chapter has provided a review of the methodology. A positivist paradigm was

used along with a deductive approach in order to explore the Australian manager

perspectives of excellence in managerial leadership. In using this approach, a

quantitative methodology was used that allows for testing of hypotheses developed

based on theoretical understanding. It will also allow for an answer to the research

question associated with what role CIB plays in understanding Australian managerial

perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership. The ethical consideration and the

survey process were next explained along with a detailed review of the sections of the

survey.

Lastly, the data analysis plan was presented. This involved two steps, preliminary

analysis and primary analysis. Preliminary analysis provided an assessment of the

data for normality, review of the demographics of the sample and the EFA process.

Primary analysis included the CFA process, composite formation, path analysis and

invariance testing. Preliminary analysis is further presented in chapter 6, followed by

the primary analysis in chapter 7.

Page 245: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 245

6. Preliminary analysis

6.1 Introduction

In the last chapter the methodology was presented, along with a detailed analysis

plan. This chapter will present the preliminary analysis as detailed in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1: Chapter overview

Preliminary analysis is essential to complete this research study. It firstly provides an

assessment of the important statistical assumptions that must be met in order to

proceed with further analysis (Hair et al. 2006). Additionally it will be useful to

understand how reflective the sample is in relation to those employed as

organisational managers in Australia. Efforts have been made to establish a sample

reflective of the managerial occupation in Australia in order to build a baseline

managerial leader profile for this study. This is essential in order to ensure that

Hypothesis 3 may be answered. Lastly, the chapter provides an EFA on the

hypothesised components in order to provide verification that they are present before

more rigorous analysis using CFA occurs. Of particular importance, the EFA on a

separate sample for the newly established CFA scale is presented in order to provide

initial validation of the newly constructed scale.

Preliminary Analysis

Data Preperation

Outliers

Normality of the Data

Sample Demographics

EFA

Page 246: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 246

6.2 Data preparation

Several steps were completed in order to properly examine and prepare the data for

all stages of analysis. To begin with, data was entered into a consistently formatted

data file. Secondly, data cleaning occurred to identify respondents that did meet the

necessary criteria for inclusion. Missing data was not an issue in this survey as

respondents were required to complete all questions in order to submit the survey. An

examination of each variable occurred to ensure that no significant outliers existed.

Tests for normality were conducted at the individual variable level to examine

departures from normality.

Data coding 6.2.1

The raw data file was loaded into SPSS version 21 and examined to ensure that it was

organised and in the appropriate place and categories. All behavioural variables were

coded with the letter ‘a’ and corresponding question number in the survey. In total

109 variables were coded from ‘a1’ to ‘a109’. Following this, data was identified as

numeric in nature and variables were identified as being scale or ordinal. These

adjustments were necessary in order to make the data set manageable and ensure

compatibility with both SPSS and AMOS software packages.

Missing data check 6.2.2

One of the established benefits of utilising an online panel for data collection is only

complete responses are included (Baker et al. 2010). A decision was made by the

researcher to exclude partially completed surveys and establish a forced answer

protocol for all questions. The forced answer approach leads to complete responses

and allows for greater level of thought about the questions by respondents (Smyth et

al. 2006). There were no cases of missing or misplaced data.

Page 247: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 247

Data cleaning 6.2.3

The data cleaning processes required for online surveys have different considerations

than a paper based survey. The issues arising relate to the concept of satisficing,

where short cuts are taken in order to reduce cognitive stress in the survey response

process (Krosnick 1999). Satisficing may take many forms such as non-response and

skipping questions; flat-lining or straight-lining, where respondents do not

differentiate response; and speeding, where surveys are completed faster than

expected given the challenge of the questions (Baker et al. 2010). Flat-lining, also

referred to as straight-lining or replicated answer pattern is a situation where survey

respondents fail to complete the questionnaire in an honest and truthful manner or

remain indifferent to diversity in response to the statements. This may take the form

of a constant and ongoing response, for example: stating “5”, “2” or “1” on a

continual basis when completing the survey; using patterns such as “5-4-3-2-1-2-3-4-

5” or “1-1-2-2-3-3-4-4-5-5” or alternating between two numbers. In this research

project the two issues that needed to be reviewed in the data cleaning process were to

ensure no ‘speeders’ or ‘flat-liners’ were included in the final data file for analysis.

In order to address the issue of speeders three steps were taken. Firstly, when the

survey was pilot tested completion times were examined. During the pilot testing

process respondents’ examination of content, flow and readability resulted in inflated

time to complete. This observation was taken into consideration when setting the

expected completion time. Secondly, the survey was completed electronically by the

researcher along with staff at the market research firm, including the client manager,

the project manager and a potential respondent from the company. The instrument

itself was time categorised by the firm based on internal processes to determine an

approximate time and appropriate incentive costs. Additionally, times were recorded

and comparisons made to set a benchmark time for survey completion. Lastly, an

initial sample of 25 respondents, were sent the survey for testing purposes by the firm

to ensure expected timing was acceptable and technical issues were solved.

Page 248: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 248

Based on these responses and the previous assessments an acceptable time range was

established, with expected times falling between 10 and 20 minutes. Respondents that

fell well below the established threshold of 10 minutes were discarded. Those slightly

below (approx. 8 minutes) were further reviewed and those well above were

reviewed, in particular those beyond 30 minutes. The review was completed on those

slightly below 10 minutes because of the skills of panel respondents, who are aware

of processes and procedures involving online surveys and may have faster response

times. For respondents that took significantly longer, checks for consistency were

done in the event they may have flat-lined or straight-lined later in the response

process. Based upon this the initial collected sample of 1000 was reduced.

In order to identify flat-lining behaviour, respondents were reviewed individually in

Excel and cases with potential problems were highlighted. Highlighted cases

included: when a pattern was detected; the same response was given for 8 or more

questions in a row; or an over emphasis on a single response point on the Likert scale.

Following identification of the flat-lining respondents a second more detailed review

occurred where the time to complete was considered alongside the frequency of the

pattern(s) or flat-line occurring. In instances where there was a clear issue they were

removed to ensure data quality. In other instances when the review showed limited

occurrence of a pattern or flat-line and the time to complete was acceptable

respondents were included in the final data sample. In total of the 1000 responses that

were collected, 310 were removed, leaving a total sample of 690. The researcher felt

that by establishing these criteria it would result in a strong data sample for the study.

6.3 Univariate outliers

Outliers in this study were reviewed at a univariate level. An univariate outlier is one

where the data collected at the single variable level is noticeably different from the

rest of the data set collected (Field 2009). A multivariate outlier is related to a

Page 249: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 249

complete construct or model made up of multiple variables in the case of this research

the factors that are being explored (Hair et al. 2006). Given that this research was

focused on examining factor level scores it was important to review the univariate

outliers. Outliers may be tested visually using histograms and Q-Q plots as well as by

calculating z-scores (Field 2009). Based on the SPSS descriptive data included in

Appendix 4, it was determined that very few outliers were present in the sample and

were acceptable to leave in as they represented individual opinions of the respondents

and would have no significant effect on the data.

6.4 Normality of the data

In order to ensure that the statistical analysis will be valid it is important that the data

is deemed to be normally distributed. This is the most important assumption in

statistical analysis and checking for normality is essential (Hair et al. 2006). To test

normality, there are several ways to look at the distribution of the data. These include

skewness and kurtosis; the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test (KS test); the Shapiro-Wik test

(SW test); as well as graphically using Q-Q plots and histograms (Field 2009). The

large sample makes the KS test and SW test less feasible to use and it was decided to

examine the graphs along with skewness and kurtosis. Skewness relates to the

symmetry of the distribution, while kurtosis relates to the peakedness of the

distribution (Hair et al. 2006). Both may be positive or negative, with a negative skew

reflecting a larger distribution to the right and a positive skew reflecting a skew to the

left. A positive kurtosis means that that the data has a strong peak and a negative

kurtosis reflects a relatively flat distribution. The criteria for the skewness and

kurtosis to be considered normal are between -1 to +1 for skewness and between -2

and +2 for kurtosis and still be deemed normal.

The skewness and kurtosis for the variables were calculated using SPSS and is

included for each indicator variable in Appendix 4. Almost all variables fell into the

range of acceptable for both skewness and kurtosis. There were a total of three

Page 250: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 250

behaviours which slightly exceeded a skewness of -1, in all cases the behaviours

associated with the higher skewness reflect items of significant importance to

Australian managers. Based on this it was felt that the skewness could be considered

acceptable. There were no cases of kurtosis exceeding +/- 2, reflecting a normal

distribution. Based on this the data was considered normal at the univariate level.

6.5 Demographics and managerial profile

As earlier established one of the objectives of the sample developed for this study

was to achieve a baseline Australian sample of managers, reflective of geographic,

demographic and managerial characteristics based on what is known about the

occupation in the country. It is not possible to achieve a representative sample of

Australian managers. The research study chose to establish a sample of Australian

managers that should share similar characteristics as those in the management

occupation in Australia.

Demographic profile 6.5.1

The following section provides a breakdown of the demographic variables for the

respondents in the sample. Efforts were made to achieve a balanced Australian

managerial profile based upon the 2006 Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics

2007a). The 2006 Census was selected because at the time of development of the

sample and applying for ethics clearance no information was available on the 2011

Census results. The Census is the most representative measure of people employed in

various occupations in Australia. In total 1,202,261 Australians identified their

occupation as that of a manager in the Census. The researcher’s intention was to build

an Australian manager profile based on census data. However, some

discrepancies were expected in order to allow for hypothesis testing and limitations in

the respondent pool. These discrepancies will be discussed below. The Census

includes all people residing in Australia at the time it is taken, regardless of country

Page 251: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 251

of residency. This means that within these figures may be people who do not have

five years Australian work experience, which was used as a selection criteria for all

respondents. While no information is available on the residency of people included in

the managerial occupation category, it was expected the number of managers with

less than five years Australian work experience would be small. Table 6-1 provides a

breakdown of the demographics of the sample compared with the 2006 Census data.

Table 6-1: Comparison of sample demographics and 2006 census figures

Demographic variables Survey % 2006 Census

Gender

Male 56.1 65.5

Female 43.9 34.4 Age

Under 25 0.8 5.2

25 - 34 18.1 18.6

35-44 33.6 27.6

45-54 28.5 27.4

55 or older 19 21.2 State/Territory

New South Wales 33.9 33

Victoria 29.5 25.5

Queensland 17.3 18.8

Western Australia 8.8 9.7

South Australia 6.9 7.7

Tasmania 1.9 2.2

Northern Territory 0.8 0.9

Australia Capital Territory 0.8 2.3 Highest level of Education

TAFE/technical program 28.8 47.9

Bachelor 29 29.2

Graduate Program/Degree 23.9 12.5

Doctorate 1.2 1.2 Country of Birth

Australia 74.4 70.9

Foreign born 25.6 29.1

Page 252: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 252

According to the 2006 Census approximately 34.4% of people in a managerial

occupation were women and 65.6% were men. The sample reflects a greater

percentage of women in this role than the census figures. However, given the

hypothesis testing required a greater percentage of female respondents was required

compared to the Census figures.

The age of respondents was again reflective of the figures as calculated in the 2006

Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). Figures collected were in five year

intervals, while figures in the census were in ten year intervals. The data reported has

been adjusted in order to allow for comparison. The largest departure from the

Census figures was in those aged under 25. The discrepancy between the survey

sample and the Census figures can be explained by two reasons. First, the researcher

had excluded respondents with less than 5 years Australian work experience from the

sample to ensure a culturally consistent sample was developed. This was done to

exclude recent immigrants and those who may be expatriates working for a limited

period in Australia. This may have resulted in younger managers who may have

entered the workforce as a migrant or quickly rose to a managerial position at a young

age being excluded. Secondly, the desire to get a balanced sample across other

demographic variables and a diverse managerial profile impacted on recruitment of

managers under the age of 25. The largest number of respondents was in the 35 to 44

years of age category with 33.6%; followed by the 45 – 54 age range with 28.8%,

both reflect a slightly larger number than reported in the Census. Based upon these

results a comparison between managers under 40 and 40 and older would be possible,

as per the requirements to address the associated hypothesis.

Respondents were asked to indicate the State or Territory in which they reside. The

goal was to establish a well distributed sample of respondents from all States

reflective of the 2006 Australian Census occupation category of management

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). As illustrated in Table 6-1, the sample had an

approximate distribution reflective of the 2006 Census figures.

Page 253: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 253

The level of education of respondents as categorised in the survey instrument was

different from that recorded in the Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b).

The survey included categories for “high school graduate” and “some high school”,

not included in the Census information. The census data provided a greater

breakdown of type of qualification. In order to find a reflective category all

qualifications below bachelor degree were grouped together as equivalent to a TAFE

program or technical program, reflecting the 47.9% figure shown in Table 6-1. The

survey respondents compared with the 2006 Census figures, show approximately

comparable numbers for those with a Bachelor and Doctorate degree however, more

survey respondents reported a graduate level education than the Census. This result

would allow for hypothesis testing.

According to the 2006 Census the Australian population was made up of 19,855,287

people (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c). No data was available on the country

of birth by occupation, so it was decided that the sample should be reflective of the

Australian population from the 2006 Census. According to the census data, 6.9% of

the respondents did not provide this information however, it also reports that 22% of

the population was foreign born, making it difficult to get an accurate interpretation

of these figures for comparison.

In total 439 of the respondents were Australian born, or 74.4%, reflective of the total

population reported in the Census. The sample had 25.6% identifying themselves as

foreign born managers. However, all had a minimum of five years Australian work

experience. The sample was in line with figures found in the Census for a majority of

the larger foreign born nationalities that make up the Australian population, including

the United Kingdom (5.8% of the sample, compared with 5.2% of the population) and

New Zealand (2.4% compared to 2.0% of the population), the two largest groups of

foreign born population.

Page 254: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 254

Managerial profile 6.5.2

To ensure that the sample reflected the diversity of people in managerial roles, based

on the type and size of organisations and industries in the Australian economy, efforts

were made for a cross section of respondents.

Sector

Respondents were predominantly from the private sector, as detailed in Table 6-2, at

75.8%. Approximately 20% of respondents were employed in the government sector,

made up of those that work for federal, state and municipal organisations. Just under

5% were employed in the NGO sector. The Australian Bureau of Statistics does not

publish figures related to employment category and sector; however, given that a

profile of Australian managers was being sought, the predominant number of

respondents being managers from the private sector was acceptable.

Table 6-2: Sector of respondents

Sector Frequency % Cumulative %

Private Sector 447 75.8 75.8

Government Sector 116 19.7 95.4

NGO 27 4.6 100

Industry sector

Respondents were asked to identify the specific industry sector that they were

employed in. These categories are based on the NIC codes used in the 2006 Census

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a, c). The sample had a reasonable distribution

across all sectors. There were notably less respondents (less than 5%) from the

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing; Retail Trade; and Accommodation & Food Service

categories. There were notably more respondents (greater than 5%) from the

Professional, Scientific & Technical Services sector; Heath Care & Social Assistance

and Other Services categories. Due to the limited number of respondents available in

some of these professions the sample was not substantially different from the

Australian managerial occupation profile identified in the 2006 Census. This is felt to

Page 255: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 255

be a reasonable distribution reflective of the industries in Australia given the

limitations of the single sample source.

The largest number of respondents came from the professional, scientific & technical

service sector with 12.2% of respondents (72 out of 590); health care and social

assistance industry sector (63 out of 590) followed by the education & training and

finance & insurance services sector (each with 47 out of 590). The smallest

percentages were from those that were unsure about the classification of their sector

and the rental hiring & real estate sectors each with 1.4%. Given the diversity of

industry sectors and the lack of a dominant sample group to form groups there were

no groups categorised for hypothesis testing.

Years of work experience

Respondents in the study were asked to list their years of Australian work experience.

A majority of respondents indicated they have more than 20 years’ experience in the

Australian workforce (58.6%) followed closely by those with 10 to 15 years (13.9%)

and those with 15 – 19 years (13.2%), as detailed in Table 6-3. Only 3.1% of

respondents had been working for approximately 5 years. Given the distribution of

respondents it was felt this was a healthy distribution across years of work

experience.

Table 6-3: Years of Australian work experience

Australian Work Experience Frequency % Cumulative %

Approximately 5 18 3.1 3.1

5 - 9 years 66 11.2 14.2

10 - 14 years 82 13.9 28.1

15 - 19 years 78 13.2 41.4

20 or more 346 58.6 100

Years of management experience

The sample attempted to collect a cross section of managerial experience. In total

approximately 58.4% had less than 10 years’ experience; while 41.7% had more than

Page 256: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 256

ten years of experience. The largest portion of the sample were those relatively new

to the field of management will less than 5 years’ experience (218 out of 590); while

those with 20 or more years of managerial experience accounted for 15.9% (94 out of

590). The distribution of respondents is detailed in Table 6-4.

Table 6-4: Years of managerial experience

Managerial Experience Frequency % Cumulative %

Under 5 years 218 36.9 36.9

5 - 9 years 126 21.4 58.3

10 - 14 years 102 17.3 75.6

15 - 19 years 50 8.5 84.1

20 or more 94 15.9 100

While there was sufficient data to examine different groups for management based on

years of experience, the researcher felt that given the distribution of the data and

requirements to compare groups across the stages of analysis that there was a lack of

theoretical foundation to split the sample.

Managerial role

Respondents were separated by their managerial role. Given the large portion of

respondents that were at an early stage in their managerial career, it was logical that

the largest number of respondents are front line or first level managers making up

47.3% of the sample (279 out of 590). Middle managers followed with 165 responses

(165 out of 590) and lastly senior managers made up 24.7% of the total (146 out of

590). The most difficult respondents to reach are those with high levels of income,

responsibility and organisational roles in an online panel (Baker et al. 2010). The

reason for this relates to the willingness of people who earn a high income, like senior

executives, to participate in online panels given the demands on their time and the

size of the incentives offered (Wagner, Frick & Schupp 2007). Given this limitation,

achieving this cross section of managers is considered to be successful. The detailed

breakdown of managerial groups is provided below in Table 6-5. The results allow

for invariance testing for these groups.

Page 257: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 257

Table 6-5: Managerial role

Managerial Role Frequency % Cumulative %

Frontline/ First level Management 279 47.3 47.3

Middle Management 165 28 75.3

Senior Management 146 24.7 100

Size of organisation

In Australia a small business is categorised as having less than 20 employees and a

medium business as having up to 200 employees (Clark et al. 2012). Small business

makes up over 90% of the registered businesses accounting for 47 precent of

employment; medium business making up four precent of the registered business and

23% of employment; while large business accounting for less than one precent of

registered business and being responsible for 30 precent of employment. The sample

has a cross section of all business sizes. Respondents identified the size of the

business in which they manage as detailed in Table 6-6.

Table 6-6: Size of organisation

Size of Organisation Frequency % Cumulative %

Under 5 employees 104 17.6 17.6

5 - 19 employees 65 11 28.6

20 - 49 employees 57 9.7 38.3

50 - 99 employees 42 7.1 45.4

100 - 499 employees 91 15.4 60.8

500 - 999 employees 48 8.1 69

1000 or more 183 31 100 A majority of respondents work in organisations considered large with 500+

members with 39.1% of the sample. Organisations with less than 20 employees were

28.6% of the sample. Remaining respondents were from medium and large business.

Size of department

Given the large number of small and medium sized organisations reflected in the

sample, a majority of respondents were managers in relatively small departments,

Page 258: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 258

with 51% coming from departments with less than 10 employees. The remaining 49%

came from departments with more than 10 employees up to 1000 or more, as detailed

in Table 6-7. The researcher was not able to form groups relating to either

organisational size or department size based on theoretical information, with respect

to potential differences.

Table 6-7: Size of department

Size of Department Frequency % Cumulative %

Under 5 employees 190 32.2 32.2

5 - 9 employees 111 18.8 51

10 - 19 employees 96 16.3 67.3

20 - 49 employees 81 13.7 81

50 - 99 employees 53 9 90

100 or more employees 59 10 100

6.6 EFA on APEL categories and CIB

The EFA using Principle Axis Factoring (PAF) estimation method is completed on all

of the hypothesised categories, as PAF has been identified as giving the best results

based on the assessment of normality of the data (Costello & Osborne 2005). The

selected rotation was Direct Oblimin, an oblique rotation that considers correlations

exist between the factors (Field 2009). Kaiser Normalisation criterion is utilised

where the least important factors are ignored determined by examination of

eigenvalues above 1.0. Alongside the consideration of the eigenvalues is the use of

the scree plot which was deemed as the final check against the eigenvalue results in

determining if the hypothesised factor structure was supported. In total 6 categories of

variables forming endogenous constructs were examined in EFA analysis. Table 6-8

provides the summary of the EFA for the constructs.

Page 259: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 259

Table 6-8: EFA completed on excellence in managerial leadership components

EFA on Hypothesised Categories # of

StatementsExcellent Leader 9

Visionary Leader 4 Organisational Leader 5

Personal Qualities 19 Relationship 9

Respect 3 Integrity 7

Organisational Demand 9 Organisational Demand 9

Environmental Influence 10 Macro-Environment 6 Micro-Environment 4

Managerial Behaviours 21 Progressiveness 4

Decision Making 4 Teamwork 8 Officious 5

Creativity & Innovation Enabling Behaviours 15 Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) 15

Excellent Leader was divided into two components: Visionary Leader and

Organisational Leader, with four and five behaviours respectively. Personal Qualities

had three hypothesised components: “Relationships”, “Respect” and “Integrity” with

nine, four and six behaviours respectively. Organisational Demand was anticipated to

be a single category with nine behaviours. Environmental Influence had two

components identified, with four behaviours categorised as “Micro-Environment” and

six behaviours associated with external influence on the firm named

“Macro-Environment”. In total the 21 behaviours associated with Managerial

Behaviours were considered as four components: “Progressive” with four behaviours;

“Decision Making” had four statements; “Teamwork” had eight behaviours; and

lastly “Officious” had five statements. The newly established CIB category was a

Page 260: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 260

single category and had 15 statements associated with it. Appendix 5 includes

additional output from the EFA process.

EFA for excellent leader category

The identified variables for the two hypothesised components that make up Excellent

Leader were represented by 9 behavioural statements. The associated results of the

EFA on the two factor solution for the construct are included in Table 6-9.

Table 6-9: Pattern matrix for EFA on excellent leader

Organisational Visionary

Excellence in Leadership Statement Leader Leader

91. organise work time effectively 0.667

37. listen when employees want to say something 0.657

93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people 0.638

29. give recognition for good work 0.638

89. continue to learn how to improve performance 0.512

10. be honest 0..434

32. have a strategic vision for the organisation 0.688

82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry 0.603

42. motivate employees 0.469

20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place 0.383 0.384

% of Variance Extracted = 52% Cronbach's Alpha 0.78 0.73

Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden

The EFA revealed that the two proposed components were indeed present. The

variance explained in the two identified factors was 52% with a Cronbach alpha of

0.78 and 0.73 for the Organisational Leader and Visionary Leader Components

respectively. Factor loadings reflected an acceptable loading in all cases above +/-.30

given the large sample size (Hair et al. 2006). One item cross loaded, and was noted

as a potential issue to be aware of during the CFA process.

Page 261: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 261

EFA for personal qualities category

The hypothesised three components that make up Personal Qualities are represented

by 19 behavioural statements. After examining the points of inflection on the scree

plot, three factors were identified (Field 2009). The results are shown in Table 6-10

with three factors representing the identified constructs.

Table 6-10: Pattern matrix for EFA on personal qualities

Excellence in Leadership Statement Relationship Integrity Respect

6. be consistent in dealing with people 0.727

1. accept responsibility for my mistakes 0.600

8. be dependable and trustworthy 0.569

5. be an initiator, not a follower 0.548

21. deal calmly in tense situations 0.516

14. be practical 0.488

2 accept that others will make mistakes 0.476

49. speak clearly and concisely 0.456

58. write clearly and concisely 0.385

25. follow the heart & not the head in compassionate matters

0.546

18. behave in accordance with your religious beliefs 0.544

11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work

0.375

26. follow what is morally right, not what is right for self or organisation

0.367

45. return favours 0.363 -0.363

31. have a sense of humour 0.339

57. work long hours

44. respect the self-esteem of others -0.566

36. listen to the advice of others -0.421

53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest

0.417 -0.416

% of Variance Extracted = 41% Cronbach's Alpha 0.80 0.60 0.66

Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden

There was a lower variance extracted than is ideal at 41% and the reliability of the

components were 0.80, 0.60 and 0.66 for Relationship, Integrity and Respect

respectively. The EFA showed one variable cross loading and one with a loading of

Page 262: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 262

less than 0.30 loading that would need to be considered during CFA of the constructs.

The Integrity component had several acceptable, but low loading behavioural

statements.

EFA for organisational demand category

The hypothesised single organisational demand construct consisted of 9 behavioural

statements, again tested on the 5 point Likert scale. An initial EFA ran found a single

factor was present. The results shown in Table 6-11 indicated that all variables had

acceptable loadings except one which would need to be considered in the CFA

process. Reliability for the scale was acceptable with 0.61 (Hair et al. 2006). Variance

extracted was however low at 31%.

Table 6-11: Factor Matrix for EFA on organisational demand

Excellence in Leadership Statement Organisational Demand

50. support decisions made jointly by others 0.645

48. share power 0.592

83. adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice 0.556

47. sell the professional or corporate image to the public 0.521

23. focus on maximising productivity 0.466

3. be adaptable 0.458

28. give priority to long-term goals 0.424

94. act as a member of a team 0.387

59. ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation

% of Variance Extracted =31% Cronbach's Alpha 0.61

Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden

EFA for environmental influence category

The identified variables for the two constructs that make up Environmental influence

are represented by 10 behavioural statements. The EFA verified that two factors were

present. Results showed that all variables loaded at an acceptable level on the two

factors as shown in Table 6-12. The scale had a variance extracted of 49% for the two

factors with a reliability of 0.75 for Macro-Environment and 0.68 for

Page 263: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 263

Micro-Environment. The EFA showed one variable in each factor loading below 0.4

that would need to be considered during the CFA process.

Table 6-12: Pattern matrix for EFA on environmental influence

Macro Micro

Excellence in Leadership Statement Env Env

38. look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures 0.776

30. have a multicultural orientation and approach 0.720

27. foster an international perspective in the organisation 0.543

16. be socially and environmentally responsible 0.494

33. identify social trends which may have an impact on work 0.44

15. be responsive to political realities in the environment 0.339

77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies 0.703

78. check constantly for problems and opportunities 0.635

70. study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work 0.563

66. use economic indicators for planning purposes 0.392

% of Variance Extracted = 49% Cronbach's Alpha 0.75 0.68

Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden

EFA for managerial behaviour category

Four factors are hypothesised for the Managerial Behaviour category, which was

made up of 21 behaviours. In examining the scree plot it was decided that four factors

are present based on the points of inflection on the curve (Field 2009). The four factor

solution had two variables cross loading between the factors and three variables that

were below the necessary loading level (0.3) that would need to be considered during

the CFA process. The total variance extracted for four factors was 47%. Reliability

for each of the factors was as follows: 0.64 for Officious; 0.77 for Teamwork; 0.61

for Progressive and 0.70 for Decision Making. Table 6-13 provides a summary of the

results.

Page 264: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 264

Table 6-13: Pattern matrix for EFA on managerial behaviours

Excellence in Leadership Statement

Officious Teamwork Progressiveness Decision Making

51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it

0.557

24. focus on the task-at-hand 0.442 17. be strict in judging the competence of employees

0.376

52. think about the specific details of any particular problem

0.364 0.338

9. be formal when dealing with employees at work

13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts

0.721

19. consider suggestions made by employees

0.544

12. be logical in solving problems 0.333 0.507 54. trust those to whom work is delegated

0.437

35. listen to and understand the problems of others

0.403

4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy

0.402

7. be consistent in making decisions 0.399

22. delegate 0.314

46. select work wisely to avoid overload

55. try different approaches to management

0.623

56. use initiative and take risks 0.508 34. keep up-to-date on management literature

0.484

41. make work decisions quickly -0.882

40. make decisions without depending too much on others

-0.611

39. make decisions earlier rather than later

-0.521

43. persuade others to do things

% of Variance Extracted=47% Cronbach's Alpha

0.64

0.77

0.61 0.70

Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden

Page 265: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 265

6.7 Separate sample EFA on new CIB scale

One new scale has been developed for use in this study which required a separate

validation test through an EFA on a separate data sample. As discussed in chapter 5, a

sample of 100 was removed from the main data set and used for this singular purpose.

The data selected was reviewed and checked for normality as per guidelines and

procedures used in the preliminary analysis. After completing this an EFA was run on

the data, using Principle Axis Factoring with a Direct Oblimin rotation. The EFA

would provide initial validation of the newly developed scale (Hair et al. 2006). In

total 15 behaviours are included in the scale. As detailed in Table 6-14, with other

relevant output included in Appendix 5, a single factor was found. All variables had

acceptable loadings on the single factor. Reliability and Variance extracted for the

scale was again acceptable with 0.97 and 74% respectively (Hair et al. 2006).

Table 6-14: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB – separate sample of 100

Excellence in Leadership Statement CIB

98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation 0.897

96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals 0.885

109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative 0.88

100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions 0.874

103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation 0.872

108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

0.867

102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted 0.853

106. develop reward structures that reflect employees' motivation and preferences 0.847

105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals 0.844

101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation 0.842

97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation 0.833

104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work 0.813

107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 0.811

99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts 0.797

95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation 0.795

% of Variance Extracted = 74% Cronbach's Alpha 0.97

Page 266: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 266

EFA for CIB category

A single factor was expected to represent the CIB category. In total 15 behaviours

were included in the scale. In examining the scree plot a single factor was present. As

detailed in Table 6-15 all indicators had loadings above 0.50 indicating that the initial

factor loading was acceptable (Hair et al. 2006). Reliability for the scale was again

acceptable with 0.92 (Hair et al. 2006). Variance extracted was however low at 48%.

Table 6-15: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB

Excellence in Leadership Statement CIB

103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation 0.765

97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation 0.732

98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation 0.723

108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

0.707

100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions 0.693

105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals 0.692

109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative 0.689

96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals 0.685

102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted 0.671

104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work 0.625

95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation 0.617

99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts 0.608

106. develop reward structures that reflect employees' motivation and preferences 0.607

107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 0.589

101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation 0.583

% of Variance Extracted = 48% Cronbach's Alpha 0.92

Having verified through statistical analysis, support for the hypothesised constructs

the EFA analysis was complete. It provided some insight into which components and

behavioural statements may cause problems and the next phase of analysis involving

CFA.

Page 267: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 267

6.8 Chapter summary

The purpose of the first three steps in the data analysis process was to examine the

collected data from the online survey. The data sample that did not contain any

missing data. Once collected the data was cleaned and coded according to planned

statistical analysis. Cleaning of the data revealed that a portion of the respondents’

data had to be excluded due to issues associated with speeding and flat-lining. This

was expected to occur when using both an online survey tool and an online panel

where an incentive is offered. In total, a sample of 590 made up the primary data

sample. As discussed the data collected was deemed to have some very slight

departures from normality, but these were not statistically significant and the data was

deemed normal indicating it was feasible to continue to proceed with the planned

analysis.

The demographic and managerial profile of the respondents was also reviewed. The

sample has been shown to have a satisfactory number of Australian managers, based

on the 2006 Census. There was an approximate number of Australian and foreign

born respondents. Similarly the sample had comparable percentages to the Census for

the number of managers by State and Territory. The review of respondents found that

there were a few sectors that were in need of a slightly larger number of respondents

and others that were in need of slightly fewer, this was not considered an issue that

would impact on creating a baseline profile of the Australian perspective of

excellence in managerial leadership.

The managerial profile of respondents was also discussed and it was found that the

data had a reasonable cross section of managers from different age ranges, education,

years of work experience and managerial experience, managerial role, size of

organisation and department.

An initial EFA was completed on a separate sample of 100 removed from the main

data set in order to allow for validation of the CIB scale before proceeding, as

Page 268: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 6 – Preliminary analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 268

required in new scale development. The EFA had positive results and the scale as

developed was supported. Following this, an EFA was completed on the four primary

APEL categories, the Excellent Leader category and the newly created CIB category

in order to verify that the hypothesised models existed. Having verified that the

hypothesised models did exist, preliminary analysis was complete.

The above discussed analysis was completed in order to continue on with further data

analysis that will be discussed in the following chapter, which looks at using CFA in

order to construct measurement models; followed by path analysis in structural

equation modelling used to explore the relationships between the variables.

Page 269: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 269

7. Analysis

7.1 Introduction

In chapter 5 the methodology was presented along with a detailed analysis plan.

chapter 6 included the preliminary analysis. This chapter presents the primary

analysis and results of this research study. The findings are discussed in the next

chapter. The study is based on a sample of 590 Australian managers, with a minimum

of five years Australian work experience. Figure 7-1 provides an overview of the data

analysis processes that will be found in this chapter.

Figure 7-1: Chapter overview

The chapter follows, step by step, the statistical procedures used to complete the

analysis plan. First looked at are the development of measurement models for the

hypothesised constructs. Measurement model development is presented with

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) along with a review of the hypotheses against the

results. Based upon the results of the CFA process and the hypothesised relationships

structural equation modelling utilising path analysis on the weighted factor average

scores is completed. Path analysis is a type of structural equation modelling that suits

Data Analysis Process

CFA

Composite Formation

Path Analysis

Invariance testing

Page 270: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 270

this study as presented in the methodology chapter. The development of a path model

for the hypothesised model is tested, followed by adjustments to the model to achieve

acceptable goodness of fit. The final model is presented and reviewed hypothesised

relationships. In conclusion, a series of invariance tests on the measurement models,

the composite constructs and the final model are reported across four key managerial

groups addressing the final hypothesis.

The 13 components being examined consist of 3 dependent variables and 10

independent variables. The 3 dependent variables are Visionary Leader and

Organisational Leader, from the Excellent Leader category, and the CIB category.

The 10 independent variables are the remaining components from the four excellence

in managerial leadership categories.

7.2 Measurement models for the excellence in leadership components

The measurement models representing the categories of managerial leadership

behaviours included in this study each had a CFA completed separately and are

reported below. In order to accommodate working with the AMOS software,

indicator variable labels were replaced with the letter ‘a’ and the associated number

from the questionnaire, as detailed in Appendix 3. Additional output from the CFA

process is included in Appendix 6, including the initial hypothesised model and the

final measurement model. An examination of the relevant hypotheses will be

provided upon completion of the CFA on the measurement models.

CFA for measurement model of Excellent Leader

The measurement model for Excellent Leader consisted of two components,

Visionary Leader and Organisational Leader. Four statements were categorised as

relating to Visionary Leader and five statements were categorised as relating to

Page 271: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 271

Organisational Leader. A CFA on the Excellent Leader measurement model was

performed and illustrated in Figure 7-2.

Figure 7-2: Standardised measurement model of excellent leader

All of the statements loaded well on both of the constructs with loadings above .40,

with the exception of a10, “Being Honest”, with a factor loading of .36, this was

deemed acceptable given the large sample size as a loading above .30 is still

considered minimally acceptable (Hair et al. 2006). Based on the CFA results an

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.97 0.95 0.07Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 94.20 df= 26

Page 272: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 272

acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an

absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .97. Incremental fit was measured with

CFI and had an acceptable fit of .95. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .07

indicating that it was also acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA confirmed

the two constructs for Excellent Leadership.

Discriminant validity was identified as a potential issue with the high correlation

between the constructs. However, given that face validity has been established and is

of greater importance, it was decided that this was not a major issue (Hair et al.

2006). Implied correlations regression weights are included in Table 7-1.

Discriminant validity would be looked separately once all models have been

confirmed, prior to forming composite measures.

Table 7-1: Regression weights for excellent leader

Estimate S.E. C.R. p

a29 <--- Organisational_Leader 1

a89 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.226 0.1 12.221 *** a91 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.083 0.09 12.095 *** a93 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.18 0.095 12.47 *** a10 <--- Organisational_Leader 0.553 0.074 7.476 *** a32 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.996 0.079 12.664 *** a42 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.972 0.071 13.741 *** a82 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.963 0.094 10.242 *** a20 <--- Visionary_Leader 1

Note: ***: p < 0.000

CFA for Personal Qualities

The measurement model for Personal Qualities consisted of three components,

Relationship, Respect and Integrity. Nine statements were categorised as relating to

Relationships; three statements related to Respect and seven statements related to

Integrity. An initial CFA on the Personal Qualities measurement model was

constructed and performed. The results indicated that there were significant problems

Page 273: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 273

with the three factor solution, in particular with the third component Integrity. Three

statements (a11, a18 and a57) had loadings well below 0.40 and one statement (a25)

cross loaded with the Relationship construct. The identified statements were removed

and the CFA run again. An examination of the standardised residual covariances

indicated an additional statement for the Integrity component was troublesome (a45)

and was removed. The elimination of a45 from the Integrity component resulted in it

now being under-identified. Therefore the data did not adequately support its

inclusion and the Integrity component was eliminated (Hair et al. 2006).

Figure 7-3: CFA for personal qualities

Page 274: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 274

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.96 0.94 0.06

Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 134.10 df= 43

A revised two factor CFA for the Relationship and Respect constructs was run and an

additional behaviour (a1) was identified as needing to be eliminated to ensure an

acceptable model fit, based on the standardised residual covariances. The final

Personal Qualities measurement model is shown in Figure 7-3.

Based on the above CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a

goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .96.

Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had acceptable fit of .94. The badness of

fit measure, RMSEA, was .06 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these

measures the CFA confirmed the two independent constructs for Personal Qualities.

Discriminant validity was demonstrated with the correlations and significant

regression weights included in Table 7-2, again to be checked later.

Table 7-2: Regression weights for personal qualities

Estimate S.E. C.R. p

a2 <--- Relationship 1.102 0.11 10.053 *** a5 <--- Relationship 1.139 0.119 9.576 *** a6 <--- Relationship 1.099 0.102 10.764 *** a8 <--- Relationship 0.847 0.086 9.799 *** a21 <--- Relationship 1 a49 <--- Relationship 1.279 0.113 11.308 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.192 0.113 10.538 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.195 0.122 9.834 *** a53 <--- Respect 0.813 0.076 10.65 *** a36 <--- Respect 0.842 0.075 11.238 *** a44 <--- Respect 1

Note: ***: p < 0.000

Page 275: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 275

CFA for Managerial Behaviours

The measurement model for Managerial Behaviours consisted of four components,

Progressiveness, Decision making, Teamwork and Officious. Three statements were

categorised as relating to Progressiveness; Decision Making was represented by four

statements; Teamwork had eight statements; and Officious had five statements

associated with it. A CFA was run and model fit was not achieved. The standardised

residual covariances were studied to identify problems. Initial problems were largely

associated with the Officious component. Problematic statements (a52, a51, a9) were

eliminated and the factor was under-identified so the decision was made to remove

the component, as the data could not support its inclusion.

The revised three factor CFA for Progressiveness, Decision Making and Teamwork

was run. In examining the standardised residual covariances two behaviours from the

Teamwork component were eliminated (a4 and a12) in order to achieve an acceptable

model fit as shown in Figure 7-4.

Page 276: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 276

Figure 7-4: CFA for managerial behaviours

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.96 0.92 0.06

Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 181.30 df= 62

Based on the CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of

fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .96. Incremental fit

was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of .92. The badness of fit measure,

RMSEA, was .06 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA

confirmed the three independent constructs for Managerial Behaviours. Discriminant

Page 277: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 277

validity was demonstrated and the correlations and significant regression weights

included in Table 7-3. Discriminant validity will again be checked later.

Table 7-3: Regression weights for managerial behaviours

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

a43 <--- Decision 1

a41 <--- Decision 1.592 0.177 9.021 *** a40 <--- Decision 1.595 0.185 8.637 *** a39 <--- Decision 1.564 0.175 8.952 *** a34 <--- Progressiveness 1 a55 <--- Progressiveness 1.097 0.112 9.801 *** a56 <--- Progressiveness 1 0.108 9.227 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1 a35 <--- Teamwork 1.326 0.132 10.085 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.106 0.122 9.067 *** a7 <--- Teamwork 1.004 0.114 8.781 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.075 0.117 9.198 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.187 0.116 10.238 ***

Note: ***: p < 0.000

CFA for Environmental Influence

The measurement model for Environmental Influence consisted of two components,

Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment. Six statements were categorised as

relating to Macro-Environment and four statements were related to

Micro-Environment. A CFA on the constructed measurement model was run on the

Environmental Influence category. An examination of the standardised residual

covariances identified two behavioural statement problems with both components.

One statement (a66) was removed from the Micro-Environment component followed

by the removal of one statement (a38) from the Macro-Environment component in

order to achieve an acceptable model fit, as depicted in Figure 7-5.

Page 278: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 278

Figure 7-5: CFA for environmental influence

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.98 0.96 0.05

Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 48.90 df= 19

Based on the CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of

fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .98. Incremental fit

was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of .97. The badness of fit measure,

RMSEA, was .05 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA

confirmed the two independent constructs for Environmental Influence. Discriminant

validity was demonstrated with the correlations and significant regression weights,

included in Table 7-4, again to be checked later.

Page 279: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 279

Table 7-4: Regression weights for environmental influence

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

a30 <--- MacroENV 1

a27 <--- MacroENV 1.037 0.11 9.39 *** a33 <--- MacroENV 0.91 0.093 9.78 *** a16 <--- MacroENV 0.821 0.092 8.92 *** a15 <--- MacroENV 0.743 0.085 8.78 *** a70 <--- MicroENV 1 a77 <--- MicroENV 1.472 0.162 9.1 *** a78 <--- MicroENV 1.011 0.111 9.134 ***

Note: ***: p < 0.000

CFA for Organisational Demand

The measurement model for Organisational Demand consisted of a single component

of the same name. In total nine behavioural statements were included in the category.

An initial CFA was run on Organisational Demand and acceptable model fit was not

achieved. An inspection of the factor loadings found one statement to have a loading

well below 0.4 (a59) and it was eliminated. The CFA was rerun and an examination

of the standardised residual covariances indicated that two statements (a38 and a23)

were an issue and were eliminated respectively. Following the eliminations the CFA

was run again and the final model achieved acceptable model fit, see Figure 7-6.

GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was

acceptable at .98. Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of

.94. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .07 indicating that it was acceptable.

Based on these measures the CFA confirmed the independent construct for

Organisational Demand. The significant regression weights are included in Table 7-5.

Page 280: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 280

Figure 7-6: CFA for organisational demand

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.98 0.94 0.07

Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 37.42 df= 9

Table 7-5: Regression weights for organisational demand

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

a28 <--- Org Demand 1

a48 <--- Org Demand 1.772 0.231 7.687 *** a50 <--- Org Demand 1.55 0.197 7.885 *** a94 <--- Org Demand 0.917 0.139 6.607 *** a83 <--- Org Demand 1.201 0.178 6.739 ***

a3 <--- Org Demand 0.909 0.134 6.757 ***

Note: ***: p < 0.000

CFA for CIB

The measurement model for CIB category consisted of a single component of the

same name. In total, 15 behavioural statements were included in the category. An

Page 281: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 281

initial CFA was run on CIB and acceptable model fit was not achieved. An inspection

of the factor loadings found all statements loaded at an acceptable level. Given the

large number of statements in the construct several were in need of being removed

based on the standardised residual covariances (Byrne 2009). Individually 4

statements (a96, a103, a105 and a109) were removed respectively and the analysis

rerun a final time and the model achieved acceptable fit as shown in Figure 7-7.

Figure 7-7: CFA of CIB category

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.94 0.94 0.08

Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 207.40 df= 44

Page 282: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 282

GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was

acceptable at .94. Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of

.94. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .08 indicating it was acceptable. Based

on these measures the CFA confirmed the construct for CIB. The significant

regression weights are shown in Table 7-6.

Table 7-6: Regression weights for CIB

Estimate S.E. C.R. P a95 <--- CIB 1 a97 <--- CIB 1.241 0.087 14.251 ***a98 <--- CIB 1.213 0.083 14.671 ***a99 <--- CIB 0.954 0.073 13.134 ***a100 <--- CIB 1.162 0.081 14.292 ***a101 <--- CIB 1.003 0.087 11.539 ***a102 <--- CIB 1.114 0.085 13.043 ***a104 <--- CIB 1.072 0.093 11.535 ***a106 <--- CIB 1.179 0.097 12.176 ***a107 <--- CIB 1.162 0.094 12.331 ***

a108 <--- CIB 1.282 0.095 13.453 *** Note: ***: p < 0.000

7.3 Discriminant validity of components

Having established construct validity and reliability in order to form the composite

measures it is next important to complete a check for discriminant validity. A variety

of methods are available to test discriminant validity (Bertea & Zait 2011). However,

given that there are numerous components across the categories, utilising a chi-square

difference test was best suited as it will allow for all components to be tested against

each other and behavioural statements to be examined. According to Bagozzi, Yi and

Philips (1991), a chi-square difference test is more rigorous than the traditional AVE

test often used. In order for discriminant validity to be achieved a significant

difference in the chi-square at p<0.05 with a value surpassing 3.84 between each pair

of components is required (Rahim 2013).

Page 283: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 283

In total, 55 tests were run across the different pairings of the components. In

completing the tests three behaviours were identified as causing discriminant validity

issues with cross loading. The three behaviours were “Be adaptable” from the

Organisational Demand component; “Listen to and understand the problems of

others” and “Trust those to whom work is delegated” from the Teamwork component.

The Organisational Demand behavioural statement was felt to have issues around

clarity and may have had problems with interpretation. The Teamwork statements

had issues with Relationship and Respect components respectively. This could be a

result of cross-cultural interpretation as the categorisation was established in Asia and

there may have been interpretation issues in the Australian context often occurring in

cultural study (Harkness et al. 2003).

Having identified the behaviours that were cross loading, the discriminant validity

tests were re-run and all results were statistically significant and discriminant validity

was demonstrated. The results of these tests are included in Appendix 6. With the

removal of the behaviours the Organisational Demand and Managerial Behaviour

components were subjected to an additional CFA and revised results are included in

Figures 7-8 and 7-9. In removing the identified behaviours goodness of fit indices

improved for both.

Figure 7-8: CFA for organisational demand

Page 284: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 284

Figure 7-9: CFA for managerial behaviour

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.06 0.99 0.99 0.04Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 10.61 df= 5

Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.97 0.94 0.05Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 109.60 df= 41

Page 285: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 285

7.4 Measurement models and hypotheses

The second and third research questions that this study addresses are related to how

Australian culture shapes perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership. Using

implicit leadership theory, the methodology associated with the APEL model was

applied, where managers reflect the cultural values held in society (Lord & Brown

2001; Selvarajah 2010; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). This

resulted in the categorisation of the managerial leadership behaviours, based on

literature, onto specific components that reflect Australian culture and attitudes

towards managerial leadership.

In total the five categories of excellence in managerial leadership and a single CIB

category were considered and 13 theorised components of Australian excellence in

managerial leadership were investigated. Of the 13 hypotheses, as detailed in chapter

4 (see Table 4-9), eleven were supported and two were not summarised in Table 7-7.

The Integrity component of Personal Qualities and the Officious component of

Managerial Behaviours could not be supported by the data. The following two

hypotheses were not possible to test:

Hypothesis 1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in

Australia.

Hypothesis 1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours

category in Australia.

Having completed the measurement model development in CFA this stage of analysis

was now complete. The remaining ten excellence in managerial leadership

components and the CIB category were confirmed as valid and having acceptable

goodness of fit. The next phase of analysis could proceed involving computing of

composite variables in order to complete path analysis.

Page 286: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 286

Table 7-7: Supported components of Australian excellence in managerial

leadership

Component Associated Hypothesis Excellent Leader

Organisational Leader 1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia

Visionary Leader 1.2: Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia

Personal Qualities

Relationship 1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia

Respect 1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia

Managerial Behaviours

Progressiveness 1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Decision Making 1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Teamwork 1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia

Environmental Influence

Macro-Environment 1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia

Micro-Environment 1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia

Organisational Demand

Organisational Demand 1.12: Organisational Demand will be a single component of the Organisational Demand category in Australia

CIB

CIB 1.13: CIB will be a single category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia

7.5 Development of composite measures of excellence in leadership

Composite measures for the excellence in managerial leadership components were

computed in SPSS. The standard procedure utilising factor loadings from the CFA

Page 287: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 287

process resulting in the creation of a weighted average factor score for each

component in the model (Field 2009; Hair et al. 2006). As detailed in Table 7-8, all

composites of the managerial leadership components had acceptable Cronbach’s

alpha scores exceeding 0.60 indicating they were reliable (Hair et al. 2006). In the

previous stages of analysis all components had acceptable goodness of fit measures

and discriminate validity was demonstrated. The results showed the data had some

departures from normality, as measured by the skewness figures. These departures

were acknowledged, however given the limitations of the study the data was deemed

approximately normal indicating it was feasible to continue with the planned analysis.

Table 7-8: Descriptive statistics for the excellence in leadership components

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Mean 4.48 4.28 4.37 4.26 3.97 3.63 3.86 3.73 4.31 3.79 4.04

Standard Deviation .44 .53 .41 .51 .49 .63 .69 .66 .44 .60 .53

Cronbach Alpha .74 .73 .78 .66 .69 .70 .66 .62 .72 .71 .89

Skewness -.66 -.61 -.55 -.45 -.24 -.37 -.45 -.30 -.30 -.28 -.33

Kurtosis .07 .16 .25 -.17 .29 .22 .01 .04 -.12 -..09 -.16

Correlations

1.Organisational Leader 1.00

2.Visionary Leader .58 1.00

3.Relationship .71 .58 1.00

4.Respect .58 .47 .55 1.00

5.Organisational Demand .57 .61 .61 .60 1.00

6. Macro-Environment .40 .52 .51 .38 .57 1.00

7.Micro-Environment .45 .47 .43 .35 .45 .41 1.00

8.Progressiveness .48 .51 .52 .41 .55 .54 .47 1.00

9.Teamwork .62 .49 .73 .57 .56 .45 .31 .44 1.00

10.Decision Making .37 .40 .47 .28 .43 .35 .41 .41 .33 1.00

11.CIB .69 .68 .62 .54 .67 .57 .57 .59 .55 .40 1.00

7.6 Path analysis

Having computed the composite measures, path analysis was the next step in the

analysis process. In chapter 4 the measurement models and the hypothesised

Page 288: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 288

relationships between the independent and dependent variables were presented and

resulted in the original hypothesised structural model shown in Figure 7-10.

Figure 7-10: Hypothesised model of Australian excellence in leadership

The hypothesised model as initially built needed to be adjusted following the CFA

process as two measures of excellence in managerial leadership were not supported

by the data for inclusion, those being Officious and Integrity. Given these

eliminations it was now not possible to test Hypothesis 2.5, 2.6 and 2.13 and the

model was redrawn based on the hypotheses that could be tested as detailed in Figure

7-11.

Page 289: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 289

Figure 7-11: Revised hypothesised model - corrected for CFA results

The revised hypothesised model was tested and the resulting analysis has been

included in Appendix 7 along with a visual representation of the model that includes

error terms and covariances. The hypothesised model resulted in unsatisfactory model

fit as detailed in Table 7-9 and displayed in Figure 7-12. As earlier started, a problem

exists with achieving an acceptable p-value as a fit measure. The problem with this

measure is that a perfect population fit rarely occurs and it rarely results in a

satisfactory fit when sample sizes are large (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011).

Bootstrapping was done on the final model in order to allow for the issues arising out

of the size of the sample and to allow for a more robust goodness of fit measure on

the final model (Hair et al. 2006). Bootstrapping measures the estimates for the

standard error and significance on an expanded number of random samples (Bollen &

Page 290: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 290

Stine 1992; Byrne 2009). 2000 random samples were run on the hypothesised model

resulting in a poor fit being reported with a Bollen-Stine bootstrap p=0.00. This

indicated the hypothesised model did not have good fit and revisions were required.

Figure 7-12: Result of hypothesised model

Table 7-9: Goodness of fit indices of hypothesised model

Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.97 0.14

Acceptable No No Yes Yes No

χ² = 105.50 df= 9

Page 291: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 291

Regression weights were first examined in Table 7-10 The regression weights

indicated that five relationships did not have an acceptable P value, exceeding 0.05,

indicating the relationship needed to be removed (Hair et al. 2006). These included:

(1) CIB to Teamwork; (2) Organisational Demand to Organisational Leader; (3)

Progressiveness to Visionary Leader; (4) Respect to Visionary Leader; and (5)

Decision Making to Organisational Leader (see Figure 7-12).

Table 7-10: Regression weights for hypothesised model

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Acceptable

CIB <--- MacroEnv 0.11 0.03 3.75 *** Yes

CIB <--- MicroEnv 0.19 0.02 7.88 *** Yes

CIB <--- Respect 0.11 0.04 3.05 0.00 Yes

CIB <--- Org. Demand 0.25 0.04 6.11 *** Yes

CIB <--- Progressive 0.11 0.03 3.96 *** Yes

CIB <--- Teamwork 0.08 0.05 1.73 0.08 No

CIB <--- Relationship 0.18 0.05 3.35 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.05 0.04 1.54 0.12 No

Org. Leader <--- CIB 0.34 0.03 10.1 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- MacroEnv 0.07 0.03 2.35 0.02 Yes

Vis. Leader <--- CIB 0.36 0.04 8.17 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- Progressiveness 0.05 0.03 1.75 0.08 No

Vis. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.18 0.05 3.75 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- Respect 0.02 0.04 0.61 0.54 No

Org. Leader <--- MicroEnv 0.05 0.02 2.10 0.04 Yes

Org. Leader <--- Teamwork 0.32 0.03 9.30 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- Relationship 0.23 0.05 4.39 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- Decision Making 0.03 0.02 1.34 0.18 No

Note: ***: p < 0.000

The modification index indicated that three additional relationships were required.

These were Relationship and Organisational Leader (M.I. 22.42 Parameter Change

Statistic .14); Respect to Organisational Leader (M.I. 12.08 Parameter Change

Statistic .08); and Macro-Environment to Organisational Leader (M.I. 4.47 Parameter

Change Statistic -.040).

Page 292: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 292

With the additional relationships added, the revised model was tested again and

regression weights were reviewed. As detailed in Table 7-11, all the goodness of fit

indices indicated acceptable fit. However the relationship between Micro-

Environment and Organisational Leader was removed as it did not have a significant

p-value (p= .084).

Table 7-11: Goodness of fit indices for first revision of final model

Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.11 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.03

Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 16.92 df= 11

The final revision to the model resulted in all relationships having an acceptable

p-value, satisfactory goodness of fit and a satisfactory bootstrapping result, as

detailed in Table 7-12, Table 7-13 and illustrated in Figure 7-13 respectively. The

achievement of an acceptable model fit supported the final model as revised.

Table 7-12: Regression weights for final model

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Acceptable

CIB <--- MacroEnv 0.11 0.03 3.87 *** Yes

CIB <--- Respect 0.12 0.04 3.53 *** Yes

CIB <--- Org. Demand 0.26 0.04 6.30 *** Yes

CIB <--- Progressiveness 0.11 0.03 4.00 *** Yes

CIB <--- Relationship 0.23 0.05 4.93 *** Yes

CIB <--- MicroEnv 0.18 0.02 7.73 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- CIB 0.32 0.03 10.86 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- MacroEnv 0.09 0.03 2.81 0.005 Yes

Vis. Leader <--- CIB 0.37 0.04 8.94 *** Yes

Vis. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.20 0.04 4.39 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- Teamwork 0.11 0.04 2.91 0.004 Yes

Vis. Leader <--- Relationship 0.25 0.05 4.94 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- Relationship 0.39 0.04 8.83 *** Yes

Org. Leader <--- Respect 0.12 0.03 4.35 *** No

Org. Leader <--- MacroEnv -0.07 0.02 -3.29 *** Yes

Note: ***: p < 0.000

Page 293: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 293

Table 7-13: Goodness of fit indices for the final model

Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA

Result 0.07 0.79 0.99 1.00 0.03

Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

χ² = 19.88 df= 12

Figure 7-13: Final model with satisfactory goodness of fit

R² = .53

R²=.63

R²=.63

Page 294: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 294

According to Kline (2011) and based on Cohen’s (2013) recommended rules for

examining path coefficients, an insubstantial path is below 0.1, a small path is about

0.1, a medium path is 0.3 and a large path is at least 0.5. All path coefficients between

the independent variables and CIB had a small path, with the largest being

Organisational Demand (0.24) and Micro-Environment (0.23), both approaching a

medium path. The independent variables and the respective path coefficients to

Visionary Leader were all small. The final model produced diverse relationships

between the independent variables and Organisational Leader. A small path existed

between Teamwork and Organisational Leader (0.11), additionally a small path (0.14)

was discovered between Respect and Organisational Leader. A medium relationship

existed between Relationship and Organisational Leader (0.36). Lastly of note, a

small path with a negative relationship emerged between Macro-Environment and

Organisational Leader (-0.10). The relationship between CIB and both Excellent

Leader components were noticeably strong, with CIB and Visionary Leader (0.38)

and a slightly stronger relationship for CIB and Organisational Leader (0.39), both

having a medium path.

One of the independent variables, Decision Making, did not have direct relationships

with either measure of Excellent Leader. Given Decision Making was identified in

the literature as being a component and the measurement models was supported in the

CFA process, a review of the correlations for Decision Making and the other

independent variables was explored, as detailed in Table 7-14. Based on these results,

there are strong correlations between Decision Making and the other independent

variables. These strong correlations indicate Decision Making does serve a role in

how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived by Australian managers and it

does belong in the model and could be considered an underlying or foundational

component of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia.

Page 295: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 295

Table 7-14: Correlations between Decision Making and other independent

variables

Estimate

Respect <--> Decision Making 0.28

MacroEnvironment <--> Decision Making 0.352

Progressiveness <--> Decision Making 0.407

MicroEnvironment <--> Decision Making 0.413

Teamwork <--> Decision Making 0.325

Org. Demand <--> Decision Making 0.430

Relationship <--> Decision Making 0.467

Standardised total effects

In examining the standardised total effects, the strongest effects were at the medium

level (0.3< r <0.5) and are between Relationship and CIB, as detailed in Table 7-15.

Table 7-15: Standardised total effects

Micro-

Env Team-work

Relation-ship

Org. Demand

Progress-iveness

Respect

Macro-Env

CIB

CIB 0.24 0.00 0.17 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.00

Vis. Leader

0.09 0.00 0.26 0.27 0.05 0.04 0.15 0.38

Org. Leader

0.09 0.11 0.40 0.09 0.05 0.19 -0.05 0.39

Inclusion of CIB category

In terms of the inclusion of the CIB category in the APEL model, it is seen as having

mediating roles (Baron & Kenny 1986). As illustrated in the final model, Figure 7-13,

CIB has a partial mediating effect between the independent and dependent variables

for Macro-Environment, Respect, Organisational Demand and Relationship. A full

mediating effect is observed for Micro-Environment and Progressiveness

components.

In order to determine how large an effect the inclusion of CIB had in the model, with

respect to the observed mediation, a decision was made to use the effect size (ƒ²)

Page 296: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 296

(Chin 2010). By utilising Cohen’s effect size calculation a ƒ² statistic is generated that

indicates the impact of the inclusion of the variable, as shown in Table 7-16. When

effect size falls between 0.02 and 0.15 the effect is small; between 0.15 and 0.35 the

effect is medium and above 0.35 the effect is large. Results indicate that the effect

size of including CIB on Organisational Leader is medium and the inclusion on

Visionary Leader is small, though at the high end of this category.

Table 7-16: Cohen’s d effect size calculation - change in variance explained

CIB Included Excluded f-squared Effect size

Organisational Leadership R² 0.63 0.56 0.19 Medium

Visionary Leadership R² 0.53 0.47 0.13 Small

7.7 Path model and hypotheses

The second and third research questions of this study explored the relationships of the

components of the four APEL categories to the CIB and Excellent Leader category.

The results differed from that hypothesised, resulting in a re-specification of the final

model, as illustrated in Figure 7-13. Based upon the results of the re-specified model

an examination of the hypotheses against the final model was completed.

Personal qualities 7.7.1

Personal qualities relating to the internal abilities, personality and talents of leaders

were viewed from three perspectives in the context of what constituted excellence in

managerial leadership in Australia. The three perspectives are Relationship; Respect;

and Integrity. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Integrity was not supported in the

CFA process and the associated hypotheses could not be tested. The hypothesised

relationships were examined against the final model for all components of the

Personal Qualities category and are summarised in Table 7-17.

Page 297: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 297

Table 7-17: Personal qualities related hypotheses

Hyp. Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight

Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Relationship

2.1 Relationship → Visionary Leader 0.19 0.26 Yes

2.2 Relationship → CIB 0.17 0.17 Yes

Unhypothesized Results

Relationship → Organisational Leader 0.36 0.40

Respect → Organisational Leader 0.14 0.19

Respect

2.3 Respect → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.04 No

2.4 Respect → CIB 0.12 0.12 Yes

The Relationship component was hypothesised having a relationship to Visionary

Leader (Hypothesis 2.1) and to CIB (Hypothesis 2.2). The results indicated that both

of these hypotheses were supported. However, the strongest connection with

Relationship and Excellent Leader was actually with Organisational Leader, a

relationship which was not hypothesised. Respect was hypothesised to have a

relationship with Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.3) however; this hypothesis was not

supported, as an insignificant relationship and minimal effect size resulted. The

relationship between Respect and CIB (Hypothesis 2.4) was tested and found to be

supported in the final model.

Supported hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.1: The Relationship component is directly related to Visionary Leader.

Hypothesis 2.2: The Relationship component is directly related to enabling creativity

and innovation.

Hypothesis 2.4: The Respect component is directly related to enabling creativity and

innovation.

Rejected hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.3: The Respect component is directly related to Visionary leader

Page 298: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 298

Though the hypothesis was rejected, the Respect component was related to the other

Excellent Leader component, Organisational leader.

Environmental influence 7.7.2

The Environmental Influence category relates to external influences on the firm. It

had two components that were hypothesised to have relationships in the model of

Australian excellence in managerial leadership, detailed in Table 7-18.

Table 7-18: Environmental influence related hypotheses

Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardize

d Reg. Weight

Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Macro-Environment

2.7 Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader 0.10 0.19 Yes

2.9 Macro-Enviro → CIB 0.13 0.13 Yes

Discovered Relationship

Macro-Enviro → Organisational Leader -0.10 -0.05

Micro-Environment

2.8 Micro-Enviro → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No

2.10 Micro-Enviro → CIB 0.23 0.24 Yes

Macro-Environment component includes behaviours related to picking up cues from

society in general, other cultures and international influence on the firm. It was

hypothesised that this component would have a relationship with Visionary Leader

(Hypothesis 2.7). Macro-Environment was also hypothesised to have a connection to

CIB, given the external environments influence on innovation (Hypothesis 2.9).

The Micro-Environment component, rather than looking at society and a global

perspective, focuses on industry related cues for a firm to adapt and remain

competitive. Micro-Environment was hypothesised to have relationship with

Organisational Leader (Hypothesis 2.8) and to have a relationship with CIB

(Hypothesis 2.10). The results supported two of the four hypotheses, with

Page 299: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 299

Micro-Environment to Organisational Leader being rejected and all others supported.

An additional relationship was discovered with a negative relationship existing

between Macro-Environment and Organisational Leader.

Supported hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.7: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to Visionary

Leader.

Hypothesis 2.8: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to enabling

creativity and innovation.

Hypothesis 2.10: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to enabling

creativity and innovation.

Rejected hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.9: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

While Hypothesis 2.9 was rejected a mediating relationship still exists through CIB to

the Organisational Leader component.

Managerial behaviours 7.7.3

The managerial leadership behaviours associated with the category of Managerial

Behaviours was hypothesised to have four components, Decision Making;

Teamwork; Officious; and Progressiveness. The behaviours associated with this

category relate to maintaining productivity and the completion of work in an effective

manner seen as a primary role of being a manager. The Officious component was not

supported by the data in the CFA process and the associated hypothesis (Hypothesis

2.14) was not tested. The remaining hypotheses were examined against the final

model and results are summarised in Table 7-19.

Page 300: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 300

Table 7-19: Managerial behaviours related hypotheses

Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight

Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Decision Making

2.11 Decision Making → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.00 No

Teamwork

2.12 Teamwork → Organisational Leader 0.11 0.11 Yes

2.13 Teamwork → CIB 0.00 0.00 No

Progressive

2.15 Progressiveness → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.05 No

2.16 Progressiveness → CIB 0.14 0.14 Yes

Decision making was hypothesised to have a relationship with Organisational Leader

(Hypothesis 2.11) however this hypothesis was not supported. Teamwork was

hypothesised to have relationships with Organisational Leader and CIB (Hypotheses

2.12 and 2.13 respectively). The relationship to Organisational Leader was supported,

but the relationship to CIB was not. Progressiveness was hypothesised to have a

relationship with CIB (Hypothesis 2.16), and was supported. However, the

hypothesised relationship between Progressiveness and Visionary Leader (Hypothesis

2.15) was not supported.

Supported hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.12: The Teamwork component is directly related to Organisational

Leader.

Hypothesis 2.16: The Progressiveness component is directly related enabling

creativity and innovation.

Rejected hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.11: The Decision Making component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

Page 301: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 301

Though this hypothesis was rejected, the Decision Making measure was strongly

correlated with all components indicating that it does have a role in understanding

how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived in Australia.

Hypothesis 2.13: The Teamwork component is directly related to enabling creativity

and innovation.

Hypothesis 2.15: The Progressiveness component is directly related to Visionary

Leader.

Organisational demand 7.7.4

Organisational Demand behaviours stem from organisational directives and strategy,

reflecting the direction the organisation wants managers to endorse and pursue.

Organisational Demand had three hypotheses identified. Organisational demand was

hypothesised to have a relationship with both Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.18) and

Organisational Leader (Hypothesis 2.17). A relationship was hypothesised between

Organisational Demand and CIB (Hypothesis 2.19), detailed in Table 7-20.

Table 7-20: Organisational demand related hypotheses

Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardize

d Reg. Weight

Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Organisational Demand

2.18 Org Demand → Visionary Leader 0.18 0.27 Yes

2.17 Org Demand → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No

2.19 Org Demand → CIB 0.24 0.24 Yes

Results from the final model show that Organisational Demand did in fact have a

relationship to Visionary Leader and CIB. The relationship between Organisational

Demand and Organisational Leader did not remain significant in the final model and

the relationship (Hypothesis 2.17) was not supported.

Page 302: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 302

Supported hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.18: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

Visionary Leader.

Hypothesis 2.19: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

enabling creativity and innovation.

Rejected hypotheses

Hypothesis 2.17: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to

Organisational Leader.

Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours 7.7.5

The behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation relate to a range of

behaviours where the result of enacting the behaviours positions an organisation to

see increased innovation and creative effort. The category had two hypothesised

relationships to Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.20) and Organisational Leader

(Hypothesis 2.21), detailed in Table 7-21. Both relationships had an overall medium

effect size and were supported.

Table 7-21: CIB related hypotheses

Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg.

Weight Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours

2.20 CIB → Visionary Leader 0.38 0.38 Yes

2.21 CIB → Organisational Leader 0.39 0.39 Yes

Supported hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2.20: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly

related to Visionary Leader.

Hypothesis 2.21: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly

related to Organisational Leader.

Page 303: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 303

7.8 Invariance testing

Invariance testing was completed on four groups as detailed in chapters 4 and 5.

Gender was firstly examined; followed by an age comparison split between managers

under 40 and managers 40 and older; managers with and without a university degree

were next looked at; and finally first level managers were examined against middle

and senior managers. Each group underwent three levels of testing that will be

reported concurrently.

Gender 7.8.1

7.8.1.1 Measurement model tests of invariance

Excellent leader

The initial loose cross validation test showed a slight difference between male and

female managers. However, CFI remained at an acceptable level. The RMSEA result

for female managers was slightly above the recommended cut off of 0.08 however, it

was below the identified level of bad fit of 0.1 as noted by Kline (2011). Given the

proximity to acceptable fit there was not sufficient reason to reject the measurement

model for women, and the groups were deemed invariant. The Factor Structure

Equivalence test had acceptable results for both CFI and RMSEA and supported

invariance. Similarly the Factor Loading Equivalence test reflects an acceptable level

of both CFI and RMSEA and invariance is supported. The results of the three

invariance tests on this category are provided in Table 7-22.

Table 7-22: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 70.90 26 0.00 0.94 0.072Women 79.01 26 0.00 0.91 0.089Factor Strucutre Equivalence

149.92 52 0.00 0.93 0.057Factor Loading Equivalence

159.61 59 0.00 0.93 0.054

Page 304: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 304

CIB

The CIB component was tested across all three invariance test levels. Initial

differences were found with the RMSEA scale, with the women number being just at

the absolute cut off level of 0.1; however the CFI was acceptable. The next two tests

indicated that both the level and changes in CFI and the RMSEA were acceptable to

claim that the two groups were invariant, as summarised in Table 7-23.

Table 7-23: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model

Personal qualities

The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of

invariance testing the results had acceptable CFI and RMSEA results, see Table 7-24.

Table 7-24: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model

Managerial behaviours

The three Managerial Behaviour components were tested together. In all three phases

of invariance testing results had acceptable CFI and RMSEA results, see Table 7-25.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 116.81 44 0.00 0.95 0.071Women 162.79 44 0.00 0.90 0.100Factor Strucutre Equivalence

279.63 88 0.00 0.92 0.061Factor Loading Equivalence

291.75 98 0.00 0.92 0.058

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 105.30 43 0.00 0.92 0.920Women 76.06 43 0.01 0.95 0.055Factor Strucutre Equivalence

181.31 86 0.00 0.93 0.043Factor Loading Equivalence

198.64 95 0.00 0.93 0.043

Page 305: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 305

Table 7-25: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model

Environmental influence

The two Environmental Influence components were tested together and results shown

in Table 7-26. In the initial phase of the invariance testing process, results showed

acceptable CFI and RMSEA results. The initial test highlighted women managers had

a better fit than men. In the second and third phase of the invariance testing process

acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA resulted and the groups were deemed invariant.

Table 7-26: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model

Organisational demand

The single Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels. In the first

instance, during the loose cross validation test there was a difference between men

and women. While men had satisfactory scores, including a non-significant p score,

women had a poor fit in the RMSEA measure however an acceptable CFI result. It

was further tested at the Factor Structure and Factor Loading Equivalence measures

and found to have acceptable results in both measures. Results are detailed in Table

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 87.79 41 0.00 0.93 0.058Women 89.26 41 0.00 0.91 0.068Factor Structure Equivalence

177.05 82 0.00 0.92 0.044Factor Loading Equivalence

181.61 90 0.00 0.93 0.042

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 46.70 19 0.00 0.94 0.066Women 25.70 19 0.14 0.98 0.037Factor Strucutre Equivalence

72.30 38 0.00 0.96 0.039Factor Loading Equivalence

87.32 44 0.00 0.95 0.041

Page 306: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 306

7-27. Given that this was the only measurement model that had a slightly higher

RMSEA result at the loose cross validation level, there was a decision to proceed

with further tests as this was felt to relate to a single behavioural statement.

Table 7-27: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model

As identified in the sections above, the three stage invariance testing of the Gender

groups resulted in only a single discrepancy from the ascribed measures of goodness

of fit. Given only a single measure across all of the tests and only at the loose cross

validation level, it was determined that the groups could be considered invariant.

7.8.1.2 Composite measure t-tests

SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the

composite structures, as detailed in Table 7-28.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 7.83 5 0.17 0.99 0.041Women 26.09 5 0.00 0.90 0.128Factor Strucutre Equivalence

33.93 10 0.00 0.94 0.064Factor Loading Equivalence

41.23 14 0.00 0.94 0.064

Page 307: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 307

Table 7-28: Independent sample t-tests for gender groups

The tests showed that for a majority of the components of excellence in managerial

leadership there was no real difference in mean values. However, Organisational

Leader; Visionary Leader, Relationship and Progressiveness components were found

to be significantly different as the significance level was less than 0.05. The effect

size was calculated for these four, as well as the other components, in order to

determine the impact of the differences. If the results showed an effect size (r) below

0.10 the difference was negligible, if it was between 0.10 and 0.30 it is small, if it is

between 0.30 and 0.50 it is medium and above 0.50 meaning a large effect. The effect

F Sig. Lower Upper

2.315 .129 -3.537 588 .000 -.12736 .03601 -.19807 -.05664

-3.581 576 .000 -.12736 .03557 -.19722 -.05750

.227 .634 -2.341 588 .020 -.10215 .04364 -.18787 -.01644

-2.358 568 .019 -.10215 .04332 -.18724 -.01707

1.305 .254 -1.996 588 .046 -.06742 .03378 -.13376 -.00108

-2.004 562 .046 -.06742 .03364 -.13350 -.00134

.998 .318 -0.791 588 .429 -.03360 .04249 -.11705 .04985

-0.785 539 .433 -.03360 .04279 -.11765 .05045

.001 .981 -1.335 588 .182 -.05469 .04096 -.13513 .02576

-1.332 550 .183 -.05469 .04105 -.13532 .02594

.040 .841 -1.451 588 .147 -.07627 .05254 -.17946 .02693

-1.451 553 .147 -.07627 .05257 -.17954 .02701

9.065 .003 1.109 588 .268 .06325 .05704 -.04878 .17527

1.089 511 .277 .06325 .05807 -.05084 .17733

.088 .767 -2.722 588 .007 -.14812 .05442 -.25500 -.04123

-2.728 559 .007 -.14812 .05429 -.25475 -.04148

.000 .986 -1.641 588 .101 -.08201 .04999 -.18019 .01617

-1.636 548 .102 -.08201 .05014 -.18050 .01647

1.249 .264 -1.450 588 .148 -.05260 .03627 -.12383 .01864

-1.468 576 .143 -.05260 .03583 -.12297 .01777

1.024 .312 -1.666 588 .096 -.07385 .04434 -.16093 .01323

-1.659 546 .098 -.07385 .04450 -.16126 .01357

Decision Making 0.067

Teamwork 0.060

CIB 0.068

Macro-Environment

0.056

Micro-Environment

0.045

Progressiveness 0.111

0.010

Respect 0.033

Organisational Demand

0.055

Interval

r

Organisational Leader

0.144

Visionary Leader

0.097

Levene's t-test for Equality of Means

t dfS ig. (2-tailed)

Mean Diff.

Std. Error Diff.

Test

Relationship

Page 308: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 308

size (r) was below 0.10 in the case of Visionary Leader and for Relationship was only

slightly over the minimum level of having a small effect (where r = .10). For

Organisational Leader and Progressiveness there was a small effect indicating very

little difference (Field 2009). All other effect sizes were well below the minimum

having a negligible effect. Based upon this it was established that there were no real

significant differences in the means of the component variables for men and women.

7.8.1.3 Invariance tests for the final path model

Lastly, the invariance tests were used to test the final path model to determine if any

significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table 7-29. The tests

showed that both men and women had acceptable fit. The final two tests, for factor

structure and loading equivalence found that the path models had acceptable fit and

no significant change in CFI. Based upon this information it was established that

there were no real significant differences in the path model for men and women.

Table 7-29: Invariance test for path model

Under 40 and 40 or older 7.8.2

7.8.2.1 Measurement model tests of invariance

Excellent leader

The two Excellent Leader components were tested at the three levels of invariance

testing. Those under 40 had satisfactory fit with a CFI score at an acceptable level

and the RMSEA at the cut-off point of 0.08, while those 40 and over had acceptable

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 38.87 14 0.00 0.99 0.073Women 32.28 12 0.00 0.99 0.071Factor Structure Equivalence

71.15 28 0.000 0.99 0.051Factor Loading Equivalence

90.61 41 0.000 0.99 0.045

Page 309: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 309

fits on both goodness of fit measures. The final two tests had acceptable results for

CFI and RMSEA and an insignificant change in CFI, detailed in Table 7-30.

Table 7-30: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model

CIB

CIB was tested across all invariance test levels. Initial differences were found with

the RMSEA, those 40 and Over were just below the acceptable fit cut off of 0.10;

however the CFI was acceptable for under 40, both measures were acceptable. Follow

on tests reported both acceptable CFI and RMSEA levels along with the changes in

CFI to claim that the two groups were invariant as detailed in Table 7-31.

Table 7-31: Invariance testing for CIB measurement model

Personal qualities

The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of

the invariance testing process, results showed acceptable CFI and RMSEA results and

there was no significant change in CFI, as detailed in Table 7-32.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 60.51 26 0.00 0.94 0.08040 and Over 68.60 26 0.00 0.95 0.065Factor Structure Equivalence

129.13 52 0.00 0.94 0.050Factor Loading Equivalence

148.58 59 0.00 0.93 0.051

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 132.00 44 0.00 0.91 0.09940 and Over 146.05 44 0.00 0.94 0.078Factor Structure Equivalence

278.15 88 0.00 0.93 0.061Factor Loading Equivalence

298.55 98 0.00 0.92 0.059

Page 310: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 310

Table 7-32: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model

Managerial behaviours

The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together and results reported in Table

7-33. In the initial comparative results both the CFI and RMSEA measures were

acceptable in the loose cross validation test. The following factor structure and factor

loading tests showed that both CFI and RMSEA and the associated changes in value

were at acceptable levels to deem the three components invariant across those under

40 and 40 and over.

Table 7-33: Invariance testing for managerial behaviours measurement model

Environmental influence

The two Environmental Influence components were tested together. In all three

phases of the invariance testing process, shown in Table 7-34, results were acceptable

for CFI and RMSEA results and changes in CFI, indicating the groups were invariant.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 65.39 43 0.02 0.95 0.05040 and Over 120.36 43 0.00 0.92 0.069Factor Structure Equivalence

185.76 86 0.00 0.93 0.044Factor Loading Equivalence

196.73 95 0.00 0.93 0.043

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 72.71 41 0.00 0.92 0.06140 and Over 81.51 41 0.00 0.95 0.051Factor Structure Equivalence

154.27 82 0.00 0.94 0.039Factor Loading Equivalence

167.58 90 0.00 0.94 0.038

Page 311: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 311

Table 7-34: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model

Organisational demand

The Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels, as detailed in Table

7-35. In the first instance, during the loose cross validation test, there was a noteable

difference between those under 40 and those over 40. Those under 40 had a better fit

to the data, including a non-significant p score, those over 40 had acceptable fit for

both CFI and RMSEA. In the remaining tests both the CFI and RMSEA values and

change in CFI were acceptable to indicate that the two groups were invariant.

Table 7-35: Invariance testing of the organisational demand measurement model

7.8.2.2 Composite measure t-tests

SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the

composite structures, as detailed in Table 7-36.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 27.48 19 0.09 0.97 0.04740 and Over 48.86 19 0.00 0.95 0.062Factor Structure Equivalence

74.34 38 0.00 0.96 0.040Factor Loading Equivalence

95.12 44 0.00 0.94 0.044

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 3.27 5 0.66 1.00 0.00040 and Over 17.11 5 0.04 0.96 0.080Factor Structure Equivalence

20.36 10 0.03 0.97 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence

25.35 14 0.03 0.97 0.037

Page 312: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 312

Table 7-36: Independent sample t-tests for -40 and 40+age groups

The tests showed that for all but one component in the model there was no significant

difference in mean values. The Relationship component had a significant difference.

The effect size was calculated and found to be below 0.10 in the case of Relationship,

indicating there was little to no effect from the mean difference. In all other cases the

effect size was well below the level of r = 0.1, indicating a negligible effect (Field

2009). Based upon this it was established that there were no significant differences in

the means of the composite variables for mangers under 40 and those 40 and older.

F Sig. Lower Upper

1.455 .228 -1.678 588 .094 -.06334 .03775 -.13747 .01080

-1.632 390 .104 -.06334 .03882 -.13966 .01298

8.757 .003 -0.717 588 .474 -.03266 .04557 -.12216 .05685

-0.678 361 .498 -.03266 .04816 -.12736 .06205

.218 .641 -2.668 588 .008 -.09347 .03503 -.16228 -.02467

-2.585 385 .010 -.09347 .03617 -.16458 -.02237

1.490 .223 -1.707 588 .088 -.07529 .04410 -.16190 .01132

-1.681 404 .094 -.07529 .04478 -.16333 .01275

.187 .665 -0.325 588 .745 -.01388 .04265 -.09765 .06989

-0.327 427 .744 -.01388 .04249 -.09740 .06964

.014 .905 -0.482 588 .630 -.02635 .05472 -.13383 .08113

-0.476 409 .634 -.02635 .05535 -.13516 .08245

.894 .345 -0.788 588 .431 -.04678 .05934 -.16333 .06977

-0.785 417 .433 -.04678 .05962 -.16398 .07043

.120 .729 -1.230 588 .219 -.06997 .05687 -.18168 .04173

-1.217 409 .224 -.06997 .05750 -.18300 .04305

.629 .428 -0.839 588 .402 -.04368 .05207 -.14595 .05859

-0.823 400 .411 -.04368 .05309 -.14804 .06068

.011 .917 -1.360 588 .174 -.05132 .03772 -.12541 .02277

-1.334 399 .183 -.05132 .03847 -.12696 .02431

.183 .669 -0.109 588 .913 -.00506 .04621 -.09582 .08571

-0.108 406 .914 -.00506 .04683 -.09712 .08701

Teamwork 0.056

CIB 0.005

Micro-Environment

0.032

Progressiveness 0.050

Decision Making 0.035

Respect 0.070

Organisational Demand

0.013

Macro-Environment

0.020

r

Organisational Leader

0.069

Visionary Leader

0.036

Relationship 0.109

Levene's t-test for Equality of Means

t dfS ig. (2-tailed)

Mean Diff.

Std. Error Diff.

IntervalTest

Page 313: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 313

7.8.2.3 Invariance tests for the final path model

Lastly, the invariance tests were again used to test the final path model in order to

determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table

7-37. The tests showed that the model fit well for managers 40 and over. Those under

40 had a higher RMSEA value above 0.08, but had an acceptable CFI result. At the

factor structure equivalence level and the factor loading level the fit indices and the

change in CFI were at acceptable levels to indicate the two groups were invariant.

Based upon the final path model invariance tests, the ascribed final model was still

invariant for both groups.

Table 7-37: Invariance test for path model

Degree or no degree 7.8.3

7.8.3.1 Measurement model tests of invariance

Excellent leader

The two Excellent Leader components, Visionary Leader and Organisational Leader,

were tested at the three levels of invariance testing. Those without a degree compared

with those with a degree, had acceptable CFI scores; however, the RMSEA score for

those with a degree was just outside a good fit, but still well above an acceptable fit.

The second and third tests showed that all groups had acceptable levels of fit and had

no significant change in CFI, detailed in Table 7-38. The groups were deemed

invariant.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 70.01 14 0.00 0.96 0.13940 and Over 33.91 14 0.02 0.99 0.061Factor Structure Equivalence

103.99 28 0.00 0.98 0.068Factor Loading Equivalence

124.13 41 0.00 0.98 0.059

Page 314: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 314

Table 7-38: Invariance testing of the excellent leader measurement model

CIB

The CIB category was tested across all three invariance test levels. The initial test had

acceptable levels for those with a degree and was at the cut-off point for an

acceptable fit for CFI and RMSEA. The follow on two invariance tests indicated that

both the CFI and the RMSEA were at acceptable levels to claim that the two groups

were invariant as detailed in Table 7-39.

Table 7-39: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model

Personal qualities

The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of

the invariance testing process, results showed acceptable levels of change in CFI and

in the CFI and RMSEA goodness of fit results, as detailed in Table 7-40. The two

groups were deemed invariant at the measurement model level.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 82.54 26 0.00 0.92 0.090Degree 62.07 26 0.00 0.94 0.069Factor Structure Equivalence

147.61 52 0.00 0.93 0.056Factor Loading Equivalence

160.89 59 0.00 0.93 0.054

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 167.32 44 0.00 0.89 0.100Degree 127.53 44 0.00 0.94 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence

294.87 88 0.00 0.92 0.063Factor Loading Equivalence

305.19 98 0.00 0.92 0.063

Page 315: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 315

Table 7-40: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model

Managerial behaviours

The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together. All three tests of goodness of

fit measures had acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA as was the change in CFI. All

tests indicated the groups were invariant for those with and without a degree, detailed

in Table 7-41.

Table 7-41: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model

Environmental influence

The two environmental influence components were tested together. In all three phases

of the invariance testing process, the results for the no degree and degree groups

showed acceptable CFI and RMSEA results as detailed in Table 7-42.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 79.68 43 0.00 0.94 0.056Degree 97.12 43 0.00 0.93 0.063Factor Structure Equivalence

176.80 86 0.00 0.94 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence

189.19 95 0.00 0.93 0.042

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 60.77 41 0.02 0.96 0.042Degree 82.28 41 0.00 0.94 0.056Factor Structure Equivalence

143.04 82 0.00 0.95 0.036Factor Loading Equivalence

153.24 90 0.00 0.95 0.035

Page 316: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 316

Table 7-42: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model

Organisational demand

The single Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels. As in similar

tests between groups without a degree and with a degree results supported that the

two groups were invariant, as detailed in Table 7-43.

Table 7-43: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model

As identified in the sections above, the three stage invariance testing of the No

Degree and Degree holding managers resulted in largely positive results towards the

two groups being invariant. Where discrepancies existed from the ascribed measures

of goodness of fit, they were minor.

7.8.3.2 Composite measure t-tests

SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the

composite structures for the two groups, as detailed in Table 7-44. The tests showed

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 41.74 19 0.00 0.95 0.067Degree 35.23 19 0.01 0.96 0.052Factor Structure Equivalence

76.97 38 0.00 0.95 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence

89.30 44 0.00 0.95 0.042

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 8.92 5 0.11 0.98 0.054Degree 5.49 5 0.36 1.00 0.018Factor Structure Equivalence

14.41 10 0.16 0.99 0.027Factor Loading Equivalence

22.90 14 0.06 0.98 0.033

Page 317: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 317

that for a majority of the components of excellence in managerial leadership there

was no real difference in mean values. However, Organisational Leader, Relationship

and Respect were found to be significantly different as the significance level was less

than 0.05. The effect size was calculated for these three. The effect size (r) was below

0.10 in all cases indicating negligible difference (Field 2009). Based upon this effect

size it was established that there were no real significant differences in the means of

the component variables for those with and without a degree.

Table 7-44: Independent sample t-tests for no degree and with a degree groups

F Sig. Lower Upper

2.351 .126 1.976 588 .049 .07135 .03612 .00042 .14229

1.994 587 .047 .07135 .03578 .00108 .14163

.144 .705 0.278 588 .781 .01212 .04366 -.07362 .09786

0.279 581 .780 .01212 .04345 -.07323 .09747

.010 .920 2.027 588 .043 .06818 .03363 .00212 .13423

2.042 585 .042 .06818 .03339 .00261 .13375

1.958 .162 2.268 588 .024 .09558 .04215 .01280 .17837

2.282 583 .023 .09558 .04189 .01330 .17787

2.646 .104 1.728 588 .084 .07043 .04075 -.00960 .15045

1.739 583 .083 .07043 .04051 -.00913 .14999

.029 .865 0.972 588 .332 .05089 .05237 -.05198 .15375

0.978 584 .328 .05089 .05203 -.05130 .15308

.430 .512 1.558 588 .120 .08841 .05674 -.02304 .19985

1.557 571 .120 .08841 .05680 -.02315 .19996

.395 .530 1.943 588 .053 .10562 .05436 -.00115 .21238

1.952 582 .051 .10562 .05410 -.00064 .21188

1.518 .218 1.935 588 .053 .09626 .04974 -.00142 .19395

1.948 584 .052 .09626 .04942 -.00081 .19333

.006 .938 -0.032 588 .974 -.00116 .03618 -.07222 .06991

-0.032 578 .974 -.00116 .03609 -.07204 .06972

1.734 .188 1.643 588 .101 .07254 .04416 -.01419 .15926

1.655 585 .098 .07254 .04383 -.01354 .15862

Teamwork 0.001

CIB 0.068

0.040

Micro-Environment

0.064

Progressiveness 0.080

Decision Making 0.080

Macro-Environment

Organisational Demand

0.071

Mean Diff.

Std. Error Diff.

Interval

r

Organisational Leader

0.081

Visionary Leader

t dfS ig. (2-tailed)

Test

0.011

Relationship 0.083

Respect 0.093

Levene's t-test for Equality of Means

Page 318: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 318

7.8.3.3 Invariance tests for the final path model

Lastly, the invariance tests were again used to test the final path model in order to

determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table

7-45. The tests showed that the model fit well for managers both without and with a

degree however, the RMSEA result was slightly outside of acceptable for those

without a degree. Given the small departure from acceptable fit it was decided that

this difference was not large enough to deem the groups variant and stop the

invariance testing process. In all instances of the further tests, the goodness of fit

measures presented at a good level and there was no change in the CFI level. The two

groups across the final path model were invariant.

Table 7-45: Invariance test for path model

First level managers and middle and senior manager groups 7.8.4

7.8.4.1 Measurement model tests of invariance

Excellent leader

The two Excellent Leader components were tested together at the three phases of

invariance testing. The first level had an acceptable goodness of fit for CFI and was

just slightly above a good fit for RMSEA, as detailed in Table 7-46. Middle and

senior managers had results that showed good fit. At the next two levels of invariance

testing good results emerged for both the goodness of fit measures and the change in

CFI, indicating that the two groups were invariant.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 64.15 14 0.00 0.97 0.115Degree 36.35 14 0.01 0.99 0.071Factor Structure Equivalence

100.51 28 0.00 0.98 0.066Factor Loading Equivalence

110.86 41 0.00 0.98 0.054

Page 319: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 319

Table 7-46: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model

CIB

The CIB component was tested across all three invariance test levels. The initial test

had acceptable levels of fit for first level managers. The RMSEA score for middle

and senior managers was above the good fit cut-off of 0.08, but below the bad fit of

0.10. The CFI measure was acceptable for both groups. The two follow on invariance

tests indicated that both the CFI and the RMSEA were at acceptable levels, as was the

change in CFI to claim that the two groups were invariant as detailed in Table 7-47.

Table 7-47: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model

Personal qualities

The two personal qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of the

invariance testing process, results showed acceptable levels of change in CFI and

acceptable results for CFI and RMSEA goodness of fit measures, as detailed in Table

7-48. The groups were invariant.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 78.63 26 0.00 0.92 0.085Middle and Senior level Manager 73.61 26 0.00 0.93 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence

152.24 52 0.00 0.93 0.057Factor Loading Equivalence

162.03 59 0.00 0.93 0.054

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 87.86 44 0.00 0.96 0.060Middle and Senior level Manager 174.05 44 0.00 0.90 0.098Factor Structure Equivalence

261.90 88 0.00 0.93 0.058Factor Loading Equivalence

271.56 98 0.00 0.93 0.055

Page 320: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 320

Table 7-48: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model

Managerial behaviours

The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together. In all three phases of

invariance testing acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA were found, as was the

change in CFI. All tests indicated the measurement model was invariant for first level

managers and senior and middle management positions as detailed in Table 7-49.

Table 7-49: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model

Environmental influence

The two Environmental Influence components were tested together. In all three

phases of the invariance testing process, results for both groups proved them to be

invariant regardless of level of managerial role as detailed in Table 7-50.

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 81.08 43 0.00 0.95 0.056Middle and Senior level Manager 121.90 43 0.00 0.89 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence

202.97 86 0.00 0.92 0.048Factor Loading Equivalence

210.03 95 0.00 0.92 0.045

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 71.42 41 0.00 0.95 0.052Middle and Senior level Manager 89.32 41 0.00 0.93 0.062Factor Structure Equivalence

160.74 82 0.00 0.94 0.040Factor Loading Equivalence

171.01 90 0.00 0.93 0.039

Page 321: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 321

Table 7-50: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model

Organisational demand

The single Organisational Demand category was tested in the three phases. In the first

instance, during the loose cross validation test there was a noticeable difference

between frontline and senior/middle managers. While frontline managers had very

satisfactory fit indices, including a non-significant p score, middle and senior

managers had an acceptable CFI result and an RMSEA measure that was above the

goodness of fit cut off of 0.10, as detailed in Table 7-51. This indicated the groups

did have some differences however, it was felt this was attributable to an indicator

variable and as it was the only instance of a departure it was further tested at the

factor structure and factor loading equivalence levels.

Table 7-51: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model

The measure was found to have acceptable results in both additional tests. Given that

this was the only measurement model that was found to have a higher RMSEA

measure, but still an acceptable CFI result at the loose cross validation level, there

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 40.78 19 0.00 0.95 0.064Middle and Senior level Manager 42.61 19 0.00 0.95 0.063Factor Structure Equivalence

83.45 38 0.00 0.95 0.045Factor Loading Equivalence

95.19 44 0.00 0.94 0.044

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 5.70 5 0.34 1.00 0.022Middle and Senior level Manager 24.78 5 0.00 0.91 0.113Factor Structure Equivalence

30.47 10 0.00 0.95 0.059Factor Loading Equivalence

33.61 14 0.02 0.95 0.049

Page 322: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 322

was a decision to proceed further given the complexity of the model and the

acceptable results across the other components. As identified in the sections above,

the three stage invariance testing of the frontline managers and the middle and senior

found the two groups to be invariant for all but one measure and given the proximity

to acceptable fit and successful further tests the groups were deemed invariant.

7.8.4.2 Composite measure t-tests

SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the

composite structures for the two groups, as detailed in Table 7-52.

Table 7-52: Independent sample t-tests for First level managers compared with

Middle and Senior Manager Groups

F Sig. Lower Upper

0.401 .527 -1.229 588 .219 -.04440 .03612 -.11535 .02654

-1.226 573 .221 -.04440 .03622 -.11555 .02675

.769 .381 -1.795 588 .073 -.07802 .04346 -.16337 .00734

-1.789 572 .074 -.07802 .04360 -.16366 .00763

.390 .532 -0.996 588 .320 -.03354 .03366 -.09964 .03257

-0.992 569 .321 -.03354 .03379 -.09991 .03284

.405 .525 -0.202 588 .840 -.00855 .04226 -.09154 .07444

-0.202 578 .840 -.00855 .04230 -.09164 .07453

.022 .881 1.448 588 .148 .05895 .04070 -.02099 .13889

1.451 585 .147 .05895 .04062 -.02082 .13872

.578 .447 0.524 588 .601 .02739 .05231 -.07534 .13012

0.523 579 .601 .02739 .05235 -.07543 .13022

.537 .464 -1.723 588 .085 -.09756 .05661 -.20875 .01363

-1.721 578 .086 -.09756 .05669 -.20890 .01378

.148 .701 -0.708 588 .479 -.03851 .05441 -.14537 .06835

-0.706 576 .480 -.03851 .05452 -.14559 .06857

.772 .380 0.413 588 .680 .02056 .04980 -.07723 .11836

0.412 578 .680 .02056 .04986 -.07736 .11849

.061 .805 -1.271 588 .204 -.04583 .03607 -.11667 .02500

-1.267 573 .206 -.04583 .03617 -.11688 .02521

.111 .739 -0.150 588 .881 -.00662 .04417 -.09338 .08014

-0.150 577 .881 -.00662 .04425 -.09352 .08028

Respect

Organisational Demand

Test

0.051

Visionary Leader

0.074

Relationship 0.041

0.017

Teamwork 0.052

0.008

0.060

CIB 0.006

Macro-Environment

0.022

Micro-Environment

0.071

Progressiveness 0.029

Std. Error Diff.

Interval

Levene's t-test for Equality of Means

t dfS ig. (2-tailed)

Mean Diff.

Decision Making

r

Organisational Leader

Page 323: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 323

The tests showed that for all components of managerial leadership there were no

significant differences in mean values. For the differences that were recorded, the

effect size in all cases was negligible, all well below the r = 0.1. level. Based upon

this result it was established that there were no real significant differences in the

means of the composite variables for managers at both levels of managerial role.

7.8.4.3 Invariance tests for the final path model

Lastly, the invariance tests were used to test the final path model in order to

determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table 7-

53. The tests showed that the model fit well for first level managers and also at

middle and senior manager levels. In all instances the goodness of fit measures were

at a good level and there was little change in the CFI level. The two groups across the

final path model were invariant.

Table 7-53: Invariance test for path model

7.9 Invariance testing hypothesis

The fourth research question set out to examine what group differences may exist

between different categories of Australian managers. As a multicultural nation where

freedom for all in society is an expectation and a highly held value, one would

initially connect this to mean that managerial leadership differences would be

χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 29.58 12 0.03 0.99 0.073Middle and Senior level Manager 27.19 12 0.07 0.99 0.064Factor Structure Equivalence

68.57 24 0.00 0.99 0.048Factor Loading Equivalence

73.32 39 0.00 0.99 0.039

Page 324: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 324

prevalent (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). However, despite

Australia’s strong commitment to egalitarianism, where all are equal despite

differences, it is Australia’s unique take on egalitarianism, associated with

‘sameness’, which is practiced in reality. This sense of sameness coupled with two

other strong cultural values, mateship and avoidance of tall poppies identified in

literature, and found in this study, to have a strong influence on the individual

perceptions of managers. (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994). This view was discussed in

the chapter 3 literature review and substantiated in the hypothesis development in

chapter 4. This informed position lead to the following hypothesis to be tested.

Hypothesis 3.0: The perception of Australian excellence in managerial leadership will

be perceived consistently across different managerial groups.

Four groups were investigated to examine the hypothesis. From a demographic

perspective gender and age were looked at. Gender is often viewed as a potential area

of difference in managerial leadership preferences. Those under the age of 40 and

those 40 and over can be looked at from a generational perspective. Those over 40 are

primarily baby boomers and Generation X, while those under 40 predominantly being

Generation Y and late-period Generation X (Salt 2007). As well, those below the age

of 40 were brought up in an age with greater levels of education, globalisation and

technology.

From a managerial categories perspective, two groups were selected those without a

degree and those with a degree. As managerial leadership research has identified

education does make for different types of managerial leaders (Bass 2008). Lastly,

people in different managerial roles may view excellence differently based on

responsibilities, to examine this, a decision was made to look at frontline or first level

managers compared with those in middle and senior management.

Page 325: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 7 – Analysis

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 325

The results indicate that while there are some minor differences at the loose cross

validation level, there are no significant differences at the Factor Structure and Factor

Loading Equivalence Tests. Across all of the tests completed departures are not

significantly different across the Measurement model tests, the t-tests of composites

and invariance testing on the final model. Indicating that across the four groups tested

Australian managers in this study can be considered invariant when it comes to the

perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership.

7.10 Chapter summary

The purpose of this chapter was to present the required analysis to address the

research questions and answer the hypotheses to complete this research study. In

quantitative research a rigorous and statistically accurate approach is required. This

chapter provided an overview of each of the required steps. Measurement models

were developed based on the hypothesised components and were tested through a

CFA process that examined goodness of fit and checked for validity in order to

answer the research questions and the associated hypotheses. Path analysis, a form of

structural equation modelling, using weighted average factor score composite

variables was completed in order to test the hypothesised model and was refined in

order to answer the second and third research questions.

The final research question related to exploring different groups of managers. An

extensive invariance testing process was performed at three levels on the

measurement model; the means of the composite variables; and finally at three levels

on the path model. The tests resulted in no significant group differences emerging.

These results will be discussed in the next chapter along with a discussion on the

contributions, limitations and future research resulting from this research project.

Page 326: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 326

8. Discussion and conclusion

8.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter the primary analysis was completed and a review of the

results compared to the hypotheses provided. The purpose of this chapter will be to

provide a discussion of the findings and discussion of the results of the research study

as detailed in Figure 8-1.

Figure 8-1: Chapter overview

This chapter firstly provides an overview of the contributions of the study and revisits

the results of the hypotheses testing. This is followed by a more detailed review of the

research questions alongside the associated hypotheses and results. Next, a discussion

Discussion & Conclusion

Contributions

Overview

Research Question 1Enabling Creativity & Innovation

Research Question 2 Managerial Leadership 

Components & relationships

Research Question 3Australian Excellence in Managerial Leadership& Importance of CIB

Research Question 4Managerial Group Differences

Theoretical Contributions

Managerial Implications

Limitations of the Research

Future Research

Conclusion

Page 327: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 327

on the theoretical contributions and managerial implications of this research study are

presented. Lastly, will be a discussion on limitations of the research study and future

directions for related research.

The major outcomes from this thesis are summarised as follows:

1. A new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours that enable

creativity and innovation and associated scale that allowed for the quantitative

examination of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours alongside other

managerial leadership behavioural categories.

2. Support for the inclusion of the CIB category in the APEL framework as a

category of excellence in managerial leadership as perceived by Australian

managers.

3. An extended APEL model that incorporated managerial leadership behaviours

associated with enabling creativity and innovation, a part of change-oriented

leadership.

4. An increased understanding of how managerial leadership behaviour

categories influence CIB related behaviours and how CIB relates to

excellence in managerial leadership in Australia.

5. The establishment of an Australian model of managerial perceptions of

excellence in leadership

6. An exploratory study that combined behavioural theory, leading for change

and innovation and EMIC assessments of Australian managerial behaviours.

In order to achieve these contributions the exploratory study was completed on a

sample of Australian managers, across a variety of demographic categories and

managerial characteristics. Utilising leadership theories, cultural studies and existing

understanding of Australian management, a profile of Australian managerial

leadership based on the APEL framework was hypothesised and tested as

summarised in Table 8-1. 13 components were proposed within this framework. They

encompassed the four primary managerial leadership categories, the Excellent Leader

Page 328: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 328

category and the newly established CIB category. Of the 13 components, 11 proved

to be present and contributed to Australian excellence in managerial leadership.

Table 8-1: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile

Hypothesised Leadership Components CFA

Excellent Leader

H1.1: Visionary Leader Supported

H1.2: Organisational Leader Supported

Personal Qualities

H1.3: Relationship Supported

H1.4: Respect Supported

H1.5: Integrity Not Supported

Organisational Demand

H1.6: Organisational Demand Supported

Environmental Influence

H1.7: Macro-Environment Supported

H1.8: Micro-Environment Supported

Managerial Behaviours

H1.9: Progressiveness Supported

H1.10: Decision Making Supported

H1.11: Teamwork Supported

H1.12: Officious Not Supported

Creativity & Innovation Enabling Behaviours

H1.13: CIB Supported

The hypothesised relationships between the components of Australian managerial

leadership and the CIB scale and the Excellent Leader categories were the next series

of hypotheses tested as detailed in Table 8-2. A majority of the hypothesis were

supported and the hypothesised model was adapted in order to achieve acceptable

model fit.

Page 329: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 329

Table 8-2: Hypothesised relationships

Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight

Standardized Total Effect

Supported

Relationship

2.1 Relationship → Visionary Leader 0.19 0.26 Yes

2.2 Relationship → CIB 0.17 0.17 Yes

Unhypothesised Results

Relationship → Organisational Leader 0.38 0.40

Respect

2.3 Respect → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.04 No

2.4 Respect → CIB 0..12 0.12 Yes

Unhypothesised Results

Respect → Organisational Leader 0.14 0.19

MacroEnvironment

2.7 Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader 0.10 0.15 Yes

2.8 Macro-Enviro → CIB 0.13 0.13 Yes

Unhypothesised Results

Macro-Enviro → Organisational Leader -0.10 -0.05

MicroEnvironment

2.9 Micro-Enviro → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No

2.10 Micro-Enviro → CIB 0.23 0.24 Yes

Decision Making

2.11 Decision Making → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.00 No

Teamwork

2.12 Teamwork → Organisational Leader 0.21 0.25 Yes

2.13 Teamwork → CIB 0.00 0.00 No

Progressiveness

2.15 Progressiveness → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.05 No

2.16 Progressiveness → CIB 0.14 0.14 Yes

Organisational Demand

2.17 Org Demand → Visionary Leader 0.18 0..27 Yes

2.18 Org Demand → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No

2.19 Org Demand → CIB 0.24 0.24 Yes

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours

2.20 CIB → Visionary Leader 0.38 0.38 Yes

2.21 CIB → Organisational Leader 0.39 0.39 Yes

The final hypothesis related to the influence of EMIC level cultural values in

Australia, such as egalitarianism and mateship, driving similar views on managerial

Page 330: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 330

leadership across different managerial groups, which was supported and will be

discussed in detail later in this chapter.

8.2 Research question 1 – Categorisation of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation

In this study, the original APEL framework categorisation of managerial behaviours

was utilised as an artefact to categorise the range of behaviours associated with

enabling creativity and innovation. The CIB behaviours as described in chapters 2

and 4 were examined in the context of three of the four primary categories of the

APEL model (Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational

Demand), reflecting the APEL conceptual approach. These behaviours represent

more specific actions on the part of the manager with a clear outcome that should

move organisational members, their departments and the organisation as a whole to

embrace innovation and creative efforts as part of efforts towards change. The

behaviours are largely associated with the change leadership metacategory firstly

identified by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) and Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002).

Once categorised behaviours were identified across the extant literature and an

abbreviated scale, including behaviours from all three categories, was proposed in

order to examine the strength of the categorisation and the validity of the new

measure. The new scale was first validated with a separate sample, showed strong

reliability with a Cronbach alpha of .97. Equally impressive were the factor loadings.

In the EFA, all 15 behaviours loaded on a single factor and had a loading between

0.90 and 0.80 approximately, considered ideal to use (Hair et al. 2006). The EFA on

the main data set also showed positive results, with a Cronbach alpha of .92. Again

all 15 behaviours loaded on a single factor with 5 having loadings greater than or

equal to .70, considered ideal, while the remainder had a factor loading of

approximately 0.60 or higher, considered statistically significant (Hair et al. 2006).

Page 331: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 331

Initial tests in the CFA process found all had acceptable loadings of a similar nature,

while the goodness of fit measures was initially unacceptable. After removing four

indicator variables, acceptable fit was achieved on a single factor with the remaining

11 indicator variables, all statistically significant. As discussed in earlier chapters and

indicated in the analysis, validity for the new scale was demonstrated. The inclusion

of a large number of behaviours on a single scale, considering parsimony is

acceptable and necessary given the context of cultural modelling used in this study

(Hair et al. 2006). The cultural modelling that the APEL framework is based on

means a more robust construct is needed (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The category must

be able to account for cultural variation which is necessary to build a culturally

relevant construct, where some behaviours may be more important than others. This

approach leads to a culturally relevant category being developed.

With respect to the CIB behaviours themselves in an Australian context, the most

important behaviours relating to the overall model were “recognise and acknowledge

all individual subordinates for their efforts” a personal quality related behaviour

(ranked 11th); and “bring diverse skills, education and experience into the

organisation”, an organisational demand related behaviour (ranked 19th). These two

behaviours were in the top 20 most important behaviours for Australian managers.

The next two most important CIB behaviours “encourage employees to consider

alternative ideas, information and solutions” and “ensure subordinates share ideas and

knowledge across the organisation” were viewed as managerial behaviours and both

are in the top 30 behaviours in the model. These top four behaviours were classified

as relating to all three influences on a managers’ leadership practices. The emphasis

of Australian managers on these CIB behaviours reflects aspects of the cultural

constraint of mateship, where a relationship needs to exist that shows respect, but

allows for challenge and leads to all people being treated equally (Duarte 2008). This

is supported in the LMX leadership theory where a positive relationship leads to

greater ability to challenge subordinates (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Tierney, Farmer &

Graen 1999). This categorisation and the scale will be discussed from a theoretical

Page 332: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 332

and managerial contribution perspective later in this chapter as well as the limitations

of its development and future research opportunities in the associated sections.

8.3 Research question 2 - Australian managerial leadership components

The following section begins the discussion on the second research question and the

hypothesised components of Australian managerial leadership that were identified

within the context of the APEL model that took into account the theoretical and

cultural understanding of Australian managerial leadership.

Excellent leader 8.3.1

The Excellent Leader category reflects behaviours that have been ranked as most

important across the APEL categories (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The nine behaviours

which make up the two components were again highly ranked, with “Being Honest”

as the most important behaviour statement to Australian managers in the study. Four

of the five Organisational Leader statements were included in the top ten behaviours

and two of the Visionary Leader variables were in the top 20. In total seven of the

nine behaviours relating to Excellent Leader were included in the top ten most

important. The results reflect that the categorisation of these groupings of behaviours

as relating to Excellent Leader is again supported. The behaviours as categorised also

have strong connections to other hierarchical categorisations of leadership universals.

Contextualising this category within the four leadership metacategories (change

leadership, task, relationship and external), found that only two significant streams

could be identified, a Visionary component and a more Organisational component

(Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). Taken together the Organisational Leader component

includes task-focused behaviours and relationship-oriented behaviours, while the

Visionary Leader component represents the change leadership metacategory. The

Visionary component clearly relates to transformational leadership or charismatic

Page 333: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 333

leadership as described respectively by Bass (1985) and in the GLOBE study (House

et al. 2004). Charismatic leadership was the highest ranked culturally endorsed

leadership theory dimension (CLT) for Australia in the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy

2007). The Organisational Leader component as defined reflects supportive and

collaborative behaviours as defined in GLOBE as part of team oriented behaviour,

ranked second most important of the CLTs for Australian managers. Organisational

Leader also includes indicators that relate to more task oriented or organisational

work related behaviours (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).

The hypothesised components of Excellent Leader were supported in this study. The

two, while having a strong correlation, still remain distinct and illustrates how being

an Excellent Leader is perceived in Australia. Australian studies have indicated that

being strategic is important as well as maintaining the cultural constraints of mateship

when leading, supporting this result are works of Ashkanasy (2007), Barraclough &

Company (1995), Irwin (1996), Sarros et al. (2011) and Sarros et al. (1992).

Australian managerial leadership requires more than being strategic, the need to

appease subordinates and ensure work and tasks progress as planned is also a

principal focus, exceeding the visionary focus in terms of importance to the managers

in this study.

Personal qualities 8.3.2

The Personal Qualities components that were proposed for Australian managerial

excellence in leadership consisted of three factors, Respect, Relationships and

Integrity. Respect in Australia is built on egalitarianism, arguably Australia’s most

cherished value, given that all managers are expected to treat subordinates equally

and with respect (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007; Thompson

1994). To show respect was clearly identified in the cultural imprint studies as

essential in order to increase motivation of employees and as a key aspect of people

skills in the Enterprising Nation study (Australian Quality Council 1994; Barraclough

Page 334: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 334

& Company 1995). In the Respect category the most important behaviour was

“respect the self-esteem of others”.

The people skills category in the Enterprising Nation study includes behaviours

associated with the Relationship component (Barraclough & Company 1995). The

behaviours are closely aligned with relationship establishment and maintenance and

are used as a tool by managers to be clear in communication, attitude and support for

employees. These relationship building efforts fit with the GLOBE assessment of

Australian managers needing to reflect mateship values with subordinates (Ashkanasy

2007). From a managerial leadership theory perspective, it provides re-enforcement

of the importance of a manager having a relationship with their subordinates

associated with LMX theory (Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999). The importance of the

Relationship component is related to being transformational and connecting people

with the vision and strategy set forth by organisational leadership. The most

important behaviours associated with this component reflect the foundation of a

trusting and supportive relationship between subordinates and managers, with “be

dependent and trustworthy” tied with “Being Honest” for the most important

behaviour in the study. This component in fact had a total of six behaviours in the top

20 most important behaviours, highlighting the importance of Relationships to

Australian managers, reflecting the unique requirement of mateship. When a manager

acts as a mate they gain respect and buy-in to achieve organisational objectives,

without a relationship this would prove to be difficult in Australia.

Integrity was initially hypothesised to be present, but could not be supported in the

CFA stage of analysis. This component of Personal Qualities was initially

hypothesised based on the studies that identified these characteristics as important

strengths of Australian managers (Australian Institute of Management 2012;

Barraclough & Company 1995; Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian

APEC Studies Centre 2001). The data however did not support its inclusion with the

factor loadings of many of these behaviours being low indicating that they may have

Page 335: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 335

been influencing other components in the profiling of Australian managerial

leadership. The component was removed from consideration in the model at the CFA

stage of analysis. Arguments made by Yukl (2012) state that managerial leadership

behaviours are difficult to categorise because leadership behaviours are not singular

in nature and impact is felt across categorisations (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). This may

be the case with the behaviours in the Integrity component.

The two components of Personal Qualities that were supported had strong correlation

as expected given the two go hand in hand. Establishing respect in order to have

relationships and the importance of a relationship to respect explains the association

between the two components. Australian managers in this study recognise that they

must show respect to all and establish relationships across the organisation to achieve

both organisational commitment and support for the organisational vision.

Organisational demand 8.3.3

Organisational Demand was initially proposed and found to be a singular category in

this profile of Australian managers. The category has been found to be represented by

a single component in nearly all studies using the APEL framework across cultures,

reflecting the organisationally driven direction and influences on a manager

(Selvarajah et al. 1995). In the case of Australian managers in this study, this category

had significant loadings, though they were not that large, and several behaviours were

ranked lower, in particular “give priority to long term goals” and “sharing power”.

These lower rankings provide evidence to support early studies that found Australian

managers to be less visionary and more bureaucratic (Barraclough & Company 1995;

Byrt & Masters 1974; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984).

At the other end of the spectrum, those behaviours that ranked highly do indicate that

Australian managers are in fact reflecting more of what is expected of them in terms

of leadership with “act as a member of a team” both ranking highly and reflecting

Page 336: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 336

Visionary and Team oriented attributes that are looked upon highly in Australia

(Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Institute of Management 2012; Irwin 1996).

Managerial behaviours 8.3.4

The Managerial Behaviour Category was hypothesised to have four components,

representing the behaviours associated with accomplishing work, maintaining

organisational effectiveness and managerial control. As established by Ashkanasy

(2007) and Irwin (1996), being egalitarian in accomplishing managerial tasks can be

done through applying a Teamwork approach. The teamwork approach is illustrated

by behaviours associated with supporting social justice, providing independence and

support to subordinates. Australia’s low power distance and higher individualism

scores in the GLOBE study also supported the Teamwork component being present

(Ashkanasy 2007). Upon completion of the CFA analysis this component proved to

be present and was highlighted by the most important behaviours of “be objective

when dealing with work conflicts” (fifth most important behaviour) and “be

consistent in making decisions” (13th most important). These behaviours highlight the

need for an Australian manager to be both fair and consistent. Being fair is associated

with egalitarianism and being consistent fits with the need for a manager to be

steadfast, dependable and reliable (Ashkanasy 2007; Irwin 1996). The importance of

having this consistency by Australian managers in this study relates to the findings of

Irwin (1996) who identified the preference of a consistent manager to a good leader,

as a good leader may be too intrusive and involve too much engagement, which is

less preferred by many Australian workers.

The Progressiveness component was proposed as a newly identified component that

has developed out of the observed increase in management education in Australia

over the last 30 years. Managerial education has been emphasised as a way to address

shortcomings in Australian organisational leaders (Karpin 1995b; Ralph 1982).

During this time, and supported by the figures reported by the ABS (2007b, 2012b),

Australian managers have been increasing their educational engagement. The result

Page 337: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 337

of this increased educational engagement was expected to reflect an increase in new

practices and approaches which this study categorised as Progressiveness. The results

indicate that although this component is present, it is of limited importance based

upon the ranking of behaviours. The highest ranking behaviour “try different

approaches to management” falling into the 38th most important behaviour,

approximately in the middle of all behaviours. This reflects that the Australian

managers in this study, while engaging in more education and willing to act

differently, have not necessarily translated new managerial leadership approaches in

to regularly acting in a transformational manner or in their overall approach to

managing organisations.

The Decision Making component was hypothesised as being present, based largely on

the traditional view of managers in Australia being pragmatic or bureaucratic

(Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Lansbury & Spillane 1991;

West & Murphy 2007). As well, being a decision maker is firmly rooted in the

expected actions of both leaders and managers (Zaleznik 2004). This component was

supported in the CFA process with “make decisions earlier rather than later” being

the most important behaviour, again ranked in the middle (33rd most important).

Given the low ranking of behaviours in this component it could be indicating that

while not always a preferred way to lead, Australian managers still maintain decision

making behaviours in terms of management in order to facilitate completion of work

and achieve organisational objectives.

The forth component proposed was Officious and was not supported by the data. It

was hypothesised to be present based on older assessments of Australian managers

behaving in a manner associated with being strict and domineering. This was

identified in studies such as in the Enterprising Nation study, the cultural imprint

studies and early assessments of Australian managers (Australian Quality Council

1994; Karpin 1995b; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). The original cultural imprint

study, characterised Australian managers as being inflexible and rigid, autocratic and

Page 338: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 338

characterised managers as task masters (Australian Quality Council 1994). This

component was not supported by the data in the CFA process. The lack of support for

this component may indicate a shift occurring within Australian management away

from this style of managerial leadership found in older assessments which were quite

critical of Australian managerial leadership skills. Given efforts by government,

educational institutions, professional organisations and the businesses and managers

themselves to better understand leadership, as discussed in the Progressiveness

component, there may have been a shift away from this type of management. Along

with this shift the recognition that managerial leadership requires less heavy-handed

tactics and more visionary and supportive strategies.

Together the three components of Managerial Behaviours had acceptable

|correlations, with Teamwork and Progressiveness being strongly related and

associated with positive outcomes. Although the association between these two

components and Decision Making was weaker, it was still positive and acceptable

reflecting that the Decision Making responsibility cannot be removed from a

managers’ purview, especially when dealing with bringing together organisational

objectives, work requirements and people management.

Environmental influence 8.3.5

The hypothesised Environmental Influence category had two components,

Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment. Macro-Environment represented the

larger external environment that relates to society at large, the global community and

includes external cultural influence. The presence of this component was proposed

based on the diverse and shifting trading partners of Australia, the recognised need

for managers and organisations to think and act globally and the demographics of

Australia becoming more multicultural (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force

2012; Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c; Karpin 1995b; Mascitelli & Tinney

2013). The Micro-Environment relates to industry specific or industry related external

influences on the organisations. Recognised by government and industry bodies,

Page 339: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 339

Australian organisations have been interested in maintaining competitive advantage

and achieving productivity gains through efforts such as adopting new technologies

when identified (Australian Industry Group 2013; Department of Foreign Affairs &

Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).

The analysis supported the inclusion of both components for Environmental

Influence. The Macro-Environment component had all behaviours ranking fairly low

in importance in the bottom half of behaviours, with “Identifying social trends which

may have an impact on work” being the most important, ranked 44th, and also

included the least important behaviour identified by Australian managers, “foster an

international perspective in the organisation”. The low rankings of these behaviours

provide further support that Australian managers may not emphasise reflection on the

global environment, as identified as far back as the Enterprising Nation study of 1995

and again identified recently in the Australian government white paper on the Asian

century (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Karpin 1995b).

The Micro-Environment component behaviours were also largely in the bottom half

of important behaviours, though ranked higher than the Macro-Environment

behaviours. The most important of these behaviours was “check constantly for

problems and opportunities” (ranked 32nd). The average to low rankings of

behaviours in this category are possibly a sign that the importance of productivity

gains have fallen from earlier levels of importance, as industry reports suggest

(Australian Industry Group 2013). The two components were correlated showing the

connection between both aspects of looking at the external environment.

Importance of each Australian managerial leadership component 8.3.6

In terms of the overall importance of the 11 different measures of excellence in

managerial leadership, Organisational Leader was the most important. This was

followed by Relationships, Teamwork, Visionary Leader and finally Respect to round

out the top five most important components, as detailed in Table 8-3. CIB was ranked

Page 340: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 340

sixth, while Organisational Demand was ranked seventh. The least important

components in order were Macro-Environment, Progressiveness, Decision Making

and Micro-Environment.

Table 8-3: Importance of excellence in leadership components and CIB category

Rank Leadership Component APEL Category Mean

1 Organisational Leader Excellent Leader 4.48

2 Relationship Personal Qualities 4.37

3 Teamwork Managerial Behaviours 4.31

4 Visionary Leader Excellent Leader 4.28

5 Respect Personal Qualities 4.26

6 CIB CIB 4.04

7 Organisational Demand Organisational Demand 3.97

8 Micro-Environment Environmental Influence 3.86

9 Decision Making Managerial Behaviours 3.79

10 Progressiveness Managerial Behaviours 3.73

11 Macro-Environment Environmental Influence 3.63

The importance of Organisational Leader reflects the overarching emphasis of

Australian managers in this study on ensuring that people and required work are

looked after, resulting in a highly functioning organisation. The results support

findings from the cultural imprint studies that indicated that the preferred type of

manager is a good boss who acted in a role as a captain coach, allowing for work to

be completed and support to be given to subordinates (Australian Quality Council

1994; Irwin 1996). The GLOBE study found Australians emphasis on the Team

Oriented CLT dimension was second strongest and in this research study the Team

Oriented CLT connected to the Organisational Leader component (Ashkanasy 2007).

The Performance Orientation dimension of GLOBE, allocated to the Charismatic

CLT in GLOBE, was third most important and also aligned strongly with the

Organisational Leader component in this study.

The importance of Visionary Leader reflects the established emphasis on

transformational leadership which has become arguably the most accepted leadership

Page 341: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 341

universal (Bass 2008; Yukl 2010). Australian managers who have engaged in

education, training courses or have followed mainstream business publications will

have encountered a significant endorsement that being transformational, visionary or

charismatic is one of the most important aspects of being a leader. This viewpoint is

supported by the dominance of the Charismatic CLT for Australian managers found

in the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy 2007).

This research study asked about the importance of managerial leadership behaviours

from a forward looking perspective by asking “to be an excellent leader in your

organisation, how important is it to be” followed by the leadership behaviour

statements. Organisational Leader, as defined in this study related more to task and

people management as opposed to the change-inspiring Visionary Leader. The results

of this research study indicate that a distinction still exists for Australian managers

when considering leadership and management respectively. Where the functional, or

managerial, aspects associated with Organisational Leader take precedence over the

transformational aspects of being a Visionary Leader. This result indicates that

cultural values around ensuring mateship; avoiding tall poppy syndrome; and

minimising the ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude may be constraints to higher level strategic

leadership associated with Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008).

Australian culture has been identified as emphasising egalitarian values, beliefs and

practices (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy

2003). This is clearly identified and present in the other highest ranking categories,

Relationships, Teamwork and Respect. All of these components relate to being

egalitarian, emphasising the culture dimensions of low power distance; high

individualism, high gender egalitarianism and high humane orientation (Ashkanasy

2007; Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts & Kennedy 2000). Based on the results and

identified cultural dimensions, Australian society may be viewed as one which highly

values strong working relationships built on trust, respect and independence. All three

components also reflect the values associated with Mateship, a cornerstone of

Page 342: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 342

Australian society and organisational culture (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; West &

Murphy 2007). Mateship and associated concepts of supporting one another,

achieving mutual benefit and being loyal may be viewed as impossible to separate

from the Australian psyche. Mateship is arguably the second most fundamental

cultural value, beside egalitarianism, found in the Australian culture. Together these

components create positive supporting relationships with the manager and between

subordinates, where managers are recognised as supportive, trustworthy and

respectful, absolutely necessary for Australian organisations to function effectively.

The low ranking components associated with the Environmental Influence category

found in this study are also supported by the existing understanding of Australian

culture. There has been considerable critique of Australian organisations and

managers needing to be more focused on the external environment, including finding

ways of increasing productivity, acting globally, and embracing and interacting with

new and emerging markets (Alomes 2012; Australia in the Asian Century Task Force

2012; Australian Industry Group 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia

2011b; Karpin 1995b; McNair Anderson Associates 1981). Clearly the presence of

these components highlights the recognition on the part of Australian managers that it

is fundamental to look at the external environment to be an excellent managerial

leader. The lower level of importance though, may signify the slow process involved

in shifting the mindset of Australian managers. If a strong emphasis on the

Environmental Influence components were present it would go against the historic

perspective that Australian organisations have largely played as exporters of

commodities with value added activity occurring in other nations (Mascitelli &

Tinney 2013). Alongside this, both geographic and psychic distances are present

when examining the trading relationships of Australian businesses. The fact that these

components are still found to be present though highlights the growing recognition

and distancing from former negative assessments of Australian managers and

organisations when it comes to following cues from the external environment.

Page 343: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 343

The emergence of the Progressiveness component highlights the shifts in skills of the

nation’s organisational leaders. Managerial education, having been identified as the

major issue needing to be addressed for several decades, shows that development and

advancement in managerial practices is being made (Innovation & Business Skills

Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). The identification of the

Progressiveness component provides evidence that efforts by Australian educational

institutions and management supporting organisations, like the Australian Institute of

Management and the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, are working to

serve organisational needs and ensure economic sustainability. Progressiveness

having emerged as a component of Australian excellence in managerial leadership

provides evidence that the perception of managerial leadership needs to be studied

continually and efforts to shift practices, behaviours and values need ongoing

investigation. Its lower ranking does indicate that while important it is not the most

relevant way to behave for managers in this study.

Similarly, the low ranking of the Decision Making component highlights a shift away

from Australian managers acting as authoritarian or as task masters, long identified as

a negative attribute of Australian managers (Australian Quality Council 1994;

Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a;

Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). The presence of this

component would be expected to be present given the inability to separate the

traditional role of managers and the parallel actions of being a leader. Within this

study, its low ranking could be considered a sign that Australian managers are

downplaying emphasis of this role.

The CIB category is the sixth most important, in between Respect and Organisational

Demand. The behaviours in the CIB category reflect a range of behaviours that when

enacted will result in increased creative and innovative output from staff, departments

and organisations as a whole. The CIB category importance to the Australian

managers included in this sample provides support that enabling creativity and

Page 344: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 344

innovation is an aspect of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia. This

support helps answer the research question as to where these behaviours fit in the

context of excellence in managerial leadership.

The fact that the CIB category of behaviours were newly added to the model and

regarded as more important than other categories highlights how managerial

leadership and the necessary behaviours to be a leader adapt and change over time.

The original APEL behaviours were established in the early to mid-nineties and were

based on established literature available at the time (Selvarajah et al. 1995). In the

approximately twenty years since the APEL behaviours were identified and

instrument established there has been significant change occur through globalisation,

development of new technologies and new industries. Similarly, leadership research

has progressed providing evidence that additional behaviours are required to be added

for evaluation when it comes to understanding excellence in managerial leadership.

Having added to the model a clearly defined and well researched category, the

behaviours included appear to be both relevant and important to Australian managers.

Australia itself has faced significant changes on an economic and business front since

the economy began liberalising 40 years ago, having gone from a protected economy

to being one of the most open and prominent promoters of free trade. It has floated its

currency and added to its trading partners in order to take advantage of its natural

endowments and increased technological advancement to be one of the top twenty

economies in the world (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Given these significant changes,

it is obvious that managers in this nation’s organisations would view behaviours

associated with Change leadership as important.

In looking at the GLOBE findings on leadership specifically for Australia, the results

include many high ranking leadership dimensions that would suggest that the CIB

category would be present, including Inspirational, Visionary, Diplomatic,

Collaborative, Team Oriented and Humane, largely associated with the CLT positive

Page 345: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 345

universals of Charismatic Leadership and Team Oriented Leadership (Ashkanasy

2007). The inclusion of the CIB category into the model indicates that its proposed

inclusion as a part of excellence in managerial leadership was appropriate for

Australia and found in this sample to be relevant to excellence in leadership.

Overall the Australian managerial perspective of Excellence in Managerial

Leadership reported in this study is supportive of existing literature and provides

evidence that the leadership mind-sets of Australian managers are changing and have

evolved away from past negative views of Australian organisational management.

Other recent and ongoing assessments, by the Australia Institute of Management

(2012, 2013), support this finding that Australian managers are recognising their

strengths alongside weaknesses and addressing them in order to maximise

effectiveness as leaders in the changing environment in which they operate. Had the

expanded APEL model been applied twenty years ago in Australia, it is unclear if

these particular components would have emerged, based on what was then known.

However, from this sample, it is clear that Australia’s modern managers have a

profile sufficiently different from early assessments as bureaucratic, autocratic and

closed off from the world around them (Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984).

8.4 Research question 2 - Australian excellence in managerial leadership and associated relationships

Initially there were 21 hypothesised relationships in this study connecting the

independent variables to the dependent variables of CIB and the two components of

Excellent Leader. However, three relationships were not possible to test after

completing the measurement model analysis using CFA, which resulted in 18

relationships to be examined.

Page 346: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 346

Relationships to visionary leader 8.4.1

Visionary Leader was a component of the Excellent Leader category in this study. It

was associated with the change metacategory where strategic leadership takes on a

transformational role and a connection between the organisational strategies, goals

and the employees is established. The inclusion of this component would enable

managers to achieve these larger goals, in particular towards change. The

relationships that were hypothesised and emerged in this study of Australian

managerial leadership with respect to Visionary Leader are summarised in Table 8-4.

Table 8-4: Hypothesised relationships to visionary leader

Visionary Leader Relationships Relationship

Relationship → Visionary Leader Supported

Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader Supported

CIB → Visionary Leader Supported

Org Demand → Visionary Leader Supported

Progressiveness → Visionary Leader Not supported

Respect → Visionary Leader Not supported

Supported relationships

All but two of the hypothesised relationships were supported in examining the data

and finalising the model. The Relationship component was felt to connect to

Visionary Leader. This was in large part due to the earlier noted fact that in order to

connect employees to the strategic objectives and push them forward in committing

to the organisation, a manager would need to engage in behaviours associated with

transformational leadership requiring a relationship and identified as necessary for

Australian organisations (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Quality Council 1994; Bass

1990b; Densten & Sarros 2012; Parry 1996; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Stewart

2006; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).

The presence of this relationship confirms that Australian managers do use

relationships as an aspect of Visionary Leader.

Page 347: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 347

The connection between the Macro-Environment and Visionary Leader was also

found to be supported. The cues from the external environment to adapt and change

are paramount for a manager to be aware of and utilise (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002;

Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). More and more the external environment is being identified

as an area that managers need to focus on in Australia (Australia in the Asian Century

Task Force 2012; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a). The

managers in this sample are indeed connecting the external environment influenced

by globalisation to connect to merge with vision and strategy.

Lastly, the Organisational Demand to Visionary Leader relationship was supported.

This relationship brings together the managers’ commitment to the organisation and

communicates that through to the employees by their actions. As stated before, this is

key in transformational leadership. These results are supported by findings from the

GLOBE study and from assessments of Australian managers skills that identify

charismatic and transformational leadership as being present (Ashkanasy 2007;

Australian Institute of Management 2012).

Unsupported relationships

The relationship between Progressiveness and Visionary Leader was not supported in

this study. The nature of acting progressively as a manager is a skill that should result

in transformational successes and it was felt that it would be a component that relates

directly to Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Barraclough & Company 1995).

Further support for this is found in the educational push that the Australian

government has promoted to managers for many years (Karpin 1995b; Ralph 1982).

From the statistics measuring educational engagement, the ongoing concern over this

and the availability of educational programs, both formal and informal in Australia,

evidence indicated that it would directly relate to the Excellent Leader category

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b; Australian Graduate School of Management

et al. 1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013; Innovation & Business Skills

Australia 2011b; Sarros et al. 1992). While the Progressiveness component failed to

Page 348: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 348

directly show up, it was indirectly present through a mediating relationship with the

CIB category, to be discussed next.

The lack of relationship could be related to the diversity of managers and industry in

the sample, where new approaches to management may be both viewed as

unnecessary and lead to potential dissatisfaction among employees (Australian

Quality Council 1994; Duarte 2008; Irwin 1996; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003;

Peeters 2004; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). However, the fact that it still has a direct

connection to the mediating category of CIB indicates that it is present and Australian

managers will use progressive behaviours when working towards achieving change

and innovation.

One of the most interesting findings was the lack of relationship between Respect to

Visionary Leader. Given the Australian belief in egalitarianism and the presence of

low power distance, high individualism and believe in supportive and team related

managerial behaviours and the strong support for charismatic and transformational

leadership, it was expected to be a component related to Visionary Leader

(Ashkanasy 2007; Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003;

West & Murphy 2007). Respect did have a relationship with Organisational Leader

that may explain as to why this relationship was not supported to be discussed in

Section 8.4.2.

Relationships to organisational leader 8.4.2

Organisational Leader associated with the Excellent Leader category in this study was

related to looking after the required tasks and providing positive support for the

subordinates engaged in the work. Based upon this understanding several components

associated with Australian managerial leadership were hypothesised to have a direct,

positive relationship to Organisational Leader as summarised in Table 8-5. However,

Page 349: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 349

through the analysis process some of the hypothesised relationships were not

supported and others were discovered.

Table 8-5: Hypothesised relationships to organisational leader

Organisational Leader Relationships Relationship

Teamwork → Organisational Leader Supported

CIB → Organisational Leader Supported

Org Demand → Organisational Leader Not supported

Decision Making → Organisational Leader Not supported

MicroEnv → Organisational Leader Not supported

Relationship → Organisational Leader Discovered

Respect → Organisational Leader Discovered

MacroEnviro → Organisational Leader Discovered

Supported relationships

Only the hypothesised relationships between CIB and Teamwork to Organisational

Leader were found to be present and supported in the final model. Each of these

relationships supports existing understanding of Australian managerial leadership and

the current understanding of the impact of leadership behaviours. The relationship

with CIB will be discussed in section 8.5 of this chapter. The ‘good boss’, described

in Irwin’s (1996) cultural imprint study refers to a captain-coach role that is

consistent, supportive and encouraging, fits well with understanding the connection

between Teamwork and Organisational Leader in this study. The manager needs to

work with all team members and create a balance between supporting and directing

so that members of the organisation can keep work progressing and a positive

environment is established. These are the key outcomes of the Organisational Leader

component.

Unsupported relationships

There were three unsupported relationships in the model to Organisational Leader:

Organisational Demand, Decision Making and Micro-Environment. Organisational

Demand was proposed to have a relationship with Organisational Leader due to the

connection between organisational goals that managers would communicate through

Page 350: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 350

to subordinates and their work. By connecting the organisational goals to the work

being done, managers are able to connect Organisational Leader and Visionary

leader. This connection is one of the primary motivations behind practicing

transformational leadership (Bass 1985a, 1990b; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008).

Initial results indicated a relationship was present, though it was too weak to include

in the model. The emphasis on people management that emerged in the

Organisational Leader component provides evidence as to why that is the case.

Managers who see a need to keep work progressing and employees productive, could

view emphasis on organisational objectives as being too bold to stress given

Australian cultural attitudes towards acting as a tall poppy (Feather 1989; Meng,

Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003; Peeters 2004). Continued emphasis on these behaviours

could make subordinates construe a manager to be more concerned for the

organisation and reaching its goals, instead of looking after the people in it.

Decision Making did not have a direct relationship with Organisational Leader, as

hypothesised, or with Visionary Leader. Historically, Australian managers have been

viewed as maintaining too high a level of control and was a recognised challenge that

managers needed to address (Australian Quality Council 1994; Barraclough &

Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a; Lansbury &

Spillane 1991; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). Given the identification of this

component across numerous studies and the inability for managers to fully remove

themselves from the decision making role it was decided to look at the correlations

between Decision Making and the other components. The results showed that there

was indeed an underlying role that this component plays influencing the actions of

Australian managers. In comparison with Respect, which had a strong association

with all other components, Decision Making had a more moderate, but still strong

correlation with all components. This suggests that within all actions the Australian

managers in this study want to maintain a level of Decision Making control, but not

make it dominant in their approach to management. Australians’ have been identified

as having a ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude in organisations with employees being

Page 351: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 351

indifferent toward change, willing to accept mistakes or deliver only adequate

solutions (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Turnell & Washbourne 1991; West &

Murphy 2007; Yallop 2005). This cultural value, alongside the need for a manager to

be a mate could explain why this particular outlook is the case (Ashkanasy 2007;

Duarte 2008; Irwin 1996; West & Murphy 2007).

A manager in Australia has to find a balance between being a friend and being

accepted by employees as the boss or risk being looked at only as a mate. The lack of

inclusion of Decision Making directly to the Excellent Leader components, and

correlation with the other components, may be an Australian management tactic to

keeping organisations functioning positively, without being seen to be too

controlling. The originally hypothesised, but not supported component, Officious,

may also relate to Decision Making as an older managerial leadership style

previously found in Australian managers, reflecting a change in how they view their

role. With the lack of direct relationship for Decision Making and the inability to

support the Officious component in this study, Australian managers may be viewed

as separating out more managerial responsibilities from that of being a leader.

The Micro-Environment to Organisational Leader relationship was hypothesised to

be present because of the identified skills and abilities of Australian manages as

identified in the Managerial Capabilities index of the Australian Institute of

Management (2012, 2013). Australian managers will engage in looking for and

implementing technologies and knowledge that will support their organisations.

Managers themselves have identified with the importance of having technical

expertise in their industry and actively look to find ways for their organisation to

remain competitive (Australian Industry Group 2013; Barraclough & Company 1995;

McNair Anderson Associates 1981). The connection between using these external

influences to keep an organisation competitive is clearly required as part of

Organisational Leader. While there was initially found to be a positive relationship

present, it could not be supported through the analysis.

Page 352: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 352

The weakness of the relationship and its removal from the final model may again

reflect some of the traditional views on Australian management. In past studies

Australian managers were identified as insular and focused less on the need to adapt

and change (Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Karpin 1995a;

Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). The Micro-environment category reflected

behaviours that emphasise industry related cues and engagement that may lead to

change. The previous assessments of Australian managers may still hold true with

managers less engaged in monitoring for industry related items. This however may be

offset by the relationship that exists between Micro-Enviornment and CIB that was

present. As noted in discussing behaviours that enable creativity and innovation

looking externally is a part of this and managers may look to these types of

behaviours when in the change mindset associated with CIB, but otherwise not

emphasise them.

Discovered relationships – not hypothesised

The link between Relationships and Organisational Leader was found to have a

strong relationship that was not originally hypothesised. The researcher hypothesised

only a relationship between Visionary Leader and the Relationship component, due to

the literature research indicating a strong belief in transformational leadership in

Australia (Ashkanasy 2007; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008). The fundamentals of

the change metacategory suggest that a transformational type of relationship, building

the connection between organisational strategy and subordinates efforts would result

in a strong relationship to Visionary Leader for the purpose of empowering

employees. Previous studies have indicated Australian managers needing to connect

the work of their employees to organisational goals and direction (Ashkanasy 2007;

Australian Quality Council 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003;

Turnell & Washbourne 1991).

Page 353: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 353

Results of this study indicate a lower level of promotion of visionary objectives in

relationships, rather emphasising the importance of high quality working

relationships with subordinates. Given the strength of egalitarianism, the need to

balance the conflicting cultural imperatives of mateship, tall poppy syndrome, and

‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes, managers in Australia attempt to establish unique positive

personal relationships, identified as a strength of Australian managers (Barraclough &

Company 1995; Duarte 2008; Feather 1989; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003;

Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). This result

adds clarification to the results of the cultural imprint studies of the 1990s. Those

studies pointed out that American managerial leadership styles that emphasise more

on the transformational tactics, large vision and crisis approach to reaching change

are not overly effective in Australia (Australian Quality Council 1994; Innovation &

Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). This research study’s results suggest

that Australian managers have a preference to turn to more easy-going, flexible and

subtler leadership approaches with more personal communication and relationship

building practices focused on the organisation in order to connect subordinates to the

work of the organisation and less towards being transformational.

As earlier stated the relationship between Respect to Visionary leadership was not

supported. It was based on the perceived emphasis and belief in transformational

leadership that Respect would be viewed as part of the process that would lead to

being able to act as a Visionary leader and secure commitment from subordinates

(Ashkanasy 2007). However, the Respect component has a relationship to the

Organisational Leader component. This indicates that Australian leaders are mindful

of constraints on them not to be too visionary and have to close a relationship to

employees as identified in the cultural imprint studies of the 1990s (Australian

Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). The Australian employee preference for a good

boss over a leader as identified in these studies reflects managers picking up on

cultural values and preferences.

Page 354: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 354

Additionally, mateship and tall-poppy may be playing a role in the Respect

component. In Australia, mateship is required and not being a tall-poppy is also

required, focusing managers to show respect through being an Organisational Leader

as opposed to a Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Feather 1998; Peeters 2004;

Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). The results indicate support for

Ashkanasy’s (2007) assessment of Australian leadership being a paradox and a

challenge to understand. While in some instances Australians managers may highly

view Visionary leadership, there are aspects of managerial leadership that may

require a more traditional management emphasis fit with the culture.

The final discovered relationship was the only negative relationship found. This was

the relationship between Macro-Environment and Organisational Leader. The two

aspects of Environmental Influence were separated by the researcher based on

theoretical and behavioural differences. One focused on behaviours associated with

direct impact on the firm (Micro-Environment) and one that looks at broader

environmental influence that includes cultural diversity, globalisation, politics, the

environment and society at large (Macro-Environment). The results show that the

latter are viewed negatively from an Organisational Leader perspective in this

sample. Re-examination of the literature shows there may be a few different reasons

for this negative relationship having been found.

The first relates to the previously identified challenge facing Australian managers and

organisations as needing to embrace a more global perspective (Australia in the Asian

Century Task Force 2012; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin

1995b). This challenge could still be a reality for many Australian managers and

organisations. Additionally, as the sample was specifically focused on capturing a a

broad national sample of Australian managers it included different managerial roles,

industry sectors and various organisational sizes including many small and medium

sized firms, frontline managers and sectors that may largely service domestic

markets. This could mean that consideration of these largely external factors are

Page 355: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 355

viewed as unnecessary or a distraction from core managerial expectations and

organisational goals.

Along those same lines, the long standing concept referred to as the “tyranny of

distance” may explain why a more domestic focus exists (Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts

& Earnshaw 2002; Blainey 2001; Egri et al. 2012). Possibly the respondents in this

sample are influenced by this concept reflecting the negative relationship. Similarly,

given the differences in culture between Australia and its neighbouring nations in

Asia and key trading partners, a psychic distance could be present. This is supported

by cultural dimension studies that show significant cultural differences between key

trading partners of China, Japan and South Korea (House et al. 2004; Mascitelli &

Tinney 2013; Peterson 2003). Lastly, given Australian managers need to maintain

relationships and provide a supportive, but not controlling environment that

subordinates will commit to, emphasis on behaviours that would bring in so much

external influence may be viewed as being of lower relevance or too far removed for

subordinates to care about. This would result in managers having a negative

perspective on emphasising these behaviours with respect to Organisational Leader

(Feather 1989; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003; Peeters 2004).

8.5 Research question 3: Australian excellence in managerial leadership and the relationship with CIB

The CIB category added into the APEL model has been shown to play a role in how

excellence in managerial leadership is perceived in Australia. It largely has a

mediating effect, both partial and full across the variety of hypothesised relationships.

The relationship between CIB and the two components of Excellent Leader have also

been shown to be significant. All of the CIB relationships are detailed in Table 8-6.

Page 356: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 356

Table 8-6: Hypothesised relationships to and from CIB

CIB Relationships Relationship

Relationship → CIB Supported

Respect → CIB Supported

Macro-Enviro → CIB Supported

Micro-Enviro → CIB Supported

Progressiveness → CIB Supported

Org Demand → CIB Supported

Teamwork → CIB Not Supported

CIB Relationships to Excellent Leader Relationship

CIB → Visionary Leader Supported

CIB → Organisational Leader Supported

Supported relationships

The relationships that were proposed to be present in the study connecting to and

from the CIB category were in fact all found to be valid with the exception of the

relationship to Teamwork. From a Personal Qualities perspective, both Relationships

and Respect had a positive relationship. The importance of having these personal

qualities in order to enable creativity and innovation is firmly rooted in previous

research and further validated here. Several well established leadership theories have

stressed the need for both a relationship and respect between supervisor and

subordinates to achieve goals relating to creativity and innovation including

transformational leadership, LMX theory, interpersonal skills in the skills strataplex

model and when acting as a coach (Bass 1990b; Brown & Moshavi 2005; Ferres

2006; Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Jung, Chow & Wu 2003; Mumford, Campion &

Morgeson 2007; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999;

Yukl & Mahsud 2010). There is concrete evidence across all of these theories that a

positive, challenging and supportive two-way relationship results in greater

commitment, stronger connection to the work and goals of an organisation and

recognition that the supervisor values all effort and work of each subordinate.

Page 357: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 357

One of the most important aspects of encouraging employee creativity is ensuring

that intrinsic motivation is understood, and this is only possible when a strong

relationship exists (Amabile 1997; Amabile et al. 1996; Baer, Oldham & Cummings

2003; Oldham & Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004). Communication

is a large part of a positive relationship and in establishing mutual respect leading to

creativity (Zhou 1998; Zhou 2008; Zhou & George 2003). Given Australian culture

focuses on equality, has low power distance, high individualism and the presence of

culturally specific values associated with mateship, it is clear to see why there is a

relationship between the Personal Quality components and the CIB category

(Ashkanasy 2007). Australian managers have long been identified, by subordinates,

foreign managers and themselves as emphasising personal qualities to achieve results

(Australian Institute of Management 2013; Australian Quality Council 1994;

Barraclough & Company 1995; Curtin University of Technology & Institute for

Research into International Competitiveness 1994; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a). Taken

together Australian managers will utilise Personal Qualities, through Relationships

and showing Respect, to establish the foundation for enabling creativity and

innovation.

Two components of Managerial Behaviours were identified as having a connection to

the CIB category, Progressiveness and Teamwork. Team work was not supported and

will be discussed in the unsupported hypothesis section below. Progressiveness

behaviours relate to shifting management approaches that can enhance innovation

efforts. In doing so, managers act differently and present information in new ways.

This sends a message that taking risks is endorsed, that the established norms in

organisations should be shifted and it leads to communication that ideas for change

will be supported (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Dewett 2004; Jaussi & Dionne 2003;

Scott & Bruce 1994; Zhang & Bartol 2010). Given the emphasis placed on Australian

managerial education in order to do things differently, it was hypothesised that this

would lead to there being a positive relationship between Progressiveness and the

CIB category (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian Graduate

Page 358: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 358

School of Management et al. 1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013;

Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). Results of

this study support these previous findings.

Organisational Demand reflects the behaviours that will be called upon in order to

accomplish the organisational objectives and these often involve introducing change.

As established, Australian managers firmly believe in transformational leadership

where a known and direct connection between organisational change and

empowering subordinates exists (Ashkanasy 2007; Bass 1990b; Sarros, Cooper &

Santora 2008). The Australian manager must connect the organisational objectives to

subordinates in order to allow change to occur through innovation efforts. The

relationship was found to be present supporting this connection between enforcing

organisational focus to connect with innovation efforts.

The two components associated with Environmental Influence were both included as

expected relationships to CIB. Research into just what the CIB behaviours are has

shown that managers turning to the external environment for cues to change and also

encouraging subordinates to do the same is fundamental to achieving creativity and

innovation (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Elkins & Keller 2003; Westwood & Low

2003; Zhou & George 2003). The APEL model includes a strong series of behaviours

associated with the external environment that are associated with CIB that were

intentionally left out of the CIB scale (Selvarajah et al. 1995). As established,

Australian managers recognise the need to add new technologies and enhance

productivity at the Micro-Environment level and to look to other societal and cultural

influences both to sustain and expand globally at the Macro-Environment level

(Australian Industry Group 2013; Australian Institute of Management 2012;

Barraclough & Company 1995; Karpin 1995a; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).

The relationship from Micro-Environment to CIB proved to be stronger than the

Macro-Environment, substantiating evidence that when Australian managers think

about change and innovation, they look more at the specific industry related influence

Page 359: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 359

as opposed to the larger external environment. This is a recognised challenge for

Australian managers to address (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012;

Australian Institute of Management 2013; Karpin 1995b).

Unsupported Hypothesis – Teamwork to CIB

Teamwork was established as a component of Managerial Behaviours and fits closely

with the required behaviours needed to achieve innovation. The relationship was

initially present, but was weak and to ensure statistical rigor it was removed. Reasons

for this relationship being weak and not supported may relate to the challenges of

maintaining mateship, the importance of egalitarianism in Australia and the country’s

preference for individualism over collectivism. In the GLOBE study Australian

results in the collectivist dimensions were related to egalitarianism and the preference

for high levels of freedom and tolerance towards individuals, emphasizing

individualism over collective attitudes (Ashkanasy 2007). Additionally, as was noted

in the cultural imprint studies and other studies that have looked at US or UK

management practices, aggressive approaches and crisis techniques delivered to a

group to change and adapt, often fail as group members will disconnect from this

aggressive approach (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Parry 1999;

Turnell & Washbourne 1991). Australian managers when enabling creativity and

innovation may tend to place greater emphasis on dealing with individual

relationships as opposed to trying to push behaviours associated with Teamwork.

This is supported by the GLOBE results related to individualism over collectivism.

The Relationship to CIB was present and supported, indicating that managers are

working towards ensuring that individual workers understand where managers are

coming from when enabling creativity and innovation, possibly making Teamwork a

less important component.

Page 360: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 360

CIB and mediating effects 8.5.1

Understanding the role that CIB has to excellence in managerial leadership in the

context of the APEL framework and how CIB relates to managerial leadership

behaviours in general was an objective of this study. The results of this study indicate

that these behaviours have a mediating role in the leadership behaviours of Australian

managers.

The path coefficients for all of the supported hypothesised relationships between the

leadership components and the CIB category were positive. In developing the CIB

categorisation and associated scale, the APEL framework was utilised in interpreting

behaviours in the established categories. The existing APEL categories could be

considered antecedents to the CIB category, as the other behavioural components are

considered fundamental to managerial leadership as opposed to achieving a specific

organisational outcome, as the CIB category behaviours are focused on.

The strongest connection existed with Organisational Demand. The impact of

Organisational Demand with respect to change and innovation is identified in early

studies on this subject by the likes of Damanpour (1991), who clearly linked the

organisational goals and objectives to organisations becoming more innovative.

Organisational culture also has been shown to directly relate to being able to observe

increased levels of innovation, communicated through managers and their behaviours

(Lee, Tan & Chiu 2008). Given the large impact that senior managers, goals and

strategies have on culture, this is further evidence to support the mediating effect and

to understand why it is strongest in this category. Managers, while possessing their

own leadership style and understanding of their departments and teams, are strongly

influenced to heed cues on how to act from the organisational mandates and

strategies. The situation in Australia is not different, where managers themselves have

noted the need to be push for change and innovation as a required skill to succeed

from an organisational perspective (Australian Institute of Management 2013;

Page 361: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 361

Densten & Sarros 2012; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008). It is clear to see from this

literature that CIB would mediate the forms of excellence in managerial leadership.

In terms of the overall mediating effect that the CIB category had in this study, the

key statistic that was used to determine this was examining the change in variance

explained by looking at the total standardised effect using Cohen’s d formula (Hair et

al. 2006). The results indicated that there was a medium effect size by including CIB

on Organisational Leader (0.19) and a small, albeit a large small result (0.13) on

Visionary Leader. This clearly shows that the inclusion of the CIB category in the

APEL model, with respect to this sample of Australian managers, is indeed

appropriate and the CIB category is important when examining managerial

leadership. The difference in the variance explained was notable for both

components, with Visionary Leader decreasing from 0.53 to 0.47 and for

Organisational Leader decreasing from 0.63 to 0.56.

Interestingly, a slightly larger impact of CIB was on Organisational Leader, as

opposed to Visionary Leader, which was associated with the change metacategory in

this study (Yukl 2008; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). The initial study by Ekvall and

Arvonen (1991) identified the change metacategory did require behaviours associated

with tasks and the management of the people to make successful change feasible and

that considering change only in a transformational context is flawed. The results of

this study support that finding.

Culturally speaking, the constraints already discussed at length regarding the need for

Australian managers to emphasise positive and collegial relationships with employees

that maintain mateship and to counter the effect of negative attitudes towards change

and advancement, associated with tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’

attitudes requires greater emphasis than the more strategic, long range

transformational behaviours associated with Visionary Leader. The CIB behaviours

are largely about providing encouragement, resources, freedom and connection.

Page 362: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 362

Australian managers in this study are naturally inclined to emphasise CIB in the

context of the organisation, as opposed to a visionary perspective when viewing how

to lead.

With that said though, the CIB category was important to both and the partial

mediation for a majority of the components and most interestingly, the full mediation

of two components highlight this. The Progressiveness component is associated with

finding new ways of managing and leading and this directly related to the CIB

category, but not to either aspect of Excellent Leader. A manager would need to turn

to doing things differently when there was a need to increase innovation. The natural

tendency of Australian managers towards not doing things differently would require

leaders to emphasise progressive behaviours through unique management styles and

practices. These actions would require the types of behaviours associated with the

Progressiveness component as found in this study.

The full mediation effect between Micro-Environment and CIB also highlights this

same issue, taking on new technologies and different business and industry related

practices would require a managerial leader to position the employees to engage in

establishing these changes. The distain for mandated change from managers, as

illustrated in the cultural imprint studies in Australia and in the TQM efforts,

highlight the need to ensure subordinates are a part of identifying these cues to

change and adapt (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Turnell &

Washbourne 1991). Originally a partial mediation was proposed, but the results

showing full mediation proves interesting in that the Australian managers in this

study want to ensure subordinates identify the need for change as well. This could

relate to the strong level of importance the Relationship component had in the entire

model.

From the perspectives discussed above, the inclusion of the CIB category has proved

to provide some interesting insights into both managerial leadership and Australian

Page 363: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 363

specific views on managerial leadership. Studying behaviours that have a clear and

specific result has been identified as lacking in managerial leadership studies and has

been shown to be a mediator in this study (Yukl 2012). The APEL framework itself

has proved to be an effective tool for expansion as the originally included behaviours

represent a broad range of comportments associated with managerial leadership, but

not necessarily specific in nature. In the case of Australian managers, the perspectives

of excellence in managerial leadership do include behaviours associated with

enabling creativity and innovation. When one considers other organisation specific

outcomes impacted by managers, the consideration reached is that the APEL

framework could be an ideal context upon which to further build managerial research

based on organisational objectives, whether they be change-oriented leadership, as

looked at here, or financial management, corporate social responsibility or other

emerging areas and goal oriented initiatives where specific behaviours would be

required to be categorised.

However, the results in this study and across the relationships hypothesised and

discovered indicate that the framework is not fully explaining managerial leadership

in Australia. This is due to limitations in the framework as it currently stands and

there are ways that it can be improved upon if used in the future. This will be

discussed in the limitations and future research sections of this chapter.

8.6 Research question 4 – differences in managerial perspectives of excellence in leadership

The forth research question examined managerial groups to see whether they held

similar or different views on excellence in managerial leadership. The research

question was developed to examine the opposing positions in understanding

Australian culture. Cultural dimensions such as low power distance, high

individualism, high gender egalitarianism suggest that managerial leadership

perspectives would be different across groups, while the EMIC cultural values

Page 364: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 364

associated with Australian egalitarianism, which has imbedded a consciousness of

“sameness” in how people should be treated and how people are expected to act

would lead to little difference between groups (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008;

Thompson 1994).

Groups compared

This research study hypothesised that there will be a shared sense of how Australian

excellence in managerial leadership is perceived. To test this four different groups

were examined, two demographic groups and two managerial categories. Gender was

considered as numerous studies have shown women and men lead and act differently

in managerial roles (Bass 2008). The age of a manager has also been shown to result

in different approaches to leadership. In this study the age group being looked at was

under 40 and those 40 and older. This split was based on the premise that a majority

in the under 40 category would be Generation Y and late period Generation X (Salt

2007). This group would have experienced more technological advancements, a more

globally connected economy, work in or with multi-national organisations, and have

a greater sense of cultural differences and minority diversity in the work place. The

second group consisted primarily of baby boomers, older managers from what is

considered the “greatest generation” and early to mid-period members of Generation

X. These managers would have had a more constricted and insular view of the world

based on when they entered the labour force and when they were developing their

managerial skills.

The two management categories compared consisted of those with and without a

university degree and those who were first level managers compared with those in

middle and senior management. Australia has emphasised the need for increasing

managerial education for over 30 years, under the paradigm that this leads to a higher

archetype of a leader (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Innovation &

Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). Australia still has a

large number of people in management positions with limited formal education

Page 365: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 365

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). These managers have reached their positions

in a variety of ways, for example, rising through the ranks in their organisations based

on experience, being entrepreneurs themselves or having had managerial abilities

recognised by senior managers in the organisation. The second group examined were

those in junior versus more senior roles, which have been studied many times, with

differences found in areas of emphasis, techniques and strategies to accomplish

organisational objectives (Bass 2008). First level managers may face different levels

of work and interaction with subordinates than those in middle and senior

management. Consequently, strategy and goals may prove to be of greater importance

to their roles and responsibilities.

Shared values across groups

Across the four groups being examined three levels of invariance testing were done

between groups: at the measurement model level; at the composite variable level; and

invariance testing for the final model. Across these tests, there were some slight

differences, but in all cases the groups were deemed to be invariant having similar

views on the excellence in managerial leadership components and the relationships in

the final model. From these results, the hypothesis tested was supported in the study,

where Australian managers, regardless of demographic or managerial category

examined had similar views on how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived.

This provides evidence that there is a shared view on how to best lead an organisation

in Australia, one that takes into account the strong cultural imperatives found in the

nation. This is important as it highlights the underlying cultural values, which may be

missed if only looking at broad cultural dimensions. The results provide support for

implicit leadership theory, where managers act in a manner that is endorsed by

subordinates and the cultural values they hold. This indicates that national cultural

imperatives have the ability to counter what may be the more obvious view on how to

manage in Australia, identified often as the same as the United States or the United

Kingdom or other Anglo nations.

Page 366: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 366

8.7 Contributions to theory

This study attempted to utilise managerial leadership behavioural theory in

conjunction with theories relating to leading for creativity and innovation and the

cultural studies of managerial leadership. This study brings together the above noted

fields through the APEL framework of managerial leadership behaviours (Selvarajah

et al. 1995). The APEL framework provided the primary questionnaire and

behavioural categorisations that served as a foundation for this study.

Leading for Creativity, Innovation and Change

Leading for creativity and innovation has developed into an emerging and growing

field to support managerial leadership theory (Dinh et al. 2014). This study

endeavoured to build a new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours that

enable creativity and innovation, identified as a key component of change leadership

as a metacategory of managerial leadership behaviours (Yukl 2012). From a

managerial behaviour perspective this theory has yet to have a comprehensive

categorisation of relevant behaviours developed that reflect areas of influence from

managers, rather focus has been placed on individualised behaviours that managers

emphasise (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007).

The APEL framework approach that conceptualises the categories of influence on a

manager was applied in this study as an artefact. These categories of influence are:

Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviour, Organisational Demand and

Environmental Influence. In examining the literature on how managerial leaders

enable change across organisations, a new categorisation of behaviours titled enabling

creativity and innovation was established and this was added to the APEL framework

for exploration and validation. This new scale was tested in the context of excellence

in managerial leadership in Australia.

Contribution 1: An increased understanding of creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours as a categorisation to understand and explore managerial behaviours.

Page 367: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 367

This study provided an opportunity to specifically categorise and examine the

behaviours that have been identified to enable creativity and innovation in

organisations through a theoretically valid approach, using the APEL framework

(Selvarajah et al. 1995). In applying the newly developed scale into the APEL model,

it allowed for quantitative analysis on managerial behaviours that enable creativity

and innovation that has been largely limited to qualitative research. As stressed by de

Jong and Den Hartog (2007), quantitative examination of creativity and innovation

enabling behaviours and their importance has been identified as needing to occur.

The foundation of the theory building in creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours has seen employees and organisations with respect to innovation and

creativity largely examined separately. For example, studies have specifically focused

on organisational directives and practices, like the work of Damanpour (1991) and

Lee, Tan and Chiu (2008). Other research has looked at how managers engage

employees to be creative (Amabile 1997; Jaques 1989; Mullin & Sherman 1993;

Mumford 2000; Oldham & Cummings 1996). Further studies have looked at

managerial actions and directives that create environments for teams and departments

to successfully engage in innovation such as the works of Cardinal (2001), Horwitz

and Horwitz (2007), Keller (2001), Mumin and Mustafa (2008) and Paulus (2008) to

name a few. Lastly other research identified the importance of looking externally for

cues to be creative and innovative (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Brand 1998;

Needle 2010; Yukl 2008). Bringing together these different creativity and innovation

enabling components has proven to be a challenge with early models, such as that by

Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993) not being able to fully address the full

spectrum of behavioural influences that cover managerial leadership roles.

The categorisation developed by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) provided a 13

category model of broad classifications of the types of behaviours used by managers

to enable creativity and innovation. It largely focused on the personal level

Page 368: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 368

behaviours, not directly including behaviours associated with team/department

management or the organisation as means to enable innovation. While effectively

summarising existing research, the de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) model lacks

identification of specific behaviours; has no context under which managers specific

actions may be categorised; and as developed does not allow for quantitative

investigation. However, by utilising this categorisation and other related research not

included in the work of de Jong and Den Hartog (2007), and in applying the APEL

framework a new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours has been

developed. Based on three of the four primary areas of influence on managerial

behaviour, as explained in the APEL model and in chapters 2 and 4, the three

categories of personal qualities, managerial behaviours and organisational demands

have 12 subcategories summarised in Table 8-7.

Table 8-7: Categories of behaviours enabling creativity and innovation

Personal Qualities Managerial Behaviours Organisational Demands

Role Modelling Team Management Organisational & Executive Support

& Practices

Tolerate Ambiguity & Risk

Resource Allocation Organisation Vision, Goals, Strategy

Relationships Framing of Work Human Resource Practices &

Policies

Communication Leadership Expertise

Rewards and Incentives

This categorisation is comprehensive and provides an effective framework upon

which the quantitative scale could be developed. By examining the extant literature

against the areas of influence of a manager, it allowed for identification of specific

behaviours. The development of the categorisation extends beyond personal and

relationship based behaviours reflecting a more comprehensive classification based

on areas of managerial influence.

Page 369: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 369

Contribution 2: Development of a Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviour

Scale in the APEL framework.

The newly established CIB scale had 15 behaviours. The new scale proved to have

strong validity and reliability in this study and is summarised in Table 8-8. This scale

has been developed for quantitative study of creativity and innovation enabling

behaviours in the APEL framework. This scale will prove to be a useful addition to

the existing APEL quantitative measures to examine managerial leadership

behaviours that focus on enabling creativity and innovation.

Table 8-8: CIB scale

Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) Scale

To be and excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to:

95. Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation

96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation

98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation

99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions

101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization

102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted

103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation

104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work

105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals

106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences

107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

109. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

EMIC focused Australian leadership profile

The study of managerial leadership from a cultural perspective has identified that

national culture plays a large role in how managerial leadership takes shape (Den

Page 370: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 370

Hartog et al. 1999; House et al. 2002; Lord & Brown 2001; Lord, Foti & De Vader

1984). From a cultural perspective, researchers are calling for less emphasis on

comparative studies and more emphasis on culture specific, or EMIC, levels of

analysis (Buckley et al. 2014; Dickson et al. 2012; Leong, Leung & Cheung 2010;

Leung 2009; Lu 2012).

The study included EMIC insights and analysis in cultural research, specific to

managerial leadership. The APEL framework and cultural modelling approach was

used to develop a relevant profile of Australian managerial leadership that used

EMIC understandings of Australian culture.

Contribution #3: The establishment of an Australian model of managerial

perceptions of excellence in leadership that explores relationships to creativity and

innovation enabling behaviours.

Over the past 50 years there have been a variety of assessments of Australian culture

and studies focused on Australian managerial leadership. Early cross-cultural studies,

such as Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) cultural dimensions provided broad insights into

understanding the Australian culture. The profile arising from Hofstede’s (1991,

2001) highlighted an individualistic culture with low power distance bearing

similarity with other western nations, in particular the UK and the US. While useful,

the relevance of Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) findings to understanding specifics of

Australian organisations and leadership is limited, with several studies highlighting

managerial leadership approaches and organisational strategies from other Anglo

nations being ineffective in Australia (Australian Quality Council 1994; Frenkel &

Manners 1980; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Milton,

Entrekin & Stening 1984; Parry 1996; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).

Research has identified a variety of perspectives on Australian managerial leadership

including examination of styles, strategies, effectiveness and capabilities (Ashkanasy,

Page 371: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 371

Trevor-Roberts & Kennedy 2000; Australian Graduate School of Management et al.

1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013; Barraclough & Company 1995;

Densten & Sarros 2012; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Lansbury & Quince 1988; Sarros

et al. 2011; Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002; Sarros et al. 1992; Wood 2011). Studies in

Australian managerial leadership have identified continued study as necessary to

better understand managerial leadership in Australia.

The specific outcome from the GLOBE study’s Australian research further provided

identification of cultural dimensions, the most important leadership attributes as well

as insights into specific cultural values and beliefs that influence leadership

(Ashkanasy 2007). While Ashkanasy (2007) clearly highlights the types of

managerial leadership and some EMIC considerations, such as mateship, that are

valued in Australia, the GLOBE study does not provide insight into how EMIC

concepts take shape in the behaviours of managers. Australian leadership as

summarised in the GLOBE study is an ‘enigma’ that is difficult to understand. The

information uncovered in the GLOBE study and identified in the extant literature on

Australian culture, values, managerial leadership, and organisational practices need to

be brought together in order to better understand how managerial leadership is

shaped.

In the APEL model used in this study, influences on managerial leadership are

identified and an explanation is developed as to how this shapes managerial

leadership preferences are connected to cultural understanding of Australia. The

results of the study extends existing knowledge by providing insight into how specific

behaviours, cultural imperatives and constraints, like Australia’s unique

egalitarianism, maintaining mateship and downplaying tall poppy behavioural values

influences managerial behaviours. The study provides some practical understanding

to the Australian enigma of managerial leadership.

Page 372: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 372

Results of this study show Australian managers emphasise relationships; maintain

effective teamwork; ensure communication remains open; and support subordinate

contributions to the organisation, when considering excellence in managerial

leadership. To be an excellent leader involves two aspects: ensuring organisational

work and relationships are met and maintained; and visionary leader practices related

to strategy and adaptation. These findings provide a culture based model of

excellence in managerial leadership that can be applied to future research in

explaining and understanding how Australian managers effectively lead change in

organisations through enabling creativity and innovation.

Australian views on creativity and innovation enabling behaviours were also

identified in this study. The category itself was found to be a relatively strong

component of the perceptions of managerial leadership in this study, ranking six out

of the 11 tested components. Behaviours from across the three groups of behaviours

(Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational Demand) were all

found highly ranked in the measurement model established in the CFA process with

no single focus to enabling creativity and innovation being dominant.

The CIB component was identified to be a moderator in the model in how managers

view excellence in leadership. All, but Teamwork and Decision Making had a

relationship with the CIB component. The strongest relationship was from

Organisational Demand, reflecting the need for Australian organisation to focus on

innovation in order for managers to emphasise enabling behaviours. The second

strongest relationship was from Micro-environment reflecting a need for management

to recognise cues from the industry-related environment to change. The third

strongest relationship was from the Relationship component indicating Australian

managers push for change through their established relationships with subordinates.

These results reflect an individualistic approach to dealing with subordinates in

Australia. These results suggest that Australian managers use a variety of unique

behaviours and tactics in relation to enabling creativity and innovation. The results

Page 373: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 373

provide support for the CIB category as part of excellence in managerial leadership,

reflecting understanding in Australia, a western-oriented country.

CIB was found to have a strong relationship to both Visionary and Organisational

leader components. This supports findings from earlier studies by Ekvall and

Arvonen (1991) and Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002) on change leadership where

more than being visionary or transformational is needed; consideration must also be

given to work and people in the organisation. In this study, managers have identified

a stronger relationship to Organisational Leader than Visionary Leader. This suggests

that while managers may identify and support visionary and transformational

leadership, their focus remains on work and people in the organisation.

The understanding gained from this study could serve well in providing a foundation

to look at how Australian managers’ view enabling creativity and innovation in future

studies. Results indicate that it is fundamental that an organisational mandate must be

present; external influences to change from industry identified; and emphasis in

promoting creativity and innovation achieved through strong managerial-subordinate

relationships. Having established these fundamentals, to how enabling creativity and

innovation takes shape, more exploration of how Australian managers effectively

enable creativity and innovation may be able to develop.

Refinement and extension of the APEL framework and taxonomy

The original APEL model was developed with an understanding of managerial

leadership behaviours up to the early 1990s (Selvarajah et al. 1995). At the time of

development of the APEL model, there was significantly less understanding of

specific leadership behaviours. The change-oriented metacategory was relatively new

and starting to emerge in the same period as the APEL model was developed,

illustrating the ongoing development of leadership research (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999;

Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). One of the

Page 374: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 374

key areas identified in these studies on how managers can effectively lead change was

increasing innovation and creativity within organisations through their behaviours.

Contribution #4: An extension of the APEL framework that includes identified

behaviours associated with change leadership, specifically enabling creativity and

innovation behaviours.

In separate fields of organisational and managerial leadership research, the

behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation were identified

(Mumford 2003, 2004). As previously stated the most comprehensive efforts to bring

these categories together were compiled by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007). De Jong

and Den Hartog’s (2007) categorisation, as previously discussed, was incomplete and

not developed to allow for quantitative study. In applying the same framework used

in the APEL model to consider CIB, a new category of behaviours was compiled and

a scale developed that were added to the existing APEL framework.

In developing and studying behavioural inventories, questionnaires and taxonomies,

these have had to be expanded as theory developed and understanding increased

(Bass 2008). Even one of the most applied leadership questionnaires, the Leader

Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), has been revised many times since it

was created (Bass 2008; Goodwin, Wofford & Whittington 2001; Stogdill, Scott &

Jaynes 1956). In a similar vein, the cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1991, 2001)

have been expanded. Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) dimensions have contributed to the

development of the GLOBE study dimensions (Hofstede 2010; House et al. 2004).

Similarly, extending the APEL framework is an important contribution to theory, as it

can reflect additional behaviours that are known to be associated with excellence in

managerial leadership. By connecting the various research streams that were

developing concurrently over the last 20 to 30 years relating to enabling creativity

and innovation and adding this to the APEL model, it has proved to be an effective

Page 375: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 375

extension. While effective in building cultural models of managerial leadership in

different nations, the APEL model lacked the inclusion of change-oriented leadership

behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation. With this extension, it

is now able to capture the importance of behaviours associated with enabling

creativity and innovation. This extension creates a more robust framework and will

allow for further study that includes this important aspect of managerial leadership in

other nations where the APEL framework may be applied.

Connecting managerial leadership behaviour theories from different contexts

There is a growing recognition that for managerial leadership studies to contribute to

the greater body of knowledge, studies should bring together different theoretical

fields and phenomena (Dinh et al. 2014). Since 2000, studies in leadership relating to

culture have been ongoing and continue to receive attention. Additionally, leading

creativity and innovation has become one of the major theoretical growth areas.

Traditional behavioural theories however, have not received significant attention

despite calls to utilise them more and to connect with emerging fields of study (Dinh

et al. 2014; Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004).

Research on culture and leading creativity and innovation are often based on the

foundations developed in behavioural theory, yet limited exploration of these areas in

the broader behavioural context and at a culture specific level has occurred. In this

study, different managerial leadership theories were brought together in order to

further understand and explain managerial leadership as an important direction to

move managerial leadership research (Dinh et al. 2014).

Contribution 5: This study brings together managerial leadership behavioural

metacategory theory that examines both cultural specific aspects of managerial

leadership and how managers enable creativity and innovation.

Page 376: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 376

The APEL framework was applied as a managerial leadership artefact in this study. It

was examined firstly from the perspective of its development and how it compares

with other identified taxonomies (Yukl 2012). In doing this, the Asian developed

taxonomy was found to have initially been more complete than the other taxonomy,

but as research developed gaps in the APEL framework emerged. These gaps related

to the behaviours associated with change leadership, where enabling creativity and

innovation is a fundamental part of what is required of managers in order to

effectively lead change efforts. By applying the APEL categorisation of areas of

managerial influence to the various fields of management research that examine how

to enable creativity and innovation in organisations two outcomes occurred

(Selvarajah et al. 1995). Firstly, the APEL framework was extended in order to

explore a category of behaviours associated with change leadership, absent from the

APEL model. Secondly, the gap in understanding how managerial behaviours

influence different organisational constituents was addressed by developing a

creativity and innovation enabling behaviours categorisation.

Research in the fields of creativity and innovation has largely been focused on

western nations, again driven by US based studies and theories (Lubart 2010; Lubart

1990; Puccio & Cabra 2010). There has been a growing amount of research on how

creativity is perceived across cultures (Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010). Studies show

that creativity itself and how it is manifested across cultures is different and should

not be considered as universally the same. Given the recognition that creativity is

different between cultures, than how to enable it in individuals and organisations is

also potentially going to be different (Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010; Lubart 1990;

Puccio & Cabra 2010).

This study recognises that the current research, such as de Jong and Den Hartog

(2007) and Isaksen and Akkermans (2011), on how to enable creativity and

innovation is western focused and considered as universal across societies. To

address this, this study chose to examine the enabling creativity and innovation

Page 377: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 377

phenomenon to managerial leadership in Australia, an Anglo-nation. The study

results indicate support for APEL and CIB categorisations.

The categorisations, should allow for cultural specificity to be explored. The scale

was developed to allow for cultural modelling with specific behaviours being

included or excluded as identified in literature and cultural understanding. The

cultural modelling approach of the APEL framework has worked well to explore

relationships between cultural specific aspects of managerial leadership and by

utilising the same approach in considering the CIB category to allow for important

cultural values to shape the managerial behaviours.

In the previous paragraphs an overview of how cultural study, leading for creativity

and innovation and managerial behaviour theory worked together in this study. As

indicated by Dinh et al. (2014) understanding of managerial leadership is developed

when different theories are brought together. This study illustrated that

multi-theoretical perspectives can be built into a framework to extend and expand

understanding. This is not to say that it is not without its weaknesses. Results of this

study indicate that there are challenges in combing theoretical approaches to study

leadership phenomena in terms of the results generated. These will be explored in the

limitations and future research sections.

8.8 Managerial implications

From a managerial implications perspective this study provides important insights

into what the managerial leadership behaviours are that enable innovation and

creativity; how these behaviours fit into managerial leadership and useful insights

into Australian culture.

This study examined a variety of research related to how managers as leaders enable

creativity and innovation, across areas of responsibility and organisational

perspectives. From an organisational perspective, it looked at strategies and

Page 378: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 378

organisational goals, human resource policies and practices and the attitudes of senior

executives. From a managerial perspective it looked at how teams are selected,

managed and resourced. From a personal perspective it looked at how managers

themselves, through their interactions with individuals will lead to increased

innovation and creativity. In developing the research project under the same context

as the APEL framework, the literature was explained in a categorised manner that is

much more applicable to today’s practicing managers and organisations.

By positioning this research through a lens that captures managerial roles,

responsibilities and spheres of influence has meant a larger context of how to behave

could be provided. In order to achieve higher levels of creativity in organisations and

be transformed through innovation it requires a broad range of behaviours that are not

always considered together. Table 8-7 provides a categorisation that is easily

understood by managers and that can be considered in the context of their individual

organisation, managerial responsibilities and interactions with subordinates. Not

unlike trying to bake a cake without all of the ingredients, attempting to understand

how managerial leaders enable creativity and innovation without considering the

myriad responsibilities and perspectives of management, the results can prove to be

less than successful. What has been developed for use in this study will prove a useful

categorisation against which managers can evaluate their own actions.

These behaviours are not acted upon in isolation; an innumerable number of other

behaviours are required of managerial leaders. The behaviours that fall under the CIB

category could be considered specific to a certain outcome, achieving

innovation and creativity leading to change. This alone, while important, does not

present a full understanding of how managerial leadership comes together. It also

requires an understanding of the behaviours that are concomitant and antecedents in

order to position the specific CIB behaviours to achieve results. The importance of

each component and the relationships between the components provide a road map on

how to behave in order to achieve excellence in managerial leadership. As this is an

Page 379: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 379

Australian sample and the results as developed reflect a perspective on excellence in

leadership from Australian managers, it still proves to be a useful yardstick for a

variety of managers both from Australia and from other nations. The need to develop

strong relationships before pushing for change, as a single example, illustrates how

these antecedents work towards the use of specific behaviours required for achieving

the desired organisational outcome.

For an Australian manager or organisation, the profile developed including the

individual components and final model can serve as a benchmark to compare their

behaviours against. Being innovative is considered one of the key concerns for

organisations and nations to remain competitive in the modern global world (Schwab

et al. 2009). In particular, the goal of increasing innovation is stressed as important by

business organisations, researchers and the federal government (Australian Institute

of Management 2010; Densten & Sarros 2012; Department of Industry Innovation

Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Innovation & Business Skills

Australia 2011b; Sarros et al. 2011; Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002). However, in 2011

- 2012 less than 50% of Australian businesses were actively engaged in innovation

efforts of any kind, including incremental efforts (Department of Industry 2013). This

indicates a significant gap exists between necessity, national objectives and the reality

of Australian organisational activities. Increasing innovation efforts in

Australian organisations can be driven by the actions of the organisational leaders.

This will require managers to understand just how their actions may lead to increased

levels of innovation and creativity and in a broader context how they could go about

achieving innovative change. This study provides a framework for managers to

consider their actions and compare how they behave in what has been identified in

this study as leading a change mandate.

Equally important, and arguably more important, is the usefulness of this information

to foreign firms and expatriate managers that may find themselves operating and

managing in Australia. There continues to be a large number of foreign managers

Page 380: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 380

brought into fill important roles in Australian based organisations, this is a reality of

the Australian labour force and is not expected to stop being the reality in the near

term (Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2013). Similarly the level of

foreign direct investment into Australian organisations continues to increase as the

global economy continues to expand, resulting in an increased level of foreign

managers and owners overseeing Australian operations and organisations (Austrade

2013).

Australia has been found to require a uniquely Australian managerial leadership style.

This study provides further insights into what that involves and the types of

behaviours that are viewed to be most effective and important. Given the evidence

that management styles from the US are not effective, a similar case can be made for

managerial styles from other nations (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Quality Council

1994; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Turnell &

Washbourne 1991). By examining the managerial perceptions of Australian

leadership in this study, foreign managers and owners would be aided in better

comprehending Australian managerial leadership and Australian organisations and

thus be better placed to lead effectively.

8.9 Limitations of the research

This research study has limitations that need to be acknowledged. The following

section provides an overview of the limitations with respect to the sample, the

questionnaire, methodology and theory.

Limitations identified in the sample

A single sample was used in this study. While proving to be an effective tool in

generating a cross-sectional profile of Australian managers, a single source is a

limitation in itself. The sample represented managers based on gender, education

level and age from three levels (senior, middle, and front line managers) across

Page 381: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 381

industry groups and located in various states of Australia. Though invariance testing

was carried out to understand the influence of these demographic variables, a single

model of managerial leadership excellence was generated and became the basis for

the reporting of results. Due to this deliberate broadness, the results highlight what

could be considered a benchmark or average profile of what the perceptions of

excellence in managerial leadership are. Individual managers, managers from a

specific industry, managers of different ethnicity may have a different profile. In the

GLOBE study on Australia, there were differences between the two industry groups

under investigation, indicating there are different views on managerial leadership at

the industry level (Ashkanasy 2007). Given the objectives of this research, this was

an acceptable and expected limitation. However, it does limit the applicability of the

results to a specific sector, industry or an individual manager. The sample was

collected through an online business-to-business panel where respondents opted to

participate. However, given the potential respondents were preselected, regularly

engaged in research and paid a small incentive; the sample selection does have

limitations. Together these limitations may have prompted responses that would

differ from a manager who is not actively engaged in research activities.

The survey itself required a minimum time of at least ten minutes to complete and

often took longer. Given the survey length there is the possibility that respondents

could have experienced survey fatigue. By examining the respondent times, looking

for respondents that flat-lined or developed response patterns, as well as checking the

normality of data for each individual behavioural variable, efforts were made to

eliminate potentially problematic respondents. However, no certainty can be made

that all of such respondents can be removed. Given the size of the sample, and the

tactics it was felt that this limitation was controlled as much as possible.

Page 382: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 382

Limitations identified in the questionnaire

The statements used in the instrument also present a limitation. All the statements

used in this study are worded positively. Given this, it may be difficult to determine

the true significance of the behavioural statement to the managers. The skewness of

the results towards higher scores could have been a result of the way the questions

were worded. The results indicate that respondents tended to rate items higher rather

than lower. This result suggests that the measurement tools used, both the statements

and the response format, may need refinement to capture a more accurate level of

importance and addresses bias (Podsakoff et al. 2003). As currently developed the

statements positive wording may have resulted in acquiescence and agreement bias as

explained by DeVellis (2012) where wording leads to respondents not giving enough

consideration to the statements importance.

The response format used in the APEL framework is also a limitation. The scale is a

five point Likert scale with poles reflecting levels of importance of each behavioural

statement. While the decision was made to use the pre-existing scale and response

format to maintain consistency in how it was delivered, a greater range of responses

may have better served the behavioural statements (Chang, Van Witteloostuijn &

Eden 2010; Podsakoff et al. 2003). The selection of a greater number of response

options in the scale response format can increase its ability to reflect levels of

importance (Nunnally & Bernstein 1994). The response format with five options may

not have been sufficient to determine the level of importance of the behaviours given

the positive wording and that all have been identified as relevant to managers.

Limitations identified in analysis

The results generated during the analysis indicate that while statistical results and

variance explained are acceptable, there are some issues with its overall

characteristics. Firstly, a few factor loadings were lower than 0.5 (Hair et al. 2006).

These loadings are similar to those used in other cultural leadership studies such as

GLOBE and again are still considered acceptable given the sample size (Dyer,

Page 383: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 383

Hanges & Hall 2005; Hair et al. 2006). Skewness results indicated some slight

departures from normality. Negatively skewed component scores are not unexpected

given the positively worded statements. In terms of skewness, associated means and

standard deviations; Organisational Leader, Relationship and Teamwork components

deviated from normality, see Table 7-8. The same components display correlations

above 0.7, which may raise concerns about multicollinearity. As noted, given the

sample size and the statistical guidelines that should be followed the results were

acceptable, but these results do need to be acknowledged as a limitation of the model

(Hair et al. 2006).

Utilising research instruments across cultures does often lead to less effectual

categorisation of behaviours (Harkness et al. 2003). Criticism has been directed to

how behavioural statements are interpreted when applied in different cultures (Fang

2003; Graen 2006; Hofstede 2010; Javidan et al. 2006; Jones 2007; McSweeney

2002; Scandura & Dorfman 2004; Tung & Verbeke 2010; Venaik & Brewer 2013).

This could be the case with the APEL categorisation reflecting an Asian perspective

that may not be applicable in Australia. Given the identified presence of a paradox in

Asian views on managerial leadership this could be a reason as to why there may be

issues of cross-loading and lower factor loadings (Fang 2003, 2012; King & Wei

2014; Leung 2009; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005).

The behavioural statements may not fully reflect clear separation in terms of the

managerial behaviour category in which they were placed. This validity limitation

needs to be acknowledged. Validity has been identified as an issue with behavioural

taxonomies going back to the two metacategory split between task and relationships

leading to interpretive issues (Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004). Similarly Yukl, Gordon

and Taber (2002) highlight behaviours are not singular in their impact and

interpretation issues are an ongoing issue with behavioural theories and studies.

Page 384: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 384

An additional limitation regarding the use of behaviours available in the APEL

framework relates to how effective they are in fully representing the component

identified indicating refinement may be necessary. As identified in chapter 2, there

were some differences in how Yukl’s (2012) hierarchical taxonomy of leadership

behaviours categorised behaviours when compared with APEL. In developing the

components that make up Yukl’s (2012) model, nine different managerial leadership

measurement tools were used, with behaviours of relevance being identified across

the different tools. The APEL taxonomy on the other hand has only had comparison

against the Leadership Behaviour Development Questionnaire and the comparison

did not lead to any amendments to the behaviours included (Selvarajah et al. 1995;

Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). The statement pool in the APEL framework to draw

behaviours and categorise from may not be fully reflective of the four metacategories

of managerial leadership behaviours leading to weaker than desired components. The

cross-loading items found during analysis illustrate this.

Limitations due to the methodology and theory

A limitation of the study relates to the identified enigma of Australian leadership,

where it is hard to fully understand or explain with established understanding of

managerial leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). Australian culture plays a significant role in

how managers need to act to be effective in their organisations. This has been

identified in numerous studies, where styles of leadership from other nations may not

work and may lead to disconnection from employees (Australian Quality Council

1994; Irwin 1996; Parry 1999; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).

This study utilised a cultural modelling approach where the behaviours were grouped

together in developing the hypothesised components. The modelling approach,

capturing EMIC level insights against the extant literature, did not fully explain

Australian managerial leadership. Using cultural modelling alone does not allow for

behaviours specific to Australian managers to be included. In Australian

Page 385: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 385

organisations there needs to be greater understanding with respect to managerial

choices in behaviours.

As a quantitative study alone, it did not allow for any specific input from Australian

managers as to what behaviours may be viewed as important to managerial

leadership. The APEL framework is comprehensive, however as this research has

shown no managerial leadership behaviour model is complete. This is a limitation

related to studying managerial leadership behaviours where there are many more

considerations that could be included (Yukl 2012). Had qualitative research been

completed in the initial stages where specific behaviours could be identified and

added to the model and the measures themselves discussed in an Australian context, it

could have provided a more complete result and led to greater insights into the

Australian managerial perspective on excellence. Unfortunately, neither cost not time

permitted this extension to the study. The inclusion of additional measures, such as

qualitative addition to these findings is recommended as future research.

The identification of the need to extend the APEL framework to include behaviours

associated with enabling creativity and innovation reflects a reality in all managerial

leadership research. Understanding leadership is constantly evolving and leadership

knowledge expanding (Yukl 2012). The extension into creativity and innovation

enabling behaviours is based on theoretical developments since the APEL model was

created. There are other managerial objectives that have emerged that were also not

considered. Corporate social responsibility could be an area where specific

behaviours are required that necessitates specific study (Yukl 2010). Similarly, since

the global financial crisis, more firms are concerned about financial accountability

and control that may require specific behaviours worthy of examination (Davila,

Foster & Oyon 2009). These areas are outside the scope of the APEL framework and

may be worthy of consideration given the importance of managerial influence.

Page 386: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 386

Lastly, the behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation categories

to develop the scale have been developed from literature that could still be viewed as

limited. Clearly from the number of potential behaviours identified, included in

Appendix 1, and the final 15 that were selected for inclusion, all potential enabling

behaviours may not be represented. Further, the understanding of enabling creativity

and innovation used in this study is largely developed in western nations. It has been

identified in research that how creativity is viewed differs between culture and it may

also be different in how it may be enabled in different cultural contexts (Kim et al.

2012; Lubart 2010; Puccio & Cabra 2010). Therefore, the measures and associated

categorisation developed may be limited in how CIB should be framed.

Having presented many of the significant limitations of this research study, the next

consideration is how to address these limits and how to move forward with theory

development.

8.10 Future research

Based on this study there are several suggestions for further research. These future

opportunities for research relate to the study of enabling creativity and innovation,

understanding Australian managerial leadership, further use of the APEL model and

combining theory.

Enabling Creativity and Innovation

The categorisation and scale associated with CIB developed in this study was

undertaken in accordance with scale development procedures (DeVellis 2012). More

however, will need to be done in order for it to be considered a fully validated scale

for cultural study. The scale developed has only been tested in a single nation and on

two samples from the same source. In order to ensure its effectiveness for

cross-cultural research it needs to be further tested with another sample and in an

additional country. This should lead to greater certainty as to its validity and

reliability as a measure of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.

Page 387: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 387

The scale itself has some deficiencies with respect to the number of items. The scale

took a limited number of statements from across the range of behavioural categories

identified, see Appendix 1, and other behavioural statements could have been

considered for inclusion or been framed differently. By rewording or reframing some

statements against management constraints such as financial, work deadlines and

employee management they may better represent the importance that they are meant

to have (DeVellis 2012). Future research that considers using the scale developed

would benefit from considering adjustment to the statements and the wording, if used

outside of the APEL framework.

The categorisation and the scale as developed were treated as universal. This was

done due to current western driven understanding. However, it has been identified

that creativity is viewed and interpreted differently across cultures; if creativity is

interpreted differently, then enabling creativity and innovation is likely to be different

as well (Hoegl, Muethel & Parboteeah 2012; Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010; Puccio &

Cabra 2010). Given the growing recognition that enabling creativity and innovation

may be different, additional research is recommended to determine and understand

how it could be different across cultures. This requires EMIC insights.

Based on results of other studies that have developed cultural managerial leadership

profiles using the APEL framework, it is not wrong to believe that enabling creativity

and innovation will require different approaches in different cultures. Exploring the

specific ways that different cultures engage in enabling creativity and innovation is a

logical next step. This could be done from both a quantitative and qualitative

approach. Quantitative examination may be best suited to compare views on CIB as a

universal concept. Further use of the categorisation and scale in this study may be

useful for that. While developed to allow for cultural modelling, the scale could be

looked at as a universal and results compared across cultures.

Page 388: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 388

Qualitative study will allow for a deeper and richer understanding of enabling

creativity and innovation at a culture specific level. Parry et al. (2014), in a recent

article in The Leadership Quarterly, highlights the contributions that can be gained

by including qualitative study to understand leadership phenomena. Qualitative

approaches and mixed methodologies would prove beneficial to understanding what

is important, what is not and why with respect to how managerial leaders enable

creativity and innovation. Additionally, different managerial strategies could be

explored specific to achieving creativity and innovation to change and adaptation in

an organisation. Emphasis, with respect to a specific culture, needs to be placed on

qualitative study to establish an EMIC cultural foundation against what is currently

known about enabling creativity and innovation.

Australian managerial leadership

The perspective of excellence in managerial leadership developed here provides a

framework in which to consider Australian managerial leadership. This research has

indicated how the various components of managerial leadership lead to views on

excellence and how these components relate to enabling creativity and innovation.

Results of this study, supported by other researchers such as Ashkanasy (2007),

indicate that understanding Australian managerial leadership is a challenge. The

categorisation and identification of managerial leadership components used in this

study relied on the extant literature to determine against the behaviours in the APEL

framework. This approach did work effectively as the profile generated fit well with

understanding of Australian cultural values impacting on management. The profile

could serve future research as a dimension of cultural perspective on managerial

leadership in Australia. However more insight is needed for greater understanding of

how and which behaviours Australian managers emphasise.

In order to have deeper insight in future cultural studies specific to Australian

management, exploration of values through qualitative study would be of great

Page 389: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 389

benefit. The richness and specific detail of qualitative investigation can inform

researchers in advance of quantitative study and also follow completion of surveys to

explain results (Parry et al. 2014). As identified by Niblo and Jackson (2004) in

psychology research, the addition of traditional ETIC to EMIC approach to studying

a phenomenon may be beneficial. This approach involves qualitative study occurring

after extensive literature review and initial work is completed on developing

measures for exploration. This approach, while more intensive, could lead to greater

understanding of managerial leadership in Australia under a cultural modelling

approach.

Having examined and confirmed the importance of the CIB category to Australian

managerial leadership, more needs to be understood on how creativity and innovation

is enabled in the country. In particular, around the cultural values that impact on

innovation and creativity, including mateship, tall poppy “She’ll Be Right” attitudes

and tendencies for employees to disconnect from change and innovation efforts.

Future research needs to explore effective managerial efforts to promote innovation in

Australian organisations. Through the examination of successful managerial efforts to

achieve innovation and creativity, a culturally relevant framework to lead change can

be developed. From this study, it is clear that emphasis on relationships is important,

as well as coping with cultural roadblocks which may inhibit successful innovation.

Given the calls for innovation in Australia there needs to be a greater understanding

of Australian specific managerial leadership strategies, tactics and solutions. Once

understood they can be used by other Australian based organisations to achieve

innovation and change. Similarly, examining where innovation efforts have fallen

short could also serve well to understand how cultural constraints in Australia result

in managerial challenges.

In identifying the cultural values in Australia there are several EMIC values that

proved to be the most dominant and are worthy of further study. In particular,

mateship and relationships seem to shape and influence how managers need to deal

Page 390: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 390

with individuals and also with teams and departments (Ashkanasy 2007). The cultural

imprint studies identify a preference for a “captain-coach” style of manager and

preference for a good-boss over a leader (Irwin, 1996). Taken together more

exploration needs to occur around these preferences and cultural influences on how

managers can lead effectively in Australia. As noted by Yukl, Gordon and Taber

(2002) behavioural approaches using quantitative studies have limited applicability

due to interpretation of behaviours. Cultural specific information incorporated

through qualitative study may provide the necessary insights.

Future use of the APEL model

In this study the APEL framework was used as an artefact to examine and categorise

behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation. Results indicate that

the categorisation and scale that was developed is effective at providing insights into

how to categorise behaviours associated with change leadership, specific to enabling

creativity and innovation. As identified by Yukl (2012), understanding the

importance of behaviours with a specific outcome needs to be incorporated into the

field of managerial leadership research. The successful extension of the APEL model,

by including a change leadership dimension, in this study shows that the APEL

framework is sufficiently robust to be used as an artefact to understand the influence

of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours and may also work well in

examining other specific managerial leadership behaviours.

In cultural study there are concerns about biases found in questionnaires and with

behavioural statements (Harkness et al. 2003). In this study, while convergent and

discriminant validity were confirmed, there were limitations identified relating to the

correlations of the constructs and factor loadings. Interpretation issues are a reality

when using a construct developed in one culture for another culture, referred to as

construct equivalence (Harkness et al. 2003). Construct equivalence or functional

equivalence refers to a construct being the same across cultures. Concerns also relate

to common method biases found in behavioural research and wording of behavioural

Page 391: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 391

statements (Podsakoff et al. 2003). Future research may be able to address some of

these concerns with respect to the results of this study and the APEL questionnaire.

Revisiting and revising instruments for the purposes of improvement has been a

necessary and important part of the research process, in particular in managerial

leadership research (Bass 2008).

In order to deal with concerns about common method bias and statement wording,

use of negatively worded statements that can be recoded is a potential solution

(Podsakoff et al. 2003). Negatively worded items however, raise their own method

bias concerns (DeVellis 2012; Podsakoff et al. 2003). To deal with the interpretation

issues arising from construct equivalence and the behavioural measures in the APEL

framework, future research may examine the APEL managerial leadership behaviours

alongside other behavioural measures of managerial leadership. These may include

the MBS and the MLQ, to name two leading measures (Bass & Avolio 2004; Yukl &

Lepsinger 1990). The examination of the behaviour statements against other

managerial leadership measurement tools in a separate study could serve as a

criterion check to deal with biases that may be present, addressing construct

equivalence concerns (Harkness et al. 2003)

The five point Likert scale was pointed out as a potential issue leading to problems

with skewness in this study. It is suggested in cultural study that the instrument be

utilised and delivered in a consistent manner across studies that use it (Harkness et al.

2003). Utilising the same response format for a measurement tool raises concerns of

another type of bias, referred to as response function equality (Harkness et al. 2003).

Response function equality relates to the manner in which respondents in different

nations respond to a given response format, where differences may exist. Given the

positive wording of the statements a greater range of response options may serve the

instrument well. While the inclusion of a greater number of response options has been

identified as having diminishing returns, it could lead to the managers having greater

ability to express their opinion on the statements (DeVellis 2012; Nunnally &

Page 392: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 392

Bernstein 1994). Again, comparison against other managerial leadership tools

developed outside of Asia could prove beneficial before making a decision on

changing the response format to address response function equality bias (Harkness et

al. 2003).

Integrative behavioural theory approaches

This study brought together managerial leadership behaviour theory using a broad

managerial leadership framework to look at enabling creativity and innovation to

categorise behaviours and included culture specific insights into managerial

behaviours. Bringing these different fields together has proved to be beneficial and

led to a profile of managerial leadership that is culturally relevant and is able to

explain influences on creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.

From the results in this study, it is clear that future studies that look at managerial

leadership need to consider culture when interpreting how management takes shape

and is enacted. This can be through ETIC insights such as the GLOBE CLTs and

cultural dimensions, but greater insights are gained from including EMIC insights

(Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al. 2006). EMIC insights are necessary when studying

managerial leadership in a particular nation. Managerial leadership studies should

explore a society’s culture in advance of examining specific aspects of leadership for

greater relevancy and to drive culture specific understanding. This includes the

further study of how managerial leadership enables creativity and innovation.

8.11 Conclusion

This chapter has provided a reflection upon the results of the exploratory study of

excellence in managerial leadership as perceived by Australian managers. The profile

created of Australian managers was discussed and the relationships that exist between

the components explained. The Australian managerial profile and relationships

Page 393: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 393

discussed is a unique cultural model that provides insight into Australian culture and

helps explain the challenges of leading organisations in an interesting and important

nation. The results also indicate that extension of the APEL model to include and

examine the CIB category in the same context has proved to be effective and adds

support to understanding how creativity and innovation are operationalised through

the behaviours of Australian managers.

The study has made several contributions to theory and the results have been

identified as being practical for managers to examine, both in Australia and for

foreign business leaders that may be doing business with Australian organisations or

that become part of an Australian organisation. The limitations of the study were

presented and means of addressing the limitations and opportunities for future

research.

The research has shown that a unique Australian managerial profile exists with

respect to excellence in managerial leadership. Enabling creativity and innovation is

something that Australian managers view as important and essential to both being a

visionary leader and being an effective organisational leader. Almost all components

relating to excellence in managerial leadership in Australia have a relationship

directly to enabling creativity and innovation. The difficulty of managing

organisations in Australia and how to deal with complexities have been identified.

Strong relationships need to be established and management of those relationships

against organisational objectives, attitudes of organisational peers and finding ways

to effectively communicate the vision through actions are required to lead effectively.

Page 394: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 394

References

Adams, JT & Schneiderman, H 2012, The Epic of America, Transaction Publishers, Piscataway.

Adler, N & Gundersen, A 2008, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 5th edn., Thomson South Western, Mason.

Ali, M, Brooks, L & AlShawi, S 2008, 'Culture and IS: A criticism of predefined cultural archetypes studies,' 14th Americas Conference on Information Systems, AMCIS, 62.

Alomes, S 2012, 'Australian Paradoxes: A multicultural nation in the Asia-Pacific region', Journal of East Asian Studies,no. 10, Mar, pp. 99-117.

Amabile, TM (ed.) 1988, A Model of Creativity and Innovation in Organisations, JAI Press, Greenwich.

Amabile, TM 1997, 'Motivating creativity in organizations: On doing what you love and loving what you do', California Management Review, vol. 40, no. 1, Fall, pp. 39-58.

Amabile, TM, Conti, R, Coon, H, Lazenby, J & Herron, M 1996, 'Assessing the work environment for creativity', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, no. 5, Oct, pp. 1154-1184.

Amabile, TM & Kramer, SJ 2011, 'The power of small wins', Harvard Business Review, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 70-80.

Amabile, TM, Schatzel, EA, Moneta, GB & Kramer, SJ 2004, 'Leader behaviors and the work environment for creativity: Perceived leader support', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 5-32.

Andersen, J 2000, 'The weight of history: An exploration of resistance to change in vicars/managers', Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 147-155.

Arvonen, J & Ekvall, G 1999, 'Effective leadership style: Both universal and contingent?', Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 242-250.

Page 395: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 395

Ashkanasy, NM 2007, 'The Australian enigma', in JS Chhokar, FC Brodbeck and RJ House (eds), Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-depth Studies of 25 Societies, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, New Jersey, pp. 299-333.

Ashkanasy, NM, Trevor-Roberts, E & Earnshaw, L 2002, 'The Anglo cluster: Legacy of the British empire', Journal of World Business, vol. 37, no. 1, Spr, pp. 28-39.

Ashkanasy, NM, Trevor-Roberts, E & Kennedy, J 2000, 'Leadership attributes and cultural values in Australia and New Zealand compared: An initial report based on “globe data”', International Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 37-44.

Ashkanasy, NM & Tse, B 2000, 'Transformational Leadership as Management of Emotion: A Conceptual Review', in NM Ashkanasy (ed.) Emotions in the workplace: research, theory and practice, Quorum Books, Westport, pp. 221-235.

Ashlubolagh, MA, Shahrabi, MA, Eftekhari, J, Ashlaghi, AK, Safdari, S & Abdolmaleki, S 2013, 'A study on the effect of manager's leadership style to create innovation among employees', Management Science Letters, vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 2201-2206.

Austrade 2013, Data Alert: Foreign investment in Australia up 8.6pc in 2012, Austrade, viewed 30/07/2013, <http://www.austrade.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/3814/Data-Alert-130522-FDI-Increases.pdf.aspx>.

Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012, Australia in the Asian Century: White Paper, Government of Australia, Canberra.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a, 2006 Census Data Tables: Australia 20680 - Occupation by Age by Sex - Australia, Commonwealth of Australia, viewed 05/06/2012, http://abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/historicaldata2006>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b, 2006 Census Tables: Australia 20680-Non-School Qualification: Level of Education by Occupation by sex- Australia, Commonwealth of Australia, viewed 10/05/2013, <http://abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/historicaldata2006>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c, 2006 Census Tables: Australia - 20680-Country of birth of Person (Full Classification List) by sex - Australia,

Page 396: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 396

Commonwealth of Australia, viewed 12/05/2012, <http://abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/historicaldata2006>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012a, 2011 Census data shows more than 300 ancestries reported in Australia, viewed 01/10/2013, <http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/CO-62?opendocument&navpos=620>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012b, 3101.0 -Australian Demographic Statistics, Jun 2012, Australian Buereau of Statistics, viewed 18/12/2012, <http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3101.0>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012c, Summary of IT use and innovation in Australian business, viewed 17/01/2013, <http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/8166.0Main+Features12010-11?OpenDocument>.

Australian Graduate School of Management, Australian Trade Commission, Australian Chamber of Commerce & Australia Office of Multicultural Affairs 1990, Australian Management and International Competitiveness: A Report, Centre for Export Marketing, Kensington.

Australian Industry Group 2013, Ready or not? Technology investment and productivity in Australian businesses, Australian Industry Group, North Sydney.

Australian Institute of Management 2010, Australian Institute of Management, viewed 1 May, 2010, <http://www.aim.com.au/>.

Australian Institute of Management 2012, 2012 Australian Management Capability Index Survey Report, Australian Institute of Management, Kingston.

Australian Institute of Management 2013, 2013 Australian Management Capability Index Survey Report, Australian Institute of Management, Canberra.

Australian National Dictionary Centre 2013, Australian National Dictionary Centre, Australian National University, viewed 01/01/2013, <http://andc.anu.edu.au/>.

Australian National University 2013, Meanings and origins of Australian words and idioms, Australian National University, viewed 03/03/2013, <http://andc.anu.edu.au/australian-words/meanings-origins>.

Page 397: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 397

Australian Quality Council 1994, Cultural Imprints, Australia Quality Council, Sydney.

Avolio, BJ, Bass, BM & Jung, DI 1999, 'Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire', Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 72, no. 4, Dec, pp. 441-462.

Baer, M, Oldham, GR & Cummings, A 2003, 'Rewarding creativity: when does it really matter?', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, pp. 569-586.

Bagozzi, RP, Yi, Y & Phillips, LW 1991, 'Assessing construct validity in organizational research', Administrative science quarterly, pp. 421-458.

Bailyn, L, Fletcher, JK & Kolb, D 2003, 'Unexpected connections: Considering employees’ personal lives can revitalize your business', in Inventing the Organizations of the 21st Century, pp. 375-388.

Baker, R, Blumberg, SJ, Brick, JM, Couper, MP, Courtright, M, Dennis, JM, Dillman, D, Frankel, MR, Garland, P, Groves, RM, Kennedy, C, Krosnick, J, Lavrakas, PJ, Lee, S, Link, M, Piekarski, L, Rao, K, Thomas, RK & Zahs, D 2010, 'Research Synthesis: AAPOR Report on Online Panels', Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 711-781.

Bala, M, Chalil, GRB & Gupta, A 2012, 'Emic and Etic: Different Lenses for Research in Culture: Unique Features of Culture in Indian Context', Management and Labour Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, February 1, 2012, pp. 45-60.

Baron, RM & Kenny, DA 1986, 'The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations', Journal of personality and social psychology, vol. 51, no. 6, Dec, pp. 1173-82.

Barraclough & Company 1995, Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century : Experienced Insights Into Management, Opinions of Australian Managers, Ideals, Strengths and Weaknesses, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Basadur, M 2004, 'Leading others to think innovatively together: Creative leadership', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 103-121.

Page 398: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 398

Basadur, M, Graen, GB & Scandura, TA 1986, 'Training effects on attitudes toward divergent thinking among manufacturing engineers', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 71, no. 4, Nov, pp. 612-617.

Basadur, M, Taggar, S & Pringle, P 1999, 'Improving the measurement of divergent thinking attitudes in organizations', Journal of Creative Behavior, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 75-111.

Bass, BM 1985a, 'Leadership - good, better, best', Organizational Dynamics, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 26-40.

Bass, BM 1985b, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, Free Press, New York.

Bass, BM 1990a, Bass & Stogdill's Handbook Of Leadership: Theory, Research and Managerial Applications, 3rd edn., The Free Press, New York.

Bass, BM 1990b, 'From transactional to transformational leadership - learning to share the vision', Organizational Dynamics, vol. 18, no. 3, Win, pp. 19-31.

Bass, BM 1997, 'Does the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries?', American Psychologist, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 130-139.

Bass, BM 2008, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory Research, and Managerial Applications, 4th edn., Free Press, New York.

Bass, BM & Avolio, BJ 2004, Multifactor leadership questionnaire, Mind Garden, Redwood City.

Bass, BM, Avolio, BJ & Atwater, L 1996, 'The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women', Applied Psychology-an International Review-Psychologie Appliquee-Revue Internationale, vol. 45, no. 1, Jan, pp. 5-34.

Bass, BM & Barrett, GV 1981, People, Work, And Organizations: An Introduction To Industrial And Organizational Psychology, 2nd edn., Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

Bassett-Jones, N 2005, 'The paradox of diversity management, creativity and innovation', Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 169-175.

Page 399: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 399

Bel, R 2010, 'Leadership and innovation: Learning from the best', Global Business and Organizational Excellence, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 47-60.

Berry, JW 1969, 'On cross-cultural comparability', International journal of Psychology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 119-128.

Berry, JW 1990, 'Imposed etics, emics, and derived etics: Their conceptual and operational status in cross-cultural psychology', in TN Headland, KL Pike and M Harris (eds), Emics and etics: The insider/outsider debate, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA, US, pp. 84-99.

Bertea, P & Zait, A 2011, 'Methods for testing discriminant validity', Management & Marketing,no. 2, pp. 217-224.

Biffgnandi, S & Bethlehem, J 2012, 'Web surveys: Methodological problems and research perspectives', in AD Ciaccio, M Coli and JMA Ibanez (eds), Advanced Statistical Methods for the Analysis of Large Data-Sets, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Dordrecht, pp. 363-373.

Blainey, G 2001, The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History, Macmillan, Sydney.

Bluedorn, AC & Jaussi, KS 2008, 'Leaders, followers, and time', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 6, Dec, pp. 654-668.

Bokenkamp, SR & Nickerson, PS 1997, Early Daoist Scriptures, University of California Press Berkeley.

Bollen, KA & Stine, RA 1992, 'Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation models', Sociological Methods & Research, vol. 21, no. 2, Nov, pp. 205-229.

Brand, A 1998, 'Knowledge management and innovation at 3M', Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 17-22.

Brezzi, MM, Dumont, JC, Piacentini, M & Thoreau, C 2010, 'Determinants of Localisation of Recent Immigrants Across OECD Regions,' OECD Workshop Migration and Regional Development, 1-32.

Brockington, JL 1998, The Sanskrit Epics, Brill, Leiden.

Page 400: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 400

Brodbeck, FC, Chhokar, JS & House, RJ 2013, 'Culture and leadership in 25 societies: Integration, conclusions, and future directions', in Culture and Leadership Across the World the GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies, Taylor and Francis, Hoboken, pp. 1023-1084.

Brown, FW & Moshavi, D 2005, 'Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: a potential pathway for an increased understanding of interpersonal influence', Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 7, Nov, pp. 867-871.

Brun, J-P & Dugas, N 2008, 'An analysis of employee recognition: Perspectives on human resources practices', The International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 716-730.

Bryman, A 2012, Social research methods, 4th Edition edn., Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Buckley, P, Chapman, M, Clegg, J & Gajewska-De Mattos, H 2014, 'A Linguistic and Philosophical Analysis of Emic and Etic and their Use in International Business Research', Management International Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 2014/06/01, pp. 307-324.

Burns, JM 1978, Leadership, Harper & Row, New York.

Byrne, BM 2009, Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Second Edition, Taylor & Francis, New York.

Byrt, WJ & Masters, PR 1974, The Australian Manager, Sun Books, Melbourne.

Callegaro, M & DiSogra, C 2008, 'Computing response metrics for online panels', Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 1008-1032.

Cape, P 2010, 'Questionnaire length, fatigue effects and response quality revisited,' The Advertising Research Forum, Survey Sampling International, New York, pp. 1-11.

Cardinal, LB 2001, 'Technological innovation in the pharmaceutical industry: The use of organizational control in managing research and development', Organization Science, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 19-36.

Carrol, MP 1992, 'Culture', in J Freedman (ed.) Introduction to Sociology: A Canadian Focus, Prentice-Hall, Scarborough, pp. 19-44.

Page 401: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 401

Castro, S & Schriesheim, C 1999, 'Transformational leadership: A summary of behavioral dimensions of the construct and an assessment of the validity of new scales measuring each dimension,' Research Methods Division of the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Chicago, IL,

Chang, S-J, Van Witteloostuijn, A & Eden, L 2010, 'From the editors: common method variance in international business research', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 178-184.

Chen, SX 2010, 'From emic to etic: Exporting indigenous constructs', Social and Personality Psychology Compass, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 364-378.

Cheung, FM, van de Vijver, FJR & Leong, FTL 2011, 'Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture', American Psychologist, vol. 66, no. 7, pp. 593-603.

Chhokar, JS, Brodbeck, FC & House, RJ 2012, Culture and Leadership Across the World : The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies, Taylor and Francis, Hoboken.

Chhokar, JS, House, RJ & Brodbeck, FC 2012, Culture and Leadership Across the World : The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies, Taylor & Francis, Hoboken.

Chi, MTH 1997, 'Creativity: Shifting across ontological categories flexibly', in TB Ward, SM Smith and J Vaid (eds), Creative thought: An investigation of conceptual structures and processes, American Psychological Association, Washington D.C., pp. 209-234.

Chin, W 2010, 'How to Write Up and Report PLS Analyses', in V Esposito Vinzi, WW Chin, J Henseler and H Wang (eds), Handbook of Partial Least Squares, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 655-690.

Cilliers, P 1998, Complexity and Postmodernism : Understanding Complex Systems, Routledge, London.

Clark, M, Eaton, M, Meek, D, Pye, E, Tuhin, R, Australia. Department of Industry, I, Science, Research & Education, T 2012, Australian Small Business: Key Statistics and Analysis, Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education.

Clarke, R 2004, 'Origins and nature of the internet in Australia', Emergence, vol. 4, pp. 1990-1994.

Page 402: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 402

Clemens, JK & Dalrymple, S 2005, Time Mastery, Amacom, American Management Association, New York.

Cohen, J 2013, Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edn., Routledge, London.

Cohendet, P & Simon, L 2008, 'Kowledge intensive firms, communities, and creative cities', Community, Economic Creativity, and Organization, vol. 1, pp. 227-254.

Colebatch, T 2012, 'Land of many cultures, ancestries and faiths', Sydney Morning Herald, 22/06/2012, p. 1.

Collis, J & Hussey, R 2009, Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate & postgraduate students, 3rd edn., Palgrave Macmillan, Houndsmills.

Conger, JA & Kanungo, RN 1998, Charismatic leadership in organizations, Sage.

Constantine, A 2001, 'Determinants of organisational creativity: a literature review', Management Decision, vol. 39, no. 10, pp. 834-841.

Costello, AB & Osborne, JW 2005, 'Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis', Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 1-9.

Creswell, J 2009, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd edn., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.

Csíkszentmihályi, M 1999, 'Implications of a systems perspective for the study of creativity', in RJ Sternberg (ed.) Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 313-335.

Csíkszentmihályi, M 2013, Creativity: flow and the psychology of discovery and invention, HarperCollins, New York.

Cummings, TG (ed.) 2008, Handbook of Organization Development, Sage, Los Angeles.

Curtin University of Technology & Institute for Research into International Competitiveness 1994, Customers' views of Australian management: Asian-Pacific viewpoints, Industry Task Force on Leadership and Management Skills, Canberra.

Page 403: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 403

Damanpour, F 1991, 'Organizational innovation: A meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 555-590.

Dansereau, F, Graen, G & Haga, WJ 1975, 'A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process', Organizational behavior and human performance, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 46-78.

Davila, A, Foster, G & Oyon, D 2009, 'Accounting and control, entrepreneurship and innovation: Venturing into new research opportunities', European Accounting Review, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 281 - 311.

De Dreu, CKW, Nijstad, BA & Van Knippenberg, D 2008, 'Motivated information processing in group judgment and decision making', Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol. 12, no. 1, Feb, pp. 22-49.

de Jong, JPJ & Den Hartog, DN 2007, 'How leaders influence employees' innovative behaviour', European Journal of Innovation Management, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 41-64.

de Jong, MG, Steenkamp, J-BEM & Veldkamp, BP 2009, 'A model for the construction of country-specific yet internationally comparable short-form marketing scales', Marketing Science, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 674-689.

De Spiegelaere, S, Van Gyes, G & Van Hootegem, G 2013, 'Rewarding the individual or the collective? Researching the relation between monetary reward and employee innovativeness,' Conference of the Dutch Labour Market Day Foundation and the SER, The Hague, pp. 1-26.

De Stobbeleir, KE, Ashford, SJ & Buyens, D 2011, 'Self-regulation of creativity at work: The role of feedback-seeking behavior in creative performance', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 811-831.

de Vaus, D 2013, Surveys in Social Research, Hoboken : Taylor and Francis, Hoboken.

de Waal, AA, van der Heijden, B, Selvarajah, C & Meyer, D 2012, 'Characteristics of high performing managers in The Netherlands', Leadership and Organization Development Journal, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 131-148.

Den Hartog, DN, House, RJ, Hanges, PJ, Ruiz-Quintanilla, SA & Dorfman, PW 1999, 'Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories:

Page 404: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 404

Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed?', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 219-256.

Densten, IL & Sarros, JC 2012, 'The impact of organizational culture and social desirability on Australian CEO leadership', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 342-368.

Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001, An Australia-USA Free Trade Agreement: Issues and Implications, Government of Australia, Canberra.

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2012, People, culture and lifestyle, Government of Australia, viewed 03/03/2013, <http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.html>.

Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2013, Statistics, Department of Immigration and Border Protection, viewed 30/12/2013, <http://www.immi.gov.au/media/statistics/>.

Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007, Life in Australia, Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Canberra.

Department of Industry 2013, Australian Innovation System - Annual Series, Government of Australia, viewed 15/01/2014, <http://www.innovation.gov.au/science/policy/Pages/AustralianInnovationSystemReport.aspx>.

Department of Industry Innovation Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012, Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education Government of Australia, viewed 11/10/2012, <http://www.innovation.gov.au/Pages/default.aspx>.

Department of Innovation Industry Science and Research 2013, Department of Innovation Industry Science and Research, Government of Australia, viewed 12/05/2013, <http://www.innovation.gov.au/Pages/default.aspx>.

DeVellis, RF 2012, Scale Development: Theory and Applications, 3rd edn., SAGE, Thousand Oaks.

Dewett, T 2004, 'Employee creativity and the role of risk', European Journal of Innovation Management, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 257-266.

Page 405: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 405

Dickson, MW, Castaño, N, Magomaeva, A & Den Hartog, DN 2012, 'Conceptualizing leadership across cultures', Journal of World Business, vol. 47, no. 4, 10//, pp. 483-492.

Dickson, MW, Den Hartog, DN & Mitchelson, JK 2003, 'Research on leadership in a cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 729-768.

Dinh, JE, Lord, RG, Gardner, WL, Meuser, JD, Liden, RC & Hu, J 2014, 'Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 36-62.

Dorfman, P 1996, 'International and Cross-Cultural Leadership', in BJ Punnett and O Shenkar (eds), Handbook for International Management Research, 1st edn., Blackwell Publishers Inc., Cambridge, pp. 267-350.

Dorfman, P, Javidan, M, Hanges, P, Dastmalchian, A & House, R 2012, 'GLOBE: A twenty year journey into the intriguing world of culture and leadership', Journal of World Business, vol. 47, no. 4, 10//, pp. 504-518.

Dorfman, PW, Howell, JP, Hibino, S, Lee, JK, Tate, U & Bautista, A 1997, 'Leadership in Western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 233-274.

Doyle, A & Francis-Smythe, J 2009, 'Temporal intelligence in leadership and management,' Research Focus Conference, Univeristy of Worcester, Worcester, pp. 1-30.

Drazin, R, Glynn, M & Kazanjian, R 1999, 'Multilevel theorizing about creativity in organizations: A sensemaking perspective', The Academy of Management Review, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 286-307.

Du Plessis, M 2007, 'The role of knowledge management in innovation', Journal of knowledge management, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 20-29.

Duarte, F 2008, 'Culture and Management in Australia: “G’day, Mate”', in E Davel, J Dupuis and J Chanlat (eds), Gestion en contexte interculturel: approches, problématiques, pratiques et plongées, Presses de l'Université Laval, Montreal, pp. 532-542.

Page 406: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 406

Dudek, SZ & Hall, WB 1991, 'Personality consistency: Eminent architects 25 years later', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 213 - 231.

Dutton, JE, Ashford, SJ, O'Neill, RM & Lawrence, KA 2001, 'Moves that matter: Issue selling and organizational change', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 716-736.

Dyer, NG, Hanges, PJ & Hall, RJ 2005, 'Applying multilevel confirmatory factor analysis techniques to the study of leadership', The leadership quarterly, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 149-167.

Earley, CP 2006, 'Leading cultural research in the future: a matter of paradigms and taste', J Int Bus Stud, vol. 37, no. 6, 09/21/online, pp. 922-931.

Earley, PC & Mosakowski, E 2002, 'Linking culture and behavior in organizations: Suggestions for theory development and research methodology', in The many faces of multi-level issues, Emerald Group Publishing, pp. 297-319.

Earley, PC & Singh, H 1995, 'International and intercultural management research: What's next?', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 38, no. 2, 04/95, pp. 327-340.

Egri, CP, Khilji, SE, Ralston, DA, Palmer, I, Girson, I, Milton, L, Richards, M, Ramburuth, P & Mockaitis, A 2012, 'Do Anglo countries still form a values cluster? Evidence of the complexity of value change', Journal of World Business, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 267-276.

Ekvall, G & Arvonen, J 1991, 'Change-centered leadership: An extension of the two-dimensional model', Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 17-26.

Elkins, T & Keller, RT 2003, 'Leadership in research and development organizations: A literature review and conceptual framework', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 587-606.

England, GW 1978, 'Managers and their value systems: A five-country comparative study', Columbia Journal of World Business, vol. 13, no. 2, Summer78, p. 35.

Enright, MJ & Petty, R 2013, Australia's Competitiveness: From Lucky Country to Competitive Country, Wiley, Stafford.

ESOMAR 2013, ESOMAR Website, viewed 01/18/2013, <http://www.esomar.org/about-esomar.php>.

Page 407: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 407

Evans, JR & Mathur, A 2005, 'The value of online surveys', Internet Research, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 195-219.

Fang, T 2003, 'A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 3, no. 3, December 1, 2003, pp. 347-368.

Fang, T 2012, 'Yin Yang: A new perspective on culture', Management and Organization Review, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 25-50.

Farh, J-L, Cannella, AA & Lee, C 2006, 'Approaches to scale development in Chinese management research', Management and Organization Review, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 301-318.

Farris, GF 1988, 'Technical leadership: much discussed but little understood', Research Technology Management, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 12-16.

Feather, NT 1989, 'Attitudes towards the high achiever: The fall of the tall poppy', Australian Journal of Psychology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 239-267.

Feather, NT 1998, 'Attitudes toward high achievers, self-esteem, and value priorities for Australian, American and Canadian students', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 29, no. 6, November 1, 1998, pp. 749-759.

Ferres, N 2006, The role of leader: Emotional intelligence in transformational leadership, employee trust, change cynicism and intention to leave, thesis, Adelaide Graduate School of Business, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, pp. 392.

Fiedler, F 1979, 'The effectiveness of contingency model training: A review of the validation of leader match', Personnel Psychology, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 45-62.

Field, A 2009, Discovering statistics using SPSS, 3rd edn., Sage, London.

Finke, R 1992, Creative Cognition, MIT Press, Cambridge.

Fleishman, EA 1953, 'The description of supervisory behavior', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 1-6.

Fleishman, EA 1957, 'The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire', in RM Stogdill and AE Coons (eds), Leader behavior: its description and measurement, Ohio State University, Bureau of Research, Columbus, pp. 120-133.

Page 408: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 408

French, J & Raven, BH 1959, 'The basis of social power', in D Cartwright (ed.) Studies of social power, Instittue for Social Research, Ann Arbor, pp. 150-167.

Frenkel, SJ & Manners, L 1980, Australian Managers: A Comparative Analysis of Their Industrial and Social Orientations, Department of Industrial Relations, University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Gannon, MJ 2009, 'The Cultural Metaphoric Method: Description, Analysis, and Critique', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 9, no. 3, December 1, 2009, pp. 275-287.

Gardner, J 1993, On Leadership, Simon & Schuster, New York.

George, JM 2000, 'Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence', Human Relations, vol. 53, no. 8, pp. 1027-1055.

George, JM & Jing, Z 2007, 'Dual tuning in a supportive context: Joint contributions of positive mood, negative mood, and supervisory behaviors to employee creativity', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 605-622.

Gibbert, M, Hoegl, M & Valikangas, L 2014, 'Introduction to the special issue: Financial resource constraints and innovation', Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 197-201.

Gilley, A, Dixon, P & Gilley, JW 2008, 'Characteristics of leadership effectiveness: Implementing change and driving innovation in organizations', Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 153-169.

Gilley, A, Gilley, JW & McMillan, HS 2009, 'Organizational change: Motivation, communication, and leadership effectiveness', Performance Improvement Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 75-94.

Gillitzer, C, Kearns, J & Richards, A 2005, The Australian business cycle: A coincident indicator approach, Reserve Bank of Australia, Canberra.

Goddard, C 2009, 'Not taking yourself too seriously in Australian English: Semantic explications, cultural scripts, corpus evidence', Intercultural Pragmatics, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 29-53.

Page 409: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 409

Goldsmith, M 2010, Marshall Goldsmith on leadership, managing people and coaching, Harvard Business Review, viewed 01 October 2010, <http://blogs.hbr.org/goldsmith/>.

Goleman, D 2005, Emotional intelligence, Bantam, New York.

Goodwin, VL, Wofford, JC & Whittington, JL 2001, 'A theoretical and empirical extension to the transformational leadership construct', Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 759-774.

Gorsuch, RL 1983, Factor Analysis, L. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale.

Government of Australia & Big Black Dog Communications 2007, Australian Humour, Government of Australia, viewed 05/05/2013, <http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-humour>.

Graen, GB 2006, 'In the eye of the beholder: Cross-cultural lesson in leadership from project GLOBE: A response viewed from the third culture bonding (TCB) model of cross-cultural leadership', Academy of Management Perspectives, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 95-101.

Graen, GB & Schiemann, WA 2013, 'Leadership-motivated excellence theory: an extension of LMX', Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 452-469.

Graen, GB & Uhl-Bien, M 1995, 'Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 219-247.

Graen, GB, Wakabayashi, M, Graen, MR & Graen, MG 1990, 'International generalizability of American hypotheses about Japanese management progress: A strong inference investigation', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-24.

Gupta, V & Singh, S 2014, 'Leadership and creative performance behaviors in r&d laboratories: Examining the mediating role of justice perceptions', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, January 5, 2014, pp. 1-16.

Gutnick, D, Walter, F, Nijstad, BA & De Dreu, CKW 2012, 'Creative performance under pressure: An integrative conceptual framework', Organizational Psychology Review, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 189-207.

Page 410: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 410

Hair, JF, Black, WC, Babin, BJ, Anderson, RE & Tatham, RL 2006, Multivariate data analysis, 6th edn., Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Creek.

Halbesleben, JRB, Novicevic, MM, Harvey, MG & Buckley, MR 2003, 'Awareness of temporal complexity in leadership of creativity and innovation: A competency-based model', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 433-454.

Hall, ET 1988, 'The silent language in overseas business', International Business Classics, pp. 89-102.

Halpin, AW & Winer, BJ 1957, 'A factorial study of the leader behavior descriptions', in RM Stogdill (ed.) Leader behavior: its description and measurement

Ohio State University, Columbus, pp. 39-51.

Hamlin, RG 2007, 'What do effective managerial leaders really do? Using qualitative methodological pluralism and analytical triangulation to explore everyday 'managerial effectiveness' and 'managerial coaching effectiveness'', International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 255-276.

Harkness, J, Mohler, PP, Vijver, FJRvd & Van de Vijver, FJR (eds), 2003, Cross-cultural survey methods, New York : John Wiley, New York.

Hebda, JM, Vojak, BA, Griffin, A & Price, RL 2007, 'Motivating Technical Visionaries in Large American Companies', Engineering Management, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 433-444.

Heifetz 1994, Leadership Without Easy Answers, Harvard University Press, Boston.

Heifetz, RA, Grashow, A & Linsky, M 2009, The Practice of Adaptive Leadership: Tools and Tactics for Changing Your Organization and the World, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

Hemlin, S, Allwood, CM & Martin, BR 2008, 'Creative knowledge environments', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 196-210.

Higgott, RA & Nossal, KR 2008, 'Odd man in, odd man out: Australia's liminal position in Asia revisited - a reply to Ann Capling', Pacific Review, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 623-634.

Page 411: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 411

Higgs, PL & Cunningham, SD 2007, Australia's creative economy: mapping methodologies, ARC Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries & Innovation, Brisbane.

Hilpinen, R 2011, Artifact, the Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, Stanford University, viewed 10/09/2014, <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/artifact/>.

Hinton, AL 1998, 'Why did you kill?: The Cambodian genocide and the dark side of face and honor', The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 93-122.

Hitt, M, Ireland, RD & Hoskisson, R 2012, Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases: Competitiveness and Globalization, Cengage Learning, Mason.

Hoegl, M, Muethel, M & Parboteeah, KP 2012, 'Cross-national differences in managers' creativity promoting values', Management International Review, vol. 52, no. 4, 2012/07//, p. 565+.

Hofstede, G 1980, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage, Beverely Hills.

Hofstede, G 1991, Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, London.

Hofstede, G 1996, 'Riding the waves of commerce: A test of Trompenaars' ''model'' of national culture differences', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol. 20, no. 2, Spr, pp. 189-198.

Hofstede, G 2001, Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Hofstede, G 2006, 'What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers' minds versus respondents' minds', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 882-896.

Hofstede, G 2010, 'The GLOBE debate: Back to relevance', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 41, no. 8, Oct-Nov, pp. 1339-1346.

Hofstede, G & Bond, MH 1988, 'The Confucius connection - from cultural roots to economic-growth', Organizational Dynamics, vol. 16, no. 4, Spr, pp. 5-21.

Page 412: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 412

Horne, D 1964, The Lucky Country: Australia in the sixties, Penguin Books, Ringwood.

Horne, D 1987, The Lucky Country Revisited, Dent, Sydney.

Horwitz, SK & Horwitz, IB 2007, 'The effects of team diversity on team outcomes: A meta-analytic review of team demography', Journal of Management, vol. 33, no. 6, Dec, pp. 987-1015.

House, R, Javidan, M & Dorfman, P 2001, 'Project GLOBE: An introduction', Applied Psychology - An International Review, vol. 50, no. 4, Oct, pp. 489-505.

House, R, Javidan, M, Hanges, P & Dorfman, P 2002, 'Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE', Journal of World Business, vol. 37, no. 1, Spr, pp. 3-10.

House, RJ 1976, 'A theory of charismatic leadership,' Leadership: The cutting edge: A symposium, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, pp. 68-81.

House, RJ 1996, 'Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 7, no. 3, Fal, pp. 323-352.

House, RJ 1997, 'The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis?', Journal of Management, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 409-473.

House, RJ, Hanges, PJ, Mansour, J, Dorfman, P & Gupta, V 2004, Culture, leadership, and organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 societies, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

House, RJ, Wright, NS & Aditya, RN 1997, 'Cross-Cultural Research on Organizational Leadership: A critical analysis and a proposed theory ', in PC Earley and M Erez (eds), New Perspectives on International Industrial/Organizational Psychology, The New Lexington Press, San Francisco, pp. 536-625.

Howell, JM & Boies, K 2004, 'Champions of technological innovation: The influence of contextual knowledge, role orientation, idea generation, and idea promotion on champion emergence', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 123-143.

Hu, H, Gu, Q & Chen, J 2013, 'How and when does transformational leadership affect organizational creativity and innovation?: Critical review and future directions', Nankai Business Review International, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 147-166.

Page 413: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 413

Hui, C & Graen, G 1997, 'Guanxi and professional leadership in contemporary Sino-American joint ventures in mainland China', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 4, Win, pp. 451-465.

Hull, F & Hage, J 1982, 'Organizing for innovation: Beyond Burns and Stalker's organic type', Sociology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 564-577.

Hurley, AE, Scandura, TA, Schriesheim, CA, Brannick, MT, Seers, A, Vandenberg, RJ & Williams, LJ 1997, 'Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Guidelines, issues and alternatives', Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 18, no. 6, Nov, pp. 667-683.

Inglehart, R 1990, Culture shift in advanced industrial society, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Inglehart, RL 2010, World Values Survey, viewed 07/07/2010, <http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/index_html>.

Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a, Australian Cultural Imprints at Work: 2010 & Beyond, Innovation & Buisness Skills Australia Ltd., East Melbourne.

Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b, Karpin report revisited: leadership and management challenges in Australia, Innovation & Business Skills Australia Ltd., East Melbourne.

Irwin, B 1996, Leaders in Australia: The Australian Cultural Imprint for Leadership, Cultural Imprint, Warrandyte.

Isaksen, SG & Akkermans, HJ 2011, 'Creative climate: A leadership lever for innovation', The Journal of Creative Behavior, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 161-187.

Jackson, B & Parry, K 2011, A Very Short Fairly Interesting and Reasonably Cheap Book About Studying Leadership, SAGE Publications.

Jacobsen, C & House, RJ 2001, 'Dynamics of charismatic leadership - a process theory, simulation model, and tests', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 1, Spr, pp. 75-112.

James, A 2011, 'Work–life (im)‘balance’ and its consequences for everyday learning and innovation in the New Economy: evidence from the Irish IT sector', Gender, Place & Culture, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 655-684.

Page 414: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 414

James, P 2007, 'Reframing the nation-state: Rethinking the Australian dream from the local to the global', Futures, vol. 39, no. 2-3, Mar-Apr, pp. 169-184.

Jaques, E 1989, Requisite organization: The CEO's guide to creative structure and leadership, Carson Hill & Co Publishers, Arlington.

Jaussi, KS & Dionne, SD 2003, 'Leading for creativity: The role of unconventional leader behavior', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 475-498.

Javidan, M, House, RJ, Dorfman, PW, Hanges, PJ & de Luque, MS 2006, 'Conceptualizing and measuring cultures and their consequences: A comparative review of GLOBE's and Hofstede's approaches', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 37, no. 6, Nov, pp. 897-914.

Jayakody, JASK 2008, 'Charismatic leadership in Sri Lankan business organizations', Journal of Management Development, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 480-498.

Jepson, D 2009, 'Studying leadership at cross-country level: A critical analysis', Leadership, vol. 5, no. 1, Feb, pp. 61-80.

Jones, M 2007, 'Hofstede - culturally questionable,' Oxford Business & Economics Conference, Oxford, Oxford, pp. 2-11.

Jørgensen, HH, Owen, L & Neus, A 2008, Making change work, IBM Corporation, University of Bonn, Stuttgart.

Joshi, A, Pandey, N & Han, G 2009, 'Bracketing team boundary spanning: An examination of task-based, team-level, and contextual antecedents', Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 731-759.

Joshi, A & Roh, H 2009, 'The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 599-627.

Judge, TA, Piccolo, RF & Ilies, R 2004, 'The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research', Journal of applied psychology, vol. 89, no. 1, p. 36.

Jung, DI, Chow, C & Wu, A 2003, 'The role of transformational leadership in enhancing organizational innovation: Hypotheses and some preliminary findings', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 525-544.

Page 415: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 415

Kaplan, RE & Kaiser, RB 2003, 'Developing versatile leadership', MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 44, no. 4, Summer2003, pp. 19-26.

Karpin, D (ed.) 1995a, Enterprising nation: renewing Australia's managers to meet the challenges of the Asia-Pacific century [Karpin report], Australian Government Public Service, Canberra.

Karpin, D (ed.) 1995b, Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century. Executive Summary, Australian Government Public Service, Canberra.

Katz, R & Allen, TJ 1985, 'Project performance and the locus of influence in the R&D matrix', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 67-87.

Katzenbach, JR, Steffen, I & Kronley, C 2012, 'Cultural change that sticks', Harvard Business Review, vol. 90, no. 7 July/August, pp. 110-117.

Kearns, J & Lowe, P 2011, in Australia’s Prosperous 2000s: Housing and the Mining Boom, The Australian Economy in the 2000s, Reserve Bank of Australia, Sydney, pp. 15-16.

Keller, RT 2001, 'Cross-functional project groups in research and new product development: Diversity, communications, job stress, and outcomes', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 547-555.

Kent, TW 2005, 'Leading and managing: it takes two to tango', Management Decision, vol. 43, no. 7/8, pp. 1010-1017.

Kerns, CD & Ko, K 2014, 'Managerial Leadership Competencies: A Practice-Oriented Action Role Framework', International Leadership Journal, p. 82.

Kim, HH, Mishra, S, Hinds, P & Liu, L 2012, 'Creativity and Culture: State of the Art', in Design Thinking Research, Springer, pp. 75-85.

King, N & Anderson, N 1990, 'Innovation in Working Groups', in MA West and JL Farr (eds), Innovation and Creativity at Work, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 81-100.

King, P & Wei, Z 2014, 'Chinese and Western Leadership Models: A Literature Review', Journal of Management Research, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 1-21.

Page 416: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 416

Kline, RB 2011, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, Guilford Press.

Kluckhohn, FR & Strodtbeck, FL 1961, Variations in value orientations, Peterson, New York.

Kotter, J 1990, A force for change: How leadership differs from management, Free Press, New York.

Kotterman, J 2006, 'Leadership versus management: What's the difference?', Journal for Quality & Participation, vol. 29, no. 2, Summer2006, pp. 13-17.

Kouzes, JM 1995, The leadership challenge : how to keep getting extraordinary things done in organizations, San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Kouzes, JM & Posner, BZ 2007, The Leadership Challenge, San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Krause, DE 2004, 'Influence-based leadership as a determinant of the inclination to innovate and of innovation-related behaviors - an empirical investigation', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 79-102.

Kroeber, AL & Kluckhohn, J 1952, Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions, Vintage Books, Random House, New York.

Krosnick, JA 1999, 'Survey research', Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 537-567.

Lansbury, RD & Quince, A 1988, 'Management and professional employees in large scale organisations: An Australian study', Employee Relations, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 2-55.

Lansbury, RD & Spillane, RR 1991, Organisational Behaviour: The Australian Context, Longman Cheshire, Southbank.

Lau, VP, Dimitrova, MN, Shaffer, MA, Davidkov, T & Yordanova, DI 2012, 'Entrepreneurial readiness and firm growth: an integrated etic and emic approach', Journal of International Management, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 147-159.

Page 417: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 417

Lee, C-K, Tan, B & Chiu, J-Z 2008, 'The impact of organisational culture and learning on innovation performance', International Journal of Innovation and Learning, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 413-428.

Leong, FTL, Leung, K & Cheung, FM 2010, 'Integrating cross-cultural psychology research methods into ethnic minority psychology', Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 590-597.

Leung, K 2009, 'Never the Twain Shall Meet? Integrating Chinese and Western Management Research', Management and Organization Review, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 121-129.

Lewicka, D 2011, 'Creating innovative attitudes in an organisation – comparative analysis of tools applied in IBM poland and ZPAS group', Journal of Asia Pacific Business Innovation and Technology Management, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-12.

Liden, RC & Antonakis, J 2009, 'Considering context in psychological leadership research', Human Relations, vol. 62, no. 11, Nov, pp. 1587-1605.

Likert, R 1967, The human organization : its management and value, Nueva York, EUA : McGraw-Hill.

López-Nicolás, C & Meroño-Cerdán, ÁL 2011, 'Strategic knowledge management, innovation and performance', International Journal of Information Management, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 502-509.

Lord, RG & Brown, DJ 2001, 'Leadership, values, and subordinate self-concepts', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 2, Sum, pp. 133-152.

Lord, RG, Foti, RJ & De Vader, CL 1984, 'A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions', Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 343-378.

Lord, RG & Maher, KJ 1993, Leadership and Information Processing and Leadership Theories, Routledge, London.

Lowe, S, Kainzbauer, A, Tapachai, N & Hwang, K-S 2014, 'Ambicultural blending between Eastern and Western paradigms: Fresh perspectives for international management research', Culture and Organization, pp. 1-17.

Page 418: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 418

Lowman, RL (ed.) 2002, The California School of Organizational Studies handbook of organizational consulting psychology a comprehensive guide to theory, skills, and techniques, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Lu, L-T 2012, 'Etic or emic? Measuring culture in international business research', International Business Research, vol. 5, no. 5, p. 109.

Lubart, T 2010, 'Cross-cultural perspectives on creativity', The Cambridge handbook of creativity, pp. 265-278.

Lubart, TI 1990, 'creativity and cross-cultural variation', International Journal of Psychology, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 39.

Luthans, F & Lockwood, DL 1984, 'Toward an observation system for measuring leader behavior in natural settings', Leaders and managers: International perspectives on managerial behavior and leadership, vol. 117, p. 141.

Mackay, H 1993, Reinventing Australia: The mind and mood of Australia in the 90s, Angus & Robertson, Sydney.

Madjar, N, Oldham, GR & Pratt, MG 2002, 'There's no place like home? The contributions of work and nonwork creativity support to employees' creative performance', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 757-767.

Marion, R & Uhl-Bien, M 2001, 'Leadership in complex organizations', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 4, Win, pp. 389-418.

Mascitelli, B & Tinney, J 2013, The Global Business Environment: An Australian Perspective, McGraw-Hill Education, North Ryde.

Mathisen, GE 2011, 'Organizational antecedents of creative self-efficacy', Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 185-195.

Maynard, A & Greenfield, P 2005, 'An Ethnomodel of Teaching and Learning', in Learning in Cultural Context, Springer US, pp. 75-103.

McClelland, DC 1967, Achieving Society, Free Press, New York.

McCormick, MJ 2001, 'Self-efficacy and leadership effectiveness: Applying social cognitive theory to leadership', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, Summer 2001, pp. 22-33.

Page 419: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 419

McCrae, RR, Terracciano, A, Realo, A & Allik, J 2008, 'Interpreting GLOBE societal practices scales', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 39, no. 6, Nov, pp. 805-810.

McDonald, RP 1996, 'Path analysis with composite variables', Multivariate Behavioral Research, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 239-270.

McFarland, L, Senn, L & Childress, J 1993, 21st Century Leadership: Dialogues with 100 Top Leaders, Leadership Press, New York.

McGuire, SJJ 2003, Entrepreneurial organizational culture: Construct definition and instrument development and validation ph d dissertation, thesis, George Washington University, Washington.

McInnes, W 2012, The Making of Modern Australia, Hachette Australia, Sydney.

McNair Anderson Associates 1979, Managers and Workers at the Crossroads: A National Opinion Research Study, Sentry Holdings, Milsons Point.

McNair Anderson Associates 1981, Perspectives on Productivity: Australia: A National Opinion Research Study, Sentry Holdings Limited, Milsons Point.

McSweeney, B 2002, 'Hofstede’s model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith - a failure of analysis', Human Relations, vol. 55, January 1, 2002, pp. 89-118.

Meng, YK, Ashkanasy, NM & Härtel, CEJ 2003, 'The effects of Australian tall poppy attitudes on American value based leadership theory', International Journal of Value-Based Management, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 53-65.

Menictas, C, Wang, P & Fine, B 2011, 'Assessing flat-lining response style bias in online research', Australaisian Journal of Market & Social Research, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 34-45.

Milton, CR, Entrekin, L & Stening, BW 1984, Organizational Behaviour in Australia, Prentice-Hall of Australia, Netley.

Minkov, M 2011, Cultural Differences in a Globalizing World, Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley.

Page 420: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 420

Minkov, M & Blagoev, V 2012, 'What do project GLOBE's cultural dimensions reflect? An empirical perspective', Asia Pacific Business Review, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 27-43.

Mintzberg, H 1973, The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, New York.

Misumi, J 1995, 'The development in Japan of the performance maintenance (PM) theory of leadership', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 51, no. 1, Spr, pp. 213-228.

Moan, K & Hetland, H 2012, 'Are leadership preferences universally endorsed or culturally contingent?', Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 5-22.

Moore, B 2011, Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 5th Edition, Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand, South Melbourne.

Morris, MW, Leung, K, Ames, D & Lickel, B 1999, 'Views from inside and outside: Integrating emic and etic insights about culture and justice judgment', Academy of Management Review, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 781-796.

Morrison, AJ 2000, 'Developing a global leadership model', Human Resource Management, vol. 39, no. 2-3, pp. 117-131.

Mullin, RF & Sherman, R 1993, 'Creativity and performance appraisal: Shall never the twain meet?', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 425 - 434.

Mumford, MD 2000, 'Managing creative people: Strategies and tactics for innovation', Human Resource Management Review, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 313-351.

Mumford, MD 2002, 'Social innovation: Ten cases from Benjamin Franklin', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 253-266.

Mumford, MD 2003, 'The leadership quarterly special issue on leading for innovation - Part I: Micro studies', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 385-387.

Mumford, MD 2004, 'The leadership quarterly special issue on leading for innovation - Part 2: Macro studies', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 1-2.

Mumford, MD, Connelly, S & Gaddis, B 2003, 'How creative leaders think: Experimental findings and cases', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 411-432.

Page 421: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 421

Mumford, MD & Gustafson, SB 1988, 'Creativity syndrome - integration, application, and innovation', Psychological Bulletin, vol. 103, no. 1, Jan, pp. 27-43.

Mumford, MD & Licuanan, B 2004, 'Leading for innovation: Conclusions, issues, and directions', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 163-171.

Mumford, MD, Scott, GM, Gaddis, B & Strange, JM 2002, 'Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationships', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 6, Dec, pp. 705-750.

Mumford, MD, Zaccaro, SJ, Harding, FD, Jacobs, TO & Fleishman, EA 2000, 'Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, Spr, pp. 11-35.

Mumford, TV, Campion, MA & Morgeson, FP 2007, 'The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 2, Apr, pp. 154-166.

Mumin, D & Mustafa, C 2008, 'The role of procedural justice in the new product development process', European Journal of Innovation Management, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 199-218.

Musteen, M, Barker, VL & Baeten, VL 2010, 'The influence of CEO tenure and attitude toward change on organizational approaches to innovation', The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 360-387.

Naranjo Valencia, JC, Sanz Valle, R & Jiménez, D 2010, 'Organizational culture as determinant of product innovation', European Journal of Innovation Management, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 466-480.

Needle, D 2010, Business in Context: An Introduction to Business and Its Environment, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason.

Niblo, DM & Jackson, MS 2004, 'Model for combining the qualitative emic approach with the quantitative derived etic approach', Australian Psychologist, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 127-133.

Nienaber, H 2010, 'Conceptualisation of management and leadership', Management Decision, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 661-675.

Page 422: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 422

Northouse, PG 2012, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 6th edn., SAGE, Thousand Oaks.

Nunnally, JC & Bernstein, IH 1994, Psychometric theory, 3rd ed.. edn., New York : McGraw-Hill, New York.

Nystrom, H 1979, Creativity and Innovation, Wiley, New York.

OECD 2013, Glossary of Statistical Terms, OECD, viewed 10/01/2013, <http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/search.asp>.

Oldham, GR & Cummings, A 1996, 'Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, no. 3, Jun, pp. 607-634.

Olsson, BK & Backstrom, T 2012, 'Innovative leadership: Supporting creative team interaction,' International Symposium on Management of Technology (ISMOT), Hangzhou, pp. 378-381.

Onea, AN & Tatarusanu, M 2012, 'Cultural specificity and leadership', International Conference Emerging Markets Queries in Finance and Business, vol. 3, pp. 746-751.

Osland, JS & Bird, A 2000, 'Beyond sophisticated stereotyping: Cultural sensemaking in context', Academy of Management Executive, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 65-77.

Palanski, ME & Vogelgesang, GR 2011, 'Virtuous creativity: The effects of leader behavioural integrity on follower creative thinking and risk taking', Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 259-269.

Palmer, BR, Gignac, G, Ekermans, G & Stough, C 2008, 'A comprehensive framework for emotional intelligence', in R Emmerling, M Mandal and V Shanwal (eds), Emotional Intelligence: Theoretical & Cultural Perspectives, Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp. 17-38.

Paris, LD, Howell, JP, Dorfman, PW & Hanges, PJ 2009, 'Preferred leadership prototypes of male and female leaders in 27 countries', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 40, no. 8, Oct-Nov, pp. 1396-1405.

Parker, SK & Axtell, CM 2001, 'Seeing another viewpoint: Antecedents and outcomes of employee perspective taking', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 1085-1100.

Page 423: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 423

Parry, K, Mumford, MD, Bower, I & Watts, LL 2014, 'Qualitative and historiometric methods in leadership research: A review of the first 25 years of The Leadership Quarterly', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 1, 2//, pp. 132-151.

Parry, KW 1996, Transformational leadership: Developing an enterprising management culture, Pitman Publishing, Melbourne.

Parry, KW 1999, 'The new leader: A synthesis of leadership research in Australia and New Zealand', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 82-105.

Paulus, PB 2008, 'Fostering Creativity in Groups and Teams', in J Zhou and CE Shalley (eds), Handbook of Orgnizational Creativity, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New York, pp. 165-188.

Pease, B & Pringle, K 2001, A Man's World?: Changing Men's Practices in a Globalized World, Zed, London.

Peeters, B 2004, 'Tall poppies and egalitarianism in Australian discourse', English World-Wide, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 1-25.

Peterson, MF 2003, 'Review: Culture's Consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, 2d ed', Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 127-131.

Peterson, MF 2004, 'Review: Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies', Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 641-647.

Podsakoff, PM, MacKenzie, SB, Lee, JY & Podsakoff, NP 2003, 'Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 88, no. 5, Oct, pp. 879-903.

Podsakoff, PM, MacKenzie, SB, Moorman, RH & Fetter, R 1990, 'Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 107-142.

Puccio, GJ & Cabra, JF 2010, 'Organizational creativity', The Cambridge handbook of creativity, pp. 145-173.

Page 424: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 424

Quinn, JB 1983, 'Technological innovation, entrepreneurship, and strategy', Engineering Management Review, IEEE, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 14-25.

Quinn, JB 1985, 'Managing innovation: controlled chaos', Harvard Business Review, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 73-84.

Rahim, A 2013, Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Problem Solving, Transaction Publishers.

Ralph, JT 1982, Inquiry into management education: Report, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Ralston, DA, Egri, CP, Stewart, S, Terpstra, RH & Yu, KC 1999, 'Doing business in the 21st century with the new generation of Chinese managers: A study of generational shifts in work values in China', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 415-427.

Rasulzada, F & Dackert, I 2009, 'Organizational creativity and innovation in relation to psychological well-being and organizational factors', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 21, no. 2-3, pp. 191-198.

Rea, LM & Parker, RA 1997, Designing and Conducting Survey Research: A Comprehensive Guide, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.

Redmond, MR, Mumford, MD & Teach, R 1993, 'Putting creativity to work - effects of leader-behavior on subordinate creativity', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol. 55, no. 1, Jun, pp. 120-151.

Reiter-Palmon, R & Illies, JJ 2004, 'Leadership and creativity: Understanding leadership from a creative problem-solving perspective', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 55-77.

ResearchNow 2012, ResearchNow, viewed 10/10/2010, <http://www.researchnow.com/en-AU/Panels/SpecialityPanel/BusinessPanel.aspx>.

Rizova, PS 2006, 'Are you networked for successful innovation?', MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 49-55.

Rogers, EM 2003, Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edition, Simon & Schuster, New York.

Page 425: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 425

Rosa, M & Orey, D 2013, 'Ethnomodelling as a Methodology for Ethnomathematics', in GA Stillman, G Kaiser, W Blum and JP Brown (eds), Teaching Mathematical Modelling: Connecting to Research and Practice, Springer Netherlands, pp. 77-88.

Rosing, K, Frese, M & Bausch, A 2011, 'Explaining the heterogeneity of the leadership-innovation relationship: Ambidextrous leadership', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 956-974.

Rost, JC 1993, Leadership for the twenty-first century, Praeger, New York.

Rymer, CS 2008, Leadership in Australia-how different are we?, thesis, Southern Cross Business School, Southern Cross University, Lismore.

Salt, B 2007, The Big Picture: Life, Work and Relationships in the 21st Century, Hardie Grant Books, Melbourne.

Salt, B 2013, 'Asian Influence adds spice to melting pot', The Australian, 12/09/2013, p. 1.

Sarros, JC, Cooper, BK, Hartican, AM & Barker, CJ 2011, Character of Leadership: What Works for Australian Leaders Making It Work for You, Wiley, Woolloongabba.

Sarros, JC, Cooper, BK & Santora, JC 2008, 'Building a climate for innovation through transformational leadership and organizational culture', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 145-158.

Sarros, JC, Gray, JH & Densten, I 2002, Australian business leadership survey, Australian Institute of Management, St. Kilda.

Sarros, JC, Miller, JO, Jones, RA & Syme, D 1992, Leadership Report 1992: Australian Leadership in a Competitive World, Monash University and the Leadership Development Centre, Clayton.

Savalei, V & Bentler, PM 2010, 'Structural equation modelling', in R Grover and M Vriens (eds), Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, Sage, Newbury park, pp. 330-364.

Scandura, T & Dorfman, P 2004, 'Leadership research in an international and cross-cultural context', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 2, Apr, pp. 277-307.

Schulz-Hardt, S, Brodbeck, FC, Mojzisch, A, Kerschreiter, R & Frey, D 2006, 'Group decision making in hidden profile situations: dissent as a facilitator for decision

Page 426: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 426

quality', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 91, no. 6, Dec, pp. 1080-93.

Schwab, K, Sala-i-Martin, X, Blanke, J, Drzeniek Hanouz, M, Mia, I & Geiger, T 2009, The Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010, World Economic Forum.

Schwartz, SH 1992, 'Universals in the content and structure of values - theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries', Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 1-65.

Schwartz, SH 1994, 'Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values?', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 19-45.

Schwartz, SH 2007, 'Basic human values: Theory, methods, and applications ', Risorsa Uomo, vol. 2, no. 23, pp. 261-283.

Schwartz, SH & Bardi, A 2001, 'Value hierarchies across cultures - taking a similarities perspective', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 32, no. 3, May, pp. 268-290.

Scott, G 2001, 'Strategic planning for high-tech product development', Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, vol. 13, no. 3, Sep, pp. 343-364.

Scott, SG & Bruce, RA 1994, 'Determinants of innovative behavior: a path model of individual innovation in the workplace', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 580-608.

Sellgren, S, Ekvall, G & Tomson, G 2006, 'Leadership styles in nursing management: Preferred and perceived', Journal of Nursing Management, vol. 14, no. 5, Jul, pp. 348-55.

Selvarajah, C 2006, 'Archetypes of the Malaysian manager: Exploring ethnicity dimensions that relate to leadership', Journal of Management and Organization, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 251-269.

Selvarajah, C 2010, 'Asian perspectives on excellence in leadership: Getting at culture', Working paper, Swinburne Unviersity of Technology, 2010, viewed 12/07/2011.

Page 427: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 427

Selvarajah, C, Duignan, P, Suppiah, C, Lane, T & Nuttman, C 1995, 'In search of the ASEAN leader: An exploratory study of the dimensions that relate to excellence in leadership', Management International Review, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 29-44.

Selvarajah, C & Meyer, D 2008a, 'Dimensions that relate to excellence in leadership in Camboida,' British Academy of Management Conference, British Academy of Management, 1-23.

Selvarajah, C & Meyer, D 2008b, 'One nation, three cultures: exploring dimensions that relate to leadership in Malaysia', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 693-712.

Selvarajah, C & Meyer, D 2008c, 'Perceptions of leadership excellence in ASEAN nations: profiling leadership dimensions of managers in Malaysia and Thailand,' Academy of International Business Southeast Asia Regional Conference, Hong Kong Institute of Business Studies, Lingnan University, 1-24.

Selvarajah, C & Meyer, D 2008d, 'Profiling the Chinese manager: exploring dimensions that relate to leadership', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 359-375.

Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D & Davuth, D 2012, 'The effect of cultural modelling on leadership profiling of the Cambodian manager', Asia Pacific Business Review, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 649-674.

Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D & Donovan, J 2013, 'Cultural context and its influence on managerial leadership in Thailand', Asia Pacific Business Review, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 356-380.

Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D & Jeyakumar, R 2011, 'Profiling excellence in leadership in Singapore: shifting values,' Academy of Business Southeast Asia Regional Conference, 1-18.

Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D, Nathan, RJ & Donovan, JD 2013, 'Flowers in a greenhouse: Profiling excellence in leadership in Singapore', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 784-804.

Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D & Trung, PW 2010, 'In search of excellence in leadership in the Vietnamese manager: where confucianism meets dharma,' Academy of Business Southeast Asia Regional Conference (AIBSEAR 2010), Academy of International Business Southeast Asia Chapter, 1-23.

Page 428: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 428

Selvarajah, CT & Meyer, D 2008e, 'One nation, three cultures: exploring dimensions that relate to leadership in Malaysia', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, vol. 29, no. 8, 2008, pp. 693-712.

Selvarajah, CT, Meyer, D, Swinburne University of Technology. Faculty of, B & Enterprise 2006, 'Leadership excellence : comparison of leadership profiles for Chinese managers in Malaysia and China,' Academy of International Business, South East Asia regional Conference, Academy of International Business Southeast Asia Regional Chapter, 1-25.

Senge, P 2006, The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organization, Doubleday/Currency, New York.

Shalley, CE & Gilson, LL 2004, 'What leaders need to know: A review of social and contextual factors that can foster or hinder creativity', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1, Feb, pp. 33-53.

Shalley, CE, Gilson, LL & Blum, TC 2000, 'Matching creativity requirements and the work environment: Effects on satisfaction and intentions to leave', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 215-223.

Shalley, CE & Perry-Smith, JE 2001, 'Effects of social-psychological factors on creative performance: The role of informational and controlling expected evaluation and modeling experience', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol. 84, no. 1, Jan, pp. 1-22.

Shalley, CE, Zhou, J & Oldham, GR 2004, 'The effects of personal and contextual characteristics on creativity: Where should we go from here?', Journal of Management, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 933-958.

Sharma, A 1999, 'Central dilemmas of managing innovation in large firms', California Management Review, vol. 41, no. 3, Spring99, pp. 146-164.

Shipper, F & Davy, J 2002, 'A model and investigation of managerial skills, employees' attitudes, and managerial performance', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 2, Apr, pp. 95-120.

Shrivastava, S, Selvarajah, C, Meyer, D & Dorasamy, N 2013, 'Exploring excellence in leadership perceptions amongst South African managers', Human Resource Development International,no. ahead-of-print, pp. 1-20.

Page 429: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 429

Simonet, DV & Tett, RP 2013, 'Five Perspectives on the Leadership–Management Relationship: A Competency-Based Evaluation and Integration', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, May 1, 2013, pp. 199-213.

Simonton, DK 1975, 'Sociocultural context of individual creativity: A transhistorical time-series analysis', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 32, no. 6, Dec, pp. 1119-1133.

Sims, RR 2002, Changing The Way We Manage Change, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport.

Singh, P 1987, 'Nurturant task and participative task leaderships: The effective leader behaviours for Indian industries', Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 197-209.

Sinha, JBP 1980, The nurturant-task leader, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Skevington, SM 2002, 'Advancing cross-cultural research on quality of life: Observations drawn from the WHOQOL development', Quality of Life Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 135-144.

Skogstad, A & Einarsen, Sl 1999, 'The importance of a change-centred leadership style in four organizational cultures', Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 289-306.

Smyth, JD, Dillman, DA, Christian, LM & Stern, MJ 2006, 'Comparing check-all and forced-choice question formats in web surveys', Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 70, no. 1, Spr, pp. 66-77.

St Claire, B 2005, Carrying Cultural Baggage: The Contribution of Socio-cultural Anthropology to Cross-cultural Coaching, Oxford: Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

Steers, RM, Sanchez-Runde, C & Nardon, L 2012, 'Leadership in a global context: New directions in research and theory development', Journal of World Business, vol. 47, no. 4, 10//, pp. 479-482.

Stenmark, CK, Shipman, AS & Mumford, MD 2011, 'Managing the innovative process: The dynamic role of leaders', Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 67-80.

Page 430: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 430

Sternberg, RJ 1998, 'Metacognition, abilities, and developing expertise: What makes an expert student?', Instructional Science, vol. 26, no. 1/2, pp. 127-140.

Sternberg, RJ 2005a, 'A model of educational leadership: Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity, synthesized', International Journal of Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 347-364.

Sternberg, RJ 2005b, 'The theory of successful intelligence', Interamerican Journal of Psychology, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 189-202.

Sternberg, RJ 2006, 'The nature of creativity', Creativity Research Journal, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 87-98.

Sternberg, RJ 2008, 'The WICS approach to leadership: Stories of leadership and the structures and processes that support them', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 3, Jun, pp. 360-371.

Sternberg, RJ, Kaufman, JC & Pretz, JE 2003, 'A propulsion model of creative leadership', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 455-473.

Sternberg, RJ & Lubart, TI 1991, 'An investment theory of creativity and its development', Human Development, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 1-31.

Steven, E 2008, 'Fifty years of influence in the workplace: The evolution of the French and Raven power taxonomy', Journal of Management History, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 267-283.

Stevens, G 2008, in The Australian economy–then and now: Address to the inaugural Faculty of Economics and Business Alumni Dinner,

The University of Sydney, Reserve Bank of Australia, Sydney.

Stewart, J 2006, 'Transformational leadership: An evolving concept examined through the works of Burns, Bass, Avolio and Leithwood', Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy,no. 54, pp. 1-29.

Stogdill, RM 1948, 'Personal factors associated with leadership; a survey of the literature', Journal of Psychology, vol. 25, no. 1, Jan, pp. 35-71.

Stogdill, RM, Goode, OS & Day, DR 1962, 'New leader behavior description subscales', The Journal of Psychology, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 259-269.

Page 431: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 431

Stogdill, RM, Scott, EL & Jaynes, WE 1956, Leadership and Role Expectations, Ohio State Unviersity, Columbus.

Summers, JK, Humphrey, SE & Ferris, GR 2012, 'Team member change, flux in coordination, and performance: effects of strategic core roles, information transfer, and cognitive ability', Academy of Management journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 314-338.

Tabachnick, BG & Fidell, LS 2012, Using Multivariate Statistics, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River.

Taormina, RJ & Selvarajah, C 2005, 'Perceptions of leadership excellence in ASEAN nations', Leadership, vol. 1, no. 3, Sep, pp. 299-322.

Taras, V, Kirkman, BL & Steel, P 2010, 'Examining the impact of Culture's Consequences: a three-decade, multilevel, meta-analytic review of Hofstede's cultural value dimensions', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 95, no. 3, May, pp. 405-39.

Terlutter, R, Diehl, S & Mueller, B 2006, 'The GLOBE study–applicability of a new typology of cultural dimensions for cross-cultural marketing and advertising research', International Advertising and Communication: Current Insights and Empirical Findings. Wissenschaft, Wiesbaden, Germany: Galber Edition, pp. 419-438.

Tett, RP, Guterman, HA, Bleier, A & Murphy, PJ 2000, 'Development and content validation of a "hyperdimensional" taxonomy of managerial competence', Human Performance, vol. 13, no. 3, 2000/07/01, pp. 205-251.

Thompson, E 1994, Fair enough: Egalitarianism in Australia, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Tierney, P 2008, 'Leadership and Employee Creativity', in J Zhou and CE Shalley (eds), Handbook of Organizational Creativity, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, New York, pp. 95-123.

Tierney, P & Farmer, SM 2002, 'Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 1137-1148.

Tierney, P, Farmer, SM & Graen, GB 1999, 'An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships', Personnel Psychology, vol. 52, no. 3, Fal, pp. 591-620.

Page 432: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 432

Trevor-Roberts, E, Ashkanasy, NM & Kennedy, JC 2003, 'The egalitarian leader: A comparison of leadership in Australia and New Zealand', Asia Pacific Journal of Management, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 517-540.

Triandis, HC 1995, Individualism & Collectivism, Westview Press, Boulder.

Troilo, G, De Luca, LM & Atuahene-Gima, K 2014, 'More innovation with less? A strategic contingency view of slack resources, information search, and radical innovation', Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 259-277.

Trompenaars, F & Hampden-Turner, C 2003, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business, 2nd edn., Nicholas Brealey, London.

Tung, RL & Verbeke, A 2010, 'Beyond Hofstede and GLOBE: Improving the quality of cross-cultural research INTRODUCTION', Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 41, no. 8, Oct-Nov, pp. 1259-1274.

Turnell, C & Washbourne, M 1991, 'Australian TQM model', The TQM Magazine, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 247-251.

Tyler, TR & Lind, EA 1992, 'A relational model of authority in groups', in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 25, Academic Press, pp. 115-191.

Uhl-Bien, M & Marion, R 2009, 'Complexity leadership in bureaucratic forms of organizing: A meso model', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 4, Aug, pp. 631-650.

Uhl-Bien, M, Marion, R & McKelvey, B 2007, 'Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 4, Aug, pp. 298-318.

Venaik, S & Brewer, P 2013, 'Critical issues in the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture models', International Marketing Review, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 469-482.

Vidal-Naquet, P 2000, Le monde d'Homère, Perrin, Paris.

Volmer, J, Spurk, D & Niessen, C 2012, 'Leader–member exchange (LMX), job autonomy, and creative work involvement', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 456-465.

Von Stamm, B 2008, Managing innovation, design and creativity, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex.

Page 433: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 433

Wagner, G, Frick, J & Schupp, J 2007, 'The German socio-economic panel study -evolution, scope and enhancements', German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) vol. 1, pp. 1-32.

Wah, S 2002, 'Chinese classical leadership revisited: lessons for the contemporary leader', Malaysian Management Review, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 11-18.

Wang, H, Waldman, DA & Zhang, H 2012, 'Strategic leadership across cultures: Current findings and future research directions', Journal of World Business, vol. 47, no. 4, 10//, pp. 571-580.

Weber, M 2012, The Protestant ethic and the rise of capitalism, Courier Dover Publications, Mineola.

Weiss, M, Hoegl, M & Gibbert, M 2014, 'Perceptions of material resources in innovation projects: What shapes them and how do they matter?', Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 278-291.

Wenquan, L, Chia, RC & Liluo, F 2000, 'Chinese implicit leadership theory', Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 729-739.

West, BA & Murphy, FT 2007, G'Day Boss!: Australian Culture and the Workplace, Tribus Lingua, Melbourne.

West, MA & Richter, AW 2008, 'Climates and Cultures for Innovation and Creativity at Work', in J Zhou and CE Shalley (eds), Handbook of Orgnizational Creativity, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New York, pp. 211-236.

Westwood, R & Low, DR 2003, 'The multicultural muse: Culture, creativity and innovation', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 3, no. 2, August 1, 2003, pp. 235-259.

Williams, S 2001, 'Increasing employees’ creativity by training their managers', Industrial and Commercial Training, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 63-68.

Wilson, CL, O'Hare, D & Shipper, F 1990, 'Task cycle theory: The processes of influence', in KECMB Clark (ed.) Measures of leadership, Leadership Library of America, West Orange, NJ, US, pp. 185-204.

Wofford, J 1993, 'Path-goal theories of leadership: A meta-analysis', Journal of Management, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 857-876.

Page 434: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 434

Wood, GJ 2011, 'Women in Management in Australia', in M Davidson and R Burke (eds), Women in Management Worldwide: Progress and Prospects, Gower Publishing, Surrey, pp. 225-246.

Woodman, RW 2008, 'Creativity and Organizational Change: Linking Ideas and Extending Theory', in J Zhou and CE Shalley (eds), Handbook of Organizational Creativity, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New York, pp. 283-300.

Woodman, RW, Sawyer, JE & Griffin, RW 1993, 'Toward a theory of organizational creativity', Academy of Management Review, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 293-321.

Worthington, RL & Whittaker, TA 2006, 'Scale development research - A content analysis and recommendations for best practices', Counseling Psychologist, vol. 34, no. 6, Nov, pp. 806-838.

Xu, J, Houssin, R, Caillaud, E & Gardoni, M 2010, 'Macro process of knowledge management for continuous innovation', Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 573-591.

Yallop, C 2005, The Macquarie Dictionary, Macquarie Library, Sydney.

Yeganeh, H & Su, Z 2006, 'Conceptual foundations of cultural management research', International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 6, no. 3, December 1, 2006, pp. 361-376.

Yukl, G 1989, 'Managerial leadership: A review of theory and research', Journal of Management, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 251-289.

Yukl, G 1999, 'An evaluative essay on current conceptions of effective leadership', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 33 - 48.

Yukl, G 2008, 'How leaders influence organizational effectiveness', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 6, Dec, pp. 708-722.

Yukl, G 2010, Leadership in organizations, 7th edn., Prentice Hill, Upper Sadle River.

Yukl, G 2012, 'Effective leadership behavior: What we know and what questions need more attention', Academy of Management Perspectives, vol. 26, no. 4, Nov, pp. 66-85.

Page 435: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 435

Yukl, G, Gordon, A & Taber, T 2002, 'A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: Integrating a half century of behavior research', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, Summer 2002, pp. 15-32.

Yukl, G & Lepsinger, R 1990, 'Preliminary report on validation of the Managerial Practices Survey', in KE Clark and MB Clark (eds), Measures of Leadership, Leadership Library of America, West Orange, pp. 223-237.

Yukl, G & Lepsinger, R 2004, Flexible Leadership : Creating Value by Balancing Multiple Challenges and Choices, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Yukl, G & Lepsinger, R 2005, 'Why integrating the leading and managing roles is essential for organizational effectiveness', Organizational Dynamics, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 361-375.

Yukl, G & Mahsud, R 2010, 'Why flexible and adaptive leadership is essential', Consulting Psychology Journal, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 81-93.

Yukl, GA & Nemeroff, W 1979, 'Identification and measurement of specific categories of leadership behavior: A progress report', Crosscurrents in leadership, pp. 164-200.

Zaccaro, SJ, Gilbert, JA, Thor, KK & Mumford, MD 1991, 'Leadership and social intelligence: Linking social perspectiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness', The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 317-342.

Zaleznik, A 2004, 'Managers and leaders: Are they different?', Harvard Business Review, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 74-81.

Zampieron, A, Spanio, D, Bernardi, P, Milan, M & Buja, A 2013, 'Nurse managers’ preferred and perceived leadership styles: a study at an Italian hospital', Journal of Nursing Management, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 521-528.

Zhang, XM & Bartol, KM 2010, 'Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, no. 1, Feb, pp. 107-128.

Zhou, J 1998, 'Feedback valence, feedback style, task autonomy, and achievement orientation: Interactive effects on creative performance', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 83, no. 2, Apr, pp. 261-276.

Page 436: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

References

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 436

Zhou, J 2008, 'Promoting Creativity Through Feedback', in J Zhou and CE Shalley (eds), Handbook of Organizational Creativity, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New York, pp. 125-144.

Zhou, J & George, JM 2003, 'Awakening employee creativity: The role of leader emotional intelligence', Leadership Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4-5, Aug-Oct, pp. 545-568.

Page 437: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 437

Appendix 1: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours

Personal Qualities

Role Modelling for Creativity

1. Engage in creative endeavours yourself

2. Adjust behaviour in unexpected ways around being creative

3. Be seen as involved in creative endeavours

4. Share with team members that they are serving as role models for their peers

5. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

6. Regularly participate in your own training programs and share with the staff

Tolerate Ambiguity & Risk

7. Be a risk taker

8. Comfortable with subordinates working without your guidance or direction

9. Encourage others to take risks

10. Encourage divergent thinking

11. Let subordinates establish their own preferred work routine and practices

Relationships

12. Establish relationships with subordinates

13. Provide supportive supervision to subordinates

14. Encourage employees to find problems or identify unrecognised problems

15. Understand and appeal to the feelings of employees when attempting to drive innovation

16. Identify sources of frustration felt by subordinates

17. Treat employees, their ideas and suggestions with the most respect possible

18. Show clear support for ideas generated by subordinates

19. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another

Communication

20. Create forums and opportunities to discuss organisational initiatives

21. Give feedback in an informal manner

22. Ensure feedback occurs in a time sensitive manner

Page 438: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 438

23. Provide abundant information to subordinates

24. Continually look for ways to improve your communication skills

25. Promote and engage in an open door communication policy between yourself,

subordinates and other members of management

26. Subordinates know they are safe in communicating criticisms

27. Evaluate projects based on technical expertise and organisation mission

28. Challenge subordinates to reflect organisational mission in their creative efforts

29. Develop a strong sense of connection within subordinates between creative endeavours

and organisation mission

30. Encourage subordinates to lead critical dialogue on their own ideas.

31. Challenge subordinates to deeper levels of inquiry

32. Evaluate based on gains against expectations

33. Provide ongoing progress monitoring

34. Regularly reflect on and adjust levels of motivation and encouragement to staff

35. Engage employees to provide input into organisational processes and goals

36. Provide formal feedback on projects that is both critical and relevant

37. Ensure subordinates discussion projects across the organisation

38. Let other subordinates share in the acknowledgement of individuals with encouraged

behaviour

39. Engage subordinates in discussions around ideas, organisational problems and

opportunities

40. Include ideas, analysis and solutions of subordinates in communication in the

organisation.

41. Provide enthusiastic support for work related efforts regularly

42. Control the flow of information to reach all members of the organisation; (reversed)

Allow primary information flow to occur through the management teams

43. Establish communication involving sharing of ideas

44. Engage in communication efforts across informal channels to promote innovation

45. Engage in communication efforts across formal channels to promote innovation

46. Create a sense of urgency and adaptability when communicating the need for creativity

47. Engage in organisational networking and public relations activities to secure support for

initiatives under your leadership 0

48. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

Page 439: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 439

Reward and Incentives

49. Share reward making decisions with actively involved co-workers

50. Develop reward structures with subordinates in mind to reflect employee preferences

51. Understand individual employee motivation

52. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences

Managerial Behaviours

Team Related

53. Assign diverse and challenging work projects to subordinates

54. Ensure team membership is diverse in terms of experience and background

55. Facilitate knowledge management processes to ensure information is regularly shared

between subordinates

56. Share decision making with subordinates to ensure they are a part of organisational

processes and not outside of them

57. Encourage employees to establish their own systems and processes

58. Create opportunities for flexible decision making in the organisation

59. Assign project leadership that is collaborative and not controlling

60. Establish teams with people who have never worked together

61. Direct subordinates to share their knowledge when asked to do so by their peers

62. Review work assignments and adjust pressures, work load to meet with output

expectations

63. Embrace uncertainty in efforts related to improving the organisation

64. Connect creative endeavours across the organisation.

65. Build synergies across the organisation and projects

66. Establish practices to expose staff to new subordinates and peers.

67. Encourage productive conflict on projects

68. Encourage social cohesion on teams

69. Frame decisions based on non financial rationale

70. Encourage employees to engage in free thought

71. Share stories of creative effort

Page 440: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 440

72. Include innovation efforts in organisational strategy

73. Spread team membership across all departments in the organisation

74. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation

Resource Allocation

75. Ensure that subordinates have access to internet and other external knowledge tools to

develop work

76. Budget for the purchase of new technologies on an ongoing basis

77. Ask subordinates to investigate and provide recommendations on new technologies that

could be used by the organisation.

78. Provide slack resources across the organisation in terms of funds, administrative support,

meeting space and opportunities for engagement

79. Encourage subordinates to provide rationale for resource requests

80. Connect motivational requirements of employees to resources provided

81. Provide all necessary administrative support to creative teams

82. Provide dedicated time for the purpose of exploration

83. Monitor and adjust subordinates’ time allocations to reflect individual and project needs

84. Ensure project deadlines are justified

85. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals

Framing of Work

86. Transfer ownership of work to subordinates including identifying solutions.

87. Provide freedom in all aspects of creative endeavour from idea development to solution

proposal

88. Encouraging subordinates to look for information internally and externally when solving

problems

89. Push employees to consider alternative sources or perspectives

90. Encourage employees to apply new information when found

91. Ensure solutions developed by subordinates are incorporating new information

92. Engage employees to look at work form multiple perspectives

93. Engage subordinates in knowledge management practices and behaviours

Page 441: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 441

94. Direct teams to expand the use of and consider numerous approaches and sources of

information

95. Have subordinates focus on originality

96. Change meeting structure to increase creative output

97. Guide subordinates through encouraged actions and calls for greater consideration, not

specific direction.

98. Ensure solutions use a process that includes both internal and external stakeholders

99. Clearly state new and innovative solutions are always wanted

100. Phrase feedback in the context of organisational and project goals

101. Push for diverse consideration of problems and solutions

102. Expand participation to junior subordinates in problem solving endeavours

103. Establish team guidelines to be both supportive and challenging

104. Establish working teams with strong terms of reference and procedural justice

105. Emphasise a sense of unity in subordinates involved in team work

106. Encourage constructive criticism

107. Discourage ridicule of employee efforts by peers

108. Discourage the taking of negative feedback from peers personally.

109. Replace personal commitment to an individual idea or solution with team agreement

110. Extend discussions to allow for creative ideas to emerge

111. Use disagreements to develop ideas further

112. Discourage peer feedback that could be taken personally.

113. Challenge your employees to be creative

114. Provide work and projects that will push the knowledge and skills of subordinates

115. Instruct employees that every opportunity for improvement should be investigated

116. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions

117. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted

Leadership Expertise

118. Become an expert in the organisation’s industry

119. Become an expert in the relevant fields related to your firm’s operation

120. Bring your own creativity into the job

121. Develop new ideas for projects

122. Engage in analytical thinking

Page 442: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 442

123. Actively identify problems

124. Monitor employee efforts towards creative endeavour

125. Serve as a champion of new developments by subordinates

126. Actively assist in the development of ideas and creative endeavours

127. Actively assist in the promotion of ideas

128. Actively support in the implementation of ideas.

129. Evaluate opportunities to engage in creative solutions.

130. Remove yourself from efforts where you lack sufficient skills to fully participate and

analyse the work being done.

Organisational Demand

Human Resource Practices

131. Developing a mandate to introduce more diverse skill sets in new hires

132. Ensure selection criteria takes into account people from diverse educational, cultural

and industrial background and experience

133. Ensure expertise exists across departments not to limited departments

134. Identify diverse roles and responsibilities for professionals in your organisation based

on their education and experience

135. Develop an understanding of the skill sets and backgrounds of all of your

subordinates

136. Incorporate recognition based on creative output.

137. Establishment of training programs for creativity and innovation

138. Develop rewards for employees in various ways, other than promotion and money

139. Contribute to the diversification of employees’ education and professional

development.

140. Expand knowledge of subordinates outside of principle organisational focus

141. Encourage employee involvement in training and post-secondary education

142. Participate in and ensure subordinates participate in creativity training and

professional development.

143. Bring diverse skills, education and different industry experience into the organisation

Page 443: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 443

Organisational and Executive Level Support and Practices:

144. Formally criticise resistance to change across the organisation

145. Promote creative endeavours across the organisation

146. Challenge all organisational stakeholders to embrace change

147. Establish and justify deadlines to employees

148. Champion the work of your subordinates across the organisation

149. Use internal networks to drive project efforts

150. Ensure management, teams and individuals in the organisation are on a shared

trajectory, with no one operating ahead of it.

151. Communicate innovation efforts in terms of organisational goals, mission and

mandates

152. Participate regularly with all departments across the organisation

153. Apply and learn new knowledge relevant to the organisation

154. Advocate the importance and connection of work being done internally in the

organisation.

155. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation

156. Management embrace change and innovation

Organisation Vision, Goals and Structure

157. Establish mandates to be innovative in the organisation

158. Apply a strategy for creative and innovation efforts

159. Include being creative as a goal for subordinates

160. Create goals that are clear and engaging

161. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

Environmental Influence

162. Encourage subordinates involvement in external organisations reflective of

professional and personal interests.

163. Identify environmental signals to update processes, technology and business

practices

Page 444: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 1

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 444

164. Look externally to identify ways to improve the organisation or develop

opportunities

165. Return knowledge to the organisation learned through liaising directly with

numerous external stakeholders

166. Have a general understanding of your subordinate’s personal life

Page 445: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 2

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 445

Appendix 2: Swinburne Ethics Approval

Page 446: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 446

Appendix 3: Survey Instrument

AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

University of Swinburne Research Information Statement and Informed Consent Form

Introduction

This is a study about excellence in leadership in Australia. As managers you represent

Australian business leaders.

The statements in the attached questionnaire were derived from management literature

concerning the behaviours of excellent leaders. All of the identified leadership behaviours

are known to be important to leadership. We are not asking you to identify the behaviours

as important or not. Rather their level of importance to you.

The purpose of the questionnaire is to obtain your opinion about what you think constitutes

excellence in leadership. Your opinion may or may not agree with the management

literature.

We estimate that you will need about 20 to 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

The outcome of the study will be published in a PhD dissertation and journal articles. Thank

you very much for your assistance.

Confidentiality

Your responses will remain completely confidential and anonymous. The information you

provide will never be attributed to you or to your organisation.

Completing the questionnaire will be taken as your informed consent to participate in this

study. This means you understand that your privacy, anonymity and confidentiality is

assured because at no time will names of individuals or organisations be used in reporting

on this research. Informed consent also means that you understand that your participation

Page 447: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 447

is voluntary and that you understand the purpose of the study.

Contact

If you have any questions, or would like a copy of the findings, please contact:

Please find more information on the researcher and the research project here.

This project has been approved by or on behalf of Swinburne's Human Research Ethics

Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Inv

Humans.

If you have any concerns or complaints about the conduct of this project, you can contact:

Research Ethics Officer, Office of Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology,

P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Australia

Tel (03) 9214 8468 or +(03) 9214 5218 or [email protected]

Senior Researcher

Professor Christopher Selvarajah

Faculty of Business and Enterprise

Swinburne University

PO Box 218

OR

Student Researcher:

Mr Richard Laferriere, PhD Candidate

Faculty of Business and Enterprise

Swinburne University

PO Box 218

Page 448: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 448

Part 1: Biographical information

Below we ask a number of questions about you and your

organisation. Please read each question and tick the number

beside the response which, for you, is correct. If there is a line

beside the question, we want you to write in the answer or the

information requested.

Country or

Region of

Birth:

Australia

China

Germany

Greece

India

Italy

Lebanon

Malaysia

Netherlands

New Zealand

Philippines

South Africa

United Kingdom

Viet Nam

Eastern Europe

Middle East

North America

South & Central America

Other African

Other East Asia

Other South Asia

Other South-east Asia

Other Western European

Other

State/Territory ACT

New South Wales

Northern Territory

Queensland

South Australia

Tasmania

Victoria

Western Australia

Other

Country

If you selected a region in the question above,

please enter the name of the country of birth

(Optional)

Page 449: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 449

Industry Private sector Government NGO

Industry Sector Agriculture, forestry, fishing and

hunting

Mining

Manufacturing

Electricity, gas and water supply

Construction

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

Accommodation, cafes and

restaurants

Transport and storage

Communication services

Finance and insurance

Property and business services

Government administration and

defence

Education Health and

community services

Cultural and recreational services

Personal and other services

Page 450: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 450

Managerial Profile

Gender Male Female

Your age:

Under 25 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 45 45 - 49 50 - 55 55 or older

Education (Highest

Achieved

Some High

School

High School

Diploma TAFE Program

Bachelor

Degree

Graduate

Program/DegreeDoctorate

Years of Australian

Work Experience

Approximately 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 or more

Years of Australian

Management

Experience

Under 5 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 or more

Position First Level/Line Management Middle Management Senior Management

Size of

Organisation

(Employees)

Under 5 5-19 20-49 50-99 100-499 500-999 1000 or more

Size of Department

(Employees)

Under 5 5 - 9 10-19 20 - 49 50 - 99 Over 100

Managerial Profile

Gender Male Female

Your age: Under 25 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 45 45 - 49 50 - 55 55 or older

Education (Highest Achieved

Some High School

High School Diploma

TAFE Program Bachelor Degree

Graduate Program/Degree

Doctorate

Page 451: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 451

Years of Australian Work Experience

Approximately 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 or more

Years of Australian Management Experience

Under 5 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 or more

Position

First Level/Line Management Middle Management Senior Management

Size of Organisation (Employees)

Under 5 5-19 20-49 50-99 100-499 500-999 1000 or more

Size of Department (Employees)

Under 5 5 - 9 10-19 20 - 49 50 - 99 Over 100

Page 452: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 452

Part 2: Excellence in leadership items

We are now going to show you 109 statements related to excellence in leadership.

All of the identified leadership behaviours are known to be important to leadership. The nature of

leadership makes it impossible to view all identified behaviours as being "most" important. We are

not asking you to identify the behaviours as important or not. Rather there level of importance.

We would like you to read each statement carefully and indicate how important you think each

statement is in relation to an ideal leader in your organisation.

A 5 on the scale indicates high importance and a 1 indicated of little importance. If you are not sure of

the level of importance please tick 3

The questions relating to excellence in leadership will now begin, please respond accordingly.

(Please tick the appropriate circle under the number):

Importance

Please start Low High

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

1. Accept responsibility for mistakes

2 Accept that others will make mistakes

3. Adaptability

4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy

5. Be an initiator – not a follower

6. Be consistent in dealing with people

7. Be consistent in making decisions

8. Be dependent and trustworthy

9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work

10. Be honest

Page 453: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 453

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

11. Be informal when with employees outside work

12. Be logical in solving problems

13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts

14. Be practical

15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment

16. Be socially and environmentally responsible

17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees

18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs

19. Consider suggestions made by employees

20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

21. Deal calmly in tense situations

22. Delegate

23. Focus on maximising productivity

25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters

26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization

27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation

28. Give priority to long-term goals

29. Give recognition for good work

30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach

Page 454: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 454

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

31. Have a sense of humour

32. Have a strategic vision for the organization

33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work

34. Keep up-to-date on management literature

35. Listen to and understand the problems of others

36. Listen to the advice of others

37. Listen when employees want to say something

38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures

39. Make decisions earlier rather than later

40. Make decisions without depending too much on others

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

41. Make work decisions quickly

42. Motivate employees

43. Persuade others to do things

44. Respect the self-esteem of others

45. Return favours

46. Select work wisely to avoid overload

47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public

48. Share power

49. Speak clearly and concisely

50. Support decisions made jointly by others

Page 455: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 455

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it

52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem

53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest

54. Trust those to whom work is delegated

55. Try different approaches to management

56. Use initiative and take risks

57. Work long hours

58. Write clearly and concisely

59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation

60. Manipulate people to achieve work goals

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

61. Be involved in organisational politics

62. Use rank and power to get things done

63. Think frequently about the practice of management

64. Have formal management training

65. Choose management ethics before self or the organization

66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes

67. Negotiate with various professionals and interest groups

68. Make allowance for emotional pressure on staff at work

69. Be prepared to compromise on important work issues

70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work

Page 456: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 456

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

71. Allow other people time to do things

72. Give priority to short-term goals

73. Be competitive

74. Be sensitive to people of different background

75. Promote staff welfare and development

76. Be skilled in work related technology

77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies

78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities

79. Understand and analyse complex problems

80. Think about the general implications of any problem

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to

1 2 3 4 5

81. Think about what may happen in the future

82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry

83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice

84. Keep to work deadlines

85. Be skilled in public relations

86. Cope with pressures of work

87. Turn up for a 3 p.m. meeting at 3 p.m.

88. Be knowledgeable about work of the industry

89. Continue to learn how to improve performance

90. Respond to expectations of consumers

Page 457: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 3

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 457

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to 1 2 3 4 5

91. Organise work time effectively

92. Deal with work problems openly and honestly

93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people

94. Act as a member of a team

95.Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation

96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation

98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the

organisation

99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and

solutions

To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to 1 2 3 4 5

101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization

102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and

accepted

103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and

innovation

104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work

105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve

goals

106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and

preferences

107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge

one another

108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional

development related to innovation

109.Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

Page 458: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 458

Appendix 4 – Descriptive & Normality Data for Indicator Variables

Descriptives for Indicator Variables

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

1. accept responsibility for my mistakes

4.57 .024 .580 .337 -1.000 .101 .005 .201

2 accept that others will make mistakes

4.35 .027 .668 .446 -.719 .101 .160 .201

3. be adaptable 4.51 .025 .599 .359 -.793 .101 -.351 .201

4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy

3.97 .030 .732 .536 -.297 .101 -.248 .201

5. be an initiator not a follower

4.19 .030 .737 .543 -.594 .101 -.058 .201

6. be consistent in dealing with people

4.53 .025 .604 .365 -.885 .101 -.216 .201

7. be consistent in making decisions

4.40 .027 .651 .424 -.747 .101 .012 .201

8. be dependable and trustworthy

4.68 .022 .532 .283 -1.402 .101 1.019 .201

9. be formal when dealing with employees at work

3.37 .040 .975 .951 -.135 .101 -.388 .201

10. be honest 4.68 .023 .552 .305 -1.550 .101 1.449 .201

11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work

3.22 .039 .943 .889 -.078 .101 -.027 .201

12. be logical in solving problems

4.28 .028 .677 .459 -.781 .101 .872 .201

13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts

4.50 .024 .585 .342 -.683 .101 -.504 .201

14. be practical 4.30 .028 .676 .458 -.511 .101 -.490 .201

Page 459: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 459

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

15. be responsive to political realities in the environment

3.76 .035 .843 .710 -.576 .101 .450 .201

16. be socially and environmentally responsible

3.80 .037 .909 .827 -.515 .101 -.026 .201

17. be strict in judging the competence of employees

3.70 .033 .805 .648 -.422 .101 .398 .201

19. consider suggestions made by employees

4.23 .025 .604 .364 -.199 .101 -.283 .201

20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place

4.44 .026 .632 .400 -.848 .101 .453 .201

21. deal calmly in tense situations

4.49 .023 .567 .322 -.568 .101 -.685 .201

22. delegate 4.11 .028 .685 .470 -.432 .101 .155 .201 23. focus on maximising productivity

3.99 .030 .735 .540 -.345 .101 -.175 .201

24. focus on the task-at-hand

3.99 .030 .721 .519 -.335 .101 -.105 .201

26. follow what is morally right not what is right for self or organisation

3.74 .037 .897 .805 -.309 .101 -.323 .201

27. foster an international perspective in the organisation

3.15 .043 1.055 1.112 -.224 .101 -.421 .201

28. give priority to long-term goals

3.74 .031 .749 .561 -.260 .101 -.025 .201

29. give recognition for good work

4.54 .024 .589 .348 -.868 .101 -.235 .201

Page 460: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 460

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

30. have a multicultural orientation and approach

3.65 .042 1.030 1.062 -.671 .101 .165 .201

31. have a sense of humour

4.00 .032 .788 .621 -.411 .101 -.117 .201

32. have a strategic vision for the organisation

4.22 .030 .732 .535 -.630 .101 -.034 .201

33. identify social trends which may have an impact on work

3.80 .035 .857 .735 -.590 .101 .394 .201

34. keep up-to-date on management literature

3.45 .040 .968 .937 -.357 .101 -.116 .201

35. listen to and understand the problems of others

4.19 .029 .693 .480 -.487 .101 -.051 .201

36. listen to the advice of others

4.13 .027 .665 .442 -.330 .101 -.091 .201

39. make decisions earlier rather than later

3.99 .033 .793 .628 -.399 .101 -.273 .201

40. make decisions without depending too much on others

3.48 .037 .898 .807 -.316 .101 -.090 .201

41. make work decisions quickly

3.81 .032 .782 .611 -.256 .101 -.328 .201

42. motivate employees 4.42 .026 .643 .413 -.798 .101 .305 .201

43.persuade others to do things

3.87 .032 .779 .607 -.618 .101 .752 .201

44. respect the self-esteem of others

4.39 .026 .637 .406 -.649 .101 -.176 .201

45. return favours 3.62 .040 .972 .945 -.401 .101 -.230 .201

46. select work wisely to avoid overload

3.90 .034 .823 .678 -.601 .101 .580 .201

Page 461: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 461

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

47. sell the professional or corporate image to the public

3.82 .039 .955 .911 -.751 .101 .492 .201

48. share power 3.60 .035 .848 .720 -.419 .101 .192 .201

49. speak clearly and concisely

4.35 .027 .652 .426 -.620 .101 -.114 .201

50. support decisions made jointly by others

4.21 .026 .641 .411 -.369 .101 .025 .201

51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it

3.32 .037 .905 .819 -.317 .101 -.048 .201

52. think about the specific details of any particular problem

3.96 .031 .747 .557 -.458 .101 .091 .201

53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest

4.21 .028 .690 .477 -.483 .101 -.131 .201

54. trust those to whom work is delegated

4.24 .027 .652 .425 -.439 .101 -.053 .201

55. try different approaches to management

3.89 .033 .809 .654 -.289 .101 -.402 .201

56. use initiative and take risks

3.78 .035 .862 .743 -.400 .101 -.193 .201

58. write clearly and concisely

4.07 .031 .746 .557 -.482 .101 -.064 .201

66. use economic indicators for planning purposes

3.58 .037 .889 .790 -.443 .101 .133 .201

70. study laws and regulations which may have an impact on

3.83 .041 .988 .976 -.683 .101 .098 .201

Page 462: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 462

work

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies

3.77 .037 .896 .803 -.550 .101 .090 .201

78. check constantly for problems and opportunities

3.99 .032 .777 .604 -.358 .101 -.399 .201

82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry

3.95 .037 .898 .806 -.776 .101 .584 .201

83. adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice

3.88 .033 .796 .634 -.467 .101 .338 .201

89. continue to learn how to improve performance

4.33 .027 .664 .441 -.655 .101 .129 .201

91. organise work time effectively

4.48 .025 .596 .355 -.663 .101 -.514 .201

93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people

4.45 .026 .620 .384 -.758 .101 .021 .201

94. act as a member of a team

4.48 .026 .632 .399 -.889 .101 .131 .201

95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation

4.25 .030 .731 .535 -.742 .101 .259 .201

96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals

3.97 .031 .757 .573 -.421 .101 .178 .201

97. encourage management to embrace

4.11 .031 .754 .568 -.569 .101 .029 .201

Page 463: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 463

change and innovation

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation

4.17 .029 .707 .500 -.482 .101 -.105 .201

99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts

4.42 .027 .648 .420 -.740 .101 -.145 .201

100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions

4.21 .029 .703 .495 -.434 .101 -.480 .201

101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation

3.76 .033 .804 .647 -.395 .101 .201 .201

102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted

4.08 .031 .764 .583 -.428 .101 -.368 .201

103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation

4.07 .032 .777 .603 -.663 .101 .613 .201

104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work

3.70 .035 .859 .739 -.323 .101 -.105 .201

Page 464: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 4

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 464

Mean

Std. Deviatio

n Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic

Std. Error Statistic

Std. Error

105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals

3.96 .034 .820 .673 -.453 .101 -.328 .201

106. develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences

3.92 .036 .884 .781 -.605 .101 .096 .201

107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another

3.77 .035 .857 .735 -.416 .101 .083 .201

108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation

3.85 .035 .843 .711 -.496 .101 .185 .201

109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative

3.76 .036 .875 .765 -.482 .101 .128 .201

N = 590

Page 465: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 465

Appendix 5: Exploratory Factor Analysis Results

EFA on Excellent Leader

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .882

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 1668.265

df 45

Sig. .000

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared

Loadings

Rotation Sums of Squared

Loadingsa

Total % of

Varianc

e

Cumulativ

e %

Total % of

Variance

Cumulativ

e %

Total

1 4.111 41.113 41.113 3.538 35.383 35.383 3.236

2 1.126 11.264 52.377 .508 5.083 40.466 2.532

3 .860 8.601 60.977

4 .766 7.663 68.640

5 .677 6.773 75.413

6 .562 5.620 81.033

7 .541 5.409 86.442

8 .486 4.859 91.301

9 .449 4.494 95.795

10 .420 4.205 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

Page 466: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 466

Pattern Matrix

Factor

1 2

91. organise work time effectively .667

37. listen when employees want to say something .657

29. give recognition for good work .638

93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people .620

89. continue to learn how to improve performance .512

10. be honest .434

20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place .383 .384

32. have a strategic vision for the organisation .688

82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry .603

42. motivate employees .469

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.

EFA on Personal Qualities

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .869

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 2336.624

df 171

Sig. .000

Page 467: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 467

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared

Loadings

Rotation Sums of Squared

Loadingsa

Total % of

Varianc

e

Cumulativ

e %

Total % of

Variance

Cumulativ

e %

Total

1 4.858 25.571 25.571 4.200 22.106 22.106 3.743

2 1.697 8.934 34.505 .965 5.081 27.186 1.770

3 1.213 6.386 40.891 .546 2.874 30.060 2.241

4 1.159 6.098 46.989

5 .965 5.077 52.066

6 .932 4.906 56.972

7 .893 4.699 61.671

8 .815 4.289 65.960

9 .760 3.998 69.958

10 .721 3.797 73.755

11 .687 3.615 77.370

12 .660 3.472 80.842

13 .641 3.375 84.217

14 .611 3.216 87.433

15 .537 2.826 90.259

16 .501 2.636 92.895

17 .479 2.523 95.418

18 .436 2.297 97.715

19 .434 2.285 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

Page 468: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 468

Pattern Matrixa

Factor

1 2 3

6. be consistent in dealing with people .727

1. accept responsibility for my mistakes .600

8. be dependable and trustworthy .569

5. be an initiator – not a follower .548

21. deal calmly in tense situations .516

14. be practical .488

2 accept that others will make mistakes .476

49. speak clearly and concisely .456

58. write clearly and concisely .385

25. follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters .546

18. behave in accordance with your religious beliefs .544

11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work .375

26. follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organisation .367

45. return favours .363 -.363

31. have a sense of humour .339

57. work long hours

44. respect the self-esteem of others -.566

36. listen to the advice of others -.421

53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest -.416

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

Page 469: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 469

a. Rotation converged in 11 iterations.

EFA on Organisational Demand

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .776

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 784.786

df 36

Sig. .000

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative

%

1 2.818 31.310 31.310 2.105 23.385 23.385

2 1.117 12.412 43.722

3 .995 11.059 54.781

4 .914 10.155 64.936

5 .764 8.488 73.424

6 .748 8.308 81.732

7 .641 7.127 88.860

8 .546 6.072 94.932

9 .456 5.068 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

Page 470: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 470

Factor Matrixa

Factor

1

50. support decisions made jointly by others .645

48. share power .592

83. adjust organisational structures and

rules to realities of practice

.556

47. sell the professional or corporate image

to the public

.521

23. focus on maximising productivity .466

3. be adaptable .458

28. give priority to long-term goals .424

84. keep to work deadlines .387

59. ignore personal morality in the interest

of the organisation

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. 1 factors extracted. 5 iterations required.

EFA on Environmental Influence Demand

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .820

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 1320.531

df 45

Sig. .000

Page 471: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 471

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared

Loadings

Rotation Sums of Squared

Loadingsa

Total % of

Varianc

e

Cumulativ

e %

Total % of

Variance

Cumulativ

e %

Total

1 3.523 35.232 35.232 2.901 29.008 29.008 2.563

2 1.344 13.444 48.676 .758 7.583 36.591 2.179

3 .881 8.807 57.483

4 .865 8.646 66.129

5 .688 6.883 73.012

6 .649 6.493 79.505

7 .627 6.272 85.777

8 .556 5.560 91.337

9 .473 4.731 96.068

10 .393 3.932 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

Page 472: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 472

Pattern Matrixa

Factor

1 2

38. look for and use the positive aspects of other

cultures

.776

30. have a multicultural orientation and approach .720

27. foster an international perspective in the

organisation

.543

16. be socially and environmentally responsible .494

33. identify social trends which may have an impact

on work

.440

15. be responsive to political realities in the

environment

.339

77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies .703

78. check constantly for problems and opportunities .635

70. study laws and regulations which may have an

impact on work

.563

66. use economic indicators for planning purposes .392

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.

EFA on Managerial Behaviours

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .889

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 3054.726

df 210

Sig. .000

Page 473: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 473

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared

Loadings

Rotation Sums of

Squared

Loadingsa

Total % of

Variance

Cumulative

%

Total % of

Variance

Cumulative

%

Total

1 5.630 26.808 26.808 5.004 23.828 23.828 2.268

2 2.011 9.575 36.383 1.394 6.640 30.468 3.460

3 1.277 6.080 42.463 .679 3.234 33.701 2.959

4 1.085 5.168 47.631 .511 2.432 36.134 3.317

5 1.035 4.929 52.560

6 .899 4.282 56.842

7 .867 4.131 60.973

8 .780 3.716 64.688

9 .765 3.645 68.333

10 .734 3.497 71.830

11 .685 3.261 75.091

12 .661 3.146 78.237

13 .614 2.923 81.160

14 .574 2.735 83.895

15 .547 2.605 86.500

16 .530 2.523 89.023

17 .509 2.424 91.447

18 .503 2.394 93.841

19 .478 2.278 96.119

20 .421 2.002 98.121

21 .395 1.879 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

Page 474: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 474

Pattern Matrixa

Factor

1 2 3 4

51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it .557

24. focus on the task-at-hand .442

17. be strict in judging the competence of employees .376

52. think about the specific details of any particular problem .364 .338

9. be formal when dealing with employees at work

13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts .721

19. consider suggestions made by employees .544

12. be logical in solving problems .333 .507

54. trust those to whom work is delegated .437

35. listen to and understand the problems of others .403

4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy .402

7. be consistent in making decisions .399

22. delegate .314

46. select work wisely to avoid overload

55. try different approaches to management .623

56. use initiative and take risks .508

34. keep up-to-date on management literature .484

41. make work decisions quickly -.882

40. make decisions without depending too much on others -.611

39. make decisions earlier rather than later -.521

43. persuade others to do things

Page 475: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 475

EFA on CIB

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .935

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square 4376.189

df 105

Sig. .000

Total Variance Explained

Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 7.235 48.232 48.232 6.692 44.615 44.615

2 1.113 7.419 55.650

3 .893 5.950 61.601

4 .817 5.444 67.045

5 .651 4.337 71.381

6 .611 4.072 75.454

7 .603 4.017 79.471

8 .517 3.450 82.921

9 .491 3.277 86.197

10 .434 2.896 89.094

11 .395 2.632 91.726

12 .374 2.494 94.220

13 .313 2.085 96.305

14 .280 1.865 98.170

15 .275 1.830 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

Page 476: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 5

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 476

Factor Matrixa

Factor

1

103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation .765

97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation .732

98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation .723

108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to

innovation

.707

100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions .693

105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals .692

96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals .689

109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative .685

102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted .671

104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work .625

95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation .617

99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts .608

106. develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences .607

107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one

another

.589

101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation .583

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

a. 1 factors extracted. 3 iterations required.

Page 477: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 477

Appendix 6: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results

Excellent Leader

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a29 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.000 a89 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.101 .085 12.952 *** a91 <--- Organisational_Leadership .977 .076 12.835 *** a93 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.078 .080 13.451 *** a20 <--- Visionary_Leadership 1.000 a32 <--- Visionary_Leadership .966 .076 12.690 *** a42 <--- Visionary_Leadership .967 .068 14.122 *** a82 <--- Visionary_Leadership .937 .092 10.229 *** a10 <--- Organisational_Leadership .532 .066 8.008 *** a37 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.100 .082 13.469 ***

Page 478: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 478

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a10 a82 a42 a32 a20 a93 a91 a89 a29 a10 .000 a82 -2.242 .000 a42 -1.192 -.289 .000 a32 .308 2.645 -.054 .000 a20 .475 -1.218 .172 -.355 .000 a93 -.960 .758 -.411 -1.684 .734 .000 a91 -.118 -2.270 -.265 -1.046 -.418 .805 .000 a89 .185 1.173 .608 .167 -.258 .088 .382 .000 a29 1.934 -.117 .515 .087 2.277 -.447 -.254 -1.129 .000 Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 19 94.197 26 .000 3.623 Saturated model 45 .000 0 Independence model 9 1381.812 36 .000 38.384 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .020 .967 .942 .558 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .134 .514 .393 .411 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .932 .906 .950 .930 .949 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .067 .053 .081 .027 Independence model .252 .241 .263 .000

Page 479: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 479

Personal Qualities

Hypothesised Model

Page 480: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 480

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a1 <--- Relationship 1.000 a2 <--- Relationship 1.125 .104 10.823 *** a5 <--- Relationship 1.114 .112 9.975 *** a6 <--- Relationship 1.092 .096 11.374 *** a8 <--- Relationship .835 .081 10.273 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.143 .105 10.842 *** a21 <--- Relationship .934 .088 10.640 *** a49 <--- Relationship 1.153 .103 11.202 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.097 .112 9.762 *** a11 <--- Integrity 1.000 a18 <--- Integrity 1.310 .262 5.007 *** a25 <--- Integrity 1.183 .208 5.693 *** a26 <--- Integrity 1.281 .218 5.874 *** a31 <--- Integrity 1.316 .213 6.191 *** a45 <--- Integrity 1.695 .271 6.265 *** a36 <--- Respect 1.000 a44 <--- Respect 1.130 .094 11.986 *** a53 <--- Respect .923 .091 10.134 *** a57 <--- Integrity .418 .154 2.717 .007

Page 481: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

 

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a57 a53 a44 a36 a45 a31 a26 a25 a18 a11 a58 a49 a21 a14 a8 a6 a5 a2 a1

a57 0

a53 ‐0.338 0

a44 ‐2.493 0.467 0

a36 ‐1.522 ‐0.169 ‐0.279 0

a45 0.444 ‐0.085 1.855 2.111 0

a31 0.112 0.642 0.27 0.495 0.213 0

a26 ‐0.702 ‐0.652 1.708 0.283 ‐1.696 ‐0.358 0

a25 1.705 ‐0.98 ‐1.492 ‐0.717 0.457 ‐1.838 1.562 0

a18 1.434 ‐2.631 ‐3.907 ‐0.199 ‐1.601 ‐0.4 2.038 2.975 0

a11 ‐0.702 ‐0.017 ‐1.373 0.029 ‐0.448 0.806 ‐1.388 0.995 2.622 0

a58 1.469 1.043 ‐0.88 ‐0.64 1.275 0.947 ‐0.467 ‐0.977 ‐1.537 ‐0.39 0

a49 ‐0.211 1.204 1.276 0.569 2.128 0.766 ‐0.652 ‐2.079 ‐1.867 ‐1.444 4.465 0

a21 0.535 ‐1.143 0.313 0.6 ‐1.353 1.446 1.826 ‐1.707 ‐0.903 ‐1.902 1.267 0.985 0

a14 1.451 ‐0.531 0.179 ‐0.338 2.833 2.37 0.734 ‐0.991 ‐0.257 1.463 0.478 ‐0.181 0.495 0

a8 ‐0.642 ‐0.877 ‐0.142 ‐0.878 ‐1.072 1.624 1.199 ‐2.213 ‐2.005 ‐0.216 ‐1.581 ‐0.613 0.77 0.87 0

a6 ‐0.366 ‐0.668 ‐1.053 ‐0.946 ‐0.882 0.496 ‐0.568 ‐1.007 ‐0.371 ‐0.807 ‐1.527 ‐1.212 ‐0.715 0.405 0.942 0

a5 1.984 ‐1.197 ‐0.285 ‐1.418 0.628 0.781 0.589 ‐0.193 ‐0.301 ‐0.343 ‐0.965 0.088 ‐0.777 ‐0.087 ‐0.536 2.516 0

a2 ‐3.654 0.973 0.882 2.059 0.307 0.23 0.399 ‐0.794 ‐0.286 ‐0.373 ‐0.863 ‐1.252 ‐0.612 ‐1.464 ‐0.648 0.166 ‐0.307 0

a1 0.086 0.432 ‐0.462 0.953 0.035 ‐0.527 1.324 ‐2.093 ‐1.34 ‐1.312 ‐1.34 ‐2.406 ‐1.052 ‐0.925 1.174 1.343 0.274 2.875 0

Page 481

Page 482: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 482

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 41 431.302 149 .000 2.895 Saturated model 190 .000 0 Independence model 19 2365.405 171 .000 13.833 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .034 .926 .906 .726 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .112 .521 .467 .469 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .818 .791 .873 .852 .871 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .057 .051 .063 .038 Independence model .148 .142 .153 .000

Page 483: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 483

Final model:

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a2 <--- Relationship 1.000 a5 <--- Relationship 1.034 .112 9.207 *** a6 <--- Relationship .997 .097 10.249 *** a8 <--- Relationship .769 .082 9.405 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.082 .108 10.052 *** a21 <--- Relationship .908 .090 10.053 *** a49 <--- Relationship 1.160 .108 10.715 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.085 .115 9.436 *** a36 <--- Respect 1.000 a44 <--- Respect 1.187 .106 11.238 *** a53 <--- Respect .965 .098 9.819 ***

Page 484: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 484

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a53 a44 a36 a58 a49 a21 a14 a8 a6 a5 a2 a53 .000 a44 .189 .000 a36 -.028 -.148 .000 a58 .789 -1.239 -.672 .000 a49 .789 .695 .412 3.646 .000 a21 -1.325 .035 .668 .773 .255 .000 a14 -.572 .089 -.110 .159 -.701 .270 .000 a8 -.767 -.031 -.508 -1.694 -.881 .759 1.042 .000 a6 -.496 -.869 -.475 -1.599 -1.445 -.666 .662 1.391 .000 a5 -1.129 -.228 -1.103 -1.121 -.230 -.839 .025 -.256 2.903 .000 a2 1.286 1.256 2.678 -.752 -1.258 -.369 -1.034 -.054 .907 .220 .000

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 23 134.100 43 .000 3.119 Saturated model 66 .000 0 Independence model 11 1468.918 55 .000 26.708 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .019 .959 .938 .625 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .117 .523 .427 .436

Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .909 .883 .936 .918 .936 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .060 .049 .072 .073 Independence model .209 .200 .218 .000

Page 485: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 485

Managerial Behaviours

Hypothesised Model

Page 486: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 486

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a4 <--- Teamwork 1.000 a7 <--- Teamwork 1.207 .160 7.567 *** a12 <--- Teamwork 1.369 .175 7.835 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1.163 .149 7.787 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.305 .163 8.028 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.204 .163 7.392 *** a35 <--- Teamwork 1.418 .180 7.871 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.137 .154 7.367 *** a9 <--- Officious 1.000 a17 <--- Officious .942 .115 8.169 *** a24 <--- Officious .957 .110 8.686 *** a51 <--- Officious .908 .121 7.485 *** a52 <--- Officious .922 .110 8.396 *** a39 <--- DecisionMaking 1.000 a40 <--- DecisionMaking 1.060 .086 12.314 *** a41 <--- DecisionMaking 1.006 .077 13.026 *** a43 <--- DecisionMaking .651 .070 9.237 *** a34 <--- Prog 1.000 a55 <--- Prog 1.110 .111 9.982 *** a56 <--- Prog .949 .104 9.141 ***

Page 487: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

 

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a56 a55 a34 a43 a41 a40 a39 a52 a51 a24 a17 a9 a54 a35 a22 a19 a13 a12 a7 a4

a56 0

a55 0.757 0

a34 ‐0.827 ‐0.382 0

a43 1.556 0.787 2.08 0

a41 ‐0.196 ‐2.321 0.627 0.674 0

a40 ‐0.303 ‐1.865 0.971 ‐0.81 0.962 0

a39 1.842 0.301 1.801 ‐1.358 0.002 ‐0.354 0

a52 ‐0.926 1.155 0.247 ‐0.557 ‐1.377 0.085 1.345 0

a51 ‐3.99 ‐1.839 0.94 0.615 ‐0.755 2.9 ‐0.002 2.589 0

a24 ‐1.993 ‐0.647 2.3 0.806 ‐0.604 ‐0.663 ‐0.525 ‐0.844 ‐0.012 0

a17 ‐0.403 0.132 0.562 1.859 ‐1.695 0.357 ‐0.26 ‐1.447 0.249 1.148 0

a9 0.059 0.956 4.456 0.23 1.721 0.258 ‐0.192 ‐2.151 0.673 0.266 0.192 0

a54 1.28 1.875 ‐1.524 1.974 ‐2.121 ‐2.189 1.863 2.698 ‐2.332 ‐0.322 ‐0.538 ‐3.312 0

a35 0.241 1.35 2.922 2.041 ‐0.799 ‐1.658 1.936 2.221 ‐2.617 0.851 ‐0.819 ‐1.437 0.266 0

a22 1.319 1.805 0.346 1.431 ‐0.25 ‐1.892 0.154 ‐1.221 ‐2.963 0.578 ‐0.38 0.662 ‐0.095 ‐0.493 0

a19 0.03 ‐0.288 ‐0.347 1.168 ‐2.464 ‐2.272 1.16 0.31 ‐3.862 ‐0.533 ‐0.322 ‐1.539 0.24 0.819 0.659 0

a13 ‐0.895 ‐2.444 ‐2.15 ‐0.19 ‐1.015 ‐3.221 1.002 2.084 ‐4.093 ‐1.522 ‐0.677 ‐1.391 0.509 0.536 ‐0.543 0.322 0

a12 ‐2.575 ‐0.043 ‐0.453 1.13 1.913 1.455 3.763 3.886 1.116 3.595 3.466 2.183 ‐2.048 ‐0.548 ‐1.564 ‐0.758 1.719 0

a7 ‐0.853 ‐1.066 1.486 0.84 1.104 ‐0.827 1.887 1.793 ‐0.024 1.48 2.03 2.13 0.286 ‐1.99 ‐0.16 ‐0.791 0.475 0.932 0

a4 1.848 0.851 ‐2.465 0.033 ‐1.364 ‐3.663 ‐0.278 ‐1.647 ‐5.665 ‐2.814 ‐2.792 ‐0.594 0.932 ‐1.141 2.392 1.964 0.452 ‐1.745 0.352 0

Page 487

Page 488: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 488

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 46 612.969 164 .000 3.738 Saturated model 210 .000 0 Independence model 20 2902.953 190 .000 15.279 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .041 .901 .874 .704 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .137 .472 .416 .427 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .789 .755 .836 .808 .835 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .068 .062 .074 .000 Independence model .156 .151 .161 .000

Page 489: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 489

Final model:

Page 490: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 490

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a43 <--- Decision 1.000 a41 <--- Decision 1.592 .177 9.021 *** a34 <--- Progressiveness 1.000 a55 <--- Progressiveness 1.097 .112 9.801 *** a56 <--- Progressiveness 1.000 .108 9.227 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1.000 a35 <--- Teamwork 1.326 .132 10.085 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.106 .122 9.067 *** a40 <--- Decision 1.595 .185 8.637 *** a39 <--- Decision 1.564 .175 8.952 *** a7 <--- Teamwork 1.004 .114 8.781 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.075 .117 9.198 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.187 .116 10.238 ***

Page 491: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

 

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a19 a54 a7 a39 a40 a56 a55 a34 a41 a43 a22 a35 a13 a19 .000 a54 -.218 .000 a7 -.302 .460 .000 a39 1.398 1.896 2.466 .000 a40 -1.883 -2.013 -.157 -.141 .000 a56 -.481 .651 -.818 1.540 -.388 .000 a55 -.433 1.510 -.643 .349 -1.600 .610 .000 a34 -.525 -1.849 1.763 1.781 1.128 -1.021 -.082 .000 a41 -2.290 -2.139 1.641 -.300 1.061 -.566 -2.351 .545 .000 a43 1.388 2.048 1.270 -1.344 -.544 1.422 .897 2.126 .597 .000 a22 .413 -.535 .187 .306 -1.609 .840 1.619 .152 -.146 1.583 .000 a35 .382 -.373 -1.719 2.029 -1.405 -.416 1.008 2.591 -.766 2.162 -.922 .000 a13 .589 .472 1.304 1.474 -2.642 -1.042 -2.209 -2.025 -.595 .176 -.390 .579 .000

Page 491

Page 492: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 492

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 29 181.297 62 .000 2.924 Saturated model 91 .000 0 Independence model 13 1649.951 78 .000 21.153 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .030 .956 .935 .651 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .140 .551 .476 .472 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .890 .862 .925 .905 .924 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .057 .048 .067 .106 Independence model .185 .177 .193 .000

Page 493: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 493

Environmental Influence

Hypothesised Model:

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a15 <--- MacroENV 1.000 a27 <--- MacroENV 1.570 .176 8.909 *** a33 <--- MacroENV 1.307 .145 9.012 *** a70 <--- MicroENV 1.000 a77 <--- MicroENV 1.059 .104 10.228 *** a78 <--- MicroENV .854 .086 9.916 *** a30 <--- MacroENV 1.684 .181 9.298 *** a16 <--- MacroENV 1.205 .144 8.385 *** a38 <--- MacroENV 1.637 .171 9.590 *** a66 <--- MicroENV .846 .093 9.131 ***

Page 494: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 494

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a66 a38 a16 a30 a78 a77 a70 a33 a27 a15 a66 .000 a38 1.901 .000 a16 .218 .091 .000 a30 .307 1.945 -.677 .000 a78 -.951 -.828 -1.052 -2.253 .000 a77 -2.404 -2.499 .059 -1.026 2.180 .000 a70 2.414 -1.155 -.387 -1.839 -1.287 -.208 .000 a33 3.480 -.633 -1.002 -.646 .108 1.759 2.546 .000 a27 2.465 .030 .444 .165 -.754 .690 -.758 -.161 .000 a15 2.386 -1.485 2.449 -1.056 .381 1.544 1.340 1.352 -1.178 .000

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 21 175.185 34 .000 5.152 Saturated model 55 .000 0 Independence model 10 1329.939 45 .000 29.554 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .047 .944 .909 .583 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .226 .564 .468 .462 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .868 .826 .891 .855 .890 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .084 .072 .096 .000 Independence model .220 .210 .230 .000

Page 495: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 495

Final Model

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a33 <--- EN1 1.000 a30 <--- EN1 1.098 .113 9.703 *** a27 <--- EN1 1.138 .118 9.671 *** a16 <--- EN1 .902 .101 8.928 *** a70 <--- EN2 1.000 a77 <--- EN2 1.461 .124 11.781 *** a78 <--- EN2 1.000 a15 <--- EN1 .816 .089 9.184 ***

Page 496: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 496

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a15 a78 a77 a70 a16 a27 a30 a33 a15 .000 a78 .102 .032 a77 .397 .317 .000 a70 1.681 -.242 -.418 -.040 a16 1.779 -.958 -.693 .314 .000 a27 -1.679 -.491 .044 .150 .508 .000 a30 -.858 -1.435 -1.051 -.424 .162 1.353 .000 a33 .437 .104 .742 3.271 -1.325 -.263 .134 .000

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 16 48.914 20 .000 2.446 Saturated model 36 .000 0 Independence model 8 841.023 28 .000 30.037 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .033 .980 .964 .544 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .209 .646 .545 .502 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .942 .919 .965 .950 .964 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .050 .032 .067 .488 Independence model .222 .209 .235 .000

Page 497: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 497

Organisational Demand

Hypothesised Model

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a28 <--- OrgDemand 1.000 a48 <--- OrgDemand 1.719 .211 8.144 *** a50 <--- OrgDemand 1.404 .168 8.336 *** a94 <--- OrgDemand .845 .126 6.709 *** a83 <--- OrgDemand 1.314 .175 7.492 *** a3 <--- OrgDemand .914 .127 7.208 *** a47 <--- OrgDemand 1.575 .210 7.490 *** a59 <--- OrgDemand -.088 .158 -.560 .576 a23 <--- OrgDemand .982 .146 6.707 ***

Page 498: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 498

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a23 a59 a47 a3 a83 a94 a50 a48 a28 a23 .000 a59 2.224 .000 a47 -.354 .423 .000 a3 1.375 -1.640 -.247 .000 a83 1.090 .043 2.510 .861 .000 a94 .493 -1.052 -2.116 2.845 -.704 .000 a50 -.864 -.895 -.800 -.060 -.936 .941 .000 a48 -2.018 .600 1.596 -1.707 -1.369 -.703 1.260 .000 a28 3.433 1.191 -2.049 -1.372 .424 -1.032 -.345 1.180 .000 Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 18 132.425 27 .000 4.905 Saturated model 45 .000 0 Independence model 9 803.817 36 .000 22.328 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .033 .953 .922 .572 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .124 .684 .605 .547 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .835 .780 .864 .817 .863 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .081 .068 .096 .000 Independence model .190 .179 .202 .000

Page 499: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 499

Final model

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a28 <--- OrgDemand 1.000 a48 <--- OrgDemand 1.772 .231 7.687 *** a50 <--- OrgDemand 1.550 .197 7.885 *** a94 <--- OrgDemand .917 .139 6.607 *** a83 <--- OrgDemand 1.201 .178 6.739 *** a3 <--- OrgDemand .909 .134 6.757 ***

Page 500: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 500

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 12 37.423 9 .000 4.158 Saturated model 21 .000 0 Independence model 6 505.386 15 .000 33.692 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .020 .979 .950 .419 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .122 .717 .604 .512 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .926 .877 .943 .903 .942 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .073 .050 .098 .051 Independence model .236 .218 .253 .000

Page 501: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 501

CIB

Complete Model

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a95 <--- CIB 1.000 a97 <--- CIB 1.231 .083 14.822 *** a98 <--- CIB 1.135 .078 14.630 *** a99 <--- CIB .873 .068 12.769 *** a100 <--- CIB 1.074 .076 14.094 *** a101 <--- CIB 1.038 .084 12.331 *** a102 <--- CIB 1.137 .082 13.818 *** a104 <--- CIB 1.189 .091 13.045 *** a106 <--- CIB 1.182 .093 12.699 *** a107 <--- CIB 1.114 .090 12.401 *** a108 <--- CIB 1.314 .092 14.306 *** a96 <--- CIB 1.164 .082 14.164 *** a103 <--- CIB 1.315 .086 15.218 *** a105 <--- CIB 1.243 .089 14.010 *** a109 <--- CIB 1.326 .095 14.011 ***

Page 502: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

 

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a109 a105 a103 a96 a108 a107 a106 a104 a102 a101 a100 a99 a98 a97 a95 a109 .000 a105 .923 .000 a103 .811 .338 .000 a96 .344 -2.008 -.109 .000 a108 2.321 .944 -1.038 .207 .000 a107 -.188 -.556 -.952 -.759 2.575 .000 a106 .068 3.447 -.191 -2.605 .198 1.500 .000 a104 2.961 3.446 1.218 -.560 .477 .605 -.089 .000 a102 -.853 -.016 2.235 -.430 .127 -.750 .355 -1.802 .000 a101 .950 .513 1.006 -.661 -1.086 -1.080 -.308 1.008 2.010 .000 a100 -1.951 -.590 -1.548 .104 -.456 1.365 -.442 -1.130 -.501 -.133 .000 a99 -2.221 -.264 -1.166 -.666 -1.467 .129 .797 -2.475 .919 -.585 2.915 .000 a98 -1.892 -1.337 -.336 .090 -.394 .246 -.352 -1.593 -.660 -1.293 1.989 2.850 .000 a97 -.510 -2.118 .298 2.944 -.895 -.971 -.754 -1.812 -.980 -.715 .918 .329 2.250 .000 a95 -.668 -.514 -.534 2.371 -.602 -.725 -.749 -.306 .141 .291 .444 .599 -.161 .304 .000

Page 502

Page 503: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 503

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 30 656.526 90 .000 7.295 Saturated model 120 .000 0 Independence model 15 4419.963 105 .000 42.095 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .035 .858 .810 .643 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .260 .261 .156 .228 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .851 .827 .869 .847 .869 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .103 .096 .111 .000 Independence model .264 .258 .271 .000

Page 504: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 6

Page 504

Final model

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a95 <--- CIB 1.000 a97 <--- CIB 1.241 .087 14.251 *** a98 <--- CIB 1.213 .083 14.671 *** a99 <--- CIB .954 .073 13.134 *** a100 <--- CIB 1.162 .081 14.292 *** a101 <--- CIB 1.003 .087 11.539 *** a102 <--- CIB 1.114 .085 13.043 *** a104 <--- CIB 1.072 .093 11.535 *** a106 <--- CIB 1.179 .097 12.176 *** a107 <--- CIB 1.162 .094 12.331 *** a108 <--- CIB 1.282 .095 13.453 ***

Page 505: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

 

Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)

a108 a107 a106 a104 a102 a101 a100 a99 a98 a97 a95 a108 .000 a107 2.647 .000 a106 .691 1.378 .000 a104 1.910 1.308 .983 .000 a102 .845 -.721 .794 -.505 .000 a101 -.351 -.954 .175 2.292 2.714 .000 a100 -.759 .442 -.920 -.663 -.835 -.313 .000 a99 -1.830 -.772 .272 -2.144 .516 -.826 1.448 .000 a98 -.581 -.581 -.735 -1.001 -.882 -1.367 .585 1.454 .000 a97 -.434 -1.208 -.555 -.663 -.577 -.236 .224 -.394 1.654 .000 a95 -.130 -.867 -.516 .763 .563 .766 -.076 .042 -.579 .483 .000

Page 505

Page 506: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 506

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 22 207.398 44 .000 4.714 Saturated model 66 .000 0 Independence model 11 2559.322 55 .000 46.533 RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .027 .936 .904 .624 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .235 .352 .223 .293 Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1 RFI

rho1 IFI

Delta2 TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .919 .899 .935 .918 .935 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .079 .069 .090 .000 Independence model .278 .269 .287 .000

Discriminant Validity Tests

Organisational Demand to Other constructs 

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 166.3 186.23  19.93 

Visionary Leader 185.86 205.3  19.44 

Relationship 240.75 272.89  32.14 

Respect 57.94 65.04  7.1 

Macro-Environment 120.28 152.52  32.24 

Micro-Environment 165.59 317.1  151.51 

Progressiveness 87.15 108.97  21.82 

Teamwork 62.44 82.44  20 

Decision Making 105.22 227.34  122.12 

CIB 443.87 469.19  25.32 

Page 507: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 507

   

CIB

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 427.87 496.69  68.82 

Visionary Leader 324.2 396.03  71.83 

Relationship 468.3 693.04  224.74 

Respect 330.83 417.34  86.51 

Macro-Environment 408.76 662.3  253.54 

Micro-Environment 378.58 486.65  108.07 

Progressiveness 324.16 379.98  55.82 

Teamwork 527.22 608.02  80.8 

Decision Making 308.59 583.45  274.86 

Teamwork

Organisational Leader 84.61 97.03  12.42 

Visionary Leader 85.27 127  41.73 

Relationship 238.6 243.37  4.77 

Respect 31.8 43.82  12.02 

Macro-Environment 80.46 142.49  62.03 

Micro-Environment 73.76 215.55  141.79 

Progressiveness 30.26 84.25  53.99 

Decision Making 95.12 320.24  225.12 

Relationship

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 241.08 252.69  11.61 

Visionary Leader 210.27 287.95  77.68 

Respect 134.1 192.2  58.1 

Macro-Environment 196.57 306.98  110.41 

Micro-Environment 161.98 295.93  133.95 

Progressiveness 155.16 212.67  57.51 

Decision Making 210.51 384.19  173.68 

OrgLeader

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Visionary Leader 94.2 164.94  70.74 

Respect 48.09 85.78  37.69 

Macro-Environment 128.04 311.13  183.09 

Micro-Environment 61.48 163.69  102.21 

Progressiveness 172.8 281.75  108.95 

Decision Making 80.69 317.22  236.53 

Page 508: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 508

Vis_Leader

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Respect 55.24 126.85  71.61 

Macro-Environment 111.29 185.96  74.67 

Micro-Environment 83.312 170.59  87.278 

Progressiveness 145.1 214.4  69.3 

Decision Making 134.13 302.1  167.97 

Respect

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Macro-Environment 74.6 180.98  106.38 

Micro-Environment 23.68 142.41  118.73 

Progressiveness 128.75 214.94  86.19 

Decision Making 58.58 245.7  187.12 

Macro-Environment

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Micro-Environment 48.9 165.92  117.02 

Progressiveness 160.77 188.69  27.92 

Decision Making 76.01 275.34  199.33 

Micro

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Progressiveness 129.3 193.3  64 

Decision Making 39.59 167.26  127.67 

Progressiveness

Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Decision Making 133.76 264.89  131.13 

Page 509: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 509

Appendix 7: Path Analysis

Hypothesised Model Results

Modification Index

Regression Weights:

Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)

M.I. Par Change

ORG_LEAD <--- Relation 22.424 .138

ORG_LEAD <--- Respect 12.084 .080

ORG_LEAD <--- MACRO 4.467 -.040

Bollen-Stine Bootstrap

The model fit better in 2000 bootstrap samples.

It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.

It fit worse or failed to fit in 0 bootstrap samples.

Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .000

Page 510: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 510

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default model 57 105.503 9 .000 11.723

Saturated model 66 .000 0

Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552

RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI

Default model .005 .971 .786 .132

Saturated model .000 1.000

Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228

Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1

RFI

rho1

IFI

Delta2

TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .972 .826 .974 .839 .974

Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000

Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE

Default model .135 .112 .159 .000

Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000

Page 511: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 511

Revised Model:

Bollen-Stine Bootstrap (Default model)

The model fit better in 152 bootstrap samples.

It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.

It fit worse or failed to fit in 1848 bootstrap samples.

Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .924

Page 512: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 512

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default model 55 16.919 11 .110 1.538

Saturated model 66 .000 0

Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552

RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI

Default model .004 .995 .969 .166

Saturated model .000 1.000

Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228

Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1

RFI

rho1

IFI

Delta2

TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .995 .977 .998 .992 .998

Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000

Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE

Default model .030 .000 .057 .874

Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000

Page 513: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 513

Final Model

Correlations: (Group number 1 - Default model)

Estimate

MICROEnv <--> Respect .378

Respect <--> Progressive .410

Respect <--> DECISION MAKING .280

Respect <--> Org. Demand .599

Respect <--> Relationship .551

MICROEnv <--> Progressive .544

MICROEnv <--> DECISION MAKING .352

MICROEnv <--> Org. Demand .569

Page 514: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 514

Estimate

MICROEnv <--> Teamwork .453

MICROEnv <--> Relationship .507

Progressive <--> DECISION MAKING .407

Progressive <--> MICROEnv .466

DECISION MAKING <--> MICROEnv .413

DECISION MAKING <--> Teamwork .325

DECISION MAKING <--> Relationship .467

Relationship <--> MICROEnv .432

Org. Demand <--> Teamwork .563

Relationship <--> Teamwork .725

Progressive <--> Teamwork .442

Progressive <--> Org. Demand .548

Org. Demand <--> Relationship .606

Progressive <--> Relationship .520

DECISION MAKING <--> Org. Demand .430

Respect <--> MICROEnv .347

Respect <--> Teamwork .565

Teamwork <--> MICROEnv .308

Org. Demand <--> MICROEnv .445

MICROEnv <--> MICROEnv .408

Bollen-Stine Bootstrap (Default model)

The model fit better in 428 bootstrap samples.

It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.

It fit worse or failed to fit in 1572 bootstrap samples.

Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .786

Page 515: A study of enabling creativity and innovation through ...€¦ · A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 5 Declaration

Appendix 7

Page 515

Model Fit Summary

CMIN

Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default model 54 19.875 12 .069 1.656

Saturated model 66 .000 0

Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552

RMR, GFI

Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI

Default model .004 .994 .965 .181

Saturated model .000 1.000

Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228

Baseline Comparisons

Model NFI

Delta1

RFI

rho1

IFI

Delta2

TLI

rho2 CFI

Default model .995 .975 .998 .990 .998

Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000

Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

RMSEA

Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE

Default model .033 .000 .059 .847

Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000