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“A study of enabling creativity and innovation
through excellence in managerial leadership in
Australia”
Richard Laferriere
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Business and Enterprise
Swinburne University of Technology
2015
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 2
Abstract
This thesis explores the importance of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours
(CIB) used by Australian managers in what constitutes leadership excellence. To do
this, it brings together related fields of leadership and cultural study. The Asian
Perspectives of Leadership (APEL) model, which examines the perspectives of
excellence in managerial leadership in a culture, is applied to understanding the
importance of CIB to managerial leadership in Australia. The APEL model
categorises managerial leadership behaviours under four categories that represent the
primary influence areas on a managers’ actions. It is used as an artefact to categorise
CIBs from extant literature and tested within this framework.
Enabling creativity and innovation is an aspect of change leadership that requires
further study and categorisation. CIBs have been identified, but have not been
compiled into a categorisation reflective of managerial influence. The CIB have been
classified using the APEL framework in a comprehensive method to develop a scale
that is explored together with other behavioural categories that represent excellence in
managerial leadership in Australia.
Existing knowledge of Australian culture and management have been used to provide
EMIC insights into what constitutes excellence in managerial leadership in the
Australian context. To reach this objective, a cultural model is developed using factor
analysis and path analysis modelling. A total sample of 690 responses was collected
from Australian managers across Australia to build a baseline demographic and
managerial profile of Australian managers to explore the APEL based cultural model
and the newly developed scale representing CIB within it.
The results indicate that managerial leadership in Australia supports the inclusion of
the concept of CIB as a category of excellence in managerial leadership. In the final
model of excellence in managerial leadership, the Excellent Leader category has an
Organisational Leader component and a Visionary Leader component. Australian
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managers in this study view both being visionary and being focused on work and
people as what constitutes an excellent leader. In this model, CIB has a mediating
role between the Excellent Leader and managerial behaviour components such as
Organisational Demand, Micro-environment and Relationships.
Results highlight that CIB is directly related to excellence in managerial leadership in
Australia and should be further explored in future studies. The study also finds that
further study of Australian management is required to better understand how
managerial leadership is enacted in Australia.
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 4
Acknowledgements
The successful completion of this thesis represents an enjoyable and challenging
opportunity that would not have been possible without the support, assistance and
encouragement of many people. I would like to recognize and acknowledge those that
have helped and supported me along my PhD journey.
First, I would like to extend my most heartfelt thanks to my supervisory team. My
Principle Coordinating Supervisor, Professor Christopher Selvarajah has provided me
with a foundation upon which I built my journey and endless amounts of
encouragement and inspiration as I worked towards completion. He was always there,
whenever and whatever I needed with academic advice and guidance as well as
personal care and support. He challenged me to go deeper and further when I started
and continued throughout with his comments and feedback on my work. I am very
grateful to him as a supervisor and mentor. My Associate Supervisor, Dr. Aron
Perenyi, joined my supervisory team at an opportune time for me. He pushed me and
reassured me as I worked through my steepest learning curves. He braved the
challenge of supporting me and always would take the time to show his friendship
and support. I am blessed to have had Aron to work with. Lastly, I would like to
thank Dr. Denny Meyer for providing advice and guidance on my statistical analysis.
Swinburne University of Technology has fostered my development and my learning
for many years now. Again, I am grateful for the support I have received from
Associate Dean Professor Heath McDonald and the Faculty of Business and
Enterprise Research office in providing me training and support services. I would
especially like to thank Anne Cain for all of her support, advice and guidance through
my journey.
Lastly, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Richard and Josephine
Laferriere. They supported me, encouraged me and were always there with their love
when I needed it. I could not have done it without them.
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Declaration
This thesis:
Contains no material which has been accepted for the award to the candidate
of any other degree or diploma, except where due reference is made in the text
of the examinable outcome;
To the best of the candidate’s knowledge contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made in
the text of the examinable outcome;
Where the work is based on joint research or publications, discloses the
relative contributions of the respective workers or authors;
This thesis is less than 100,000 words in length exclusive of bibliography and
appendices;
Susannah Thompson edited this thesis. The editing addressed only style and
grammar and not its substantive content; and
This thesis has met all the requirements of the Ethics Approval from the
Swinburne University of Technology under SUHREC Project 2011/247.
Richard Laferriere
May 3rd, 2014
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Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 4
Declaration ......................................................................................................................... 5
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... 6
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 15
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 19
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 21
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21
Managerial Leadership defined ............................................................ 22 1.1.1
Culture defined ..................................................................................... 24 1.1.2
1.2 Managerial Leadership research context .......................................................... 25
Managers as leaders ............................................................................. 26 1.2.1
1.3 Background to the research .............................................................................. 30
1.4 Research problem and research questions ....................................................... 40
1.5 Justification of the research .............................................................................. 42
1.6 Methodology .................................................................................................... 45
1.7 Thesis outline ................................................................................................... 47
1.8 Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 49
2. Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation ......... 51
2.1 Chapter introduction ........................................................................................ 51
2.2 Behavioural leadership theory ......................................................................... 52
2.3 Change leadership – A third metacategory ...................................................... 54
Identification of the change leadership metacategory .......................... 55 2.3.1
2.4 From Three Metacategories to Four ................................................................. 56
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2.5 Relationship between Yukl’s Hierarchical Taxonomy and the APEL framework ........................................................................................................ 58
APEL Framework Development .......................................................... 58 2.5.1
2.6 Change leadership behaviour theories ............................................................. 63
Transformational leadership ................................................................ 65 2.6.1
Leader-member exchange theory ......................................................... 68 2.6.2
Heifetz’s adaptive leadership ............................................................... 69 2.6.3
Versatile leadership .............................................................................. 70 2.6.4
Model of flexible leadership ................................................................ 71 2.6.5
Complexity leadership theory .............................................................. 71 2.6.6
Change leadership summary ................................................................ 73 2.6.7
2.7 Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours ................................................ 73
Personal qualities ................................................................................. 79 2.7.1
Managerial behaviours ......................................................................... 92 2.7.2
Organisational demand ...................................................................... 103 2.7.3
Environmental influence .................................................................... 110 2.7.4
2.8 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 111
3. Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership ............................ 114
3.1 Chapter introduction ...................................................................................... 114
3.1 ETIC and EMIC cultural study and leadership .............................................. 115
Building EMIC insights into understanding managerial leadership .. 120 3.1.1
3.2 Cross-cultural research studies ....................................................................... 123
Geert Hofstede and cultural dimensions ............................................ 123 3.2.1
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner cultural factors model ............... 124 3.2.2
Schwartz and the theory of human values ......................................... 125 3.2.3
Inglehart and the world values survey ............................................... 127 3.2.4
The GLOBE study ............................................................................. 127 3.2.5
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3.3 GLOBE cultural dimensions .......................................................................... 128
Uncertainty avoidance ........................................................................ 128 3.3.1
Power distance ................................................................................... 129 3.3.2
Collectivism I & II ............................................................................. 130 3.3.3
Gender egalitarianism ........................................................................ 130 3.3.4
Assertiveness ...................................................................................... 131 3.3.5
Performance orientation ..................................................................... 131 3.3.6
Future orientation ............................................................................... 132 3.3.7
Humane orientation ............................................................................ 132 3.3.8
3.4 GLOBE study - primary leadership dimensions ............................................ 133
3.5 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its cultural dimensions ......................... 134
3.6 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its leadership dimensions ..................... 135
3.7 Country cluster issue ...................................................................................... 136
3.8 Australia as a part of Asia .............................................................................. 137
3.9 Australian culture ........................................................................................... 138
Indigenous Australians ....................................................................... 139 3.9.1
3.10 EMIC Aspects of Australian Culture ............................................................. 139
Settlement ........................................................................................... 139 3.10.1
Australian egalitarianism ................................................................... 141 3.10.2
A fair go ............................................................................................. 142 3.10.3
The Australian dream ......................................................................... 143 3.10.4
Tall poppies ........................................................................................ 144 3.10.5
Battlers & punters .............................................................................. 145 3.10.6
Mateship ............................................................................................. 146 3.10.7
She’ll be right and no worries ............................................................ 148 3.10.8
3.11 Summations of Australian culture .................................................................. 149
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3.12 Early commentary and studies on Australian management ........................... 150
3.13 Modern studies of Australian management ................................................... 152
Australian leadership in a competitive world .................................... 152 3.13.1
Australia top quality management study ............................................ 152 3.13.2
Cultural imprint studies ...................................................................... 153 3.13.3
Enterprising nation ............................................................................. 157 3.13.4
3.14 Australian culture from the GLOBE study .................................................... 159
Australia and the performance orientation dimension ....................... 160 3.14.1
Australia and the collectivism dimensions ......................................... 161 3.14.2
Australia and the gender egalitarianism dimension ........................... 162 3.14.3
Australia and the assertiveness dimension ......................................... 162 3.14.4
Australia and the future orientation dimension .................................. 163 3.14.5
Australia and the uncertainty avoidance dimension .......................... 164 3.14.6
Australia and the humane orientation dimension ............................... 165 3.14.7
Australia and the power distance dimension ...................................... 165 3.14.8
3.15 Australian leadership – GLOBE leadership dimensions ................................ 166
3.16 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 167
4. Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses .................................. 169
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 169
4.2 Utilisation of the APEL framework to categorise creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ....................................................................................... 170
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in an APEL context . 171 4.2.1
Enabling creativity and innovation scale development ...................... 173 4.2.2
4.3 Hypotheses development: Australian excellence in managerial leadership components .................................................................................................... 176
Excellent leader category ................................................................... 177 4.3.1
Personal qualities category ................................................................. 180 4.3.2
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Managerial behaviours category ........................................................ 183 4.3.3
Environmental Influence category ..................................................... 186 4.3.4
Organisational demand category ........................................................ 188 4.3.5
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours category ................... 189 4.3.6
Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile summary ..... 190 4.3.7
4.4 Hypotheses: Relationships between independent and dependent variables ... 192
Personal qualities ............................................................................... 192 4.4.1
Environmental influence .................................................................... 196 4.4.2
Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 198 4.4.3
Organisational demand ...................................................................... 202 4.4.4
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ................................. 204 4.4.5
4.5 Hypothesis on a shared view of leadership across groups ............................. 204
4.6 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 207
5. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 208
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 208
5.2 Research methodology and design ................................................................. 209
5.3 Research context ............................................................................................ 211
5.4 Ethical considerations .................................................................................... 213
5.5 Design of the survey instrument .................................................................... 213
APEL questionnaire ........................................................................... 214 5.5.1
5.6 Operationalising the creativity and innovation enabling behaviours construct ......................................................................................................... 218
5.7 Description of the survey instrument ............................................................. 220
Section one - demographic and managerial information ................... 220 5.7.1
Section two – managerial leadership behaviours ............................... 224 5.7.2
5.8 Testing of the questionnaire ........................................................................... 226
5.9 Sample development ...................................................................................... 227
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5.10 Data collection and sampling frame ............................................................... 228
5.11 Online panel ................................................................................................... 229
5.12 Data analysis plan .......................................................................................... 231
Preliminary analysis ........................................................................... 232 5.12.1
Factor analysis .................................................................................... 232 5.12.2
Confirmatory factor analysis .............................................................. 236 5.12.3
CFA and discriminant validity testing ............................................... 240 5.12.4
Development of composite measures of excellence in managerial 5.12.5leadership ........................................................................................... 240
Structural equation modeling and path analysis ................................ 242 5.12.6
Invariance testing ............................................................................... 242 5.12.7
5.13 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 244
6. Preliminary analysis ................................................................................................ 245
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 245
6.2 Data preparation ............................................................................................. 246
Data coding ........................................................................................ 246 6.2.1
Missing data check ............................................................................. 246 6.2.2
Data cleaning ...................................................................................... 247 6.2.3
6.3 Univariate outliers .......................................................................................... 248
6.4 Normality of the data ..................................................................................... 249
6.5 Demographics and managerial profile ........................................................... 250
Demographic profile .......................................................................... 250 6.5.1
Managerial profile .............................................................................. 254 6.5.2
6.6 EFA on APEL categories and CIB ................................................................ 258
6.7 Separate sample EFA on new CIB scale ........................................................ 265
6.8 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 267
7. Analysis ................................................................................................................... 269
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7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 269
7.2 Measurement models for the excellence in leadership components .............. 270
7.3 Discriminant validity of components ............................................................. 282
7.4 Measurement models and hypotheses ............................................................ 285
7.5 Development of composite measures of excellence in leadership ................. 286
7.6 Path analysis ................................................................................................... 287
7.7 Path model and hypotheses ............................................................................ 296
Personal qualities ............................................................................... 296 7.7.1
Environmental influence .................................................................... 298 7.7.2
Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 299 7.7.3
Organisational demand ...................................................................... 301 7.7.4
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ................................. 302 7.7.5
7.8 Invariance testing ........................................................................................... 303
Gender 303 7.8.1
Under 40 and 40 or older ................................................................... 308 7.8.2
Degree or no degree ........................................................................... 313 7.8.3
First level managers and middle and senior manager groups ............ 318 7.8.4
7.9 Invariance testing hypothesis ......................................................................... 323
7.10 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 325
8. Discussion and conclusion ....................................................................................... 326
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 326
8.2 Research question 1 – Categorisation of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation ................................................................................ 330
8.3 Research question 2 - Australian managerial leadership components ........... 332
Excellent leader .................................................................................. 332 8.3.1
Personal qualities ............................................................................... 333 8.3.2
Organisational demand ...................................................................... 335 8.3.3
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Managerial behaviours ....................................................................... 336 8.3.4
Environmental influence .................................................................... 338 8.3.5
Importance of each Australian managerial leadership component .... 339 8.3.6
8.4 Research question 2 - Australian excellence in managerial leadership and associated relationships .................................................................................. 345
Relationships to visionary leader ....................................................... 346 8.4.1
Relationships to organisational leader ............................................... 348 8.4.2
8.5 Research question 3: Australian excellence in managerial leadership and the relationship with CIB ..................................................................................... 355
CIB and mediating effects .................................................................. 360 8.5.1
8.6 Research question 4 – differences in managerial perspectives of excellence in leadership ................................................................................................... 363
8.7 Contributions to theory .................................................................................. 366
8.8 Managerial implications ................................................................................. 377
8.9 Limitations of the research ............................................................................. 380
8.10 Future research ............................................................................................... 386
8.11 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 392
References ..................................................................................................................... 394
Appendix 1: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours ........................................ 437
Personal Qualities .................................................................................................... 437
Managerial Behaviours ............................................................................................ 439
Organisational Demand ........................................................................................... 442
Environmental Influence ......................................................................................... 443
Appendix 2: Swinburne Ethics Approval ...................................................................... 445
Appendix 3: Survey Instrument ..................................................................................... 446
Appendix 4 – Descriptive & Normality Data for Indicator Variables........................... 458
Appendix 5: Exploratory Factor Analysis Results ........................................................ 465
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EFA on Excellent Leader ........................................................................................ 465
EFA on Personal Qualities ...................................................................................... 466
EFA on Organisational Demand .............................................................................. 469
EFA on Environmental Influence Demand ............................................................. 470
EFA on Managerial Behaviours .............................................................................. 472
EFA on CIB ............................................................................................................. 475
Appendix 6: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ...................................................... 477
Excellent Leader ...................................................................................................... 477
Personal Qualities .................................................................................................... 479
Managerial Behaviours ............................................................................................ 485
Environmental Influence ......................................................................................... 493
Organisational Demand ........................................................................................... 497
CIB 501
Appendix 7: Path Analysis ............................................................................................ 509
Hypothesised Model Results ................................................................................... 509
Revised Model: ........................................................................................................ 511
Final Model .............................................................................................................. 513
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List of Tables
Table 2-1: Yukl’s hierarchical taxonomy and APEL categories ................................ 56
Table 2-2: APEL categories ....................................................................................... 60
Table 2-3: Leadership behaviours that influence employee innovation ..................... 76
Table 2-4: Personal qualities enabling creativity and innovation ............................... 79
Table 2-5: Managerial behaviours enabling creativity and innovation ...................... 92
Table 2-6: Organisational demands enabling creativity and innovation .................. 103
Table 2-7: Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours – four categories ........... 113
Table 3-1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions ............................................................... 124
Table 3-2: Cultural factors model ............................................................................. 125
Table 3-3: Schwartz’s theory of human values ........................................................ 126
Table 3-4: Inglehart’s world values .......................................................................... 127
Table 3-5: GLOBE cultural dimensions ................................................................... 129
Table 3-6: GLOBE CLT dimensions ........................................................................ 133
Table 3-7: GLOBE cultural dimensions for Australia .............................................. 159
Table 4-1: Subcategories of enabling creativity and innovation .............................. 173
Table 4-2: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours scale .............................. 175
Table 4-3: Excellent leader category ........................................................................ 178
Table 4-4: GLOBE leadership dimension rankings for Australia ............................ 178
Table 4-5: Personal qualities category ...................................................................... 181
Table 4-6: Managerial behaviours category ............................................................. 183
Table 4-7: Environmental influence category .......................................................... 186
Table 4-8: Organisational demand category ............................................................. 188
Table 4-9: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile ...................... 191
Table 5-1: APEL scales from the survey instrument: ............................................... 215
Table 5-2: Hypothesised excellent leader category .................................................. 216
Table 5-3: Hypothesised personal qualities category ............................................... 216
Table 5-4: Hypothesised managerial behaviours category ....................................... 217
Table 5-5: Hypothesised organisational demand category ....................................... 218
Table 5-6: Hypothesised environmental influence category .................................... 218
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Table 5-7: CIB scale ................................................................................................. 220
Table 5-8: Goodness of fit measures ........................................................................ 240
Table 6-1: Comparison of sample demographics and 2006 census figures.............. 251
Table 6-2: Sector of respondents .............................................................................. 254
Table 6-3: Years of Australian work experience ...................................................... 255
Table 6-4: Years of managerial experience .............................................................. 256
Table 6-5: Managerial role ....................................................................................... 257
Table 6-6: Size of organisation ................................................................................. 257
Table 6-7: Size of department .................................................................................. 258
Table 6-8: EFA completed on excellence in managerial leadership components .... 259
Table 6-9: Pattern matrix for EFA on excellent leader............................................. 260
Table 6-10: Pattern matrix for EFA on personal qualities ........................................ 261
Table 6-11: Factor Matrix for EFA on organisational demand ................................ 262
Table 6-12: Pattern matrix for EFA on environmental influence ............................. 263
Table 6-13: Pattern matrix for EFA on managerial behaviours ............................... 264
Table 6-14: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB – separate sample of 100 ..................... 265
Table 6-15: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB .............................................................. 266
Table 7-1: Regression weights for excellent leader .................................................. 272
Table 7-2: Regression weights for personal qualities ............................................... 274
Table 7-3: Regression weights for managerial behaviours ...................................... 277
Table 7-4: Regression weights for environmental influence .................................... 279
Table 7-5: Regression weights for organisational demand ...................................... 280
Table 7-6: Regression weights for CIB .................................................................... 282
Table 7-7: Supported components of Australian excellence in managerial leadership
.......................................................................................................................... 286
Table 7-8: Descriptive statistics for the excellence in leadership components ........ 287
Table 7-9: Goodness of fit indices of hypothesised model ...................................... 290
Table 7-10: Regression weights for hypothesised model ......................................... 291
Table 7-11: Goodness of fit indices for first revision of final model ....................... 292
Table 7-12: Regression weights for final model ...................................................... 292
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Table 7-13: Goodness of fit indices for the final model ........................................... 293
Table 7-14: Correlations between Decision Making and other independent variables
.......................................................................................................................... 295
Table 7-15: Standardised total effects ...................................................................... 295
Table 7-16: Cohen’s d effect size calculation - change in variance explained ......... 296
Table 7-17: Personal qualities related hypotheses .................................................... 297
Table 7-18: Environmental influence related hypotheses ........................................ 298
Table 7-19: Managerial behaviours related hypotheses ........................................... 300
Table 7-20: Organisational demand related hypotheses ........................................... 301
Table 7-21: CIB related hypotheses ......................................................................... 302
Table 7-22: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 303
Table 7-23: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 304
Table 7-24: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 304
Table 7-25: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 305
Table 7-26: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 305
Table 7-27: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 306
Table 7-28: Independent sample t-tests for gender groups ....................................... 307
Table 7-29: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 308
Table 7-30: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 309
Table 7-31: Invariance testing for CIB measurement model .................................... 309
Table 7-32: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 310
Table 7-33: Invariance testing for managerial behaviours measurement model ...... 310
Table 7-34: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 311
Table 7-35: Invariance testing of the organisational demand measurement model . 311
Table 7-36: Independent sample t-tests for -40 and 40+age groups ......................... 312
Table 7-37: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 313
Table 7-38: Invariance testing of the excellent leader measurement model ............ 314
Table 7-39: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 314
Table 7-40: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 315
Table 7-41: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 315
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Table 7-42: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 316
Table 7-43: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 316
Table 7-44: Independent sample t-tests for no degree and with a degree groups ..... 317
Table 7-45: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 318
Table 7-46: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model .................. 319
Table 7-47: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model ..................................... 319
Table 7-48: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model ............... 320
Table 7-49: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model ....... 320
Table 7-50: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model ..... 321
Table 7-51: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model ....... 321
Table 7-52: Independent sample t-tests for First level managers compared with
Middle and Senior Manager Groups ................................................................ 322
Table 7-53: Invariance test for path model ............................................................... 323
Table 8-1: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile ...................... 328
Table 8-2: Hypothesised relationships ..................................................................... 329
Table 8-3: Importance of excellence in leadership components and CIB category . 340
Table 8-4: Hypothesised relationships to visionary leader ....................................... 346
Table 8-5: Hypothesised relationships to organisational leader ............................... 349
Table 8-6: Hypothesised relationships to and from CIB .......................................... 356
Table 8-7: Categories of behaviours enabling creativity and innovation ................. 368
Table 8-8: CIB scale ................................................................................................. 369
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Chapter overview ..................................................................................... 21
Figure 2-1: Chapter overview ..................................................................................... 51
Figure 2-2: Leadership behaviours - two metacategories ........................................... 52
Figure 2-3: Leadership behaviours – three metacategories ........................................ 55
Figure 2-4: Leadership behaviours – four metacategories ......................................... 57
Figure 2-5: Asian perspectives of excellence in leadership framework ..................... 59
Figure 3-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 114
Figure 4-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 169
Figure 4-2: Expanded APEL model with new enabling behaviours category.......... 170
Figure 4-3: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in APEL context ......... 172
Figure 4-4: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours under investigation ..... 172
Figure 5-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 208
Figure 5-2: Positivist research approach .................................................................. 210
Figure 5-3: Likert scale descriptor and question structure ....................................... 225
Figure 5-4: Data analysis plan .................................................................................. 231
Figure 6-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 245
Figure 7-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 269
Figure 7-2: Standardised measurement model of excellent leader ........................... 271
Figure 7-3: CFA for personal qualities ..................................................................... 273
Figure 7-4: CFA for managerial behaviours ............................................................. 276
Figure 7-5: CFA for environmental influence .......................................................... 278
Figure 7-6: CFA for organisational demand ............................................................. 280
Figure 7-7: CFA of CIB category ............................................................................. 281
Figure 7-8: CFA for organisational demand ............................................................. 283
Figure 7-9: CFA for managerial behaviour .............................................................. 284
Figure 7-10: Hypothesised model of Australian excellence in leadership ............... 288
Figure 7-11: Revised hypothesised model - corrected for CFA results.................... 289
Figure 7-12: Result of hypothesised model .............................................................. 290
Figure 7-13: Final model with satisfactory goodness of fit ...................................... 293
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Figure 8-1: Chapter overview ................................................................................... 326
Chapter 1 - Introduction
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1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction
This chapter presents an introduction to the thesis “a study of enabling creativity and
innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia”. It provides the
background to the research, followed by identification of the research problem and
research questions. The outline of the chapter is provided in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1: Chapter overview
This research study provides an exploratory examination of the perceptions of what
constitutes excellence in managerial leadership among Australian managers and to
understand how excellence in managerial leadership relates to behaviours associated
with enabling creativity and innovation in organisations. The foundation of this
research project rests in three key theoretical domains pertaining to: managerial
leadership behaviours; specific managerial leadership behaviours that enable
IntroductionManagerial Leadership Introduction &
Definitions
Managers as Leaders
Background to the Research
Research Problem and
Research Questions
Justification of the Research
Methodology
Thesis Outline
Conclusion
Chapter 1 - Introduction
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creativity and innovation; and cultural study, specifically Australian culture. The
results of the exploratory study will contribute to the development of a cultural
specific model of perceived excellence in managerial leadership in Australia through
enabling creativity and innovation.
Managerial Leadership defined 1.1.1
The concept of being a leader dates back to ancient times. The word “leader” dates
back to the ancient Egyptians, more than 5,000 years ago (Dorfman 1996). In Asia,
scriptures and treatises of India and China have influenced leadership behaviours.
The Indian philosophies of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, of the 9th Century BC
embodying Dharma or virtuous conduct have influenced Asian leadership generally
(Brockington 1998). Among the prominent Chinese philosophers, Confucius and Lao
Tzu have had great influence on leadership behaviours in numerous cultures.
Confucius, who lived in the 5th Century BC talked of leadership and morality and Lao
Tzu in the 6th Century BC focused on servant leadership (Bokenkamp & Nickerson
1997; Wah 2002). In Europe, the ancient Greeks were interested in the phenomenon
of leadership and wrote about it in their texts and stories, such as Homer’s Iliad
dating to the 7th Century BC, with characters that personified the traits of leaders; and
centuries later Machiavelli (approximately 1500 AD) wrote of the significance of
change, power and influence and its importance to maintaining leadership (Bass
2008; Vidal-Naquet 2000). Leadership has long been subject of discussion and
popular dialogue. However, it was not until the late 19th century and early 20th
century that formal study of leadership from a managerial perspective started to take
shape.
When examining the formal study of managerial leadership, what emerges is that the
types of theories and models are numerous. In 1990, leading researchers on
leadership, estimated that over 7,500 studies, articles and books have been written on
the subject (Bass 1990a). In 2008, it was estimated there had been a 100 precent
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increase in leadership research since the 1990 figure in the United States alone (Bass
2008). Leadership has become engrained as a corner stone of management and
cultural research (Yukl 2010). The diverse fields that comprise managerial leadership
research include the study of traits, behaviours, contingency theories, servant
leadership and ethical leadership to name just a few.
Consequently to select a single definition of leadership is not an easy task. As is
evident, leadership is not categorised in just one set action, activity, mindset or
purpose. However, a definition is necessary in order to properly frame this research
study. Yukl (2010 p.2), summarises the size, scope and the consistency of leadership
definitions in the following statement:
Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviours,
influence, interaction patterns, role relationships and occupation of
an administrative position…Most definitions reflect the assumption
that it involves a process whereby intentional influence is exerted
on one person over the other to guide, structure, and facilitate
activities and relationships in a group or organisation. (p.2)
The above mentioned definition is also applicable to managerial leadership. Yukl
(1989) utilised the term managerial leadership in order to move past the debate of
whether or not leadership and management are separate. The term, as he specified,
refers to leadership as applicable to practicing managers – that is managerial
leadership includes both leadership and management to accomplish objectives, work
tasks, employee engagement, performance, strategies and vision of the organisation.
The issues associated with viewing managers as leaders is further discussed later in
this chapter, however the term managerial leadership is used in this study as it has
been in studies to refer to managers that operate in roles where there is an overlap
between management functions and leadership (Kerns & Ko 2014). Within Yukl’s
(2010) summary of leadership definitions, reference to the behaviours of managerial
leaders sets the focus of this research study and will be discussed in chapter 2.
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A recent study named the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour
Effectiveness (GLOBE) study offers a succinct definition from a behavioural and
cross-cultural perspective. The GLOBE study is arguably the most comprehensive
cross-cultural leadership study ever conducted involving over 180 academics and
researchers covering 62 cultures (House et al. 2004). The GLOBE study involved
examining value behaviours as cultural dimensions and leadership universals on an
international sample of practicing middle managers. The study provided a definition
on organisational leadership as follows (House, Wright & Aditya 1997,p. 548):
The ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable
others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the
organisations of which they are members (p.548)
This definition articulates the role of a managerial leader within an organisation,
whether it is a private business, government or non-government organisation.
Managerial leaders are there to positively move the organisation forward to meet its
objectives reflected through their behaviours (Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al.
2004). Considering the scope of the GLOBE study and the significant number of
academics that agree with this definition it will serve as the definition around
managerial leadership for this thesis.
Culture defined 1.1.2
As with defining leadership, defining culture is also a challenge. The core definition
of many cross-cultural studies has been established around the work of Kroeber and
Kluckhohn (1952) who conducted a comprehensive review of literature on culture
(Adler & Gundersen 2008; Hofstede 2001; House et al. 2004; Kroeber & Kluckhohn
1952; Selvarajah et al. 1995). A reworded summary of this definition, taken from
Carroll (1992), is provided by Adler (2008, p.19):
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Culture is therefore:
Something shared by all or almost all members of a given social
group
Something older members of a group pass on to younger
members
Something (as in the case of morals, laws and customs) that
shapes behaviour, or … structures one’s perception of the world
(p.19)
The Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership (APEL) framework, utilised in
this research study, applies this same foundation and establishes a definition of
culture to be “the attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours shared by a particular
group of people” (Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d, p.360). This succinct definition
captures the complexities in understanding culture that allows for examination of
culture at societal levels.
1.2 Managerial Leadership research context
When looking at leadership research, six characteristics have been identified as apt
for consideration in managerial leadership (McFarland, Senn & Childress 1993). The
six are: (1) leadership is not only the role of the senior representatives of an
|organisation; (2) leadership increases ability and performance in others; (3)
leadership is unique from management; (4) leadership is tied to understanding the
human condition; (5) leadership is multifaceted including competency, skills and
qualities; and (6) leadership is a key component and attribute of change. The
identified characteristics cover much of the research that has been done to date and
reflect the various theories that will be discussed in the next chapter and ties directly
to the stated definition of managerial leadership earlier in this chapter. These research
characteristics show that understanding managers’ behaviours is paramount to being
able to successfully conceptualise managerial leadership. The third characteristic and
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its connection to the first characteristic, will be discussed below, as in this research,
managers are utilised as a means of understanding leadership.
Managers as leaders 1.2.1
In the previous section, two of the six characteristics appear to be slightly at odds
with each other. The first characteristic implies everyone is a leader and the third
characteristic states that leadership is unique from management. Yet, the two are
intrinsically connected. The emergence of the practice of management is a relatively
recent development that shares its development with that of leadership (Kotterman
2006). In an organisation, managers are often identified as leaders or are expected to
fulfil this role (Bass 2008). Two of the foremost authors addressing this topic are
Zaleznik (2004) and Kotter (1990).
In Zaleznik’s (2004) article “Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?” he outlines
several differences between the two. On a personality level, managers are more
practical and straightforward, compared with leaders who have personalities that are
more dynamic. The two look at goals differently; managers in a pragmatic or reactive
way, leaders in a proactive and engaged way. From the perspective of motivating
others, managers approach in a transactional manner using rewards and punishments.
Leaders look more towards transformational approaches engaging co-workers and
developing subordinates and their team for the work at hand. Leaders also show more
empathy and emotional understanding for their co-workers, while managers are more
detached and concerned about productivity as opposed to feelings. The final
distinction Zaleznik (2004) proposed is that managers are part of the organisation,
while leaders see themselves as above it or more than a part of the organisation. In
reviewing these differences and considering the expectations that are placed on an
organisational manager the two are more similar than they are different (Yukl 1989).
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Kotter (1990) illustrates the similarities between the two, explaining how managers
being leaders led organisations to positive results. Kotter (1990, p.5) states:
They both involve deciding what needs to be done, creating
networks of people and relationships that can accomplish an
agenda, and then trying to ensure that those people actually get the
job done. They are both, in this sense, complete action
systems…(p.5)
The difference between the two, he notes, as the dynamic nature of leadership versus
the pragmatic approach of management. In today’s organisations however, this line
has largely become blurred. These differences are again based on arguments that try
to find complete distinction - for a manager there is no distinction, but rather the two
roles have merged together. Hamlin (2007) notes that a significant amount of overlap
exist within both leadership and managerial practice that makes it impossible to
completely separate the two. Additional research states similar positions in terms of
leader roles and managerial roles, indicating that there are significant overlaps that
exist between the two (Lowman 2002; Rost 1993; Yukl 2010). The literature on the
whole does indicate that managers do lead and that leaders do manage (Bass 2008).
Kotterman (2006) notes, that nearly every employee leads or has the opportunity to
lead. This statement particularly extends to managers. The study of management has
continuously included leadership as one of the primary components of being a
manager (Yukl 2010). Mintzberg (1973) included leadership as one of his ten
managerial roles, noting that leadership was essential to a manager in order to
motivate and enhance the work experience of subordinates. Gardner (1993) viewed
managers that lead as their own special category called “Leader-Manager”. Similarly,
Yukl (1989) when discussing the two does not separate them, but uses the term
“Managerial Leadership”. A large number of leadership research projects have looked
to managers and executives as their samples, this again highlights the overlap (Bass
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2008). The GLOBE study, the largest culture and leadership study, utilised managers
as the sample to build leadership dimensions comparable across cultures (House et al.
2004). This further illustrates that managers are a viable group to examine from both
a leadership and cultural perspective. In Australia, managers acting as leaders is
viewed as a necessity in order to capitalise on opportunities, move organisations
forward through change and to help the country reach its economic potential (Karpin
1995b; Sarros et al. 1992).
The validation of the overlap in roles and the identified reality that the two are
inseparable provides sufficient validation for the inclusion of the manager, as a
managerial leader. While it can be viewed that managers are not always leading and
is relative to the position they hold in the organisation, there is some understanding of
what leadership means and what it entails. The opinions of organisational managers
are the closest that can be found to reflect behaviours of an organisational leader. In
this study managerial leadership is the focus that represents leadership from an
organisational perspective.
Kent (2005) outlines how there is the continuous debate as to whether managers and
leaders are different, the same or connected and inseparable - this debate as explained
provides challenge to moving leadership research forward. He notes that the two roles
are shared within an individual and both must be present in order for organisations to
operate effectively. From a practical perspective the two cannot be separated
however, from a conceptual and theoretical perspective they can (p.1014). He
recommends that research relating to leadership and management should look at a
leader/manager perspective where both are present, or in other terms managerial
leadership. Where a manager in an organisation will need to utilise skills associated
with both aspects to be successful in their job.
In examining the literature on management and leadership roles and tasks, Nienaber
(2010) identifies 25 tasks that have been found to represent activities of managers and
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leaders. The findings from this literature review indicate that all researched tasks are
concerned with management and a limited number are associated with leadership
though still connected to management, primarily related to goal setting, motivation
and communication. Five tasks were identified as related to managers and not leaders.
These include task categories associated with determining organisational performance
and maintaining an information base to be used by the organisation. He notes that the
distinction in the research is found when overlapping tasks are associated with
managers in higher order roles and more managerial tasks with lower level managers.
This suggests that managers do lead though focus on management.
In order to move research on leadership and management forward it has been
identified that there needs to be clarity in what is being studied or the perspective that
is being taken (Hamlin 2007; Kent 2005; Kotterman 2006; Nienaber 2010; Simonet
& Tett 2013; Yukl 2010; Yukl & Lepsinger 2005). The differing research views on
leadership and management can be considered from five separate and distinct
perspectives (Simonet & Tett 2013). These include (1) bipolar, (2) unidimensional,
(3) bidimensional and hierarchical from a (4) manager to leadership or (5) leadership
to management perspective.
In order to provide clarity and to ensure that the appropriate context in which research
is occurring is addressed, Simonet and Tett (2013) examined 63 competencies of
leadership and management against expert opinions from the Academy of
Management and Society for Industrial Organisational Psychology to determine the
predominant position of the leadership-management relationship. Utilising a
taxonomy developed by Tett et al. (2000), respondents were asked to rate how
representative the competencies were to management and leadership. From this
analysis a hybrid model of the two was suggested to be used in future leadership and
management study, where leadership is viewed as either bidimensional or
co-dimensional (replacing the term unidimensional) (Simonet & Tett 2013). When a
study is looking at a specific set of attributes and capabilities, it may be better to take
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on the bidimensional perspective, however when examining leadership and
management from a larger or more complex perspective it is better to take a
co-dimensional perspective. In these instances the two should be viewed as “equal
partners or teammates” (p.209) where leadership and management are overlapping
and may be viewed as managerial leadership.
This co-dimensional perspective is taken in this research, where specifically
managerial leadership is looked at that includes overlapping areas alongside
behaviours associated more specifically to management or leadership. This view on
managerial leadership should allow for a more realistic measure of how practicing
managers view the higher order leadership expectations alongside their managerial
responsibilities and duties.
1.3 Background to the research
Behavioural theories of managerial leadership
The study of behavioural theories of leadership introduces the term ‘metacategory’
and its role in understanding managerial leadership (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
Behavioural theories of leadership were developed initially in the 1950s and are still
prevalent today. These theories are largely responsible for the universal application of
metacategories of behaviours across various cultures, organisations and industries. A
metacategory refers to a grouping of similar or related behaviours used by managers
that are focused on a specific area of responsibility (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
Historically, research specified that behaviours fell into one of two metacategories;
either ‘relation’ or ‘task’ oriented behaviours, sometimes referred to as
‘consideration’ and ‘initiating structure’ (Bass 2008; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
In the 1990s, a third managerial leadership behavioural metacategory was identified
and recognised as prevalent in managerial behaviours, the change-oriented
metacategory. The change-oriented metacategory focuses on behaviours that provide
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the dynamism to instigate change by moving an organisation forward through
visioning, adaptation, creativity and innovation (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 1999;
Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). The realisation of this third metacategory and its
previous undiscovered nature, stems from the fact that it was not being looked for and
that it was not necessarily prevalent in the past where change pressures were much
lower (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991).
A current view on metacategories of managerial leadership behaviours includes four
metacategories (Yukl 2012). The four are task-oriented, relationship-oriented
behaviours, change-oriented and an external category. The external metacategory
relates to behaving in a manner that connects the organisation to various stakeholders
outside the organisation and provides cues for the organisation to adapt. The external
metacategory, was originally viewed as part of the change-oriented metacategory,
however as more specificity has been added to the view on managerial behaviours, it
has developed into its own important metacategory (Yukl 2012; Yukl, Gordon &
Taber 2002).
The study of managerial behaviour and examination of taxonomies of leadership
behaviours, as described above has declined in terms of the current research focus
(Dinh et al. 2014). This has been attributed to a shifting focus on areas of research
identified as neo-charismatic (such as transformational leadership) and more specific
contextual elements of management pushing into new understanding and theory
development. This movement away from broad behavioural theories, to explain the
behaviours of managerial leaders, is also driven by the fact that it does not necessarily
allow for more micro-level views unless combined with additional theories. This
means that traditional theories need to be connected to outcomes and specific context
in order to understand the behaviours of managerial leaders. Dinh et al. (2014, p.55)
summarise that “future research needs to develop integrative perspectives that
consider how disparate theories relate or operate simultaneously to influence the
emergence of leadership phenomena”.
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Leadership of creativity, innovation and change
In the same comprehensive review by Dinh et al. (2014) on the fields of leadership
research in the new millennium, one area of research that has received increasing
development is that of how managerial leadership can enable change through
creativity and innovation in organisations . Enabling creativity and innovation is
firmly identified as a key component in the change-oriented metacategory (Yukl
2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
An important component of change leadership relates the acceptance of
transformational leadership as being an important and essential type of leadership
where managers act to connect and inspire organisational members to embrace
organisational goals, including change (Bass 1985a; Bass 1997; Bass, Avolio &
Atwater 1996; Burns 1978). Managing the processes involved in change requires
more than just being transformational or visionary; it requires behaviours that will
move an entire organisation, its work and its members through the change process
(Arvonen & Ekvall 1999; Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Skogstad & Einarsen 1999). The
change-oriented metacategory clearly connects with the emergence of a grouping of
behaviours associated with adaptation, innovation and creativity that are practiced by
managers in organisations. Therefore it is paramount that these behaviours be
investigated when examining managerial leadership. Understanding just what these
behaviours are and how they work with other behaviours, and how they impact across
an organisation and its stakeholders will require a significant amount of research in its
own right.
According to Uhl-Bien, Marion and McKelvey (2007) and their theory of complexity
leadership, managers need to look at the entire organisation as an interactive system
that includes individuals, teams, departments, and the organisation as a whole when
focused on innovation and change. This requires administrative, adaptive and
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enabling leadership on the part of managers. Exploration of these types of managerial
leadership focused on change and innovation is required.
Arguably the most important component of leading change is ensuring that
innovation is brought in to the context of the organisation and all its parts utilised to
positively move forward. At the individual level that requires creativity and at the
team, department and organisation level it requires innovation (Von Stamm 2008). At
the same time the change related metacategory was identified, separate research was
beginning that focused on identifying the managerial leadership behaviours required
to enable creativity and innovation in organisations (Amabile 1988; Damanpour
1991; Mumford et al. 2002; Scott & Bruce 1994; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).
Through qualitative, empirical study, meta-analysis and informed views of learned
academics a list of behavioural categories can be identified that when practiced will
result in increased innovation and creativity in organisations (Baer, Oldham &
Cummings 2003; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Dewett 2004; Mumford 2000;
Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004; Shalley & Gilson 2004; Tierney & Farmer 2004; Zhou
& George 2003). It should be noted these fields of research still remain largely
separate as there is no development of a comprehensive categorisation of the specific
behavioural components. This study will attempt to address this shortcoming.
Given the importance of managers enabling creativity and innovation in organisations
it is important to be able to have a comprehensive categorisation of behaviours that
managers utilise when attempting to lead and develop changes in products, services,
practices and organisational goals. This requires influencing all aspects of the
organisation and takes managerial leadership into a direction that has to consider:
individuals, teams, departments, overarching organisational objectives and practices.
As was noted above, the fields of research into these areas of managerial behaviours,
while connected through the shared theme of enabling creativity and innovation in
organisations, have not been brought together in order to develop a full categorisation
of behaviours. Where categorisation has occurred it has largely been limited to
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managers engaging individuals through their behaviours to be creative and innovative
(de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). For a categorisation to be more complete, it must also
look towards how managers can enable creativity and innovation across teams,
departments and the organisation, as well as behaving in a manner to understand the
external environment. In order to do this, it will require an examination of the extant
literature and to conceptualise managerial behaviours in a manner that can be viewed
as more comprehensive of influences on and of managers in organisations.
To do this it will require looking at the research on the specific behaviours, which are
known to enable creativity and innovation in a manner that is theoretically sound and
has been used in exploring behaviours of managerial leaders in organisations.
Additionally, as noted in Dinh et al (2014), it is important to bring together specific
aspects of managerial leadership like enabling creativity and innovation with other
aspects of managerial leadership behaviours, as behaviours are not practiced
singularly and need to be integrated with other perspectives; this requires using
behavioural metacategories found in behavioural taxonomies as a foundation.
Cultural study of managerial leadership
When examining how managerial leaders choose to lead, one of the most important
aspects that shape the behaviours is the country culture in which a manager operates
(Bass 2008; Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Dickson et
al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson 2003; House et al. 2004). While
managers adapt their behaviours to the various situations, strategic directions, goals
and organisational needs, they utilise their core fundamental beliefs on how best to
lead. These beliefs stem from numerous sources: knowledge, experience,
environment, education and organisation (Mumford et al. 2000). Research studies
show that one of the most significant contexts that shape the value-based behaviours
of managers is the reflection of expected cultural values within a society (House et al.
2004; Selvarajah et al. 1995). Effective managers use the values within a culture to
determine how best to act and in a sense build a “prototype” of what a leader should
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be, should do and how a manager should act in order to motivate subordinates and
accomplish goals – this is known as implicit leadership theory (Lord, Foti & De
Vader 1984; Lord & Maher 1993). These values, translated through the managers’
preferred behaviours, reflect the country culture in which the organisation and its
members operate. This theoretical approach forms the basis within which managerial
leadership behaviours have been studied in different cultures (Hofstede 2001; House
et al. 2004; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 2003).
Understanding what can be viewed as a culturally relevant way for a manager to
behave is one that requires distinction between universal views on how a manager
should behave and culturally specific ways. This is referred to as ETIC (universal)
and EMIC (culturally specific) (Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010; Leung
2009; Lu 2012; Morris et al. 1999). Universal aspects of leadership provide a clear
understanding of what is most important or least important to managers across
cultures and can be directly compared to get a sense of how behaviours towards
leadership differ between cultures (Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al. 2004). EMIC
level insights into managerial leadership behaviours are culture specific, where
managers take cultural cues in order to shape, refine and define how they will behave
when acting as a managerial leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Chhokar, Brodbeck & House
2012). These are usually not comparable between cultures.
The identification and creation of leadership universals in the GLOBE study has
grown out of implicit leadership theory (Den Hartog et al. 1999; House et al. 2004;
House, Wright & Aditya 1997). The GLOBE study is the largest and first of its kind
to develop cross-culturally comparable leadership universals as one of its key
outcomes (Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006;
House et al. 2004). These universals serve theory well by informing research,
practicing managers and organisations on specific aspects of leadership that can be
compared across cultures. However, in terms of where future culturally-focused
managerial research needs to go, numerous academics are in agreement that the
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greatest value is engaging in understanding and building EMIC insights into studies
to provide greater clarity and practicality to how managerial leadership manifests
itself in different cultures (Dickson et al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson
2003; Dorfman 1996; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley & Mosakowski 2002;
Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Osland & Bird 2000; Wang, Waldman & Zhang 2012;
Yeganeh & Su 2006). As part of the second phase of the GLOBE study, efforts were
made to establish culture specific leadership profiles for some countries (Chhokar,
House & Brodbeck 2012). These efforts have led to many unique cultural values
being identified that shape managerial behaviours in specific cultures. Australia is
one of the countries that have been examined, due to unique cultural influences on
managerial leadership (Ashkanasy 2007).
Australian culture and management
Australia is a separate and distinct culture that is not easily categorised or classified
when it comes to understanding leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). Frequently categorised
and grouped together with other English language speaking nations, predominantly
colonies of the former British empire, Australia is often considered an Anglo nation
(House et al. 2004). The adequacy of this categorisation has proven to be rather
misleading from a practical management perspective, where the application of UK or
US based management approaches require adaptation in order to work or have been
found to be ineffective in Australia (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a;
Irwin 1996; Parry 1996; Parry 1999; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). Currently the
Anglo cluster is being reconsidered as a correct or feasible grouping of nations for
comparative research (Egri et al. 2012). Given the above issues and the predominant
interpretations of these Anglo cultures emanating mainly from US and UK findings,
it is fair to say that there needs to be a greater culture specific understanding of
Australian managerial leadership.
At the same time that an increasing awareness exists of the cultural distinctiveness of
Australia from other culturally comparable nations there is also a growing recognition
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that Australia has an ever increasing alignment with Asia (Alomes 2012; Australia in
the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Higgott & Nossal 2008; Karpin 1995b). Even
the nation’s demographics are shifting with greater and greater ethnic diversity
largely coming from Asia. The most recent census shows 300 different ancestries,
with the largest growth in the Australian population being born in Asia (6%) or
coming from Asian ancestry (12%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012a; Colebatch
2012; Salt 2013). Taken together this demonstrates the unique multicultural makeup
of the Australian population and accentuates the reason why managerial leadership
will take on a distinctive form and may continue to evolve.
Ashkanasy (2007) identifies several aspects of culture that shape managerial
leadership in Australia, including values such as mateship and the “she’ll be right”
attitude that have an impact on management. This work does not go further than
identifying some of the EMIC values influencing managerial leadership. To go
further requires exploration of managerial leadership universals and cultural specific
values reflected upon in a framework that will allow for culturally specific
components to be drawn out of known managerial leadership behaviours.
Theoretical contributions
In providing this background to the research study being undertaken there were
several elements identified as gaps in both theory and in understanding of managerial
leadership. Firstly, behavioural theories of managerial leadership were presented. The
two metacategory perspective drove much of managerial leadership research for over
40 years. Today this has been expanded to four metacategories and serves as a
comprehensive taxonomy of the behavioural approach to categorising managerial
leadership behaviours. This taxonomy approach provides a broad overview of the
types of behaviours that managers use when leading organisations. Despite calls for
more research and integration with new theories, behavioural theories have decreased
in focus in the new millennium (Dinh et al. 2014; Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004).
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Emphasis has shifted to more context specific approaches to studying managerial
leadership. Two of the most relevant to this research study were presented.
Firstly, the growing interest in studying leadership for creativity, innovation and
change was identified. This area of study, includes emphasis on how managers may
enable creativity and innovation in organisations. While this is more specific than
behavioural theories, it does emphasise the behavioural approach at its core. Much of
the research in this area has focused on how managers influence the creativity of
individuals, though other aspects relating to teams, departments, the environment and
the organisation have been developing separately. There has been little development
of bringing the differing fields of study together in a succinct categorisation across
areas of managerial influence. Additionally there has been very little quantitative
study of this area.
Secondly, the field of culture specific aspects of managerial leadership was discussed.
Emphasis in this field has led to the identification of cultural dimensions and
leadership universals that are comparable across cultures. There has been some work
to bring in more culture specific aspects that influence the behaviours associated with
managerial leadership in different countries (Chhokar, House & Brodbeck 2012).
However, this has been very limited and across different fields there have been calls
to bring in more EMIC level insights to understand why and how managers behave in
order to lead effectively in their culture. Additionally there is very little known about
how managerial leadership, influenced by cultural values relates to the behaviours
that enable creativity and innovation
In both the cultural study of managerial leadership and the study of how managers
enable creativity and innovation there is a need to focus on behavioural theory to
move forward the understanding of managerial leadership phenomena. This research
study brings together the three theoretical fields, enabling creativity and innovation;
cultural specific study and the behavioural approach of managerial leadership. This
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fits alongside what researchers are calling for in order to extend knowledge and
understanding, connecting distinct and disparate fields and theories so that an
integrative approach to theory development emerges (Dinh et al. 2014).
To do this requires the utilisation of theory and a framework that can serve as both a
means to look at the way managers behave when enabling creativity and innovation
and that allows EMIC level insights of culture to be considered to examine how
managerial leadership is viewed. This requires selecting a developed behavioural
taxonomy that can be utilised as an artefact to extend the understanding of the
phenomena of enabling creativity and innovation and that can be utilised in
developing a culturally specific model of managerial leadership (Hilpinen 2011).
The framework selected for this study is the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in
Leadership (APEL) (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The APEL framework includes a
validated taxonomy of leadership behaviours that has categorised managerial
leadership behaviours into four categories that are reflective of the primary areas of
influence in an organisation on a manager. The model classifies behaviours into four
primary categories: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours, Organisational
Demand and Environmental Influence. The taxonomy is reflective of other
managerial leadership taxonomies, though behaviours associated with
change-oriented leadership are largely lacking in the APEL framework (Yukl 2012).
By utilising the four primary categories in the framework the managerial behaviours
that enable creativity and innovation in organisations will be explored in order to
develop a specific categorisation reflective of the areas of influence that managerial
behaviours have on enabling creativity and innovation.
The APEL framework was developed utilising the earlier mentioned implicit
leadership theory behaviour approach (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Validated across Asia,
the APEL model has been effective in providing insight into managerial leadership
profiles, preferences and styles across national cultures (de Waal et al. 2012;
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Selvarajah 2006, 2010; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d;
Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah,
Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011; Selvarajah et al. 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung 2010;
Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). The APEL framework
uses a form of cultural modelling that brings into consideration pre-existing cultural,
management and organisational studies of a given society and incorporates other
relevant literature to create a culturally specific perspective. This detailed
interpretation of culture is used in developing a culture-specific model that explores
the relationships between the categories of behaviours in the model and provides a
profile of what constitutes an excellent leader in the opinions of managers. This
approach will be applied to understanding how cultural specific managerial
leadership values relate to creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.
An examination of the taxonomy used in the APEL framework will be provided in
chapter 2 along with how it will be used as an artefact to explore managerial
behaviours that enable creativity and innovation. The cultural modelling approach is
presented in chapter 3, along with relevant insights into Australian cultural values
that shape managerial leadership in the country.
1.4 Research problem and research questions
The background provided in the last section, highlights the gaps that exist in literature
associated with understanding managerial leadership behaviours that enable creativity
and innovation, connecting these behaviours to views on excellence in managerial
leadership and providing further understanding of how managerial leadership and
enabling creativity and innovation relates to a national cultural context. The gaps in
the literature lead to four research questions to be addressed in this study:
1. What are the creativity and innovation enabling managerial behaviours that
influence managerial leadership excellence?
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2. How does Australian culture shape the perceptions of what constitutes
excellence in managerial leadership?
3. What is the relationship between managerial leadership values and creativity
and innovation enabling behaviours in Australia?
4. How do perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership differ between
groups of Australian managers?
This thesis develops a cultural model of excellence in managerial leadership as
perceived by Australian managers and relates this to what constitutes an excellent
leader. Along with this it will provide insight into how the components of excellence
in managerial leadership in Australia relate to enabling creativity and innovation
behaviours.
These innovation and creativity enabling behaviours are a significant group of
behaviours associated with leading change in organisations. To do this the APEL
framework is used as an artefact to categorise managerial behaviours that enable
creativity and innovation (Hilpinen 2011). This categorisation is used to develop and
test a new scale that has been added to the APEL framework. Consequently, the
model used in this study will be a measure of both excellence in managerial
leadership in Australia and also will provide an understanding of how excellence in
managerial leadership relates to enabling creativity and innovation. Validation of the
new categorisation and associated scale will increase understanding of excellence in
managerial leadership specific to Australia.
Exploring differences between different groups of managers in Australia will help
provide insights into understanding if perceptions of excellence in managerial
leadership are separate and distinct across different groups of managers or if a more
homogenous view on leadership exists.
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1.5 Justification of the research
The purpose of this research is to extend the body of knowledge in several academic
fields of study. Firstly it expands the understanding of specific managerial leadership
behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in organisations into a detailed
category associated with the change-oriented metacategory. The creativity and
innovation enabling behaviours have not yet been studied at the quantitative level and
have yet to be categorised reflective of all the areas that are influenced by managers
in organisations (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). Enabling creativity and innovation is
a critical component of change leadership and one that requires managerial leaders to
behave in a specific manner.
Enabling creativity and innovation involves all facets of an organisation; creating a
vision, correctly motivating and managing employees, completing the work required
and ensuring external influences on the organisational are recognised and considered
(Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Skogstad & Einarsen 1999; Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl,
Gordon & Taber 2002; Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). Specifically, one of the outcomes
from this study is to address the lack of understanding in the extant literature of how
different influences from managers can be considered to form a comprehensive
categorisation of enabling creativity and innovation in an organisation.
In determining an appropriate categorisation in which a manager operates and leads
an organisation it is important to consider the areas of influence that drive and impact
on their behaviour. In order to explore the behaviours that enable creativity and
innovation as a specific category of behaviours associated with the change-oriented
metacategory it requires that behaviours be identified and categorised in a manner
that is reflective of the primary areas of influence from a manager.
Research on managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling creativity and
innovation has progressed significantly. Currently the understandings of these
behaviours are being treated as another universally applicable approach and viewed in
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the same way across cultures. As a majority of the research in this area has been
occurring in Anglo based countries, the selection of Australia is logical as a first
nation for the consideration of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in a
quantitative study. The treatment of the behaviours as a universal category works
effectively in utilising the APEL taxonomy, as the four categories of behaviours in
the framework are also viewed as universally applicable to excellence in managerial
leadership. Given that the enabling behaviours themselves have only recently been
established there is little understanding if they are universal or if there are differences
in application in a particular culture. Once tested and validated the categorisation and
scale can be used in future studies in other nations.
From a cultural perspective, a managerial leadership study needs to bring in culturally
specific considerations in order to provide deeper and richer information on
management and organisations in that culture that take both an ETIC and EMIC
perspective (Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Leung 2009; Lu 2012). Australian
managerial leadership needs to be studied in greater detail to fully understand its
unique nature, as it is not an easily understood culture in which to lead (Ashkanasy
2007; Parry 1999). It has long been identified that managerial practices adopted from
the US and the UK are not effective solutions for Australian organisations
(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Parry 1996; Parry 1999;
Turnell & Washbourne 1991). By looking specifically at Australia, a culturally
relevant view of managerial leadership will be developed to better understand the
intricacies of management in the nation and allow a clearer understanding to emerge
of the enigmatic nature of Australian managerial leadership. This will be beneficial if
considered at an organisational and managerial level in order to enhance
performance, innovation and productivity and understand the relationship to
creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.
Connecting the two fields of managerial leadership study, culture and enabling
creativity and innovation is also important. Australia has been emphasising the need
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to enhance managerial capabilities for a number of years. Early assessments of
Australian managers were unflattering, referring to them as bureaucratic and lacking
in ability to lead (Byrt & Masters 1974; Frenkel & Manners 1980). It was asserted
from 1982 onwards that Australian managerial education had to be increased and
refocused in order to prepare for the challenges of leading organisations facing a
more global and open economy (Ralph 1982).
The Enterprising Nation study of Australian leadership in 1995, a massive study of
Australian managerial leadership, identified the challenges Australian managers
would face in the new millennium (Karpin 1995b). It provided a clear picture of
strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement for Australian managers. The study
resulted in a set of recommendations pertaining to training, engagement and
improvement. Although recommendations were not completely established in
government policy, they have largely been embraced by managers and educational
providers in order to improve the quality and capabilities of Australian managers.
Particular to the Karpin (1995b) study, were recommendations related to increasing
the ability of Australian managers to be more innovative, adaptive and to position
themselves to change organisations to reflect the global economic shifts that were
expected and largely have happened (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).
The understanding of how Australian perceptions of excellence in managerial
leadership are shaped along with the addition of change related behaviours to the
framework related to enabling creativity and innovation, will afford opportunities to
better understand ways in which management in Australia may have shifted in their
approach to leadership and to see what behaviours they are emphasising with respect
to enabling creativity and innovation. This study will be a first attempt to explore
how the behaviours that enable creativity and innovation are associated within the
context of excellence in managerial leadership of a nation. This will add a new
perspective to understanding the complexities associated with management in today’s
dynamic organisational environments for a culture.
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This study also addresses gaps in understanding if management in Australia differs
between groups of managers. A cross section of Australian managers has been
selected as a sample. Managers from across industry, states and managerial roles and
demographic variables such as gender, age and education are used to build an
Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile. By including managers from a
cross section of demographics and roles it will allow for examination of managerial
leadership and any differences that may emerge between these groups. This will
provide insight into if Australia has a singular view on leadership or if it varies
between groups.
The study utilises a quantitative approach to understanding the role that enabling
creativity and innovation behaviours play in relation to excellence in managerial
leadership. An expanded model and instrument are used that once tested and
validated will improve the ability of the APEL framework to explain managerial
leadership preferences across cultures. It will also add to the existing APEL
taxonomy behaviours associated with change leadership that it currently lacks, but
have been deemed a specific and important part of managerial leadership. This
extension allows for a better understanding of the role of creativity and innovation
enabling behaviours from a broader managerial perspective. This will have many
applications to theory building and to management in general, where leading change
effectively is a priority in almost every organisation.
1.6 Methodology
This research study is based on the positivist paradigm that utilises a quantitative
method to explore relationships between categories of managerial leadership
behaviours associated with excellence in managerial leadership. A new category and
scale are developed that utilises the APEL framework as an artefact to categorise
behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation.
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In utilising the APEL framework to include behaviours that enable creativity and
innovation it requires the establishment of a new category and an associated scale that
is based on theory. When selecting the best approach to take in looking at a new
category of behaviours the preferred academic method is to use existing models of
behaviours along with additional theory based constructs to increase the contexts in
which behaviours can be understood (Bryman 2012). In doing this a theoretically
sound categorisation and associated scale can be developed. Similarly in terms of
classifying the components of Australian managerial leadership it requires an
extensive review of the literature on Australian culture and management. This needs
to take into account ETIC level understandings as well as EMIC insights that shape
culture, values and attitudes in Australia.
Once understood and applied, behaviour-based culture specific managerial leadership
components can be hypothesised along with the associated relationships between the
independent and dependent variables. By examining the categories of behaviours and
the ensuing causal paths through a structural equation modelling approach, based on
path analysis, a quantitative methodology is appropriate (Creswell 2009).
An online survey will be used in order to quantitatively explore the importance of
managerial leadership behaviours among a sample of Australian managers that is
reflective of the population in a managerial role, as identified in the Census
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a; Collis & Hussey 2009). This is not a
representative sample, but rather a sample of practicing managers across known
demographic variables of the occupation population. A panel company provided the
sample of managers to be similar to the demographics of those in the managerial
occupation based on the 2006 Census, to ensure a broad selection of Australian
managers (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). In total 1,000 potential respondents
were identified for the project. After cleaning the data, a total sample of 690 quality
responses were collected, a response rate of 69%.
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Following the collection of the survey data, preliminary data analysis is completed.
This ensures all statistical assumptions are being met, that the data is coded correctly
and prepared for advanced analysis. In addressing the first research question, an
exploratory factor analysis is completed on a separate sample, followed by
confirmatory factor analysis. Research questions two and three use confirmatory
factor analysis to provide support for the hypothesised make up of components of
Australian excellence in managerial leadership. Confirmatory factor analysis is
carried out on the data to confirm the measurement models and ensure satisfactory
model fit.
Having established the measurement models structural equation modelling in AMOS
utilising path analysis is next conducted to determine the relationships between the
dependent and independent variables associated with excellence in managerial
leadership and enabling creativity and innovation. The final research question
involves invariance testing against demographic and managerial categories including:
age, gender, managerial role and education level to examine if managerial leadership
in Australia has a shared perspective or is different across groups of managers.
1.7 Thesis outline
The thesis is arranged into 8 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: The introduction includes a background to the research, identifying the
research problem and the research questions to be answered. A section justifying the
research is provided as well as an overview of the methodology and the analysis plan.
Chapter 2: The first literature review chapter provides an overview of managerial
leadership behavioural theories and the recognition of change leadership. The APEL
framework is explored against a leading taxonomy of managerial leadership
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behaviours in order to ensure it is a reasonable artefact to utilise in this research study
and acknowledge where it needs to be further developed. It is used as an artefact to
categorise behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in leading change.
Chapter 3: The second literature review chapter discusses the concept of national
culture and how it can be understood from an ETIC and EMIC perspective and
connects managerial leadership to national culture. Lastly, it investigates the
understanding of Australian culture and management that will serve as a foundation
upon which to build the Australian profile of managerial leadership under
investigation in this study.
Chapter 4: The Conceptual framework chapter provides the explanation of the model
and the application of the APEL framework in developing the Creativity and
Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) scale. It provides the hypothesised model of
Australian managerial leadership that will be tested along with the hypothesised
relationships.
Chapter 5: Research methodology is provided in this chapter. It explains the research
paradigm, and why a quantitative study was selected. A detailed review of the
research structure and analysis plan is included.
Chapter 6: The data collection process and preliminary analysis of the data is
provided in order to address the research objectives. Included is a review of the
demographics and managerial characteristics of the sample collected. Exploratory
Factor analysis is conducted across the hypothesised components to provide
verification they are present and on a separate sample to provide an initial validation
of the newly established scale, as a first step in answering research question one.
Chapter 7: The primary data analysis chapter provides the statistical analysis steps
taken in order to answer the research questions and associated hypotheses. It begins
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with confirmatory factor analysis being conducted to answer research questions one
and two. This is followed by path analysis in order to answer research questions two
and three. Lastly the invariance testing across groups of managers is completed to
answer research question four.
Chapter 8: Discussion and findings chapter is last and the results of the study are
discussed and presented. A review of the contribution to theory is provided along
with managerial implications. This chapter concludes by stating the limitations of the
research and the presentation of future research to address the limitations and further
opportunities.
1.8 Chapter summary
This chapter provided the foundation for the research study. The background and
reasons for this exploratory study were presented. Managerial Leadership has long
been understood to be influenced by cultural values of a country, explained through
implicit leadership theory. Management is also constantly evolving and today’s
managerial leaders must focus energy on leading change, which can partially be done
through behaviours that enable creativity and innovation in individuals, departments
and the organisation.
The research was justified and the planned methodology presented. Australia was
selected as a country to base this research study in as it requires a unique managerial
leadership style. As a nation it has also identified a need for managers to increase
efforts towards ensuring change and innovation are occurring to remain competitive.
The methodology involves the use of the APEL framework in developing a new
category of managerial behaviours that specifically enable creativity and innovation.
A cultural model of Australian managerial leadership is hypothesised. Relationships
are tested in order to determine what constitutes managerial perceptions of excellence
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in leadership in Australia and how these relate to enabling creativity and innovation
through a survey and statistical methods.
An outline of the thesis concluded the chapter. In the next chapter the literature
review of managerial leadership behaviours is presented leading to an explanation of
how managers enable creativity and innovation through their behaviours.
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2. Literature review: Change leadership and enabling creativity and innovation
2.1 Chapter introduction
The study of managerial leadership has been of particular interest in the fields of
management and cross-cultural study. This chapter begins with an overview of
behavioural managerial leadership research progression from its inception to the
identification of the change leadership metacategory and since. It is followed by a
synopsis of where the change leadership metacategory fits into the hierarchical
taxonomy of leadership behaviour that also includes task, relationship and external
metacategories. The hierarchical taxonomy is than looked at in comparison with the
APEL framework, which is being used as an artefact in order to explain change
leadership behaviours practiced by managers that enable creativity and innovation in
organisations. Figure 2-1 provides an overview for the chapter.
Figure 2-1: Chapter overview
An overview of the development of how change leadership fits into various
leadership theories will be presented and an overview of one of the key aspects of
change leadership, behaviours that enable creativity and innovation will be presented
in the context of the four categories of behaviours found in the APEL framework.
Change Leadership and Enabling Creativity and Innovation
Behavioural Leadership Theories: Task & Relationship
Leadership Behaviour Taxonomies & Change Leadership
Views of Change Leadership in Leadership thoeries
Enabling Creativity and Innovation Behaviours
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2.2 Behavioural leadership theory
Behavioural leadership theories have traditionally been based on two metacategories
of behaviours: relationship (consideration) and task (initiating structures) (Bass,
2008; Yukl, 2010). Ground breaking leadership studies at two U.S. Universities in the
1940s through to the 60s identified the behavioural metacategories. The studies,
categorised under numerous names, sometimes referred to as a style or a skill, looked
at what leaders were doing and how they acted, as opposed to personality traits (Bass
2008; Northouse 2012). Behavioural research focus can be traced back to World War
Two when US Military officials identified studying behaviours as key to
understanding leadership (Nahavandi, 2009). Once the behaviours were identified,
training could be implemented to develop or enhance leadership behaviour.
The Ohio and Michigan State studies were initially built on subordinates’ opinions of
their manager’s behaviours and later extended to managers opinions of themselves
(Fleishman 1953, 1957; Halpin & Winer 1957; Likert 1967). The consideration or
relationship category relates to people oriented behaviours reflecting personal
concern for subordinates. The initiating structure or task category on the other hand is
focused on the needs of the organisation and is more performance or work oriented.
These two metacategories were the primary groupings upon which behaviours were
categorised in leadership studies for over 40 years. Many names have been used for
the task and people related metacategories. In order to avoid confusion they are
referred to as the task metacategory (behaviours associated with work, organisational
activities and productivity) and relationship metacategory (behaviours associated with
people and relationships), illustrated in Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2: Leadership behaviours - two metacategories
Leadership Behaviours
Task Behaviours Relationship Behaviours
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Managerial leaders choose to emphasise behaviours that are either task or relationship
oriented based on personal preferences and situational factors. The relevancy of this
to understanding managerial leadership from a cultural context is that managers
behave to reflect the societal culture, referred to as implicit leadership theory. Implicit
leadership theory involves a manager taking into account the preferences and values
of the societal culture to determine how to act (Lord & Maher 1993). National culture
has been considered one of the major influences on the behavioural preferences of
managerial leaders, and culture has been identified as a major influence that could be
considered when examining management in a given nation (Bass 2008; Jackson &
Parry 2011).
There have been numerous cultural studies that have examined managerial leadership
using the behavioural approach. The principle areas looked at, as noted by House and
Aditya (1997), are the task and relationship oriented metacategories. The studies have
found that there are differences between preferences and how the behaviours are
actioned in different countries (Dorfman 1996). However, no clear difference has
emerged that can be used to separate countries in all studies. This indicates that the
examination of managerial leadership behaviours will need to look to culture to better
understand how it influences leadership choices of managers.
A further connection between country culture and the behavioural approach is that the
metacategory concept is universal across cultures. As noted the two metacategory
approach was originally established in the United States, but it has been applied
across different cultures in unique ways. This is illustrated by two of the most
well-known Asian leadership theories Misumi’s (1995) Performance–Maintenance
theory and Sinha’s (1980) Nurturant-Task Oriented theory (Singh 1987). In both
instances unique preferences towards the different metacategories emerge for
managers in different organisations and when dealing with different subordinates.
From this it is clear to see that a simple categorisation of being task or relationship
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oriented may be universal, but is insufficient to fully explain leadership in a given
culture.
A third Asian managerial leadership behavioural taxonomy that was developed was
the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership model (Selvarajah et al. 1995).
This model developed by taking into account both eastern and western research and
understandings of leadership and management and examining and categorising
behaviours from a unique perspective reflective of the areas of influence on a
manager (Selvarajah et al. 1995). As opposed to two metacategories, the framework
looks at four metacategories. This framework will be explained in greater detail in
this chapter as it serves as the model being utilised in this study.
2.3 Change leadership – A third metacategory
While the traditional task and relationship metacategories continue to be researched
and applied, other researchers sought to expand the taxonomy of leadership
behaviours to be more comprehensive. This process began with the identification of
the importance of behaviours associated with leading change. Change-related
behaviours are those that involve visioning, scanning the environment, taking risks,
and being creative and innovative (Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 1999; Yukl 2012;
Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). They are directly related to managers moving an
organisation forward through adaptation and change. Illustrated in Figure 2-3, the
third metacategory sits between the existing categories, as leading change utilizes
specific behaviours and requires task and relationship behaviours to be successful.
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Figure 2-3: Leadership behaviours – three metacategories
Adapted from Ekvall & Arvonen (1991)
Managers chose their emphasis dependent upon their own personal preferences, the
organisational objectives and other contextual factors, including culture.
Identification of the change leadership metacategory 2.3.1
First identified in the 1990s, the change leadership metacategory was identified when
research shifted to specifically look at the reality of change faced by organisations,
which led to the realisation that the response to change had become a key aspect of
management roles. The reasons as to why it took so long for the change metacategory
to be recognised, according to Ekvall and Arvonen (1991), are three fold. Firstly,
earlier studies were focused on organisations where change was not a principle
strategic consideration, such as bureaucratic organisations and the military. Secondly,
the changing macro-environment in which organisations exist was evolving. Lastly,
earlier studies respondents were more likely practitioners of transactional leadership
(Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Kotter 1990). Taken together, these reasons highlight that
managerial leadership research had not actively engaged in looking beyond the two
metacategories and ignored the paradigm shift towards leading change (Yukl, Gordon
& Taber 2002).
Leadership Behaviours
Task BehavioursChange Related Behaviours
Relationship Behaviours
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2.4 From Three Metacategories to Four
Yukl (2012) revisited the various work done on behavioural taxonomies and added a
forth metacategory to the three metacategory model, External. Together the four
metacategories are represented by 15 specific components. These are detailed in the
first two columns of Table 2-1. The four metacategories are based on accomplishing a
primary objective related to the behaviours of managers. The components for each
category are groupings of behaviours that will lead to the accomplishment of a
primary objective and will influence the ability to achieve the other objectives.
Table 2-1: Yukl’s hierarchical taxonomy and APEL categories
Adapted from Yukl (2012)
Hierarchical Taxonomy APELBehavioural Components Categories
Clarifying Managerial BehavioursManagerial BehavioursOrganisational DemandManagerial Behaviour
Organisational DemandProblem Solving Managerial Behaviour
Supporting Personal QualitiesDeveloping Personal Qualities
Personal QualitiesManagerial Behaviours
Personal QualitiesManagerial Behaviours
Advocating change AbsentPartially Absent
Organisational DemandEncouraging innovation Absent
Facilitating collective learning AbsentEnvironmental InfluenceOrganisational Demand
External Monitoring Environmental InfluenceEnvironmental InfluenceOrganisational Demand
Change-orientedEnvisioning change
External
Networking
Representing
Leadership Metacategory
Task-orientedPlanning
Monitoring
Relations-oriented Recognizing
Empowering
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Task-oriented relates to the completion of required work in a consistent and effective
manner. Relationship-oriented focuses on establishing and building relationships
leading to positive attitudes in organisational members. The change-oriented
metacateogy are focused on changing people and the organisation to increase
innovation and adapt to the shifting environment. The External metacategory is about
engaging with the outside environment to develop the organisation and ensure that it
is connected to the right channels. The four metacategory model is illustrated in
Figure 2.4.
Figure 2-4: Leadership behaviours – four metacategories
Adapted from Yukl (2012)
Yukl’s (2012) categorisation was initially developed by Yukl, Gordon and Taber
(2002) when the Change-oriented metacategory was added along with the two
previously established metacategories of leadership behaviours validated through a
variety of measurement tools including the Leadership Behaviour Development
Questionnaire (LBDQ-12); Leader Observation Scale (LOS); the Managerial
Behaviour Survey (MBS); Managerial Practice Survey (MPS); Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ); the Survey of Management Practices (SMP);
Transformational Leadership Inventory (TLI); the Conger-Kanungo Leadership Scale
(C-K Scale); and the Multifactor Leadership Inventory (MLI) (Bass & Avolio 2004;
Castro & Schriesheim 1999; Conger & Kanungo 1998; Kouzes 1995; Luthans &
Leadership Behaviours
Task Oriented
Relationship Oriented
Change Oriented
External
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Lockwood 1984; Podsakoff et al. 1990; Stogdill, Goode & Day 1962; Wilson, O'Hare
& Shipper 1990; Yukl & Lepsinger 1990; Yukl & Nemeroff 1979).
2.5 Relationship between Yukl’s Hierarchical Taxonomy and the APEL framework
The APEL framework has been selected in this study for three purposes, firstly to
serve as an artefact upon which to categorise behaviours that have been shown to
enable creativity and innovation. Secondly, to include in the APEL framework
behaviours associated with the change-oriented leadership metacategory that the
taxonomy is currently lacking. Thirdly, to allow for cultural modelling to establish a
culture specific managerial leadership profile in Australia.
In selecting the APEL framework it is important to examine the relevance and
feasibility to utilise the taxonomy in comparison with the hierarchical taxonomy of
leadership behaviours. Developed by Yukl (2012) the taxonomy is one of the
prominent leadership behaviour taxonomies, as discussed earlier. Comparing these
will determine if the APEL framework should be utilised.
APEL Framework Development 2.5.1
Beginning development in 1995, the Asian Perspectives of Excellence in Leadership
(APEL) model was developed by Selvarajah et al. (1995) to understand what is
perceived as excellence in managerial leadership across Asia. Originally named after,
the ASEAN nations, the model’s name was altered to Asian as it was extended across
Asia. The APEL model explores a country’s managerial preferences based on how
much importance managers’ place on value statements framed as “to be an excellent
leader in their organisation” reflecting cultural, organisational and managerial
preferences. It categorises managerial leadership behaviours into four dimensions:
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personal qualities, managerial behaviour, organisational demands and environmental
influences, illustrated in Figure 2-5 (Selvarajah et al. 1995).
The model’s categories, as developed, took into account literature from both Eastern
and Western perspectives. Behaviours known to be important to management and
leadership were compiled by researchers from six ASEAN nations to ensure the
dimension categories were reflecting the existing literature and the understanding of
managerial leadership in their respective nations. Rather than look at categorising the
behaviours under an existing theory, the researchers looked at the behaviours from
the perspective of areas of influence on managers in organisations. This approach
expanded on the two metacategory approach to identify four categories that reflect
the primary influences and consideration in how a manager choses to behave. The
four categories and the excellent leader category are explained in Table 2-2.
Figure 2-5: Asian perspectives of excellence in leadership framework
Source: Selvarajah et al. (1995).
Perceptions of Excellence in Leadership
Perspectives of an Excellent Leader
Environmental
Influence
Personal
Qualities
Managerial
Behaviours
Organisational
Demand
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Table 2-2: APEL categories
Adapted from Selvarajah et al. (1995)
The selection of these four categories has proved to work effectively in measuring
managerial leadership in both cross-cultural studies and in country specific cases (de
Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d;
Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah
et al. 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Shrivastava et al. 2013; Taormina &
Selvarajah 2005). The fifth category, excellent leader, is made up of the highest
ranking behaviours in the framework reflecting a universal leadership category.
The framework has been examined against the traditional western two metacategory
model as well as categories of leadership identified in Asia, particularly China
(Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). In order to compare these theoretical concepts against
the APEL framework an exploratory study was conducted that found both a
connection to the relationship metacategory, associated with components named
“consideration for others” and “trust in others”. Similarly it found connection to the
task metacategory associated with a measure of “strategic thinking”. Additionally, it
found connection to an Asian-specific category, “progressive stability”, reflecting a
APEL Category Definition
Personal QualitiesPersonal values, skills, attitudes and qualities of an individual. It emphasises morality, religion, inter-personal relationships and communication
Managerial Behaviours
The values, attitudes, actions and styles necessary when performing managerial duties and team/department management. It emphasises persuasive powers, managerial expertise, team management and decision making practices
Organisational DemandThe way a manager responds to the goals, objectives, structures and issues in an organisation. It emphasises the importance of organisational prosperity, organisational values and context
Environmental Influence
The external factors that influence the success of the entire organisation. It emphasises the importance of scanning and evaluating the external environment for opportunities and ensuring environmental realities are brought into the organisation
Excellent LeaderBehaviours that have been found to reflect the highest order behaviours expected of outstanding leaders in a society
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paradoxical view where managers act in both an open-minded and consistent manner
when leading. This reflects the unique nature of leadership in Asia that views
leadership from a more holistic and dichotomous approach and has been identified in
numerous nations including China, India and Thailand (Bala, Chalil & Gupta 2012;
Fang 2012; Hofstede & Bond 1988; King & Wei 2014; Leung 2009; Lu 2012;
Wenquan, Chia & Liluo 2000).
The APEL framework shares a significant overlap with Yukl’s (2012) hierarchical
taxonomy of leadership behaviours, though it is based upon a different approach to
categorise behaviours and metacategories. While the hierarchical taxonomy’s
metacategories are based on the behaviours’ primary objective; the APEL model
categorised behaviours from the primary area of influence when utilised by a
manager leading an organisation (Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina & Selvarajah
2005). As detailed in Table 2-1, comparing the two taxonomies, one finds significant
overlap and only slight deviations between the two, indicating that both are relatively
consistent in being able to serve as a model upon which to look at managerial
leadership behaviours.
The APEL behavioural categories compared with the categorised components found
in Yukl’s (2012) hierarchy identified with slightly different metacategories. Largely
due to where and how it was developed, reflecting a different perspective on
categorising behaviours. The theoretical foundation upon which the hierarchical
taxonomy is based is a western understandings of managerial leadership and can be
viewed as a comprehensive understanding of behaviours of managers. Similarly the
APEL framework, as earlier established, has been built and established through
extensive literature review of Asian and western leadership theories, the expert
opinions of informed multi-country researchers, testing and comparison with
understandings of leadership in Asia and the west (Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina
& Selvarajah 2005).
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Interestingly, when the APEL framework was established it included a category
related to Environmental Influence that was not initially considered as its own
category by Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002). However upon further reflection and
development, Yukl (2012) separated environmental related managerial behaviours
into a similar metacategory named External. Additionally, the APEL behavioural
framework was developed in Asia, based upon the opinions of practicing Asian
managers and there are some different interpretations of specific managerial
leadership behaviours, which appear as overlapping when examining Table 2-1.
These differences aside, the two models share significant overlap with the exception
of the missing components in the APEL model associated with Yukl’s (2012)
change-oriented metacategory. The lack of presence of these behaviours in the APEL
model, could be a reflection of when and where it was developed, however in order
for it to be considered as a comprehensive taxonomy it should be extended to take
into account behaviours associated with the change-oreitend metacategory. Given the
established importance of change-oriented leadership in organisations and the
recognition of its theoretical foundation, the extension of these behaviours into the
APEL model is essential for it to be considered a more comprehensive taxonomy
reflective of what is known about managerial leadership behaviours. Addressing this
gap that exists in the APEL framework will ensure that it is reflective of established
understanding of metacategories and make it a more useful framework in continuing
use in academic studies.
Having established the relevance of the APEL framework as a comprehensive
taxonomy and identifying where it is in need of further development, it is important
to understand where and how exactly change leadership is defined in other theories.
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2.6 Change leadership behaviour theories
Change-oriented leadership research highlights the dynamic nature of management
and how it shifts as situations, conditions and stakeholders are considered in the face
of change. Understanding the change-oriented approach to organisational dynamics
that managers deal with illustrates change leadership as a fundamental context for
managers to operate in. It has been identified that there needs to be greater
understanding of how managerial leaders effectively lead change. In discussing his
revised Path-Goal leadership theory, House (1996) identifies that ‘leadership for
change’ is a significant factor that needs further investigation. He notes his Path-Goal
theory does not address it and that a better understanding of leaders in that process
needs to be researched.
In Sweden, the first specific change-related study was reported by and earlier
discussed by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991). They developed broad behavioural
categories from three metacategories to identify the different behaviours present. In
the change-centred leadership dimension four sub-domains for managers were
included: (1) promoter of change and growth; (2) creative attitude; (3) risk taker; and
(4) visionary qualities. The study found connection to transformational leadership as
only a partial explanation of leading change. Change leadership also needs to be
focused on the organisation and associated work. Further research was identified as
needed to better understand change leadership across roles, gender, cultures and
industry. That study resulted in a change-related model being developed known as
CPE, referring to Change-centred, Production-centred and Employee-centred as the
metacategories managers operate in. This model has been successfully used to better
understand managerial behaviours across numerous fields including business,
nursing, religious leaders and across cultures (Andersen 2000; Arvonen & Ekvall
1999; Rasulzada & Dackert 2009; Sellgren, Ekvall & Tomson 2006; Skogstad &
Einarsen 1999; Zampieron et al. 2013).
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A second significant study to identify change-related behaviours as a metacategory
resulted in the development of the Task Relations Change (TRC) model (Yukl 1999).
The change category in the TRC model included behaviours related to promoting
innovation and creativity, monitoring of the external environment and creating a clear
forward-oriented vision for the organisation. The TRC model went through factor
analysis and the separate change-related category was supported as used by
managers.
The TRC model was later utilised to develop the previously discussed hierarchical
taxonomy of leadership behaviours that again found support for the three
metacategories over the previously established two metacategories (Yukl, Gordon &
Taber 2002). In the expanded and most recent hierarchy developed by Yukl (2012)
the Change-oriented metacategory includes behaviours associated with advocating
change, envisioning change, encouraging innovation and facilitating collective
learning.
The establishment of the TRC and CPE models and the associated empirical evidence
demonstrates the necessity of inclusion of change based behaviours in behavioural
leadership theories. In analysing the results of these studies it is clear that managers
must operate within the different metacategories all the time due to the dynamic
nature of managerial leadership (Yukl 2012). Depending on the situation a manager
may utilise behaviours that initiate from a single metacategory however, it is likely to
influence or directly impact behaviours associated with the other metacategories
(Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). It is the situational and cultural factors that will
require managers to adjust behaviours between metacategories. The adjustments
result in a dynamic form of managerial leadership that has mostly been categorised as
flexible, adaptive or complex.
The multitude of models utilising various behaviours has also created a challenge
with respect to understanding categorised behaviours (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
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Differences in names, categorisations and definitions have created a complicated field
in which to study managerial behaviours in regards to the two metacategory context.
Adding the third and fourth metacategory creates more complication. This suggests
that examining managerial leadership behaviours in different approaches will provide
greater insights and understanding in order to enhance theoretical understanding.
To understand change leadership requires connection to areas of study of leadership
including transformational leadership, leader member exchange theory and
contingency theories to explain the interaction of the metacategories. Most
contingency theories categorised managers into the two original metacategories.
Task-motivated leaders were ones that were focused on completion of activities or
duties (Fiedler 1979). Relationship-motivated leaders were ones that focused on
personal relationships and establishing and maintaining them. There have been
numerous theories proposed and developed relating to managers acting to achieve
change and be more flexible or dynamic in their behaviours. A brief overview of the
different theories follows looking at transformational leadership and leader-member
exchange theory followed by models that incorporate the change metacategory.
Transformational leadership 2.6.1
Identifying transformational leadership may be viewed as a first step in the
development of the change metacategory. Behavioural studies began to move beyond
the relationship-task dichotomy with the recognition of behaviours associated with
inspiration, vision, strategy and engagement that push people and organisations into
new directions. The division of leadership as either transactional or transformational
was first formally studied in the 1970s. According to Burn’s (1978) work, two
leadership types were used, transactional leadership and transformational leadership.
Transactional leadership is foundationally set with the guiding principle that people
work for reward: pay, salary, bonuses or promotions. Transformational leadership on
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the other hand is about empowering, inspiring and invigorating both subordinates and
oneself to achieve more.
Bass (1985a) extended the work of Burns (1978) to further develop and refine the
concept of transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership has
three primary characteristics: (1) contingent reward where the manager recognises
and gives rewards for good performance; (2) management by exception, which can be
either active or passive, where the maanger responds to deviations in behaviour or
standards and acts to correct them; lastly (3) laissez-faire behaviour where the
manager avoids decision making (Bass 1990b). Transformational leadership on the
other hand has four identified characteristics: (1) charismatic leadership, refers to the
ability of the manager to share vision and gain subordinate support through respect,
trust and pride; (2) inspiration, where the manager motivates others through challenge
and commitment; (3) intellectual stimulation, allowing subordinates to be engaged,
creative, and solve problems; and (4) individualised consideration, where coaching
and supportive guidance is provided by the manager individually to subordinates.
From the transactional/transformational perspectives discussed above, it is clear that
transformational leadership is more in alignment with the relationship and change
metacategories and transactional leadership is more in line with the task
metacategory.
A closely related theory to transformational leadership is the theory of charismatic
leadership, first developed by House (1976). The theory aligns with the heroic
leadership style proposed by Burns (1978). Charismatic leaders are able to influence
and engage others through their personality and behaviours resulting in a strong
commitment and belief in the manager. The behaviours of charismatic leaders
translate into: acting as a role model reflecting the behaviours they want followers to
have; proficiency in their activities; clear communication of goals and ethics;
showing confidence in their subordinates; and lastly establishing in subordinates a
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desire to work (House 1976). The result of these behaviours includes trust, emotional
connection, confidence and unwavering support towards the manager.
The preferred leadership type is dependent upon the situation explained with Bass’s
(1985a) full range of leadership model. This approach identifies managers using both
transactional and transformational leadership to lead effectively (Avolio, Bass & Jung
1999). As the various leadership styles are applied each positively impacts on
subordinates, dependent on the situation.
In terms of all the leadership theories, transformational leadership, in its various
forms is largely universally identified as positive across cultures (Den Hartog et al.
1999). The identified recognition of transformational leadership, as a leadership
universal, with specific outcomes related to employee engagement, organisational
change and innovative results. These connect and go beyond the traditional two
metacategory view of leadership. Transformational leadership serves as a core
component of changing an organisation.
The connection between transformational leadership and the change related
metacategory has been made, where transformational leadership includes aspects of
leading change that are about inspiring others to change. However, transformational
leadership does not address all of the change-related behaviours. In the Ekvall and
Arvonen (1991) study, both transactional leadership and transformational leadership
were identified as being important, but do not completely explain efforts to enable
change. The focus of transformational leadership based on vision related items
detracted managerial efforts away from developing new work and organisation
practices. A wider shift in focus, beyond simply being transformational, was required
to support change and innovation. Managing people and processes and the competing
organisational objectives showcase the challenges in attempting to analyse
managerial leadership when tied to only a single universal like transformational
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leadership. To change an organisation a wider range of managerial behaviours are
required.
Leader-member exchange theory 2.6.2
The connection between transactional leadership and the task metacategory has been
explained and is easily illustrated by earlier stated definitions (Bass 1990b; Burns
1978). A manager knows the organisational goals and uses task related
behaviours to complete required work, meet deadlines and gain subordinate support.
The impact of using transformational leadership to connect subordinates to the
organisational objectives and required work was explained and can be demonstrated
through Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, where a strong relationship leads
to the ability to apply transformational tactics (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995). Vertical
Dyad Linkage was first proposed by Dansereau, Graen and Haga (1975), now known
as LMX theory, refers to the vertical relationships that a manager forms with their
various followers (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995).
The theory explains that the leader-follower relationship goes through three stages:
stranger, acquaintance and partner (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995). The first stage being a
transactional or needs exchange relationship; the second stage has a relationship
existing with trust and a higher level of commitment; in the final stage, the manager
and subordinate are analogous in their commitment to goals of the organisation. At
this third stage maximum benefit of the relationship is achieved. The theory’s
application has been shown to result in practical organisational benefits such as
higher retention rates, a more satisfied workforce, greater commitment to goals and
ability to self-initiate work (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Northouse 2012; Yukl 2010).
From a cultural perspective the theory is viewed as being universal across cultures
(Graen 2006). Graen worked alongside Wakabayashi in Japan and found that the
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LMX theory is applicable there (Graen et al. 1990). The theory was also looked at in
China and found that positive LMX increases organisational citizenship behaviour
and reduces negativity towards the workplace (Chi 1997; Hui & Graen 1997). With
these examples, cultural context needs to be understood in terms of the right approach
to build relationships and to explain relationships. There needs to be a firm
understanding of the national culture before a relationship type can be fully discerned
and understood.
Heifetz’s adaptive leadership 2.6.3
Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive leadership theory frames leadership as being either
technical or adaptive and can be looked at from the two metacategory perspective.
Managers, like subordinates, tend to strive for solving technical problems and
challenges as opposed to looking for truly adaptive means to address challenges.
Technical problems do not require anything new to solve a problem. While a solution
may be new, the means of solving the problem are not and management in these cases
is more in line with transactional leadership or the task metacategory. When learning
is required it moves managers to a state of adaptation. Adaptation involves change
and people tend to oppose change largely out of a fear of loss (Heifetz, Grashow &
Linsky 2009). It is fear of loss that leads to failure and resistance that creates a
necessity for managers being adaptive and operating in the relationship metacategory.
Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive leadership is summarised as a process of assessing the
situation, managing it to provide context for subordinates to counter feelings of loss
moving towards positive change (Heifetz, Grashow & Linsky 2009). This is
particularly reflective of organisations engaged in innovation efforts that shift
practices, policies, and organisational culture. An adaptive leader pushes to have
those involved accept loss. The manager walks a fine line between pushing
subordinates to the edge and keeping them motivated and accepting. From the
technical position of task oriented and transactional leadership, change is a catalyst to
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act as a transformational leader and go beyond technical management to manage the
change process.
Bass (2008, p. 17) sums it up as “the activity of mobilising a social system to face
challenges, clarify aspirations and adapt challenges faced”. In adaptive leadership, the
role of the manager is one that involves developing and implementing new solutions.
As well as managing the relationship with co-workers to deal with uncertainty and
insecurity. Both are required to generate creative and innovative solutions (George &
Jing 2007; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney 2008). This two dimensional model
emphasises that creative and change-related developments would be more effective
under the adaptive style.
Versatile leadership 2.6.4
Kaplan and Keiser (2003) developed a model of versatile leadership with a
dichotomy between opposing strengths of people and task. Managers must place the
right balance between the two in order to be most effective. They identify only one in
five managers qualify as versatile, meaning they focus on one area too much as
opposed to finding the right mix. As an example, a manager may be providing
encouragement and freedom, but in so doing fails to enforce necessary deadlines or
correct unsatisfactory performance. Managers think they do balance correctly, but as
the research shows subordinates identify this is not the case.
The behaviours identified in the change related metacategory fit alongside versatile
leadership as illustrated by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) who graphically positioned
the change-related metacategory directly in the middle between the other two
metacategories as illustrated in Figure 2-3. Versatile leadership as proposed exists in
a similar space as the change-related metacategory, with people and task categories
needing to be adapted continually to maintain the right balance (Kaplan & Kaiser
2003). Versatile leadership however, does not separate out change leadership.
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Model of flexible leadership 2.6.5
Yukl and Lepsinger (2004) developed a model of flexible leadership that is similar in
nature to the above theories, but expands the model to include all three
metacategories. The model is centred on organisational effectiveness, with three
primary components: (1) efficiency and reliability in activities and processes; (2)
adaptation to changes in the external environment and need to innovate; and (3)
strong human resource practices and policies. The behaviours identified in the three
components, reflect three metacategories of behaviours (task, change and relationship
respectively) as identified by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) and Yukl (1999). Each of
the three flexible leadership components work together and when applied in the right
context, will position an organisation to change.
The flexible leadership model identifies organisations as dynamic needing an
environment that can lead to creativity, innovation and change. Woodman (2008)
identified that change, innovation and creativity are interconnected and build out of
one another, with creativity being the initial building block, leading towards
innovation, which moves on to change.
Complexity leadership theory 2.6.6
Complexity leadership theory relates to the work of Heifetz’s (1994) adaptive
leadership, where leadership is viewed as a complex system that is “emergent,
interactive and dynamic” (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007, p. 299). The
complexity leadership theory notes that prominent leadership theories are focused at
achieving goals, creating visions and soliciting commitment to said goals (Bass
1990b; House 1996; Yukl 1989). The core proposition for the theory states: “Much of
leadership thinking has failed to recognise that leadership is not merely the influential
act of an individual or individuals but rather is imbedded in a complex interplay of
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numerous interacting forces” (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007, p. 302). This
theory is more than a behavioural or contingency theory and is designed to illustrate
leadership as a central aspect of organisations engaged in dynamic activities
constantly shifting (Uhl-Bien & Marion 2009).
The principle behind the theory is the idea that organisations operate in a complex
adaptive system (CAS). The participants, both subordinates and managers learn from
one another and build shared models of how to function within the organisation and
the external environment resulting in the CAS (Marion & Uhl-Bien 2001). The CAS
involves numerous individuals that interact in the system itself (Cilliers 1998).
Innovation and creativity are two aspects related to change and organisational
development in the model.
The theory utilises three leadership functions: adaptive, administrative and enabling
(Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey 2007). Adaptive leadership involves people and the
ideas and knowledge they possess. Through the interaction of the differing
perspectives it can lead to an agreement on direction or position, referred to as
asymmetric interaction. This is of particular importance for creativity, innovation and
change in organisations as the ‘expert conflict’ results in agreement on changing the
system. Administrative leadership is much more focused on the traditional views of
what managers do, using authority to assist in creative, learning and adapting efforts.
Failure to do this will lead to barriers to change. It involves a level of authority that
creates pressure to accomplish goals, meet deadlines and prepare people for change.
Enabling leadership is the third leadership function, creating the environment,
encouragement and conditions for adaptive leadership to push for change and
innovation. The enabling function does this through fostering interaction, developing
interdependency and managing tension that allows for the identified outcomes to
occur. The three functions together create the environment for change and innovation
to emerge. Together these three types of leadership coexist and make considerable
sense in context of what it takes to enable change.
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Change leadership summary 2.6.7
For organisations, complexity is the norm. This complexity requires more than the
relationship and task metacategories, but also the third (change leadership) and fourth
(external) behavioural metacategories to allow organisations to function at high levels
of performance. As demonstrated, through the various theories discussed, all the
metacategories work together to create the behaviours managers use to effectively
lead. Selecting which behaviours and what to emphasise must take into account a
large contingency variable, that of culture. Depending on the values, expectations and
realities in a given culture the behaviours emphasised and utilised will shift in
importance.
The identification of the change-oriented metacategory, along with the number of
theories highlighting flexible and adaptive leadership, reflects the reality of
managerial leaders needing to focus on leading change. The fourth metacategory,
External or Environmental Influence is required as managers need to be prepared to
work with and understand the uncertain environments they operate in (Selvarajah et
al. 1995; Yukl 2012). Understanding how managers select their behaviour needs to be
better understood to determine the metacategories that they prefer to operate in. This
requires that managerial leadership behaviours be considered against the primary
contexts of who and what they are influenced by and influencing. The APEL model
serves as an appropriate model to consider when examining this.
2.7 Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours
Yukl and Lepsinger (2004) identified the challenge of categorising individual
behaviours into a single category. What may be deemed a task-oriented behaviour
will also have implications on relationships, as well as on change efforts. However,
efforts should be made to identify specific behaviours when possible and categorise
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the behaviours correctly. Behaviours focused on change are needed to position the
organisation to a change-enabling environment, generate innovative solutions and
stimulate subordinates. In selecting behaviours to add into a model of managerial
leadership behaviours it is best to focus on a specific aspect related to change which
has been clearly identified and where sufficient research to determine the specific
behaviours has been developed.
The behaviours that enable creativity and innovation is an appropriate concept to
build further research studies around as these behaviours are known, well researched
and distinct. Discussed in the sections below, these behaviours will be specifically
categorised and extend on the classification of behaviours used in the APEL
framework.
At the heart of change in organisations is innovation and creativity (Woodman 2008).
Organisations commit to change through development of innovations, whether that be
new products, ideas or processes, all of which require creativity. The foundational
research on creativity and innovation behaviours in organisations primarily began
occurring with Amabile’s (1988) componential model of creativity which identified
the process under which individuals are creative in organisations. Damanpour’s
(1991) meta-analysis of the determinants and moderators of organisational innovation
found primary influence from individuals, organisational factors, and the
environment. The theory of organisational creativity identified a theoretical
framework where creativity occurs through individuals, groups and organisations
(Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). Scott and Bruce’s (1994) path model of
individual innovation in the workplace looked towards identifying how individuals
innovate. These early studies form much of the underpinning of what is understood
about how innovation and creativity occur in organisations. From the above
mentioned research, the enacting of specific managerial leadership behaviours should
result in a significant increase in creativity and innovation outcomes in organisations.
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Research on behaviours that enable creativity and innovation have advanced and a
synopsis was compiled by Mumford et al. (2002) that provided a comprehensive
review of the literature and research at that time. Over the 2000s more research
around leading creativity and innovation efforts in organisations has occured. This
research will be presented to provide a foundation on which to construct an
understanding of how managerial leaders enable creativity and innovation (Mumford
2003; Mumford & Licuanan 2004).
These enabling creativity and innovation behaviours can be categorised against the
primary spheres of influence on a manager’s behaviours found in the APEL
framework; at the organisational level, the managerial level, the personal level and
influence from the external environment (Selvarajah et al. 1995). This breakdown of
areas of influence mirrors the categories found in the APEL model that is used in this
study. As an artefact it should work effectively to categorise behaviours in a clear
manner (Hilpinen 2011).
Much of the research in this domain remains dispersed across various fields such as
organisational behaviour, leadership psychology, innovation management and
managerial research. This creates a gap in understanding all the behaviours that
managers can use to enable creativity and innovation. It is necessary to compile these
behaviours so that they reflect personal qualities, managerial behaviours,
organisational demands and the external environment. Currently, this type of
consolidated picture does not exist.
However, there have been efforts to develop a clear picture of the more individually
influenced personal quality related behavioural categories associated with enabling
creativity and innovation (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007). This inventory compiling 13
behavioural categories is listed in Table 2-3.
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The de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) study identified 13 behavioural categories that
effect two aspects of innovation: idea generation (creative output) and application
(creativity into innovation). Again, these behaviours are largely associated with
personal relationship types of behaviours. The researchers note that the study is
focused on enhancing individual innovation, not that of the organisation as a whole or
of entire departments. They note that the study of implementing creative output at the
organisational innovation side is under-researched.
Table 2-3: Leadership behaviours that influence employee innovation
Innovative role modeling
Intellectual stimulation
Stimulating knowledge diffusion
Providing vision
Consulting
Delegating Support for innovation
Organising feedback
Recognition Rewards
Providing resources
Monitoring Task
assignment
Adapted from de Jong and Den Hartog (2007)
Additionally, the categories do not outline any specific behaviours, as it was a
qualitative study that only identified the broad categories of managerial behaviours
influencing employee innovation. The study also was limited to looking specifically
at knowledge intensive firms where transforming knowledge and creativity into
innovation is largely an organisational expectation.
They indicate further study, specifically quantitative study, is needed to better
understand managerial behaviours influencing innovation and creativity. As
developed the categorisation is incomplete, particularly around organisational
influencing behaviours, management behaviours associated with completion of work,
department needs and the external environment.
The inventory as developed by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007), as noted, has
transformational leadership and one-on-on relationships as the focal means by which
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creativity and innovation are influenced by management. However, as was noted with
the identification of the change leadership study, initially by Ekvall and Arvonen
(1991) and again by Yukl (1999), that more than transformational leadership is
needed. It will require behaviours associated with ensuring the completion of work;
driving the agenda for change; as well as keeping the organisation moving forward.
The organisation itself needs to be embracing vision, practices and strategies that will
position the organisational culture and climate to allow for greater levels of
innovation and change (Constantine 2001; West & Richter 2008). Additionally, it
will require an awareness and engagement outside the firm to identify opportunities
and recognize the changing environment within society and industry. De Jong and
Den Hartog (2007, pg.59) acknowledge these limitations and highlight that external
networks and a supportive work climate were identified as antecedents to both
creativity and innovation, but not added to their categorisation. Indicating a
comprehensive picture of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours should
consider these.
The model as proposed by de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007), while framed around
individual influence, does touch on larger areas of influence. From the categorisation
the categories of: “Provision of Resources”; “Stimulating Knowledge Diffusion”;
“Monitoring”; and “Support for Innovation” go beyond the individual and may relate
to a manger needing to ensure productivity of a team or department. Only the
category of “Having a Vision” could relate to managerial behaviours influencing an
organisation. The identified shortcomings of the de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007)
categorisation needs to be addressed in order to develop a categorisation that is more
representative of the areas of influence that a manager faces in their organisation to
be effective.
In order to address this gap it will require an examination of other relevant literature,
not yet compiled and the development of a more comprehensive categorisation within
a framework that is reflective of the influences on a managerial leader.
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The literature on managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling creativity
and innovation across an organisation, explored in the following sections, reveals that
looking at enabling behaviours from only an individual perspective would be
incomplete. This singular type of categorisation fits well with the current trend in
leadership research focused on neo-charismatic theories such as transformational
leadership and connects with the growing topic of leading for creativity, innovation
and change (Dinh et al. 2014). However in doing so from one-on-one relationships as
emphasised by de Jong and Dan Hartog (2007) it moves away from behavioural
theories that allow for a broader range of behaviours to be considered.
Rather the approach that should be taken is one where the behaviours that enable
innovation and creativity can be looked at from the multifaceted areas of influence
that a manager considers when leading an organisation. As was previously explained
the hierarchical taxonomy, as developed by Yukl (2012), offers up one potential
option. This however has limited applicability as emphasis is on the main objective of
behaviours, as opposed to the main area of influence as used in the APEL framework.
This emphasis on influence makes the APEL framework an ideal artefact upon which
to consider the behaviours that managers use to enable creativity and innovation in
their organisations.
The same four categories used in the APEL framework, provides the specific focus
for the examination of the extant literature on behaviours that influence organisational
creativity and innovation required for change: (1) Personal Qualities refer to
behaviours enabling creativity in oneself and directly influencing subordinates; (2)
Managerial Behaviours refer to behaviours associated with leading and managing the
innovation work associated with teams and departments; (3) Organisational Demand
categorises behaviours associated with positioning the organisation to increase
capacity to facilitate innovation and creativity through vision, goals, policy and
direction; and (4) Environmental influence occurs from sources outside of the
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organisation that impacts on a manager’s ability to enable creativity and innovation.
These categories are interconnected, as in the APEL model, and influence one
another, but still serve as separate domains of influence on managers’ actions for
categorisation purposes.
Personal qualities 2.7.1
Personal qualities associated with enabling creativity and innovation are associated
with the managers themselves and one-on-one interactions with subordinates. The
manager must reflect values associated with being creative and innovative; establish
strong communication and appropriate relationships with subordinates to support
their contributions. The categorising of the various behaviours relating to enabling
creativity and innovation at a Personal Qualities level is separated into five broad
categories, each with specific behavioural attributes. This categorisation is provided
in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4: Personal qualities enabling creativity and innovation
2.7.1.1 Role modelling
A manager can role model numerous behaviours they would like to see reflected in
subordinates. It could be reflecting the vision portrayed through actions; the ethical
behaviour expected; following financial protocols, and in this research context,
engagement in creative endeavours. Role modelling creativity has been identified in
the work of numerous researchers as having significant impact on enabling creativity
Personal Qualities
Role Modelling
Tolerate Ambiquity & Risk
Relationships
Communication
Rewards & Incentives
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(Ashlubolagh et al. 2013; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Jaussi & Dionne 2003;
Simonton 1975; Sternberg 1998, 2006).
Research conducted by Jaussi and Dionne (2003) found the most effective way to
impact follower creativity in terms of role modelling was creative endeavour. Role
modelling also plays a role in teams, where team members learn from one another
when working together (Shalley & Gilson 2004). Senior team members act as role
models to younger team members to contribute in the team environment. Younger
members serve as role models by being creative and reviving creative abilities in
older subordinates. It is a manager’s role to encourage this role modelling behaviour
among team members. By enacting the behaviour at the highest level of authority it
creates a greater sense of buy-in, involvement and willingness to view creative
endeavour positively.
Confidence is a key trait in managerial leadership and of paramount importance when
enabling creativity from a role modelling perspective. The concept of self-confidence
is used interchangeably with self–efficacy (Bass 2008). McCormick (2001) proposed
that self-efficacy is the primary cognitive variable that managers must have to
successfully lead others to achieve goals. Managers having confidence in themselves
are positioned to deal with the complex and challenging nature of engaging
subordinates, influencing the organisation and working with uncertainty. When
creativity and innovation are the objectives, the manager’s confidence can transfer to
subordinates. Subordinates observation of managerial confidence results in a shared
view of both themselves and the manager, as seen in charismatic and transformational
leadership (Bass 1985b, 2008). When self-efficacy is high a participative leadership
style is possible, essential to enabling creativity in both individuals and groups (Bass
& Barrett 1981; Mumford et al. 2002). The presence of self-efficacy in a manager
sends a signal to individuals that the associated belief in oneself and work is welcome
and results in increasing positive internal motivation. The Path-goal theory of
leadership as developed and revised by House (1996) states that leaders should build
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in subordinates feelings of value in themselves and to the organisation as well as
proficiency in their roles (Wofford 1993).
Intrinsic motivation drives a person and propels them into creative endeavour.
Research has shown that several psychological factors are associated with intrinsic
motivation including: curiosity, challenge, extending knowledge and personal gain
(Amabile 1988). Traits relating to motivation that have been identified in managerial
leaders include initiative; persistence; ambition; application and industry; and
dependability (Bass 2008). A majority of research around motivation and creativity is
in the context of the individual. However, some research has examined the motivation
of managers and impact on creative endeavours (Amabile 1988; Farris 1988;
Sternberg, Kaufman & Pretz 2003; Tierney 2008; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999).
This research supports managers needing intrinsic motivation themselves to enable
creativity. Similar to confidence, when a manager appears to be engaged and
passionate these feelings can inspire similar attributes in subordinates.
Managers directly involved in creative efforts are able to generate higher levels of
creativity (Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Redmond, Mumford & Teach 1993). A manager
being creative all the time is not possible. Yet being creative some of the time results
in greater understanding of the efforts involved and this enhances their own creative
abilities. Amabile (2004) notes that the direct involvement of supervisors leads to
greater levels of creativity. Similarly, Mathieson (2011) found that managers play a
large role in promoting creative self-efficacy in subordinates. This direct involvement
could take many forms from planning, clarifying, monitoring or networking. Shalley
and Gilson (2004) identify monitoring efforts as key to ensuring creativity is
occurring.
Managerial involvement in the idea generation stage is very important (Howell &
Boies 2004; Mumford et al. 2002). Idea generation is supported when the managers
involved in this process have a broad role orientation (Howell & Boies 2004). To do
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this a manager should be up to date with knowledge and skills so they can operate at
an appropriate cognitive level that allows understanding of creative efforts. Without
this the subordinates may feel the manager lacks the ability to participate reflecting a
lack of organisational connection. The importance of a project champion has been
identified as being important for innovation (Howell & Boies 2004). This is often a
role a manager will play when they may not be able to participate in the actual
creative processes, initially encouraging and later championing the ideas developed
(Stenmark, Shipman & Mumford 2011). Knowing a champion is there supporting the
outcomes of creative endeavours makes a significant impact on individuals, where
this behaviour influences the motivation of subordinates and causes subordinates to
embrace creative challenge.
2.7.1.2 Tolerating ambiguity and risk
Tolerating ambiguity is a behaviour that has a significant impact on enabling
creativity in an organisation. Mangers must allow subordinates freedom to think and
develop solutions to innovate. When this occurs managers operate for a time free
from certainty about a new initiative, idea, product or direction. As freedom is
required for individuals to be creative, managers need to tolerate this freedom so that
better results occur (Sternberg 2005a; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). These results
are associated with the innovation itself, employee and team confidence; trust in the
manager and support for future endeavours.
Under intense scrutiny creativity can be stifled, as identified in Oldham and
Cumming’s (1996) study on differences in controlling and supportive supervision.
This means that managers must limit their control tactics. Mumford et al. (2002)
identified this as being able to accept risk. For a manager this means giving freedom
to subordinates and positioning the firm to view innovation as worthwhile. For the
individual employee it means being creative and risking failure. Managers share this
risk with the subordinates when they accept that failure may occur.
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Tolerance to risk can also be role-modelled, influencing other organisational
managers and creating a stronger innovation culture. Other managers will see this as a
best practice and an appropriate way to act to achieve success. Identified in creativity
research by Sternberg and Lubart (1991), tolerating ambiguity will impact on
individual, team and organisational creativity. Managers need to have an open mind,
not judge quickly and encourage divergent thinking according to analysis completed
by Basadur (2004). When managers show tolerance towards creative endeavour, what
follows is increased security and motivation towards ambiguity and risk.
2.7.1.3 Relationships
Emotional intelligence refers to a managerial leader employing skills reflecting
empathy, conflict resolution, self-management and motivation (Goleman 2005). A
manager must be attuned to subordinates to maintain motivation, inspire them and
eliminate conflict. Emotional intelligence has been found to be an antecedent of
transformational leadership (Ashkanasy & Tse 2000; Brown & Moshavi 2005).
LMX is also connected to emotional intelligence through the high levels of rapport,
trust and cooperation required in the relationship (George 2000). The value of this
positive rapport with trust is that it lessens the possible adverse impact of criticism
and becomes a motivation for increased creativity (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Tierney,
Farmer & Graen 1999; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). This is also key to enable
creativity across organisations (Graen 2006; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney, Farmer &
Graen 1999; Zhou & George 2003). In summation, it can be said that managers who
cultivate relationships with subordinates have more influence over subordinates, can
be more critical of their work and can challenge them to be more creative. Similarly
work around coaching has been identified as a powerful tool for innovation and
change endeavours (Yukl 2010).
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A managers’ interpersonal skills work alongside power and influence within the
organisation (Bass 2008; Steven 2008). The interpersonal abilities create influence,
that works with the different types of power held by managers, as developed in
French and Raven’s (1959) five-base power model, impacting on subordinates,
management peers, and more senior managers (Steven 2008).
According to studies by Oldham and Cummings (1996), Amabile et al. (2004) and
Redmond, Mumford and Teach (1993) a supportive supervisor that encourages and
challenges leads to greater levels of creativity. This connects to the work of Zhou and
George (2003) who identified the importance of using emotional intelligence when
attempting to induce and sustain creativity. When employees are engaged in creative
behaviour more effort must be put in by the manager to ensure the employee does not
become discouraged. To accomplish this a nurturing relationship is identified as best
by Shalley and Gilson (2004). The right balance of trust and respect where authority
of the manager is still maintained needs to be established for creative work and a safe
environment.
Managerial leaders are able to influence attitudes towards justice in their
organisations and in turn increase creative efforts (Gupta & Singh 2014). The
importance of interactional justice has been identified as important to continuous
creativity in organisations (George & Jing 2007). Interactional justice refers to
showing respect to people involved in the creative process by providing them with a
positive relationship that recognises their emotions and involves sharing all
information available (George & Jing 2007). Without this employees may be
unwilling to continue to be creative if they believe their efforts are not respected.
Managers through their relationships can establish interactional justice and promote it
through the entire organisation as best practice.
The manager needs to know how to best motivate, communicate, persuade, and
challenge employees. Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008) connect this to Rogers’s
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(2003) stages of innovation diffusion model, with the different attitudes towards
change needing to be understood by the manager when managing the innovation
processes. In understanding the positions held by those impacted by change, respect
can be shown to all to help reduce resistance. Mumford and Gustafson (1988) identify
that creative individuals are interested in exploring and may become critical of
themselves and co-workers to a point of being harsh. Managers need to identify this
happening and maintain interactional justice.
Work and personal life are difficult to separate and influences seep into each area
(Bailyn, Fletcher & Kolb 2003). Impacts from one’s personal life can adversely affect
performance and decrease engagement. A manager with subordinate relationships can
look to personal lives and work to attempt to ensure one does not negatively impact
the other. It has been found that when employees have work-life balance positively
adjusted by managers, through greater flexibility in work arrangements employee
creativity is one of the benefits (James 2011). This is impossible to monitor unless a
relationship exists.
Mumford et al. (2002) identified social skills of managers having an impact on
leading creative people. Sense making skills ensure all involved have an
understanding of and share a similar mental model. The manager uses relationships
alongside related cognitive and technical skills, where sense making can be viewed as
part of emotional intelligence or social perceptiveness (Goleman 2005; Palmer et al.
2008; Zaccaro et al. 1991). Managers use these skills to educate, persuade,
understand and empower subordinates to engage or persevere in creative efforts.
Social skills also work to deal with negativity towards creative people and creative
efforts (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Mumford et al. 2002). Managers must have
relationships across the organisation and use them to move forward creative efforts
and buffer against negativity that reduces motivation or belief in innovation efforts.
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A manager should know the skill sets of those in their organisation, or have access to
that information. Baer, Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify the importance of
assigning roles that enhance intrinsic motivation. Ensuring work on projects is related
to subordinates’ interests, passions and experience has a positive effect on intrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is directly tied to creativity (Amabile et al. 1996;
Oldham & Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004; Zhang & Bartol 2010).
It is only through a strong relationship that this can be understood.
2.7.1.4 Communications
Dispersal of ideas and information organisation wide results in less communication
breakdowns, clearer messages and organisational mandates spreading (Damanpour
1991). Managerial leaders have a responsibility in managing communication efforts
as they have an impact on subordinate endorsement and motivation. When
information related to innovation is shared and heard by others it serves as a means of
underpinning organisational goals.
Damanpour (1991) uses the term vertical differentiation, taken from Hull and Huge’s
(1982) investigation of innovation in manufacturing firms, where hierarchy in the
organisation makes it difficult for ideas to flow freely. Management, due to size and
complexity, have difficulty establishing flow-through of ideas organisation wide
because of complex interactions between departments. A manager working towards
increasing innovation within the firm would do their best to eliminate this problem.
Shalley and Gilson (2004) identify the importance of an open environment and
communication that means the use of an ‘open door’ policy where employees can
come to look for information, clarification, and also share their ideas and concerns.
According to Zhou and George (2003) communicating information to employees can
lead to greater creativity as it includes them in the organisation simply by awareness.
Shalley and Gilson (2004) identify the importance of using the arguments of
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subordinates in communicating with the team and across the organisation. Doing this
shows respect to individuals and team ideas, reflecting the importance of their work.
If a manager fails to do this it may show disrespect thereby decreasing motivation.
Amabile et al. (2004) notes that communication is a key to a leaders success in
enabling creativity. Managers should make sure their communication skills are
constantly being used and refined. Gilley, Gilley and McMillan (2009) identify that
managers are most effective in leading change efforts through motivation of
subordinates and effective communication efforts.
A manager’s role in communicating is to ensure it occurs across all channels, both
formal and informal (Howell & Boies 2004). In a study by Rizova (2006) it was
found that informal communications lead to greater connection to innovation efforts,
information sharing and less duplication of efforts. Informal channels are of particular
importance when various people have power and influence. The importance of
influence has been documented in research by the likes of Dudek and Hall (1991) and
Mumford (2002). Their conclusion is that managers have to use influence to navigate
the political landscape of organisations. The key tool to achieve this influence is
communication.
The right type of communication in the organisation can result in a sense of urgency
and increase the awareness and importance of doing things differently in times of
change and innovation, shifting culture and attitudes of employees (Gilley, Dixon &
Gilley 2008). This means communicating all relevant information and repeating it at
different times. This is tied to interactional justice, discussed at the relationship level
of enabling creativity (George & Jing 2007). In change efforts this has proven to
build respect and eliminate subordinate stress (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008).
Managers must communicate clearly, consistently and continually across the
organisation to enable creativity and innovation.
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Similarly the involvement of a champion also means that they can communicate
information on the importance of creative efforts and innovations. To do this
effectively the manager must be able to explain the projects under consideration, in
the context of the various stakeholders, identified as perspective taking in the work of
Parker and Axtell (2001). When this is practiced it allows understanding of how
everyone’s work relates, increases transparency and improves the organisational
environment for new developments. The manager acts as an advocate for the
innovative work connecting it with the efforts of the rest of organisation (Madjar,
Oldham & Pratt 2002).
The manager is able to enable creativity in the idea evaluation stage connecting the
mission of the organisation with creative endeavours (Mumford, Connelly & Gaddis
2003). The impact of doing this frames the creative work against the goals of the
organisation. When the manager does this they connect both the technical and
practical sides. When evaluation is occurring between subordinates, the importance of
it remaining focused on the work and not personal is key (Zhou & George 2003). A
manager may want to put the creative work in the context of the team as opposed to
the individual, or let the individuals’ involved lead critical discussion reducing
negativity and expanding roles. Supportive feedback should be constructive and
informative (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008; Shalley & Gilson 2004). This means it
should be helpful and useful for the person receiving feedback to apply to improving
efforts. The importance of performance feedback in enabling creative efforts has been
established (Amabile et al. 2004; Zhou & George 2003). It has been
established that subordinates seek out feedback from managers to enhance their
creative efforts (De Stobbeleir, Ashford & Buyens 2011). Feedback can be direct
however if it is informal it may be less harmful when it is negative.
Sitting alongside feedback is inquiry. When a manager challenges subordinates to
higher levels of inquiry at the time of feedback, it can move knowledge application
and creativity to a higher level (Mumford et al. 2002; Senge 2006). Pushing deeper
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levels of inquiry as part of the feedback process is a key aspect of enabling creativity.
This connects to performance feedback in ambiguous situations where progress is
measured instead of a specific idea or outcome (Mullin & Sherman 1993). Kouzes
and Pozner (2007) identify the importance of small wins and accomplishments being
recognised and celebrated in order to maintain motivation and identify progress is
occurring. Small wins are essential to acknowledge and celebrate to keep employees
motivated and engaged according to Amabile and Kramer (2011). Taken together, a
manager needs to recognise the creative accomplishments, push for an explanation
behind the solutions and address resulting challenges by communicating.
When employees are encouraged at the organisational level to take risks and
challenge convention they are being enabled with the ability to achieve innovation
(Amabile et al. 1996; Jung, Chow & Wu 2003; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).
As was discussed earlier tolerating risk is a necessary role for managers leading
creative endeavours. However, for employees it needs to be reinforced and framed
within the context of the work. Employees on their own may shy away from risk as
the traditional expectation is to develop solutions quickly or in ‘tried and true’
methods (Dewett 2004). Pushing subordinates to embrace the risky nature of creative
endeavours is an excellent practice to achieve innovation. When managers who
promote risk taking are viewed as being honourable and having integrity employees
feel less risk adverse and embrace the challenge (Palanski & Vogelgesang 2011).
Challenging subordinates sends a clear message that more is expected out of their
work, including creative output (Farris 1988). When tasks are given that prove to be
challenging, employees are pushed to develop themselves and with encouragement,
creative success can follow (Amabile et al. 1996).
Application of pressure on employees is something that initially may be thought of as
having a negative impact on creativity. Yet a certain level of pressure is needed in
order for employees to work at a more intensive level (Damanpour 1991). These
pressures should be real and not arbitrary. Arbitrary deadlines do not support
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creativity. It is the managers role to apply pressure and justify its
application alongside supports and encouragement. Pressure should take the form of
challenge and expectation tempered with motivating behaviours (Gutnick et al. 2012).
Appropriate pressure is established through proper communication efforts.
2.7.1.5 Rewards and incentives
How to best reward employees who are creative and innovative has been identified as
a challenge. There are intrinsic and extrinsic reward options. Intrinsic rewards may be
something along the lines of greater freedom, while an extrinsic reward might involve
money. Management must understand their employees in order to determine which is
best used in different circumstances (Amabile et al. 1996). There has been a
significant amount of research on the negative impact of monetary rewards. Still,
money does hold value in occupations where creativity may not be part of the regular
work (Shalley & Gilson 2004).
There is an inverse relationship between monetary rewards and enabling creativity,
consequently, managers need to understand their subordinates to determine the type
of reward required. Baer, Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify that those in a
simple job will prefer extrinsic rewards and those in a challenging job intrinsic
rewards. In a recent study examining creativity and performance related pay, it was
found that individual monetary incentives have limited to negative impact on
individual creativity and motivation, yet a positive relationship exists to collective
performance related pay for groups and teams (De Spiegelaere, Van Gyes & Van
Hootegem 2013). The importance for the manager is to understand different
employees wants and needs and unlock the potential of their employees with the right
reward and incentive.
Different individuals, projects and stages of innovation call for different rewards and
incentives. Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993) examined the Katz and Allen
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(1985) study on the impact of productivity in R&D teams and found that reward
decisions are best in the hands of an engaged manager or project manager. They are
in a better position to assess the work, contributions and to determine what will
motivate the individual team members. From the point of view of the subordinate,
when rewards are in the hands of a manager less involved, the resultant rewards may
be disassociated with their efforts and lack specific recognition. When reward
decisions are in the hands of the engaged manager, individuals view rewards as based
on achievement with a connection between themselves, their work and the manager
involved in decision making.
The need for a flexible rewards system is something that can have a positive impact
on change efforts and enabling creativity (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008). A flexible
reward system around compensation, time-off and other more intrinsic rewards
results in a positive effect on creativity. Managers need to understand their employees
and adjust rewards accordingly. Examples include a day off, an invitation for training,
or a bonus. Managers need to understand employees and consider what is best for
each.
Encouragement is closely tied to reward techniques. Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin
(1993) note it must be balanced and monitored. Too much encouragement can be
construed as lacking sincerity or come across as overbearing; too little can be seen as
a lack of support or a lack of interest. Illustrated by Mumford and Gustafson’s (1988)
research, younger workers were found to be more creative and older workers to be
less creative. The type of encouragement used needs to change and be monitored to
maximise effectiveness for each. In looking at emotional intelligence and creativity
Zhou and George (2003) found that one of the contributing factors to higher levels of
creativity is when recognition of ideas is given to subordinates or if team focused,
shared ownership is recognised. The key is encouragement that comes from
managers that empowers the individual to be creative (Zhang & Bartol 2010).
Without it a negative impact on people may result which reduces the ability to further
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enable creativity (Amabile et al. 1996; Mumford et al. 2002; Oldham & Cummings
1996; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999; Zhang & Bartol 2010). In the Howell and
Boies (2004) study of Canadian executives, they found that managerial
encouragement was most effective at the idea generation stage when they provided
enthusiastic support. This is further supported by Tierney and Farmer (2002) who
found that managerial encouragement results in greater employee self-efficacy.
Managerial behaviours 2.7.2
Managerial behaviours are a necessity for all organisational leaders, (Bass 2008;
Kotter 1990; Kotterman 2006; Mintzberg 1973; Yukl 1989, 2010; Zaleznik 2004).
From an enabling creativity and innovation perspective this is largely translated
through the organisation and management of work in teams and departments. Table
2-5 summarises the related aspects of enabling creativity and innovation through
managerial behaviours.
Table 2-5: Managerial behaviours enabling creativity and innovation
2.7.2.1 Leadership Expertise
A manager must have a certain level of expertise in order to lead others in creative
efforts (Mumford et al. 2002). The environment under which creative work occurs
involves managers connecting purposeful work and intrinsically motivated
individuals on diverse teams. Tierney, Farmer and Graen (1999) looked at leader’s
creative problem solving skills and found a direct relationship to the creativity of the
group. Engaging in creative efforts by managers is positively related to idea
Managerial Behaviours
Leadership Expertise
Team Management
Framing of Work
Resource Allocation
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generation stages of innovation and application of creative ideas (de Jong & Den
Hartog 2007).
When expertise is discussed, both technical and organisational expertise is paramount
to innovative work. In a multiyear field study of internal ventures in firms, Sharma
(1999) identified the importance of both understanding how innovation fits into the
organisation and where challenges in development may exist. Managers need to be
able to assess the situation and determine if an opportunity to be innovative exists
(Krause 2004). At the same time a manager has to determine the right skill sets to be
active in a particular creative effort, and thus has to consider their role either as a
leader or perhaps choose to serve in more of a champion role and place someone else
in charge (Howell & Boies 2004). Failure to do this decreases the perception of the
importance of the effort and the perception of the manager themselves.
Managerial tenure was identified by Damanpour (1991) as key in organisational
innovation and again identified by Musteen, Barker and Baeten (2010). When
management has organisational experience they understand how it functions, where
power and influence exists and reflects a level of commitment to the organisation.
The knowledge and experience of a manager translates through to the team or
department by the provision of expert power (French & Raven 1959). Expert power
has been shown to influence members of an organisation because there is a belief that
the manager has knowledge and understanding of particular needs leading to greater
efforts by the team. The use of expert power needs to occur in a positive way. When a
manager fails to do this and uses expertise to demotivate or to criticise it takes on the
form of negative expert power (Steven 2008). This means a manager has to ensure
that expert power is used positively.
Intelligence is a key attribute to being a leader and is of particular importance for
managing innovation processes. Stogdill’s (1948) comprehensive examination of all
trait research from 1904 through to 1948 found that 17 of 23 studies connect
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leadership and intelligence and a further 25 studies from 1948 to 1970, found leaders
exceeded the intelligence of other members of their group or organisation (Bass
2008). This research on leadership traits found intelligence is closely associated with
numerous other traits relating to creativity including being wise, conscientious and
persevering.
Sternberg (2005b) proposed a theory of intelligence that relates to creativity and how
managers may apply intelligence into their role. The theory of successful intelligence
identified three types of intelligence related skills. Analytical abilities refer to the
capability to solve problems, achieve goals or see a situation in a manner that is not
obvious. Creative abilities refer to managers developing less common or novel
approaches to unique ideas or challenging situations. Lastly, practical intelligence
refers to the ability to put intelligence related efforts into context so that what is
proposed is useful.
2.7.2.2 Team Management
When a manager is building a team they ensure a mixture of experience, knowledge
and creative ability for the given assignment. A manager who has built a team like
this will have a diverse group. The right level of cohesiveness is needed to have
innovative output, as teams should not be so diverse or similar that they lead to
demotivating individuals involved or a narrow outlook respectively (Jaussi & Dionne
2003). Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) identify that too much similar expertise results
in a narrow outlook and leads to dismissing other areas of consideration. Woodman,
Sawyer and Griffin (1993) cite the work of Nystrom (1979) and King and Anderson
(1990), who found that creative teams can be too cohesive or not cohesive enough. A
curvilinear relationship exists when too much cohesion results in few creative ideas
being developed; or too little cohesion results in a lack of trust and understanding for
the team to function at an innovative level. Joshi and Roh (2009) conducted a
meta-analysis of team diversity and performance and found that managers need to
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consider the context of several factors to achieve strong team performance including
industry, occupation, team type and duration. The managers’ role is to find the right
balance of diversity for the innovation effort.
According to Shalley, Zhou and Oldham (2004) and Shalley and Perry-Smith (2001)
when subordinates have the opportunity to observe creative models in practice they
gain valuable insight into how to apply this to their own work. This leads to increased
individual capabilities in the organisation. Team structure approaches that support
innovation involve diverse member selection from the entire organisation that
exposes members to a variety of organisational initiatives, experiences, team
environments and individuals (Mumford et al. 2002). When this is done it expands
the knowledge base and comfort zone of subordinates to tackle creative endeavours
involving uncertainty and change. From an organisational perspective this allows for
the creation of synergies between individuals and departments for future innovation.
The synergies established in a team environment can also be harmed by continuous
exposure to one another. King and Anderson (1990) identified diversity leads to more
creativity at the beginning, but reducing as the team adjusts and become comfortable
with work practices, behaviours and attitudes. Bassett-Jones (2005) concludes that
diverse teams is a trade-off between the potential for more creative solutions, but
comes at the cost of higher conflict and stress. Stress and turnover were identified as
challenges in team work in a study by Keller (2001). It is a manager’s responsibility
to a team or department to develop balanced ways to reduce stress, increase cohesion,
encourage productive conflict and avoid group think (Horwitz & Horwitz 2007).
The need for a fluid structure on a team to allow new expertise to come in and further
develop ideas and concepts (Mumford et al. 2002). This results in the replacement of
team members, resulting in another situation requiring management in order to
manage knowledge transfer, new member selection and team socialisation (Summers,
Humphrey & Ferris 2012). Teamwork that is positive, supportive and challenging is
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the best for generating creative output in an organisation (Damanpour 1991;
Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). Teams need to have their early
interactions framed, establishing a connection between the team and the work. This
means making them aware of each other’s skills, creating a sense of shared ownership
of the work and responsibilities and awareness that at different times different skills
are needed.
Working together to develop innovations is something that has an impact on
employee creativity (Farris 1988). Critical feedback from other team members is
essential in the creative process as it leads to better ideas (Shalley & Gilson 2004;
Williams 2001). Discouraging ridicule of solutions and negative interaction towards
members’ efforts and ideas is very important (Shalley & Gilson 2004). When team
members know negative actions are a serious offence and not tolerated it leads to
better outcomes, greater security and collaborative engagement. Managers must be
careful to allow critical feedback, but avoid discussions or comments becoming
personal or emotional in nature (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004). This works both in
terms of receiving feedback and interpreting it. At the heart of this role is the
challenge for managers to establish a commitment among members to the project,
team and organisation, not an idea or the person behind it.
Knowledge management has been shown in numerous studies to have a significant
benefit to innovative endeavours (Du Plessis 2007; López-Nicolás & Meroño-Cerdán
2011; Xu et al. 2010). Identified by Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) and Woodman,
Sawyer and Griffin (1993), when managers instruct subordinates to share their
knowledge and expertise across the organisation the result is more creative solutions.
This breaks down communication barriers that exist between individuals separated by
departmental roles and responsibilities. Managers need to make sure that the
processing of information is done in a broad way that considers different
perspectives. Brand (1998) investigated the highly innovative firm 3M. 3M instils in
employees the importance of sharing information as well as challenging one another.
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A manager needs to work towards establishing knowledge management practices on a
team. If focus is only on essential information, the effect is to corral efforts, rather
than expand knowledge. Expanding knowledge improves the innovation process and
shares information for future use (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004).
Recognition is an aspect of rewards that is equally important to teams and
departments. Credit should always be given to individuals, but an effort made to
position credit broadly including the team (Elkins & Keller 2003). The impact of
doing this maintains teams’ overall motivation and connection. Everyone requires a
pat on the back for a job well done, in creative work this must occur regularly and be
directed at the team and individuals. Transferring this recognition to the entire team
helps build a sense of community and a shared investment in the work. Similarly, the
inclusion of the team in recognition avoids problems with jealousy (Brun & Dugas
2008).
2.7.2.3 Framing of Work
The manager must convey the importance of the work occurring and how it should be
done. They use many tools to do this, categorised as framing of work (Mumford et al.
2002). Work must be framed, but not controlled. Managers often mistakenly provide
too much direction and end up stifling innovation. Basadur (2004) identified leaders
are best suited to take on a process role associated with management. This means that
they will provide a terms of reference in which a team will operate for the creative
endeavour. In order to capture the process it will mean establishing meeting
structures; repositioning leadership, relationships and authority; identifying
milestones; and time allocations. Shipper and Davy (2002) studied management skills
and found a mix of both interactive and work structuring skills were needed. This is
something that is ongoing and requires a fluid terms of reference. Rosing, Frese and
Bausch (2011) describe the framing of work processes in two ways; opening
behaviours - pushing for exploration; and closing behaviours - pushing for focus and
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clarity in efforts. A manager must continually connect with the team to ensure efforts
are relevant, on task and not stifled.
The importance of having responsibility for idea generation and problem solutions is
fundamental for a team’s involvement (Basadur 2004). The manager needs to pass
ownership to team members so they are in command of how the creative process will
flow. If done superficially it leads to reduced motivation as the ownership transfer is
deemed as nothing more than lip service. From an employee perspective when they
are meaningfully involved they will be more productive and committed (Gilley,
Dixon & Gilley 2008; Sims 2002; Volmer, Spurk & Niessen 2012). Managers must
provide a higher level of ownership to the team while remaining connected to the
creative process. When the leadership of a team is seen as democratic it should lead
to greater levels of creative outcomes (Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). When
teams’ members feel that the manager or other members of the team are controlling,
they will lose motivation and interest in developing creative results.
Subordinates need to have freedom in order to get the creative ideas flowing
(Amabile et al. 1996; Elkins & Keller 2003). When employees are subjected to a set
routine, time allocations or other influences on their work they will be less creative
(Damanpour 1991). Managers must make sure subordinates can develop their own
work processes, standards and time allocations in order to create a sense of
ownership. Zhou (1998) examined high task autonomy in a laboratory experiment
and found that it lead to higher levels of creativity. Another study by Jung, Chow and
Wu (2003) showed this same connection between autonomy and creativity.
Transformational leadership has been identified as providing subordinates with strong
feelings of autonomy positively impacting creative efforts (Hu, Gu & Chen 2013). At
the same time as providing freedom to work, allowing involvement in organisational
goal setting and problem definition is important (Mumford et al. 2002). By making
teams part of decision making processes, this leads to greater engagement and
motivation.
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Direction and structure extends beyond team management. The encouragement of
looking internally and externally for information was identified by Reiter-Palmon and
Illies (2004). A managerial leader must manage this process to ensure that the search
is broad and deep. According to Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) and Finke (1992) it
requires new information to be found and applied towards solution development. This
important framing exercise ensures new information is included in developing
solutions to problems and idea generation. The use of multiple perspectives in
analysis is also fundamental. Studies have shown that when groups work together
they tend towards finding similar information and coding it in similar ways.
Managers must ensure this does not happen through properly framing the research
efforts and encouraging inner team challenge (De Dreu, Nijstad & Van Knippenberg
2008; Schulz-Hardt et al. 2006). This is closely related to environmental influence
looked at later in this chapter.
Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004) identify that in idea generation instruction to
subordinates should call for the use of specific research techniques, push for the
utilisation of different information and use of intense cognitive processes for applying
the information gathered. This information should be process-oriented and
goal-oriented and allow for change in team interactions as the stages of innovation
efforts evolve (Olsson & Backstrom 2012). Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993)
identified that individuals often times narrowly define causal relationships resulting
in limited opportunity for creative solutions. Asking people to be open to ideas,
solutions and scenarios based on subordinates diverse backgrounds and associated
knowledge is beneficial to creativity (Rosing, Frese & Bausch 2011; Shalley &
Gilson 2004). Managers need to ensure this is the case to avoid homogenous
processes.
Tied to instruction and important in its own right, Damanpour (1991) identified goal
clarity as something that can lead to greater creativity. When subordinates are able to
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understand the goals, particularly in developing novel ideas, as opposed to fast or
financially prudent solutions than the team is likely to adopt an innovative approach
to achieve goals (Olsson & Backstrom 2012). This involves training team members to
understand, providing rationale and providing ongoing support. The importance of
goal setting has also been established by other researchers such as Shalley and Gilson
(2004). When connected to feedback, goals serve as yardsticks for work completed
and work still needed. Subordinates can use goals to intensify efforts and internally
acknowledge their own efforts.
Goal clarity may be difficult to achieve when competing objectives exist in the
organisation (Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004). A focus on cost savings and budget
reduction does not easily coexist alongside a push for creative solutions. The manager
must identify this happening and attempt to provide clarity for subordinates. For a
manager to be able to do this will require them to frame the different goals in unison
so that subordinates can identify which takes precedence and how goals can be
achieved alongside each other.
2.7.2.4 Resource Allocation
Resources take many forms when putting them in the context of creativity and
innovation. It includes providing the necessary time, equipment, administrative
supports and access to information. In a study by Hebda et al. (2007) looking at
motivation of technical workers, the fundamental factors of freedom, flexibility, time,
along with resources were most important. When managers provide these it leads to
necessary support and positive attitudes towards organisational goals.
Slack resources being available in an organisation assists creative endeavours in
providing much needed ‘start-up’ assets to engage in creative endeavours
(Damanpour 1991; Troilo, De Luca & Atuahene-Gima 2014; Woodman, Sawyer &
Griffin 1993). In their examination of empirical studies and relevant literature on R &
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D organisations relating to creativity, Elkins and Keller (2003) found availability of
resources as a significant factor to successfully innovate. This included time,
technologies, support staff, space and opportunities to engage others internally and
externally. Connected closely with allocating resources, tied to organisational
structure and support, is the practice of ensuring technological developments are
brought into the organisation in a timely and continuous manner (Damanpour 1991).
This may occur through the team process of information gathering, budgeting for
purchase of and training in new technologies.
It is important that subordinates have a say in resource allocation, in particular around
procurement of resources (Damanpour 1991). This creates a perception of being
consulted. Employees recognise that not all resource requests will be met, however
the opportunity to be consulted will lead to increased buy-in. Information gathering
requires resources and one of the ways that resources can be provided is through
supply of information and access to external knowledge (Reiter-Palmon & Illies
2004). This may include items such as access to professional expertise, software or
paid information.
Financial controls have been found to be a limiting factor in creative efforts (Elkins &
Keller 2003; Gibbert, Hoegl & Valikangas 2014). If the budget control is too tight or
if the impression of strict financial controls exists it can lead to a sense of limited
resources. This is a balancing act as all firms and managers must have strong
financial controls (Davila, Foster & Oyon 2009). The demands for financial control
and the need for abundant resources have the two at odds within an organisation. It is
the manager’s responsibility to balance resource demand with financial control. When
a firm does have strong financial controls and resources are still procured for a
project this sends a message to the entire organisation of the project’s importance
(Weiss, Hoegl & Gibbert 2014). Csíkszentmihályi (2013) along with Drazin, Glynn
and Kazanjian (1999) establish that resources also need to be supplied with a
balanced approach. Too many resources will make employees too comfortable and
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eliminate a sense of challenge; too few and the employees will feel that they are
hampered by organisational constraints.
One important resource that is often overlooked is administrative support for creative
endeavours. Creative work involves intensive mental energy with limited resources
and often under pressure. The addition of having to complete administrative work to
support these efforts takes time away from more productive and important efforts and
may create conflicts. Various researchers have identified the need for sufficient
administrative support as a required resource to facilitate creative endeavours
(Mumford et al. 2002; Mumford et al. 2000). Administrative support can be simple
clerical support or more complex, as identified in a study on creative organisations by
Cohendet and Simon (2008), where entire departments were identified as
administrative supports, like finance and human resource departments. The assistance
of these departments provided valuable resources which were essential to support the
innovation efforts. Without them, the innovation efforts would have likely resulted in
failure. Managers play a role in not only listening about resource needs and procuring
them they also convey this message through the organisation (Shalley & Gilson
2004). Procuring resources across the organisation and resource support from other
departments provides support that strengthen innovation efforts.
The provision of time is a significant tool that managers use to enable creativity in
organisations (Bluedorn & Jaussi 2008; Farris 1988; Halbesleben et al. 2003;
Mumford et al. 2002; Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004; Shalley & Gilson 2004).
Managers need to understand time fully in the context of creative work. Halbesleben
et al. (2003) developed a model that identifies the various ways a leader needs to
view time for innovation. They include: timeframe, tempo, temporality,
synchronisation, sequence, simultaneity, anticipating gaps and pauses, understanding
individual time personalities and creating timelessness in the work. Having a sense of
all of these refers to a manager’s temporal intelligence. Temporal intelligence is a
concept introduced by Clemens and Dalrymple (2005) and further refined by Doyle
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and Francis-Smythe (2009). They assert that temporal intelligence is important for
business success. Managers that understand time in the context of the work being
done and the subordinates involved will lead towards positive results.
There are numerous behaviours relating to these temporal dimensions that could be
used by managerial leaders. The most basic of which are allowing time for creative
work as identified by Reiter-Palmon and Illies (2004). Providing dedicated time to
innovative efforts is one of the long identified methods of establishing creativity in
organisations (Halbesleben et al. 2003; Mumford et al. 2002; Reiter-Palmon & Illies
2004).
Organisational demand 2.7.3
The importance of organisational structure and senior level executive support to
organisational innovation has long been established (Farris 1988). Across an
organisation much of what managerial leaders do to establish a culture of innovation
relates to organisational level structures, supports and practices (Elkins & Keller
2003). These include establishing a vision, organisational norms, and human resource
practices. In looking at this category three components are identified in Table 2-6.
Table 2-6: Organisational demands enabling creativity and innovation
2.7.3.1 Organisational and executive support and practices
The culture that senior management establish, maintain or work to change can result
in mandated innovation in terms of organisational expectations. The senior
management in an organisation must be willing to embrace change and share this
Organisational DemandsOrganisational & Executive Support & Practices
Organisation Vision, Goals and StructureHuman Resource Practices & Policies
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message across the organisation (Damanpour 1991). When CEOs have different
attitudes towards change different strategies and approaches to innovation are needed
(Densten & Sarros 2012). As well, reprimanding resistance to change has a
significant impact on a firm. This positions the firm to grow and creates awareness in
stakeholders that change is a reality. It has been shown that managerial leadership
directly impacts organisational behaviour and can reduce or eliminate obstacles to
change (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008). Many aspects of an organisation including the
creative abilities of its members, organisational capacity and social and technical
factors are at play in an organisation that is attempting to generate creativity
(Csíkszentmihályi 1999).
Creativity in an organisation primarily occurs when innovation is being sought. The
organisational related attributes that need to be established to be innovative were
compiled by Mumford et al. (2002, p. 732) and include “(a) risk taking, (b) freedom,
(c) work challenge, (d) openness, (e) trust, (f) support, (g) intellectual orientation, (h)
intrinsic involvement, and (i) activity/experimentation”. It requires shifting culture to
bring these attributes into the organisation. Lee, Tan and Chiu (2008) found that the
organisational culture directly impacted on creativity. An empirical study of
adhocracy cultures (cultures that encourage flexibility, change and external
orientation) demonstrates adhocracy cultures have greater levels of product
innovation in comparison to hierarchical cultures (Naranjo Valencia, Sanz Valle &
Jiménez 2010). Organisational leaders establish a culture that “fosters creativity,
entrepreneurship, openness, risk taking”; while avoiding emphasis on “internal
controls, close adherence to rules and regulations and internal orientation” (p. 475).
Monitoring the organisational culture to ensure that it is open to creative endeavours
will have positive impacts for an organisation (Amabile et al. 1996; Oldham &
Cummings 1996; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993).
Another role senior managers play in enabling creativity is connecting the creative
efforts across the organisation and establishing a climate for innovation (Bel 2010;
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Isaksen & Akkermans 2011). When innovation and associated efforts are connected
to departments, goals, objectives and values they will have more chance of success.
In a study on managerial roles in issue selling around organisational change efforts, it
was found that managers are more successful when they position change across
organisational needs, engage other organisational players and do it at the correct time
(Dutton et al. 2001). Mumford et al. (2002) describe this concept as creating
synergies. This involves planning where to focus, finding connection between
projects, departments and objectives.
Shifting a culture has been identified as a difficult executive management task
(Cummings 2008). Managerial leadership can focus efforts in numerous ways in
order to achieve this including: vision; commitment; role play; engagement; support
for staff; and adapting the organisation to reflect the desired culture from structural
and philosophical viewpoints. One organisational culture model that emphasises
creativity is McGuire’s (2003) entrepreneurial organisational culture model. The
model has an organisation sharing beliefs reflecting values for creativity including:
acceptance of creative behaviour and individuals; risk tolerance; future orientation;
and an expectation of its members to be engaged. An overarching theme identified by
Shelley and Gilson (2004) is the willingness to take risks and embrace uncertainty.
Senior management willing to take and promote this position enable the process of
innovation in their organisation. Mumford et al. (2002) points to the work of Quinn
(1983; 1985) in identifying challenges for an organisation towards innovation. They
are financial control, timeframes, authority and attitudes of senior level executives.
Executive leadership must minimise the dominance of these negative constraints for
innovation to be possible.
Establishing a system of procedural justice is also important for creativity (Shalley &
Gilson 2004). Procedural justice refers to decision making processes being viewed as
just and fair (Tyler & Lind 1992). When procedural justice is perceived to be high it
leads to greater levels of creativity and shapes a positive climate for team work,
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collaboration and the organisation on the whole. In a study by Mumin and Mustafa
(2008) it was found that procedural justice was positively related to creativity in new
product development. Senior management must make sure that management act
appropriately in decision making related to innovative endeavours, ensuring decision
making is viewed as transparent, understood by all and deemed to be reasonably fair.
2.7.3.2 Organisational vision, goals and structure
The vision for an organisation reflects more than the future state of the organisation,
it imparts attitudes, standards of work, the formal goals and expected treatment of
peers (Jacobsen & House 2001; Mumford et al. 2002). The identification of wanting
creative solutions, allowing risk and taking multiple perspectives creates a climate
conducive to innovation. Similarly, when finances or profit are pushed as the
predominant factor it sends a clear message about the importance of the bottom line
and innovation is reduced (Amabile 1988; Damanpour 1991). When the emphasis can
be moved away from financial or other limiting variables it can also result in a feeling
that innovation is wanted and creativity expected (Davila, Foster & Oyon 2009).
Adjusting vision to relate to innovation and creativity can be clearly stated and built
through senior managers.
Alongside vision is the role of firm strategy and it has been identified as a way to
shape the organisation to enable innovation (Scott 2001). When managers build plans
for innovation into departmental strategy or include an innovation strategy it leads to
greater organisational results. The development of policies and goals to be creative
and innovative and formalising those plans as part of the goals or missions has a
positive impact on the culture (Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). This could be
done formally in identifying strategic goals, signalled support through budgets, or
emphasising efforts to target innovation.
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Managers need to match calls for creativity with the organisational mission and goals
(Basadur 2004). When this is done it alleviates any confusion over diverse mandates
and connects subordinates back to the goals of the organisation. Similarly, it has been
identified that one of the most effective ways to change an organisational culture is to
build on its strengths (Katzenbach, Steffen & Kronley 2012). Projects that require
innovative work should be in line with the work of the organisation (Mumford et al.
2002). When work is within the fields of experience of the firm than a foundation
exists upon which to frame the work and build new competencies and opportunities.
This is supported by the research of Sharma (1999) who found innovation most likely
to occur when efforts are in alignment with core competencies along with being
technically, financially and commercially feasible.
Managers at a senior level need to make adjustments to the actual work environment
and organisational structure to ensure that it fits with the desired innovative
outcomes. In a study of over 2000 employees Shalley, Gilson and Blum (2000) found
that when the work environment was conducive to creativity it lead to greater job
satisfaction and less interest in leaving the organisation. In a study on establishing a
creative organisational climate, managers were found to be able to direct influence
the perception of the organisational climate as being creative (Isaksen & Akkermans
2011). Damanpour (1991) referred to the importance of addressing functional
differentiation in change processes. This means that departments across the
organisation are involved in the change process or creative endeavours. This builds
on the concept of synthesis in creative leadership, as identified by Sternberg (2008),
where managers connect non-related items that when brought together can combine
to support creative development. Damanpour (1991) identified the problem with
centralised decision making. When it is limited to a few in the organisation it is
demotivating in terms of innovative outputs. When a flat organisational structure
exists or flat communication channels and transparent decision making processes
exist it leads to less unease about innovative endeavours.
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Changing the structure of an established organisation may be harder to do, but
increasing involvement of subordinates in decision making is feasible. Goldsmith
(2010) identifies one of the leading contributors of resistance to change in
organisations is the desire of those in charge to be right. This has a negative impact
on subordinates, often times over nothing of relevance other than management
wanting to maintain control. The dispersal of decision making to subordinates can
lead to greater engagement and thus contribute more to the organisation.
Mumford et al. (2002) extends the work of Damanpour (1991) by identifying the
creation of flat structures and promotion of communication both formally and
informally. If not formally possible to change to a flat structure, the flat concept can
be achieved through both formal and informal communication efforts being made to
create a sense of inclusiveness among all members of the organisation. Hemlin,
Allwood and Martin (2008) refer to managers establishing a creative knowledge
environment, where efforts are made to create an environment to support both teams
and individuals to work towards innovation. A creative work environment relates to
all aspects of an organisation including communication, the physical environment and
the organisational culture.
2.7.3.3 Human resource practices and training
Earlier sections have discussed items relating to team and department make up,
rewards and incentives. In many organisations these decisions largely align with the
responsibilities of the human resource departments (Lansbury & Spillane 1991). The
human resource department and associated management need to be aware of the role
that they play in creating a climate for innovation (Lewicka 2011). Human Resource
departments must work with other departmental managers to ensure options related to
hiring and rewards exist.
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Damanpour (1991) identified that the more specialists and expertise found in a firm
the more likely the organisation will be innovative. The result of a broad range of
expertise in an organisation is an increase in skills, knowledge-base and ability to
generate ideas positioning the firm towards being innovative. Jung, Chow and Wu
(2003) identify this as a strategic human resource decision in recruiting diverse
people into organisations to increase innovation, as do Shalley and Gilson (2004).
Recruitment of motivated people who are also emotionally intelligent was identified
by Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008) as important for creating the right workforce for
innovation and change initiatives. Diverse experience across departments also
positions departments to be more embracing of change and enable innovation
(Damanpour 1991). Human resource policies that look to add diversity to an
organisation through new hires increases innovation opportunities and chance of
success.
An additional area in which human resource practices play a role relates to training.
An organisation that is constantly learning and adapting itself is going to be
successful (Senge 2006). This learning and adapting approach in organisations is
closely linked to innovation and its precursor creativity (Yukl 2010). Creativity
training in an organisation results in divergent thinking skills being developed and
works alongside convergent thinking to come up with creative and practical solutions
(Basadur 2004; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993). The impact on the firm when
training is provided produces positive outcomes for the culture of the organisation as
it results in shared experience between staff that supports innovation efforts (Basadur,
Graen & Scandura 1986; Lewicka 2011).
Training may also take the form of procuring knowledge in areas external to the
organisations focus (Shalley & Gilson 2004). This will lead to the expansion of
knowledge outside of the organisational focus, contributing to greater diversity in
idea generation and problem identification. It has a significant impact on a firm when
it is viewed as professionally staffed. As identified by Damanpour (1991) when
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people bring with them diverse educational backgrounds it strengthens the
organisations ability to be creative.
The importance of managerial support for professional development instils
confidence in subordinates. This results in a sense of recognition on the part of the
employee, increased sense of value and increased intrinsic motivation. Damanpour
(1991) identified study of the outside world as key to organisational innovation.
Organisations, by their nature, are inward looking and involvement of key individuals
in external organisations such as professional associations, business groups and
community groups can bring fresh perspectives, new ideas or identify problems in
advance. Identified by Gilley, Dixon and Gilley (2008), encouraging employees to
pursue useful alliances, networks and relationships. External relationships, as sources
of information, prove to be integral for a firm being innovative and recognising the
need to be (Joshi, Pandey & Han 2009). These final points also relate to the last
category of enabling behaviours, environmental influence.
Environmental influence 2.7.4
A majority of the identified behaviours relate internally to the organisation, whether it
be motivating or guiding the individual, managing the team work or adjusting the
organisational culture to embrace innovation. Additionally, looking to the external
environment for motivation, guidance and influence can result in enabling innovation.
The external environment in many instances signals an organisation to evolve or
change through creativity and innovation (Zhou & George 2003). Managers
following what is happening externally are able to identify opportunities to innovate
and changes in values or practices within society (Westwood & Low 2003).
Managers themselves must be looking externally, as well as encouraging their
subordinates to do so, in order to identify and capitalise on these changes.
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Elkins and Keller (2003) identify that for new products to be successful it will require
involvement with numerous external stakeholders, including government agencies,
suppliers, customers and external organisations, including competitors (Joshi, Pandey
& Han 2009). These sources provide information to assess organisational
shortcomings, new product development, market direction and potential strategic
alliances. The practice of external analysis and engagement becomes a part of the
creativity and innovation generating processes.
There are several overlaps with regard to external environment influences and the
categories already discussed and these influences need to be considered by managers.
They include: bringing in diverse skills through human resource practices; ensuring
external training; that professional relationships are established; information is
gathered from a variety of external sources with respect to the framing of work;
lastly, through the role modelling of leaders themselves that make a point of being
engaged externally.
2.8 Chapter summary
This chapter provided a review and background on the development of key
behavioural leadership theories related to change leadership. It highlighted the
evolution in managerial leadership research from the two metacategory model of task
and relationship behaviours and explored the identification of a third metacategory
related to change-oriented leadership. The change-oriented metacategory has been
confirmed as distinct and is now viewed as part of the hierarchical taxonomy of
leadership behaviours that includes four metacategories, the three previously
mentioned and a fourth related to the external environment (Yukl 2012).
The APEL framework used in this study was introduced and it was explored against
the hierarchical taxonomy of managerial leadership behaviours. The APEL
framework has been examined against the two metacategory model and found to
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serve as a more robust measure. When compared with Yukl’s (2012) four
metacategory model it was found to be missing the necessary change-oriented
behaviour category. In order for the APEL framework to be reflective of the current
understanding of managerial leadership behaviours it must be expanded to include
change-oriented behaviours, specifically those focused on how managers can enable
creativity and innovation. This study attempts to do this by examining the behaviours
associated with enabling creativity and innovation by building a new categorisation
that is comprehensive of the major influences on a manager. The APEL framework
serves as an artefact of managerial behaviour categorisation used to accomplish this
categorisation.
In order to do this an exploration of various leadership theories occurred that relate to
change leadership explaining how it is applied. From these models what was found
was that change leadership involves a variety of behaviours that focus on ways to
increase and apply creativity and innovation to move an organisation forward.
The challenge with understanding how to enable creativity and innovation behaviours
from a managerial leadership perspective was discussed and it was identified that the
current categorisation of behaviours that enable creativity and innovation primarily
emphasise the individual related behaviours. They fail to take into account behaviours
relating to managing teams and departments in the innovation process, and
organisational related considerations, as well as looking at the external environment.
In order to address this the APEL framework, that looks at four categories of
behaviours was considered as an artefact upon which to bring the disparate fields of
research on managerial behaviours together to develop a comprehensive
categorisation reflective of the areas of influence of an organisational manager.
This categorisation is summarised in Table 2-7. It used the APEL framework upon
which to examine the behavioural research to develop a new categorisation that will
be later used, in chapter 4, to build a new scale to be added into the APEL model.
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Table 2-7: Enabling creativity and innovation behaviours – four categories
Personal Qualities
Managerial Behaviours
Organisational Demands
Environmental Influence
Role Modelling Team
Management
Organisational & Executive Support & Practices
Tolerate Ambiguity &
Risk
Resource Allocation
Organisation Vision, Goals and Structure
Relationships Framing of
Work
Human Resource Practices &
Policies
Communication Leadership Expertise
Rewards and Incentives
Of the four categories identified, three will be included in the extension presented in
chapter 4. The Environmental Influence category is already largely represented in the
APEL framework, so it will not be utilised in adding behaviours to the categorisation.
This chapter has provided the theoretical foundation upon which the need to expand
the APEL framework was identified and how the APEL framework was applied in
order to develop a new categorisation of behaviours that enable creativity and
innovation when practiced by managers.
Chapter 3 will provide an overview of the connection between cultural study and
managerial leadership and explain why culture specific information needs to be
considered. It will provide an overview of what is understood about Australian
culture and managerial leadership, essential to develop a model of leadership that is
reflective of Australian cultural values.
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3. Literature review: Australian culture and managerial leadership
3.1 Chapter introduction
Managerial leadership and cultural research have identified universal leadership
attributes and that managerial leadership varies in styles, practices and actions in
different societies due to implicit leadership theory (Bass 2008; Chhokar, House &
Brodbeck 2012; Dickson et al. 2012; House, Wright & Aditya 1997). This means that
before understanding managerial leadership in a society, a country’s culture must first
be considered and its influence on management studied.
This chapter will firstly examine ways to view culture through universal and specific
measures. It will be followed by an overview of comparable cultural dimensions and
leadership universals. The shortcomings of this approach to understanding Australian
cultural impacts on managerial leadership will be presented. Finally it will examine
Australian cultural values that impact on managerial leadership. Lastly a review on
studies specific to Australia management will be looked at. An outline of this chapter
is presented in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1: Chapter overview
Australian Culture & Leadership
ETIC and EMIC Cultural values
Cultural Dimensions, GLOBE Culture & Leadership
Dimensions
Challenges of understanding Australian Leadership
Australian Culture & Leadership
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3.1 ETIC and EMIC cultural study and leadership
The connection between leadership and national culture in management research has
long been established and continues to be linked in many studies (Bass 2008; Jackson
& Parry 2011). Cultural studies have identified managers as a group upon which to
focus research, due to implicit leadership theories, where managers reflect the values
held in a national culture and expected behaviours are formed (Bass 1997; Chhokar,
Brodbeck & House 2012; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Dickson et al. 2012; Dorfman et al.
1997; House et al. 2002; House et al. 2004; Javidan et al. 2006; Jayakody 2008; Lord
& Brown 2001; Lord & Maher 1993; Onea & Tatarusanu 2012; Paris et al. 2009;
Steers, Sanchez-Runde & Nardon 2012). This approach has firmly been established
in the GLOBE study, where middle managers were selected as the sample upon
which to establish comparable cultural dimensions, leadership universals and identify
culture specific aspects of leadership (House, Javidan & Dorfman 2001).
The culture context in management research has led to the recognition that while
leadership, in many ways, can be viewed as universal it cannot wholly be considered
in those terms. Research must go beyond universal aspects and take into account
cultural specifics in order to deepen understanding and provide greater relevance to
organisations and practicing mangers (Dickson et al. 2012; Dickson, Den Hartog &
Mitchelson 2003; Dorfman 1996; Dorfman et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley &
Mosakowski 2002; Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Osland & Bird 2000; Wang,
Waldman & Zhang 2012; Yeganeh & Su 2006). This argument has been established
as one of the predominant views on where cultural studies of managerial leadership
need to focus in order to address the gap in understanding management from a
cultural perspective. Dickson et al. (2012) explains the need to move in the direction
of having a more local understanding of culture in managerial leadership studies to
make it more practical for organisations. This sentiment is echoed in other reviews of
the current state of organisational studies and cultural research by academics such as
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Earley (2006) who notes it is time to move away from large studies that have created
universals and begin to leverage them along with other information to look at
variations in behaviour across cultures.
Based upon these views, it is clear that for leadership research to contribute to the
body of knowledge it will require a cultural perspective be considered that takes into
account culture specific information from cultural studies, from socio-cultural
research, from industry based research and from government. These sources of
information should be applied to explain managerial leadership in a given culture and
be built into exploring theory. Anthropological studies utilised two terms ETIC
(universal) and EMIC (culture specific) to explain cultural values (Berry 1969).
When examining a culture both ETIC and EMIC values need to be considered.
Cultural universals are referred to as ETIC aspects, representing higher-level concepts
that can be looked at comparatively across cultures. Culturally specific values and
constructs are considered EMIC aspects of a culture specific to a culture not directly
comparable to other societies. ETIC may be thought of as generalisable and EMIC as
idiosyncratic (Morrison 2000). There is a growing recognition that greater EMIC
understanding must be developed in a variety of disciplines including management,
entrepreneurship, psychology, marketing, organisational behaviour and health
(Cheung, van de Vijver & Leong 2011; de Jong, Steenkamp & Veldkamp 2009; Farh,
Cannella & Lee 2006; Lau et al. 2012; Skevington 2002).
The GLOBE dimensions, both cultural and leadership, can be viewed as representing
ETIC level concepts of culture and universal types of leadership (House et al. 2004).
However in order to fully understand culture and management in a society extra
information on just what these universals mean is required. Fuller understanding is
gained from looking at EMIC aspects of culture and leadership (Jayakody 2008). This
was done in the second phase of the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy 2007; Chhokar,
House & Brodbeck 2012). By using EMIC level concepts one can understand why a
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nation has a preference towards one particular pole in cultural and leadership
dimensions and expands understanding of cultural impact on management.
The inclusion of EMIC aspects of culture has been deemed a significant contribution
from the GLOBE study that can propel managerial leadership studies forward that
look at culture (Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006). The researchers involved in the
Globe study’s EMIC analysis describe the approach of bringing in cultural specific
knowledge as a solution to “address the respective deficiencies of pan-cultural and
indigenous research” (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House 2012, p.1024). From this
perspective, the next necessary extension is to expand the use of the extant literature,
both universal and cultural specific in relation to managerial leadership preferences
and behaviours to build and test models of managerial leadership. In combing ETIC
and EMIC information the understanding generated will include the unique cultural
aspects of managerial leadership to build models that provide a cultural specific
foundation to understanding managerial leadership.
The second book of the GLOBE study describes where cultural studies need to go in
utilising both ETIC and EMIC level information, noting that it is important to
understand to what degree practicing managers reflect the leadership and cultural
constructs that have been identified in the culturally endorsed implicit leadership
theory dimensions (CLTs) (Brodbeck, Chhokar & House 2013). This is essential to
help provide greater clarity and understanding of the unique nature of management in
a given culture.
The challenge associated with bringing together ETIC and EMIC understandings is
largely a methodological concern (Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010;
Earley 2006; Earley & Singh 1995; Lu 2012). ETIC concepts are the foundation and
basis of cross-cultural studies. The measures serve as generalisable across cultures
and are viewed as common elements that work well when doing cross-cultural
research across two or more nations (Berry 1969). ETIC concepts are largely driven
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by positivistic quantitative analysis where surveys are used based on developed
measures and results compared (Morris et al. 1999). EMIC concepts are culture
specific and usually require in-depth analysis that is driven largely by more
qualitative measures (Berry 1990). EMIC studies though are not limited to using
qualitative measures and several have applied a quantitative approach (Morris et al.
1999). EMIC information is gathered through ethnographic approaches and through
the study of extant literature and texts on a culture. This is where the traditional
methodological divide exists, where quantitative studies are the preferred form of
cultural research allowing for comparison and qualitative studies are viewed as
providing deeper level insights that better inform theory on culture specific attributes.
The information on culture specific attributes prove to be of essential use in practical
terms to understanding managers and organisations from different countries (Lu
2012).
The information generated from EMIC studies is considered to be richer and of
greater value, but is constrained by both time and ability to interpret against
universals. Similarly, the ETIC approach allows for study of universals that can
be replicated and applied across different fields, but have not lead to: (1) a significant
number of universals; (2) an overly effective way to provide deeper understanding of
intangible concepts valued in a culture; and (3) have limited practical application
(Yeganeh & Su 2006). This ontological challenge has led to many researchers calling
for the two perspectives to be brought together in order to enhance cultural and
management studies.
Arguments to bring the two perspectives together in conducting cultural based
research call for an approach more akin to anthropology than the ETIC/EMIC
dichotomy that currently exists within management research (Buckley et al. 2014). In
anthropology, the methodological viewpoints are not separate and distinct and do not
let the underlying philosophical constraint drive the research. A variety of
perspectives and classifications of values, attitudes and practices from societal
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cultures are utilised that can be compared or applied. These different contexts may be
rooted in related cultural contexts or from another relevant culture in order to develop
a more robust view of the cultural phenomena being studied. This approach is
endorsed by other management and business researchers that call for different and
varied techniques and approaches to research that must include both ETIC and EMIC
level insights to contribute to a stronger understanding of various phenomena (Bala,
Chalil & Gupta 2012; Berry 1990; Buckley et al. 2014; Chen 2010; Cheung, van de
Vijver & Leong 2011; Dickson et al. 2012; Earley 2006; Earley & Mosakowski 2002;
Earley & Singh 1995; Lau et al. 2012; Leung 2009; Lowe et al. 2014; Lu 2012;
Morris et al. 1999; Niblo & Jackson 2004; Yeganeh & Su 2006). With such
overwhelming support from within the academic community that considers culture in
management research, it is paramount that an EMIC approach be brought into studies
that are examining something like managerial leadership, identified as having a
significant influence from national culture.
Finally a question should be asked if this can properly be done from a positivistic
perspective. Yeganeh and Su (2006, p.364) note, “the thick description of culture
produced by constructivist/qualitative research can help us define variables and frame
hypothesis in quantitative research”. When speaking about developing models of
management phenomena within a Chinese context, Leung (2009) calls for the use of
all available information and theories in order to bring forward the best theoretical
model possible, going on to note that leadership theory derived by including both
EMIC and ETIC level consideration will generate the most complete description and
expectation of leadership phenomena. Morris et al. (1999) identified several studies
that have used quantitative study to bring EMIC concepts into measures to allow for
understanding of cultural influence. Buckley et al. (2014) explain that data needs to
be put into a holistic context in order to fully understand how the socially constructed
realties and the positivist realities fit together where the categorical features are used
to generate the statistical features to understand perception and relevance. From the
evidence presented it is clear that managerial leadership research that has taken
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national culture as a key influence must take in to consideration EMIC perspectives
and it is possible to do this under a positivist paradigm.
Building EMIC insights into understanding managerial leadership 3.1.1
To build EMIC level concepts to understand culture and managerial leadership it is
most appropriate to use a model of managerial leadership that can connect these
various and diverse bodies of work to paint an effective picture of management in a
country. The approaches to building in EMIC understanding into research may
involve a variety of techniques. According to Earley and Singh (1995), there are four
approaches to take: (1) Unitary, or ‘psuedo-emic’ where emphasis is placed only on
culture specific considerations and constructs, not allowing for any universal
perspectives; (2) Gestalt-form, where variables are established by looking at a system
as a whole and relationships are hypothesized and compared between cultures; (3)
Reduced-form, where the understanding of a system is established by forming a
model based on understanding found in the culture, other systems and nations and
interpreted by looking at cultural specifics; lastly, (4) the Hybrid-form, where a
combined gestalt and reduced form are used through a complicated series of steps that
look at results from both a culture specific and a universal perspective across the
nations being studied. The GLOBE study is an example of a model that used the
Hybrid form that allowed for consideration of results around leadership universals
and the country.
There are other methods by which to look at EMIC considerations of culture. The
cultural metaphor method uses a grounded theory approach to develop a specific
culturally based metaphor to explain activities, practices and phenomena (Gannon
2009). The cultural metaphor approach is intense and requires huge amounts of work
in developing and interpreting the metaphor when it is connected to cultural-based
phenomena. Another approach is known as cultural sensemaking as developed by
Osland and Bird (2000), where paradoxes in a culture are processed and
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understanding achieved through expansion of knowledge and experience in dealing
with the paradox to build an understanding and course of action that is appropriate for
the given culture. This practical model used by managers is based on experience,
conducting cultural exercises and through knowledge gained from reading
explanations of culture. The cultural sensemaking approach has been identified by
Yeganeh and Su (2006) and Lowe et al. (2014) as a means to understand micro-level
or culture specific understanding that are required when going deeper than a cultural
dimension perspective will allow.
Across all of the different methods to build EMIC level understanding the inclusion
of extensive review of culture specific information through extant literature has been
identified as paramount (Earley 2006; Leung 2009; Morris et al. 1999; Niblo &
Jackson 2004; Osland & Bird 2000). Inclusion of insights from specific cultural study
on a nation; from historic development of the society; from studies that have
specifically looked at managerial practices, organisational culture and employee
perspectives will be required in order to develop a model of Australia managerial
leadership that can be examined that takes into account ETIC and EMIC information.
In this research study, the approach to combining both an ETIC and EMIC
perspective is referred to as cultural modelling, where what is known about culture,
from both an ETIC and EMIC perspective is used to develop a profile of managerial
leadership that is culturally specific (Hinton 1998; Selvarajah et al. 1995). This
approach is similar to the technique used in anthropology and mathematics referred to
as ethnomodelling where what is known as universal or western concepts is expanded
on by inclusion of culture specific information related to the local phenomena
(Maynard & Greenfield 2005; Rosa & Orey 2013). Cultural modelling has overlap
with many of the models mentioned above, including the reduced form by Earley and
Singh (1995) as well as cultural sensemaking developed by Osland and Bird (2000).
The APEL framework introduced by Selvarajah et al. (1995) built on the idea of
understanding excellence in managerial leadership across Asia and established its
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four metacategory taxonomy to serve as ETIC level categories of managerial
leadership behaviours. Having established these categories the model has since been
used to develop culture specific models for testing based on ETIC and EMIC
knowledge for each nation that it has been used in (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah
2006; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013;
Selvarajah et al. 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Shrivastava et al. 2013).
In these APEL studies national cultural values have been applied to explaining
managerial views towards excellence in managerial leadership. However due to
limitations within the model it has not been able to look at the impact of managerial
behaviours influenced by culture and their relationship to the behaviours that enable
creativity and innovation. This research study is unique from previous studies using
the APEL framework as it looks at Australian societal values and cultural imperatives
that have shaped impacts on management and can examine how this leads to
managerial perceptions of behaviours that enable creativity and innovation.
The APEL model utilises both ETIC and EMIC approaches in examining managerial
leadership behaviours in a culture. As noted above, the ETIC approach is applied
firstly through the establishment of the behavioural categories that serve as universal
spheres of influence on a manager’s behaviour. It applies the understanding gained
from cultural dimensions, leadership universals and incorporates EMIC information
to establish a relevant cultural model of managerial leadership behaviours.
This study is on Australia, which has a unique managerial leadership paradox that
requires EMIC insights to understand how managerial leadership is manifested
(Ashkanasy 2007). In order to address this, the behavioural categories in the APEL
framework are organised based on what is known about societal culture and
management to determine the specific components that will be tested in the
hypothesised model. The key information on Australian culture will be presented
later in this chapter. First though is an overview of the cultural dimensions and
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leadership universals that provides the groundwork to apply culture specific
information.
3.2 Cross-cultural research studies
Numerous cross-cultural studies have occurred providing insightful assessments of
cultural values shaping the behaviours and attitudes in a society. These studies
identify universally applicable cultural dimensions to explain how culture influences
the behaviour of people in society. A review of the key studies that have shaped this
field will be provided in the section below, leading to a review of the most
comprehensive and recent cultural dimension model, the GLOBE study, which is the
primarily study used in this research project to explain cultural and leadership values
from a universal perspective.
Geert Hofstede and cultural dimensions 3.2.1
The starting point for cross-cultural understanding in management research is Geert
Hofstede’s (1980; 1991, 2001) cultural dimensions. His work serves as the pioneer
research effort in developing ETIC dimensions for use in broadly explaining cultural
values in different societies (McSweeney 2002). Values of a culture are not easily
seen. However, values are reflected in the behaviours of the people in a given culture
and these can be categorised into cultural dimensions (Hofstede 1991, 2001).
Hofstede compiled a field-shaping study that identified four cultural dimensions.
Later with additional analysis and data collection a fifth dimension was included, that
together enables comparison of national cultures, as detailed in Table 3-1 (Hofstede
1991, 2001; Hofstede & Bond 1988). The study was initiated to examine differences
in behaviours of IBM employees across cultures. The study ran from 1967 through
1973 and looked at 40 different nations. Initially four cultural dimensions were
identified, though as noted above, through subsequent research by Hofstede and Bond
(1988) a fifth dimension was developed called Long Term Orientation.
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Table 3-1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
Cultural Dimension Definition Power Distance Comfort of subordinates with inequality Uncertainty Avoidance Comfort with the unknown
Indivdualism/Collectivism Independent responsibility in life or shared commitment to family and relationships
Masculine/Feminine An assertive traditionally “male” based society or towards a caring or nurturing society
Long Term Orientation Future oriented & relationship focused or emphasis on the immediate and recent past
Adapted from Hofstede (1991, 2001)
The study, initially established for corporate use was extended for academic use to
explain national cultures and should be viewed as significantly dated (Javidan et al.
2006; Jones 2007; McSweeney 2002; Taras, Kirkman & Steel 2010). Overall,
Hofstede sits as the grandfather of cross-cultural research, his study and dimensions
are next to impossible to remove from consideration in other cultural business
research (House et al. 2004). His work is utilised in nearly all other cross-cultural
studies. Hofstede’s contribution notwithstanding, ongoing use of his dimensions
should be limited due to more recent, robust and complete studies.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner cultural factors model 3.2.2
Trompenaars and Hampden Turner’s (2003) cultural factors model identifies cultural
dimensions based on work in organisations. They identify several value orientation
dimensions across organisations around the world summarised in Table 3-2. The
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner model goes on to categorise national cultures in
four orientations (project-oriented; role-oriented; power-oriented, or
fulfilment- oriented) relating to a ‘task versus people’ poll and an ‘equality versus
hierarchical’ poll. By taking into account both orientations and poles, cultures are
categorised to determine how business will likely be conducted within a particular
society. The creators use the model in cross-cultural management training.
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Table 3-2: Cultural factors model
Cultural Dimension Definition
Universalism vs Particularism Rules applied universally versus relationship and situational based preference
Communitarianism vs Individualism Interests of the community first versus individual self-interest first
Neutral vs Emotional Deal with people free of emotion versus making emotion a significant part of communication
Diffuse vs Specific Low context view of work & personal world versus high context view with clear separations
Achievement vs Ascription Individual performance based values versus hierarchical, experience or position values
Synchronic vs Sequential Time viewed as interrelated with past present and future or viewed as not interconnected
Inner-directed vs Outer-directed Controlling the environment versus being a part of it and reacting to it
Adapted from: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2003)
There are clear overlaps in the work of Hofstede (1991, 2001) and Trompenaars and
Hampden Turner dimensions (Needle 2010). Power distance and the Achievement
versus Ascription dimensions are similar; as is Individualism/Collectivism and
Communitarianism versus Individualism dimensions. The criticisms of Trompenaars
and Hampden Turner’s (2003) work bear a significant similarity to criticisms of
Hofstede (1999, 2001), related to scientific rigour, western driven thought,
commercial nature of the work and methodological issues (Hofstede 1996; St Claire
2005). Hofstede and Minkov (2011) summarise the issues with the research,
acknowledging its value from a business consulting perspective, but its foundation in
imagination, lack of scientific and statistical rigor make it inappropriate for academic
study.
Schwartz and the theory of human values 3.2.3
Schwartz (1992) developed what is referred to as the Theory of Human Values. His
many publications relating to his cross-cultural research and theory have been
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identified by Hofstede (2001, 2006) and House (2004) as foundational theory.
Schwartz’s theory identifies ten types of values that were found to be near universal
across the societies he investigated as detailed in Table 3-3 (Schwartz 2007).
Table 3-3: Schwartz’s theory of human values
Schwartz's Human Values Open to Change Conservatism
Stimulation Security Self direction Tradition
Hedonism Conformity Self-transcendence Self-enhancement
Universalism Achievement Benevolence Power
Hedonism Adapted from Schwartz (2007)
The values as identified can be grouped into two categories with two poles in each
category, as illustrated above. The first category is being open to change versus
conservation. The second category is self-transcendence versus self-enhancement.
Values change between the identified poles of the categories as experiences and
motivations of cultural members shift taking cues from society and their own life
experiences which feed into the values held.
While the model developed by Schwartz has alignment with some of the work of
Hofstede (2001), it is different in how it was developed (Ali, Brooks & AlShawi
2008). While Hofstede utilised values into classified dimensions, Schwartz looked at
how the values relate to each other and later examined them in a cross-cultural
context (Schwartz 1994; Schwartz & Bardi 2001). This creates some interesting
insights however, the ability to apply the findings from Schwartz in cultural studies is
a challenge, in large part due to the lack of a complete publication detailing the
findings from his work (Terlutter, Diehl & Mueller 2006). His work though has had
influence on other cultural studies, in particular the GLOBE study where cross
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examination between values and dimensions occurred to increase validity of the
GLOBE framework (House et al. 2004).
Inglehart and the world values survey 3.2.4
Inglehart (1990) created the world values survey in order to study how societal values
were shifting. The work was first established in Europe and later extended globally to
include 97 cultures (Inglehart 2010). It examines how cultures are shifting views on
religion, political, economic and social issues. The survey uses two dimensions as
illustrated in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4: Inglehart’s world values
Adapted from Inglehart (2010)
This widely accepted approach to measuring current societal values is, again, created
and based on western values. It provides insight into how cultures are shifting social
values year by year. These shifts are of relevance to managerial leadership research as
illustrated by managers’ awareness and reaction to the growing importance of
corporate social responsibility (Inglehart 2010). However, even though Inglehart’s
research provides the ability to interpret and compare the two primary dimensions
against managerial leadership practices, the broadness of the categories does not
provide significant insights for the purposes of this research study.
The GLOBE study 3.2.5
The GLOBE study is the largest and most recent study that has investigated
developing cultural dimensions (House et al. 2004). For this reason it is the most
relevant to this research study which uses cultural dimensions to help frame
Traditional Secular/Rational AthouritySurvival Self-expression
Inglehart's World Values
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managerial leadership practices in Australia. The GLOBE study spearheaded by
Robert House and a host of established and respected researchers internationally, set
out to build a more complete, dynamic and robust series of cultural dimensions and to
examine and establish dimensions associated with leadership universals (House,
Javidan & Dorfman 2001). The study, surveyed over 17,000 managers from three
industries (telecommunications, financial services, and food processing). These
industries were viewed as being present in all societies (House et al. 2004). The study
had two principal outcomes, nine cultural dimensions and six implicit leadership
dimensions that could be viewed as universal. The nine cultural dimensions included
two categories, “As-is”, how a country currently values associated dimensions and
“Should-Be” how it should value said dimension in the future. The six culturally
implicit leadership dimensions were based upon 21 broader leadership dimensions,
discussed later in this chapter.
3.3 GLOBE cultural dimensions
The GLOBE study’s nine cultural dimensions are summarised in Table 3-5 and
explained below. Largely sourced back to and extended from Hofstede (1999, 2001),
they also incorporate the work of others such as Schwartz (2007) and Triandis (1995).
Uncertainty avoidance 3.3.1
The preference for certainty against higher levels of risk make up the poles of this
dimension (House et al. 2004). Societies have more positive or negative attitudes
towards risk. It is important to consider the attitudes as these have strong implications
on organisations in a given culture. Countries that have a high score in Uncertainty
Avoidance are viewed as being more formal; prefer lower risk and resist change
(House et al. 2004). Those cultures with low uncertainty avoidance scores are less
formal; take greater risks; and more open to change.
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Table 3-5: GLOBE cultural dimensions
Cultural Dimension Definition
Uncertainty Avoidance Similar to Hofstede - Comfort with the unknown
Power Distance Similar to Hofstede - Comfort of subordinates with inequality
Collectivism I Institutional
Combing work of Hofstede & Triandis - Collectivism in the sense of shared rewards
Collectivism II In-Group
Combing work of Hofstede & Triandis - Collectivism in the sense of loyalty to family & organisations
Gender Egalitarianism Part of Hofstede's Masculine/Feminine dimension - How equal are genders in society
Assertiveness Part of Hofstede's Masculine/Feminine dimension - How aggressive is business behaviour
Performance Orientation
Based on McClelland - How society and organisations reward success
Future Orientation Similar to Hofstede - Long term planning and relationship oriented
Humane Orientation Based on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck - Level of care and concern in society among its members
Adapted from House et al. (2004)
Power distance 3.3.2
Power distance refers to the level of acceptance of inequality within a culture (House
et al. 2004). Easily understood, there are many ways power is viewed in a society.
These include: social inequalities exist with high power distance, while a low power
distance score would mean less class differences. Power is stable and difficult to gain
in high power distance societies, while in low power distance societies power can be
obtained based on effort, skills and knowledge. Social mobility is possible in a low
power distance country, but difficult in a high power distance society. Equality and
civil liberties may be lower in high power distance countries and higher in low power
distance countries.
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Collectivism I & II 3.3.3
Collectivism in the Globe study expands on Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) original cultural
dimension (House et al. 2004). The GLOBE study wanting to address the
shortcomings and issues of interpreting the Collectivism dimension consequently
expanded it into two separate dimensions building in the work of Triandis (1995).
3.3.3.1 Collectivism I or institutional collectivism
Institutional collectivism refers to collectivism in the sense of shared resources,
reward and action. Cultures with a high Collectivism I score tend to place emphasis
on communal ideals (House et al. 2004). This may take the form of high levels of
group loyalty; group interests over individual interests; and the economic system
emphasising the group over individual interests. Low scoring cultures emphasise
individual interests, effort and activities.
3.3.3.2 Collectivism II or in-group collectivism
In-group collectivism refers to the connection of the individual to their organisation
and families. Countries with high scores for Collectivism II take pride in being part of
an organisation. Emphasis is placed on the wellbeing of the organisation and
individuals emphasise group achievement. Low scoring countries on the other hand
place the individual and their needs at the centre of responsibility and decision
making focused on the individual.
Gender egalitarianism 3.3.4
Established separately from Hofstede’s (2001) masculine/feminine dimension the
gender egalitarianism dimension looked at the way society enforces and endorses
gender equality (House et al. 2004). Cultures that rank high in gender egalitarianism
are striving for complete equality between genders, meaning equal opportunities in
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terms of education, employment, authority and community. Low scoring societies
place women in a reduced or diminished societal role with lower education, lower
authority and less career opportunities.
Assertiveness 3.3.5
Assertiveness relates specifically to “the degree to which individuals, in organisations
or societies are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in social relationships”
(House et al. 2002, p. 6). It is a unique cultural identifier that differs dramatically
between countries (House et al. 2004). A high score in assertiveness will reflect a
culture that places a high value on competition, control over the environment, values
risk taking and initiative, with rewards based on results and performance. A culture
with a low assertive score will look for cooperative models and solutions, appreciate
establishing and maintaining respectful relationships and place individuals as a part
of the environment with little control over it.
Performance orientation 3.3.6
Performance orientation according to the GLOBE definition “reflects the extent to
which a community encourages and rewards innovation, high standards and
performance improvement” (House et al. 2004,pg 239). The dimension is framed in
the context of Weber (2012) and McClelland’s (1967) work on Protestant work ethic
and achievement orientation where societal emphasis is on results and improvement.
The dimension again relates to some of what Hofstede (2001) included as a
component of his masculinity/femininity dimension, but expands on it substantially
(House et al. 2004). High scoring cultures emphasise rewards to individuals; results
focused on improvements; stress initiative; value training; and value directness in
communication. Low scoring cultures on the other hand place greater emphasis on
family and harmony; the individual as opposed to their work; are hierarchical and
cooperative.
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Future orientation 3.3.7
The GLOBE study defines Future Orientation as the “degree to which individuals in
organisations or societies engage in future-oriented behaviours such as planning,
investing in the future and delaying individual or collective gratification” (House et
al. 2004, p. 12). This dimension builds on the work of many other studies. The
concept was first studied in the early 1960s with the work around time orientation by
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and Hall (1988). High future orientation cultures
save for the future; emphasise long term strategy in organisations; connect spirituality
to economic success; defer short term gratification; and recognise the importance of
visionary leadership. At the other end of the scale are low scoring countries which
reflect a culture less focused on saving or long term planning, oriented towards
instant rewards.
Humane orientation 3.3.8
The GLOBE study defines it as “the degree to which individuals in organisations or
societies encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly,
generous, caring and kind to others” (House et al. 2004, pg 13). The dimension again
has components related to Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) masculine/feminine dimension,
identifying toughness and tenderness of a society. Schwartz’s (2001) values study
includes a similar dimension, self-transcendence, emphasising a strong humane
orientation and self-enhancement having a low humane orientation. A society with a
high score in humane orientation places importance on people, in particular family
and friends; the government plays a policy-oriented role in promoting well-being; and
a more paternalistic set of norms exist with high levels of respect and obedience on
the part of children and control on the part of parents. Low scoring countries place
emphasis on the individual; view motivation as related to wealth and power; a welfare
state infrastructure exists, where everyone is expected to meet their own needs.
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3.4 GLOBE study - primary leadership dimensions
The GLOBE study’s second outcome was the development of six universal
leadership dimensions, based on implicit leadership theory (Den Hartog et al. 1999;
House et al. 2004; Lord & Brown 2001). The manager will in a sense build a
“prototype” from cultural values as to what an effective leader should be and acts
accordingly to motivate subordinates and accomplish goals (Lord & Maher 1993).
The GLOBE study takes this idea and argues that examining different
leadership preferences within cultures creates culturally endorsed implicit leadership
dimensions (CLTs) (House et al. 2004). GLOBE identified a total of 21 leadership
attributes as being universally positive or negative in contributing to leadership
effectiveness resulting in different styles of leadership being emphasised across
cultures. Through these 21 first order dimensions, six second order dimensions were
identified, referred to as CLTs and represent six dimensions of leadership which are
universally accepted to either enable or hinder effective leadership. The six are
compiled in Table 3-6.
Table 3-6: GLOBE CLT dimensions
Leadership Dimension Definition Charismatic/Value-
based Ability to inspire, motivate & expect high performance outcomes from others based on core values
Team Oriented Emphasis on effective team building & implementation across a goal among team members
Participative Degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions
Humane Oriented Reflects supportive and considerate leadership that includes compassion and generosity
Autonomous Refers to independent and individualistic leadership
Self-protective Ensures the safety and security of the individual or group member
Adapted from House et al. (2004)
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The results from the GLOBE study show that Charismatic/Value-Based leadership is
a universal positive contributor to effective leadership; while Self-Protective
leadership is a universal inhibitor. The other four CLTs fluctuate in terms of how they
are interpreted across cultures. Team oriented leadership is viewed as a substantially
positive contributor to effective leadership. Participative leadership was viewed as
predominantly positive to marginally positive. Humane oriented leadership was also
viewed as a reasonably positive dimension contributing to effective leadership.
Autonomous leadership was largely viewed to be a moderate to negative constraint to
effective leadership. Taken together these categories create a snapshot of primary
styles that managers employ in a culture, further augmented by culturally contingent
leadership attributes. The culturally contingent leadership attributes provide a greater
context to understanding leadership and contribute substantially to understand how
management manifests itself in a culture (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House 2012).
The Australian aspects of these will be presented towards the end of this chapter. The
reason for this is that in order to have significance beyond comparing rankings with
other nations, it requires more EMIC insight. ETIC level constructs are primarily
useful to compare across societies. Before getting into explaining the results from an
Australian-specific perspective, EMIC level Australian values and cultural insights
need to be presented.
3.5 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its cultural dimensions
The GLOBE project and its cultural dimensions have had flaws identified related to
the size and scope of the project. The complexity of the whole project, involving so
many researchers; the number of countries being studied; differences in scores
between categories; and confusion over the way questions were asked, interpreted
and answered (Graen 2006; Hofstede 2006; Hofstede 2010; Peterson 2004). It has
been argued that the data collected does not relate well to the big five personality
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measures across countries (McCrae et al. 2008). Issues of stereotyping and
measurements based on personal assumptions and interpretations of culture were
identified as negative consequences of how the GLOBE study was handled (Minkov
& Blagoev 2012). These shortcomings though do not preclude its use as a high
quality means of understanding culture and are arguably the most complete measures
of universal cultural dimensions developed, it provides an expanded and updated
model of cultural dimensions that can be easily understood and is the most recent and
relevant study to use when exploring managerial leadership in different cultures.
3.6 Criticisms of the GLOBE study and its leadership dimensions
The six leadership dimensions represent broad categories or styles of leadership that
are viewed as universally applicable. The first issue identified is that the CLTs as
developed represent an average leadership style found in cultures (Graen 2006). The
principle issue is that emphasis is placed on universals and does not take into account
culturally specific differences of more relevance to understanding managerial
leadership. A general stereotype of leadership is what is dominant, when a more
dynamic understanding of leadership is needed (Jepson 2009). This argument reflects
the same ETIC and EMIC issue that was discussed at the beginning of the chapter.
EMIC understanding is required in order to provide greater context, practicality and
knowledge on managerial leadership in different cultures.
As this study is looking at Australia it will be used to illustrate these issues. In the
research on Australia a sample of 344 respondents was used (Ashkanasy 2007;
Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003). However, the decision to use only two
sectors, finance and telecommunications with a total of 15 large Australian based
firms considered, with an average of 24 respondents from each organisation is
limiting in application across the nation and in industry sectors. Selecting managers
from such a small number of firms and sectors may not necessarily lead to a fair
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representation of Australian managerial leadership. Organisations that have an
average of 24 middle managers, the target sample, are likely to be large.
Considering the large number of small firms that make up the Australia economic
landscape and that only 15 large firms from two sectors were looked at, the resulting
profile is more representative of organisational managers in large organisations than
all Australian organisational managers (Ashkanasy 2007; Clark et al. 2012). This
shortcoming creates questions about the results explaining Australian managerial
leadership. While being of significant value, understanding Australian managerial
leadership is complicated and needs further study. Ashkanasy (2007) explains the
challenge in understanding Australian leadership as an enigma, where paradoxes exist
and subtleties need to be examined to be understood. By utilising different
approaches that are complimentary to the work of GLOBE, and specifically to
Australia, advances can be made to investigate how managerial leadership manifests
itself in Australian organisations.
3.7 Country cluster issue
Australia has been included as a part of the Anglo-country cluster in the GLOBE
study and recently increased debate has occurred surrounding the most
geographically dispersed cultural cluster used in the GLOBE study. Diverging values
and growing diversity in trade relationships highlight fundamental shifts occurring
between the countries (Egri et al. 2012). The dominant locations for much of the
research that relates to the Anglo cluster are the United States and the United
Kingdom. This is an issue as leadership and management practices originating from
these countries continue to be identified as contributing to poor managerial training,
ineffective organisational practices, lack of acceptance by subordinates and confusion
in Australia (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Parry 1996). Graen
(2006) identifies that differences in business culture would largely be ignored when
looking at individual countries in the Anglo cluster. Cultural imprint studies
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conducted in Australia in the mid 90s indicate the use of American style managerial
leadership practices as a mistake for Australian organisations (Australian Quality
Council 1994; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). Australian
managers need to use approaches suited specifically to the culture, not another
nation’s culture. This requires a better understanding of how Australian managers
view leadership. This study will be able to address some of the gap in knowledge that
exists with respect to how managers in Australia view leadership of their
organisations by taking into account a greater variety of cultural imperatives that
impact on society and in turn management.
3.8 Australia as a part of Asia
Alongside the country cluster issue is Australia’s changing relationship with Asia,
which highlights the potential beginnings of a cultural shift. More and more there is a
growing recognition and connection between Asia and Australia. This was strongly
recognised as early as in the Enterprising Nation report (Karpin 1995b). The report
recommended Australian organisations needed to adapt to increase opportunities and
interaction with Asia. As well, the importance of trade linkages, increased cultural
understanding and positive social and economic relationships have been stressed as
reasons that Australia should identify and interact more with Asia (Australia in the
Asian Century Task Force 2012). Australian society too has shifted, with now one in
ten Australians having Asian ancestry. Further illustrated by the fact that two million
of the five million foreign born residents in Australia are Asian born. This is a tenfold
increase over 30 years representing a large part of the labour force, increasing the
influence of Asian cultures in organisations.
Australia, while geographically located in the Asia Pacific region has never formally
been identified as a part of Asia either by Australia or by Asian nations. A leading
academic in Australian studies, Stephen Alomes (2012, p.116), summarises the
current position of Australia in context to being part of Asia using the analogy of
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Australia being of two interconnected, but separate perspectives that highlights the
uniqueness:
Australia IS and is not in Asia although it is in the Pacific
Australia IS and is not an Asian society although it has a growing
Asian population
Australia is and is not a multicultural society (p.116)
Transcending this gap, as noted by Alomes, is in large part why research looking at
Australian culture in a more complete and culturally relevant manner is required.
Given the APEL model originated in the ASEAN nations, Australia’s closest Asian
neighbours, its use in Australia is also logical (Selvarajah et al. 1995). With Australia
having greater economic dealings with Asia, including a growing level of foreign
investment from Asia; a growing population and labour force of people of Asian
origin there is potential for Australian culture to shift over time and a view of
Australian managerial leadership based on an Asian framework could prove
beneficial to reflect on as these changes become more pronounced.
3.9 Australian culture
Australia has been identified as “a land of contradiction and paradox” in the GLOBE
research (Ashkanasy 2007, p. 78). There is a need to further explore Australia’s
managerial leadership from a perspective that includes both ETIC and EMIC
consideration. This research project, using the APEL framework, will utilise the
existing cultural understanding and insights on Australia and Australian management
to explore managerial leadership in Australia.
This portion of the literature review will provide an understanding of Australian
culture and how it impacts on managerial leadership. To begin with, a high level
overview of Australia and its development will be provided followed by a review of
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relevant EMIC cultural values unique to Australia. An examination of studies
involving Australian management will be presented. Finally a review of the GLOBE
dimensions of culture and leadership attributes will be produced, providing an ETIC
and EMIC understanding of Australian culture.
Indigenous Australians 3.9.1
The researcher would like to recognise the Australian Aboriginal population and their
unique culture. The Aboriginal people of Australia are the continents first inhabitants
and traditional owners of the land. Aboriginal culture is unique and may be viewed as
both connected to and separate from the broader context of Australian culture. This
research study is focused on understanding the broader culture and Australian
managerial views on leadership from a national perspective.
3.10 EMIC Aspects of Australian Culture
Settlement 3.10.1
Australia was claimed as a British colony in 1770 (Department of Immigration and
Citizenship 2007). Settlement was initially tied to the decision by the British crown to
use Australia as a penal colony, with settlement beginning in 1788 with the arrival of
approximately 1500 people, half sent as convicted criminals. The other arrivals were
employees of the Crown and free settlers. Migration to the country was not limited to
convicts or people from the UK, and throughout the 1800s, migration included others
from Europe, as well as a significant number from China. In 1840 the population of
the country was 430,000 and in 1871 approximately 1.7 million people. Early
migration was driven by economic opportunity tied to agriculture and the gold rush
(Duarte 2008). As a young nation Australia continued to experience migration from
other countries, again predominantly European during the late 19th century. Policies
towards migration were relatively open during Australia’s early development as a
colony of Britain.
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Economic recession and growing feelings of nationalism resulted in the settled white
population having increasing concerns over wealth generation and employment of
non-European migrants. The country established new migration rules and identified
itself as a “white colony”. This resulted in already landed Chinese migrants leaving
the country with the launching of Australia’s white only policy, named the
Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 (Thompson 1994). Immigration remained stable,
and primarily British and Irish through to World War 2, when there was a shift to
allow for refugees and people displaced during the war.
Following World War 2, a wave of increased migration occurred due to skill
shortages, to promote permanent residence from Europe and increase migration
beyond the traditional immigration source, the UK (Department of Immigration and
Citizenship 2007). This result was the establishment of large Italian and Greek
communities in Australia. The last significant change that impacted on settlement
occurred with the relaxation of the Immigration Restriction Act that saw the white
only migration policies end which opened up Australia to a more diverse group of
migrants and refugees beginning in the early 1970s that have led to its diversified
ethnic population of today.
Australia’s unique shared identity was built on its settlement and British values.
However, from very early on, the distinctive mix of settlers and convicts developed a
society where freedoms and opportunity were granted outside of what would have
been acceptable in class oriented Britain (Thompson 1994). This independent way of
doing things, along with a sense of nationalism and a geographic displacement from
the UK, impacted on the colony as it established its own sense of identity and cultural
mores (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). What emerged was a
society that emphasised equality for all through Australia’s uncompromising and
unique approach to egalitarianism.
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Australian egalitarianism 3.10.2
Egalitarianism by definition means that all people are equal, a relatively simple
concept, that is found in many nations and societies today (Moore 2011). In Australia
this concept is imbedded in the culture to the point of being the most defining
characteristic at the heart of its political, legal and economic systems (Department of
Immigration and Citizenship 2007). According to the Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade (2012), Australian egalitarianism in its politically correct sense can be
summarised as follows:
…there are no formal or entrenched class distinctions in Australian
society, as there are in some other countries. It also means that with
hard work and commitment, people without high-level connections
or influential patrons can realise their ambitions.
This concept though has greater meaning and cultural impact when described from a
historic and anthropological perspective. Thompson (1994) has detailed the
development and application of egalitarianism in Australia and notes that much of
Australian egalitarianism relates to a sense of collective ‘sameness’. Sameness in this
context means Australians are equal as long as they are the same, holding Anglo
values, primarily meaning “socially and culturally homogenous” (p. 252), resulting in
a paradox where “Australia was egalitarian because it was xenophobic and sexist” (p.
252). This concept may also be considered exclusionary egalitarianism. In today’s
Australian society, this exclusionary concept is an inappropriate assessment of
Australian egalitarianism. However, a sense of egalitarian sameness remains. There
has been a concerted effort to revise all relevant legislation and improved political
commitment to ensure that egalitarianism exists for all in the multicultural country
that is Australia (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). This has resulted
in an egalitarian society that does fundamentally treat all as equals, though the
sameness value remains (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994).
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The concept of ‘sameness’ is reflected in the culture as a shared mindset towards
egalitarianism that all should be given the same opportunities, but that those
opportunities should not be outside the ascribed achievable goals of the population.
However, this does not mean a belief in traditional collectivism or socialism, where
differences in wealth, property ownership or other noticeable income distinctions are
not tolerated (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). Rather hard work,
achievement and differences in income are expected and based on individual effort.
Similarly, equality is recognised as having limits in Australian organisations with a
limited, but still supportive attitude towards hierarchy (Irwin 1996; West & Murphy
2007). To gain support for hierarchy respect is needed, something that impacts
significantly on how Australian managers chose to lead, showing respect and
minimising power distance. Australian egalitarianism is interconnected with other
concepts that are unique cultural attributes. The sameness as defined above is related
to other cultural values, detailed in greater context in the next sections.
A fair go 3.10.3
When looking at egalitarianism it comes with an expectation of equal opportunity. In
Australia this concept is communicated culturally through the idiom of ‘A Fair Go’, a
unique term found in Australian language (Australian National Dictionary Centre
2013). It has come to mean “what someone achieves in life should be a product of
their talents, work and effort rather than an/as/a result of their birth or favouritism”
(Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007, p. 32). When taken in the context
of Australian culture this means that there is an acceptance of all people having the
right and opportunity to achieve encouraged by society. This is connected to other
aspects of Australian culture that need to be understood to provide greater context:
the ‘Australian Dream’, the ‘Tall Poppy’ and the concept of ‘the battler’.
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The Australian dream 3.10.4
Often when a national dream is mentioned the “American dream” is thought of and
considered. The American dream is the right for everyone to achieve all one can
(Adams & Schneiderman 2012). The American dream is “…that each man and each
woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable,
and be recognised by others for what they are…” (pp.214 – 215). This further
definition explains why wealth, status, designation and prosperity are of value in the
United States and reflects their culture.
From an Australian perspective a national dream has different boundaries and reflects
the cultural values already discussed. While not formally established or enshrined in a
declaration of independence, the Australian dream has long been held as the goal of
home ownership, in particular a large block of land in a suburban location with access
to all necessities and amenities (James 2007; McInnes 2012). The importance of the
Australian dream from a cultural perspective is that it establishes a standard for
Australian success that reinforces ‘sameness’. It clearly frames the proposed level of
achievement for all. This standard is not enforced in any formal way, there is nothing
preventing greater levels of personal achievement however, the ‘sameness’ required
of egalitarianism in Australia has played a role in shaping this dream. To this day it is
viewed as fair, relatively attainable and in a country of significant size achievable for
all (McInnes 2012). It is a dream that all could embrace and accept.
Another important aspect is the Australian dream does include the attainment of all
desired amenities and necessities. It is a consumer culture, where people enjoy the
items that come with a middle class lifestyle. Depending on how affluent the
individual is there exists interest in attaining status symbols associated with that level
of wealth, accepted by all (Duarte 2008). Similarly at an individual level, most people
are accepting of income discrepancies. When explaining the Australian dream in the
context of Australian culture it may be viewed as a level that society views as an
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acceptable accomplishment or standard for all. To add context, this is where the
concept of the tall poppy must be explained.
Tall poppies 3.10.5
Tall poppy is another unique cultural attribute and phrase strongly associated with the
Australian language. A tall poppy is a person who has achieved success, fame and/or
fortune that can be identified for these achievements (Australian National Dictionary
Centre 2013). To understand the concept and the consequences of achieving this
status one has to understand the inherent cultural desire to look down on high
achievers in Australian society. The egalitarian nature of Australia that promotes both
sameness and opportunity uses humour and attitude in order to ensure that those that
are high achievers do not take themselves too seriously (Goddard 2009). This type of
‘levelling humour’ goes even further in extreme cases of success and manifests itself
in a uniquely Australian way.
Once identified, an individual that has been deemed a tall poppy will be subject to
criticism and ridicule, known as Tall Poppy Syndrome (Feather 1989; Peeters 2004).
This Australian cultural value goes against what is the dominant behaviour in other
western cultures, where a high achiever is placed in a higher position of adulation and
respect (Feather 1989). The Australian tall poppy often times is associated with
boastful behaviour and a person may be deemed a tall poppy simply from being in a
position of power and denigrated by others in society (Duarte 2008). The result is a
culture where achievement, success and dreams need to be kept in check and not
flaunted to avoid criticism.
This has major implications for people in authority and must be a consideration in
how people manage Australian organisations. Feather (1989, 1998) has warned that
“attitudes that people have towards tall poppies may be an important ingredient that
influences the stability and advancement of groups and societies” (Feather 1989,
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p.365). A 2003 study looked at tall poppy attitudes against value-based leadership
and found there to be a need for Australian managers to consider the cultural attitudes
associated with tall poppy syndrome (Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003). There is
clear indication that managers must consider tall poppy syndrome as a constraint in
efforts to grow and succeed beyond a certain level. Understanding this attitude has an
impact on how best to approach innovation efforts.
Battlers & punters 3.10.6
While a tall poppy in Australia represents an excessive level of achievement and
where boldly celebrating ones achievements is frowned upon, the cultural values of
the nation do show support for individuals and societal groups at the other end of the
spectrum, those referred to as ‘battlers’ and ‘punters’. The term ‘battler’ has come to
mean a person who works hard for little reward, that struggles to reach their goals,
earns a living and does so with courage (Australian National Dictionary Centre 2013).
Australian values place great emphasis on supporting the battler and place them in a
position that commands a sense of respect and a desire to see them succeed (Duarte
2008). The concept of supporting the underdog, a less colloquial term for a battler,
has been found to be used frequently in the media and in cultural studies as the type
of citizen Australians will support (Ashkanasy 2007; Department of Immigration and
Citizenship 2007; Thompson 1994).
This relates to the ‘fair go’ cultural idiom, in that what battlers need and deserve is
the opportunity to work towards achieving the agreed upon dream, or acceptable
achievement in Australian terms. It can be extended through to another term which is
used to describe people who are average, a ‘punter’ (Yallop 2005). While most often
associated with someone who gambles, the term has become a colloquialism for those
that are trying hard and deserving ‘a fair go’. The context of the battler and the punter
is one that Australian managers will need to relate to in their organisations. There is a
sense of connection among Australian people to the idea of supporting a battler
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(Ashkanasy 2007). The support towards a manager who understands this cultural
value may increase success in positioning the organisation and its members to
achieve goals.
When taken together, the cultural constructs presented pertaining to a fair-go, battlers,
tall poppies and the Australian dream represent the context in which Australian
egalitarianism exists. Tall poppies and battlers serve as the poles where one is
heckled and the other is supported. The Australian dream sits as the benchmark of
achievement that all citizens should strive towards. In this context, citizens work hard
as a battler or punter to achieve, but not to a point where they will become a tall
poppy. This may serve well as a gauge against which Australian managers need to
position efforts to be innovative without pushing so hard that employees disconnect
from the efforts and view it as excessive.
Mateship 3.10.7
It is important to note that many key concepts identified at the heart of Australian
culture are not necessarily egalitarian. The imagery of the Australian bushman, the
larrikin, the digger, the sports fan are all male archetypes with little connection to
females (Duarte 2008). Arguably, one of the strongest cultural aspects of Australia
that is interlinked to its history, its citizens and relationships is ‘mateship’. Mateship
is defined as “a code of conduct amongst men stressing equality and fairness” (Yallop
2005).
Its origins date back to Australia’s settlement and early development. Challenging
times and the need to depend on fellow settlers has been identified as a potential point
of origin for the concept in the Australian collective mind (Duarte 2008). The concept
was strengthened through Australia’s economic development where it served as a
sense of connection and community among men and a form of solidarity among
workers (Thompson 1994). During both World Wars the concept deepened in the
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Australian psyche with Australian’s fighting men, known as diggers encouraged to
place their trust and faith in one another, further infusing mateship into Australian
culture (Duarte 2008).
Mateship reflects a mandatory aspect of relationships that even managers must
subscribe to. It reflects connection to each other and a degree of respect among peers.
The concept sits above other relationship paradigms in Australia, where mateship
comes first, above a commitment to an organisation. Mateship in Australian culture
extends beyond positions of power and across both genders even though it is a
masculine concept (Thompson 1994). The result of this concept is a strong bond
between Australians, it can be viewed in a positive light, but also has many negatives
associated with it; a lack of emotional connection, lack of verbal communication, a
tendency of violence towards women, exclusion of minorities and those that are
different (Pease & Pringle 2001).
Women also share this mateship sense of bond with their co-workers and friends
(Duarte 2008). Mateship, as a defined concept can be separated as male oriented, but
its application in Australian culture includes both genders. Establishing a positive
working relationship built on respect and support between co-workers is of
paramount importance. The impact of mateship in Australian organisations can be
found in camaraderie among workers and a sense of being in it together. Duarte
(2008) explains this by referring to the negatively viewed practice of “dobbing in” or
reporting actions of a co-worker being looked down upon and should be avoided,
even if the other party is against the actions because the relationship comes first
(West & Murphy 2007).
Australian humour supports mateship, communicating a connection between people.
Viewed as unique, it is characterised as dry, self-mocking, anti-authoritarian and
ironic (Government of Australia & Big Black Dog Communications 2007). Humour
is an essential shared aspect of Australian culture. Managers must use humour as a
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levelling tool as it creates a sense of mateship and a connection between subordinates
that does not negate the power difference. Australians take great pride in their sense
of humour and view it as a strong part of relationships.
She’ll be right and no worries 3.10.8
A unique expression found in Australian culture that is well known the world over is
‘She’ll Be Right’ (West & Murphy 2007). According to the Macquarie dictionary it is
a colloquialism that is an “expression of confidence that everything is in order”
(Yallop 2005). It can also be viewed as a reflection of Australians indifference
towards details and a blind trust that overall things are positive (West & Murphy
2007). This concept is illustrated by an example of work that may have errors and
inconsistencies, but is still accepted as sufficient. Still others view it as a reflection of
the Australian relaxed attitude to life (Duarte 2008). Ashkanasy (2007) connects the
concept of Australia as “the lucky country” created by Horne (1964) and notes the
‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude takes the place of long term vision. From these various
contexts it is clear that ‘She’ll Be Right’ represents an optimistic and laid back
approach to life, work and business in Australian culture that managers must be
aware and work with.
The result is that this attitude has been identified as a reason why Australian
organisations may be passive towards change (Turnell & Washbourne 1991). This
can further be seen with another popular expression in Australia, ‘No Worries’, which
has developed to mean that one should not worry as everything will turn out fine or
positively (Australian National University 2013). The impact of this prevailing
attitude on management is explained in studies that have found an American ‘crisis
style’ approach to change and management disconnects with Australian workers
(Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996).
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3.11 Summations of Australian culture
As earlier cited Donald Horne (1964, 1987) was an Australian academic, journalist
and social critic that wrote a critical analysis of Australian culture. First published in
1964, The Lucky Country represents one of the first explanations of what Australian
cultural values were. Horne was very critical of Australian culture placing it in a light
that reflected negative aspects preventing Australia from reaching its full potential.
While the title of his book has been taken to mean that Australia is a country full of
wealth and opportunity, he presented it in an ironic sense. His meaning was that
Australia was achieving its success not through greater levels of economic
development and innovation, but rather was simply utilising its natural resources and
failed to capture the higher value-added opportunities that could propel the country
forward.
The areas touched on by Horne were numerous and have been summed up effectively
by Milton , Entrekin and Stening (1984,p.38):
Horne has argued that Australia and Australians are characterised by
a number of significant features among which are the following: anti-
intellectualism; a strong materialistic streak; assertion of toughness
and masculinity; belief in the need for everyone to have a “fair-go”;
an extraordinary stable society; little innovation and originality;
public tolerance; beliefs in the virtues of being ‘ordinary’; mediocrity;
low levels of nationalism; fanatical attitudes towards sport in general;
and deep scepticism. (p.38)
Cultural values are identified by the government of Australia and outlined in the
Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2007) document Life in Australia. It
summarises Australia as a completely democratic and free society where equality
exists between all residents. It identifies equal opportunity for all, represented by the
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term ‘a fair go’ and the strong egalitarian nature of the nation is clarified through
there being absolutely no class system, though differences in wealth exist.
This has been identified as part of the paradox that exists in Australia where all are
equal with opportunity, but this opportunity is limited by cultural constraints difficult
to move past (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994). The Department of Immigration and
Citizenship (2007) document continues to explain the challenge of defining Australia
and Australians through a few words, making a point of reasserting the egalitarian
values and importance of ‘a fair go’ and acknowledging the historic connections to
British heritage and culture while becoming more multicultural and connected to
Asia.
The two summations presented above help paint a picture of what makes up
Australian culture, the positive views of a strong egalitarian culture and the problems
associated with the cultural attitudes inherent in that egalitarianism. From a
managerial leadership perspective these assessments highlight why it is a challenging
reality to lead organisations in Australia. This requires further investigation of
Australian culture from a management perspective.
3.12 Early commentary and studies on Australian management
One of the earliest profiles of Australian middle managers was published in 1974,
which like Horne (1964), provided a rather negative assessment of Australian
managers (Byrt & Masters 1974). In the book it notes that Australian managers are
impacted by the bureaucratic nature of Australian society; influence from government
highlighting a lack of initiative; being highly egalitarian; conservative; critical of
authority; and focused inward towards their organisation and Australia. From this
assessment, it can be argued that many of the dominant components of Australian
culture earlier discussed can be found in Australian organisations including ‘She’ll
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Be Right’, egalitarian sameness and tall poppy syndrome. This profile however, is
significantly dated.
A cross cultural study of personal management values was conducted by England
(1978) examining Australia alongside the US, India, Japan and Korea. The study
linked the values of managers to how they lead and behave in their managerial role.
Australians were found to have a clear and distinct profile from the other cultures.
Australians had high moralistic orientation and a high humanistic orientation; placed
low value on organisational growth and profit maximisation; placed low value on
concepts as achievement, success, competition and risk (England 1978, p.39). There
are again strong similarities in the assessment relating to Australian culture and
management practices.
Other early studies related to Australian management demographics, management
practices, organisational behaviour, and attitudes towards industrial relations
indicated that Australian managers were in many ways unique and potentially lacking
in terms of global competitiveness and competencies (Australian Graduate School of
Management et al. 1990; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Lansbury & Quince 1988;
Lansbury & Spillane 1991; McNair Anderson Associates 1979, 1981). Based upon
these and the earlier mentioned studies there was a growing recognition that
education in Australia must change in order to better enable managers to deal with the
changing world.
The first report in regards to shifting managerial education is referred to as the Ralph
report from 1982. It identified the need to develop improved managerial training
programs to address a variety of issues related to management education (Ralph
1982). With the arrival of this report, increasing management training related to
improving behaviours and skills was deemed important to Australia’s economic
success.
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3.13 Modern studies of Australian management
Australian leadership in a competitive world 3.13.1
Sarros and Miller (1992) released a study detailing the strengths and weaknesses of
Australian managers. The impacts of Australian cultural values are clearly seen in this
study. Strengths were related to egalitarian values; willingness to introduce
innovative work practices; being strong communicators; the ability to adapt; being
forthright and aware. These strengths were offset by weaknesses such as short-term
focus; lacking vision; limited risk taking; poor team players, concern about personal
image; and lack of empathy. Australian cultural values inherent in managers can be
seen between the strengths and weaknesses. Strong communication skills are
necessary to be positively viewed in an egalitarian fashion. The ability to relate and
connect, through communication is a sign of mateship, essential for all Australian
managers. The willingness to introduce innovative work practices is somewhat
outside the findings of previous studies. This may be a result of the context in which
innovative work practices were viewed, either as large scale change or adjustments to
simple operating practices.
Working closely with the Australian Institute of Management, Sarros and other
researchers continued to contribute to the understanding of Australian managerial
leadership and how it applies itself in organisations (Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002).
The research highlights the recognition and importance of transformational leadership
to Australian managers, but notes how organisational culture places less value on
innovation and competitiveness. This reflects a challenge where Australian managers
understand higher levels of leadership, but organisational emphasis does not
necessarily focus on innovation.
Australia top quality management study 3.13.2
The impact of Australian culture on change related behaviours of firms was looked at
in a study of Australian Top Quality Management (TQM) implementation programs.
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Turnell and Washbourne (1991, pg 248) note several cultural inhibitors to an
aggressive change approach applied to TQM changes: ‘she’ll be alright mate’ attitude
results in a passive attitude towards change; the tall poppy constraint creates an
ambivalence towards change; a self-interest constraint results in short-term mindset;
and a rebellious attitude towards change. They note a strong commitment from senior
management to start change is essential for the change to be effective. This entails
working in conjunction with communication, resource allocation and training to
demonstrate why the change is needed. Lastly, they note that management needs
freedom to choose what is most important with only a minimum of mandated changes
to avoid rebellion against the change. This study again reflects the unique challenge
of managing an Australian organisation in the context of cultural values.
Cultural imprint studies 3.13.3
In the mid-1990s two cultural imprint studies were conducted in Australia
(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a). The reports were developed in order
to examine national culture in the workplace. The first report focused on what is total
quality management in Australia from a leadership-management perspective
(Australian Quality Council 1994). The second report examined what leadership in
Australia looked like, taking into account culture (Irwin 1996). A key finding in both
studies was that in order for Australian managers to be effective, they must lead in a
way reflective of the culture, as opposed to synthesising managerial leadership styles
and tactics from other nations, in particular styles dominant in the US and Europe
(Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a).
The quality management study of 1993 begins by noting that when the concept of
total quality control was introduced into Australia there were problems with the
name, the term control was offensive and immediately resulted in reservation and
resistance to what were believed to be universal techniques (Australian Quality
Council 1994). The result was a change of name to ‘total quality management’. The
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importance of personal relationships needing to be established in Australia was
discussed at length. For Australian employees to enact change and improvement
programs they must become “volunteers” and move from behaviours associated with
being a ‘whinger’ (disgruntled) or a ‘conscript’ (prisoner).
Managers must find a balance to connect as a mate to have the respect of their
employees and utilise the relationship to link efforts to adaptation in the organisation.
This requires a secure, comfortable and ‘acceptable’ relationship to exist between the
manager and employees; failure to do these results in a quick detachment among
employees. The ‘acceptable’ component of relationships refers to the need to control
praise, as it goes against the egalitarian nature and positions employees into tall
poppies. Trust and communication efforts need to be maintained that allow for
understanding and dialogue ensuring the individual and not the organisation is seen to
be delivering the information. This places communication directly as a personal
quality as opposed to an organisational role.
Two management styles were identified in the study, the negative “taskmaster” and
the positive “captain-coach”, which can be viewed as opposite ends of the Australian
managerial leadership spectrum. The taskmaster is an autocratic type of manager that
provides inadequate communication, presents change efforts in a crisis context and
provides little feedback, but supports blame. The captain-coach provides clear
rational behind changes and puts it in the context of a cause and goals; they provide a
focus for change efforts, provide clear and effective communication that offers
support and viewed by staff to be acting in a participatory role.
The captain-coach leadership style, much like its sports related counterpart, means
being an active and engaged leader, with a supportive character that creates a sense of
team among an organisation’s members; provides individual support and acts in an
inclusive way towards all. The captain-coach style leads to greater success when
pushing towards organisational change. The term “winning the hearts and minds of
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the people involved” (p.11) sums up the role of an Australian managerial leader, this
ties directly to transformational leadership. Respect is also a fundamental component
and must be at the heart of all efforts as viewed by employees. Egalitarianism is
demonstrated through respect and is expected to be there as opposed to just be given
lip service, in order for it to be believed by co-workers.
The second study was focused on the specific question of what is Australian
leadership (Irwin 1996). The first important finding relates to the fact that no
significant differences exist across gender and age as to what leadership in Australia
involves. This is an important finding as it reiterates the presence of the significantly
strong egalitarian nature of sameness in the country. The study identifies clear
distinctions between a leader and a boss. Three profiles were created as part of the
study and describe a good boss, a bad boss and a leader.
A good boss has many overlapping characteristics as a leader, including the ability to
connect with staff at a personal level, engage in activities and be a participant not an
overseer. Good bosses are engaged in strategy development and are accepted for their
efforts to connect and create a captain-coach approach to management (Australian
Quality Council 1994). The key for a good boss is to act in a manner that will
maintain a positive relationship with co-workers and contribute towards organisation
objectives (Irwin 1996). The concept of a bad boss had managers focused more on
themselves than subordinates or the organisation. They act in a self-preservation
mindset where they do not provide sufficient or quality communication, take a more
authoritarian approach to management and focus solely on results.
The distinction between boss and leader relates to the level of connectivity and
empathy towards subordinates. A boss remains focused on the ‘task at hand’ and has
a reduced connection to subordinates and co-workers. In comparison, becoming a
leader requires a greater commitment and emotional connection to the people in the
organisation. Specific to change efforts, a leader showing consistency in character
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and behaviour, along with a strong commitment to efforts and positive relationships
will be able to effectively deliver direction and instruction that is not viewed as
mandated and will find success. Interestingly, a point made is that many Australians
prefer to work for a good boss as opposed to a leader. While no rationale is provided
for the comment reflecting upon the identified EMIC cultural factors in Australia, a
good boss could be preferred for several reasons relating to egalitarianism, tall poppy
syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes where a leader may be too strong a
personality.
In 2011, the two cultural imprint studies were re-examined to look at their impact and
relevancy of the results (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a). The
identification of the impact of cultural factors associated with mateship and
egalitarianism are noted as being an important outcome that illustrates the Australian
preferences in managers. The review compliments the study as beneficial in
providing understanding why the application of management techniques and tactics
from other nations often failed in Australia, as these practices would not fit or work in
the context of Australian culture.
The use of the study beyond this important conclusion has been limited and is viewed
as a shortcoming explained as follows, “the findings had extraordinary face
validity…massive resonance. People loved hearing the material. BUT…just how can
the findings be used?” (p.14). The review concluded by identifying the continued
relevancy and appropriateness of the study’s findings, again noting the importance of
connecting this work to management training for the 21st century and the continued
importance of relationships for Australian employees. Finally recommendations are
noted that training related to this work needs to be developed around Australian
specific managerial leadership tactics, learning, teams, reward, recognition, with
appropriate measurement instruments to conduct research that builds on these results.
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Enterprising nation 3.13.4
Titled “Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia’s Managers to Meet the Challenges
of the Asia-Pacific Century”, or the Karpin report, as it is often referred to, was the
largest ever study of Australian managerial leadership (Karpin 1995b). The project,
initiated in 1992, with the establishment of an Industry Task Force had 27 research
topics and 24 research reports, resulted in the identification of recommendations to
enhance and prepare Australian organisations for the future. While all pertinent to this
research study, one of the research reports is of particular relevance to explaining
Australian managerial views on leadership.
3.13.4.1 Experienced insights into management - opinions of Australian managers
The “Experienced insights into management: opinions of Australian managers”
report utilised feedback directly from practicing managers on how Australian
managers lead and why they act the way that they do (Barraclough & Company
1995). Opinions on Australian managerial leadership were sourced through focus
groups and structured interviews. The report detailed where leadership is strong,
weak, in need of improvement and why managers lead the way they do.
The study provided an overview of the skills of an ideal manager. In order of
importance they were: people skills; strategic thinker; visionary; flexible and
adaptable to change; self-management; team player; ability to solve complex
problems and make decisions; and ethical/high personal standards. This ideal, as
explained reflects the high level skills that should be present and emphasised in
Australia in order to be a strong leader. These were split into two broader categories,
strategically focused in nature and those that place emphasis on organisational
management, development and consistency. These categories provide some clear
indication of the value behaviours most likely to dominate when considering what
constitutes an excellent managerial leader in Australia.
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The study looked at Australian management strengths and weaknesses and compared
this with the ideal described above. Identified strengths of Australian managers
included (in order): being hardworking; flexible and adaptive;
innovative/inventive; technically sound; egalitarian; independent thinkers; open,
genuine and direct; honest and ethical (Barraclough & Company 1995, p.15). Some
of these identified attributes support previous studies, while others counter previously
stated assessments of Australian management. Innovation in the study is in the
context of working with a lack of supports and resources, not in the context of
initiating development and change conducive to greater levels of productivity.
Similarly, flexibility as a strength relates not to adaptation and change, but the ability
to juggle multiple requirements.
Weaknesses identified (in order) relate to: a short term view; lack of strategic
perspective; being inflexible and rigid; complacency; poor at teamwork and
empowerment; inability to cope with differences; poor people skills; and lack of
self-confidence (p.18). Similar to the strengths, the weaknesses reflect back
Australian culture. The short term view, complacency and lack of strategic
perspective again reflect what has been discussed relating to Australia’s ‘She’ll Be
Right’ attitude and insular outlook and preference for sameness. Egalitarianism and
tall poppy syndrome were identified as preventing growth. Other important negative
insights were the inability to deal with diversity and the inability to pick up cues from
the environment.
In comparison between the ideal and the actual Australian manager, the study
identified, a shortcoming existed in six of eight areas including: lack of vision, short
term view orientation and complacency reflecting the Australian nature to be less
focused on long term planning. In the skills relating to people: teamwork; people
skills; and inflexibility reflect issues related to problems with masculinity and
mateship.
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3.14 Australian culture from the GLOBE study
Australia was included in the GLOBE study as part of the Anglo Cluster (House et al.
2004). Table 3-7 summarises the Australian cultural dimension scores and ranking.
Table 3-7: GLOBE cultural dimensions for Australia
Cultural Dimension
Societal Practices Societal Values Difference
Score “As society is” “As society should be”
Score Rank Score Rank
Power Distance 4.74 53 2.78 25 -1.96
Collectivism I 4.29 28 4.4 42 0.11
(Institutional Collectivism)
Collectivism II 4.17 52 5.75 26 1.58
(In-Group Collectivism)
Gender Egalitarianism 3.4 30 5.02 8 1.62
Future Orientation 4.09 19 5.15 49 1.06
Performance Orientation 4.36 16 5.89 38 1.53
Humane Orientation 4.28 21 5.58 19 1.3
Uncertainty Avoidance 4.39 19 3.98 51 -0.41
Assertiveness 4.28 22 3.81 25 -0.47
Adapted from Ashkanasy (2007)
As a follow up phase to the GLOBE study, which provided ETIC insights, a second
report took into account the EMIC perspectives in a culture (Chhokar, House &
Brodbeck 2012). A principle researcher behind the GLOBE study in Australia, Neal
Ashkanasy (2007), provided the further examination of Australian culture and
leadership utilising the GLOBE model and provided a highly effective summary of
what was found.
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Australia and the performance orientation dimension 3.14.1
Australia ranks 16th out of the 60 countries studied in GLOBE from a societal practice
(As-is) perspective for the performance orientation dimension; while from a societal
values perspective (Should-be) they are ranked 38th. This discrepancy between
practices and values highlights a unique aspect of Australian culture. As a capitalist
country, wealth is a key driver in society reflecting the value of hard work and
achievement found in the work ethic of British migrants and other major migrant
groups (Duarte 2008). These alongside a capitalist market economy provide a
snapshot as to why the practices score sits relatively high and are closely related to
other Anglo nations (House et al. 2004).
The more moderate score in terms of values is reflective of the unique nature of
Australia as discussed in this chapter. Ashkanasy (2007) highlights that Australian
ideals and values place less emphasis on having to be aggressive in terms of
performance orientation emphasising a mindset of a fair go. From a performance
perspective this means an individual’s achievements are a result of determination and
effort and that they have a right to be rewarded for those efforts, seen as an unwritten
right for all people in Australia.
The moderate score in terms of the importance of this orientation may be associated
with the largely positive economic fortunes of Australia since World War 2. Australia
has had numerous periods of economic expansion over the last 50 years and limited
experiences of contraction (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Since the 1960s Australia has
only had three brief periods of recession and rather long sustained economic growth
cycles (Gillitzer, Kearns & Richards 2005; Kearns & Lowe 2011). This includes the
current economic cycle which has been positive since 1991, with positive growth for
over 22 years, the only developed nation in the world to experience such a sustained
period of growth in this period.
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The positive economic fortunes of Australia, coupled with the laid back attitude of its
people and the presence of the tall poppy and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes work
together to explain the moderate cultural importance of the performance orientation
score. Positive economic gains result in lower unemployment and higher national
income levels indicating current practices are sufficient. The laid back attitude, as
described by Duarte (2008), highlights an approach to management and strategy that
supports lower levels of risk and limits willingness to act aggressively in pursuing
economic gains. Lastly, the tall poppy concept referring to the dislike of high
achievement plays a role in shaping the leadership behaviours of its managers
(Ashkanasy 2007; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003).
Australia and the collectivism dimensions 3.14.2
Early settlers faced a tough unforgiving climate and country requiring communal
support (Duarte 2008). The political leaders and decision makers in the nations early
years focused on supporting egalitarianism and developed social welfare and
infrastructure so that residents could work towards their individualistic goals. Built on
the British parliamentary system and laws, Australian society, is founded on
individual freedom and opportunities (Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts & Earnshaw
2002). Strengthened by the concept of a fair go and egalitarianism, Australia is a
more individualistic society less concerned with collectivist ideals (Ashkanasy 2007;
Duarte 2008). In Australia, the government creates an equal foundation for all, but
not at the expense of individual efforts.
In-group collectivism has a unique connection to the egalitarian nature of Australian
culture. The concept of mateship combined with egalitarian values creates a unique
mix of influence on this dimension in Australia. Mateship is a form of group
connection in Australia, where individuals in an organisation are connected to one
another through a sense of loyalty, creating a collective mindset in terms of the
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treatment of others (Duarte 2008; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003).
However, this is offset by the individualistic tendencies associated with
egalitarianism; everyone can achieve what they want. Australian organisations exist
in a space where there are shared goals, but individual effort is encouraged, but not at
expense of one’s mates.
Australia and the gender egalitarianism dimension 3.14.3
Australia, has made substantial efforts to establish equal participation and opportunity
for both genders (Ashkanasy 2007; Thompson 1994). Australia is not without gender
equality issues, many persist, in particular issues have been noted around female
roles, the glass ceiling, remuneration, and politics across all sectors (Wood 2011).
The results of the GLOBE study suggest that Australia has strong values towards
gender egalitarianism (House et al. 2004). Australia ranks 8th in the “should be”
category for gender egalitarianism, in line with a majority of other countries in the
Anglo cluster. This value reflects a very strong sentiment of equality among the
genders (Ashkanasy 2007). The “as is” ranking, 30th, reflects that gender
egalitarianism is a value not yet achieved. This is validated in looking at statistics
related to women in society and the economy, with lower levels of participation and
pay (Wood 2011). The presence of these inconsistencies between highly valued
egalitarianism and unique cultural mores associated with mateship is likely to have
impacted on women in organisations. This could lead to Australian female managers
having more in common with male managers than differences.
Australia and the assertiveness dimension 3.14.4
Australia ranks in line with other Anglo cluster nations according to the GLOBE
study for its current views on the assertiveness dimension (House et al. 2004). Its
score of 4.28 places it 22nd among the 60 countries studied, ahead of England,
Canada, Ireland and New Zealand; and behind South Africa and the United States.
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Australia values directness and practices clarity in business dealings. From the future
oriented side of the dimension, Australia does not view itself as needing to be
significantly more aggressive, it ranks at 25th of the 60 cultural groups. Rather it takes
a more moderate approach, according to Ashkanasy (2007), reflecting the principles
of egalitarianism and collectivism where the attitude towards individual achievement
is tempered by a collective mindset where equality is desired. The tall poppy effect
also plays a role where the associated behaviours of being an aggressive and
successful person are looked upon in a somewhat negative fashion (Feather 1989;
Peeters 2004). The impact of this is a nation which has a pragmatic approach to
assertiveness, being direct when necessary, but maintaining a laid back orientation.
Australia and the future orientation dimension 3.14.5
Australia, again, has a mixed view on future orientation according to the GLOBE
study. It ranks 19th in the “As-is” category and 49th out of 60 in the “should be”
category. The country, which has been riding a long term economic growth cycle,
may be finding a lower focus in future orientation for several reasons. Ashkanasy
(2007) notes that the country had a strong future orientation that has decreased due to
pressures from globalisation, the shifts away from protective economic policies and
refers to Mackay (1993) to note that societal changes preoccupy Australians shifting
focus from planning to coping.
Australia’s economy has been relatively constant over the last 35 years with a large
commodity sector (mining and agriculture) focused on exporting and a strong service
sector supporting the domestic market (Stevens 2008). Outside of a decline in
manufacturing little has changed since 1977. As economic growth picked up in
developing nations in Asia, particularly in China, Australia found itself positioned to
serve many of Asia’s needs and commodity demands. The argument can be made that
this long term stability in the economy, highlighted by low levels of unemployment
and high levels of foreign investment may have allowed Australia to let its relaxed
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attitudes to life impact on this dimension. While the country understands the
importance of long term planning, there appears to be limited desire to make it a
greater priority in Australian organisations.
Australia and the uncertainty avoidance dimension 3.14.6
Australia is ranked 19th and 51st respectively in the categories of Uncertainty
Avoidance. These rankings reflect a culture where uncertainty is tolerated, but still
controlled. Its founding as a colony and long period as an economic servant of the
British Commonwealth provided Australia a relatively protected position (Mascitelli
& Tinney 2013). This was followed by the Gold rush. Those that came to Australia
during the gold rush to seek their riches were taking a risk, but the positive economic
times provided them with a safe environment in which to live.
The period in Australia’s existence that had the most uncertainty was the end of the
1960s and early 1970s when the UK officially joined what was to become the EU and
Australia was left on its own. A protectionist trade policy and a strong export
relationship with the economic powerhouses of the US and Japan positioned
Australia in a stable position. The movements away from protectionism (floating of
the dollar, reducing tariffs, and embracing free trade) also showed a low risk
tolerance with a slow and well managed process in trade liberalisation and entry into
the floating currency market. These efforts while not without ups and downs resulted
in Australia managing to see long periods of economic growth without needing to be
aggressive in their efforts.
In the Karpin (1995) study of Australian Leadership it was noted that Australian
managers and businesses are not aggressive in pursuing innovation rather taking a
more pragmatic approach. Today though there is clear recognition on the part of the
Australian government and organisational leaders that this is of paramount
importance and a strong desire exists to make it change (Department of Industry
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Innovation Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Innovation & Business
Skills Australia 2011b). This position is supported by the GLOBE findings where
Australia has a significant difference in ranking for its “should be” position in relation
to the other cultures studied (House et al. 2004). This though may be a feeling
primarily found in managers, Australian society may not be so willing to shift their
collective attitude towards uncertainty given their inward nature and relaxed approach
to life (Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003).
Australia and the humane orientation dimension 3.14.7
As noted earlier Australian culture is a mix of egalitarian values that has a collectivist
approach in equality for all, which push it toward the higher end of the scale; this is
offset by a strong emphasis on individual effort and a modern Australian culture less
supportive of welfare programs (Ashkanasy 2007). The result of this has Australia
ranked 21st and 19th respectively on the “as-is” and “should-be” categories of GLOBE
(House et al. 2004). These scores reflect a similar nature to most of the other nations
in the Anglo cluster. Australia has strong values associated with ‘a fair go’ for all and
partially explains why being humane is an important cultural value, but belief in
individual effort to succeed is also strong.
Australia and the power distance dimension 3.14.8
Australia ranks 53rd in power distance in the “as-is” category and 25 in the
“should-be” category. The established view, reinforced by the GLOBE study, is that
Australia is a low power distance country that wants to retain the egalitarian nature
that comes with this dimension (Ashkanasy 2007). Managers, while operating in
hierarchical organisations must have a strong respect for people in order to create a
positive relationship that allows for expression of differences in opinion. Failure to do
this has been identified as an issue that leads to decreased organisational commitment
and productivity of employees (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). This
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characterises a society where power differences are accepted, but will not allow an
abuse of power or a decrease in freedoms for others.
3.15 Australian leadership – GLOBE leadership dimensions
The GLOBE study also created a view of Australian leadership which is impacted by
Australian cultural values (Ashkanasy 2007). The Australian profile finds leadership
attributes that rank highly include leadership that is inspirational, having high
integrity and is visionary, further supported by being performance orientated and
decisive. Low ranking attributes viewed as not applicable to Australian leaders
include being self-centred, autocratic and procedural. This reflects the high level view
of what leadership attributes are and are not valued in Australia, to be discussed
further in the next chapter. When compared with the media analysis used in the
Australian specific phase of the GLOBE study a majority of the attributes were
supported and inconsistencies were largely attributed to the nature of media coverage
reporting news for acting against the grain of what is desired leadership.
Nine additional dimensions associated with leadership in Australia were identified.
These nine are broken into three separate categories. Firstly, the traditional concepts
associated with egalitarianism and mateship, are relevant and present in discussions
around leadership providing further evidence these cultural imperatives have a huge
impact on managers. Secondly, a work ethic dimension was identified that Australian
managers must look to address issues around unemployment and opportunity as part
of their role. This work ethic role, when carried out by a manager has focus confined
to the constraints of that organisation. Thirdly, a category reflecting political
leadership issues was found that highlighted the unique nature of Australian views on
leadership. It included leadership behaviours of aggressive and adversarial and
leadership behaviours of cautious and pragmatic at the same time.
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3.16 Chapter summary
This chapter began with an overview of the explanation of ETIC and EMIC measures
of culture, where ETIC information is deemed as directly comparable between
cultures and EMIC information is culturally specific. The importance of EMIC
information to explain culture in management research was presented and identified
that more effort is placed on establishing means to include EMIC nformation to make
studies on a society more relevant and practical for organisations and managers both
in and outside of the society. Researchers have called for more EMIC insights to be
built into models that are exploring national culture influence.
The methodological divide between ETIC and EMIC research was explained. Though
founded in different paradigms, the approach being suggested to deal with this is for
management research is to look to anthropological approaches that combine both
ETIC and EMIC insights. Various methods to do this were explored and explained.
The method used when the APEL framework is applied is named cultural modelling,
where the ETIC categories in the model are adapted based on EMIC insights in order
to make culture specific components.
Having established the required process to address the gap in understanding how
managerial leadership is shaped by Australian culture, the chapter next provided an
overview of the many cultural models developed to understand universal
cross-cultural differences. The work of the GLOBE study forms the strongest
foundation to understand national culture and leadership differences at a universal
level. The GLOBE measures provide an effective base upon which to examine
Australian managerial leadership at the ETIC level.
Following the review of the various cross-cultural dimension models, an exploration
of EMIC aspects of Australian culture were presented along with reviews of relevant
management studies on Australia. The chapter concluded with an examination of the
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Australian results found in the GLOBE study relevant to managerial leadership at
both an ETIC and EMIC level.
Based upon the cultural insights provided in this chapter, a conceptual framework
will be proposed in chapter 4 based on the APEL framework (Selvarajah et al. 1995).
The APEL model has been selected for its unique perspective, as it builds on what is
known at both the ETIC and EMIC level to create a profile in line with a nation’s
culture shaping the behaviours of management.
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4. Conceptual Framework, scale development and hypotheses
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 provided an understanding of the change leadership metacategory and
categorised the behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation in the
same framework as the APEL model. Chapter 3 provided an understanding of how
cultural dimensions provide an ETIC understanding of cultures, followed by an
explanation of EMIC cultural insights that are necessary in management research to
provide deeper cultural understanding of managerial leadership. Australian cultural
values and management studies were reviewed to provide the necessary EMIC
understanding in order to develop an Australian managerial leadership profile for
exploration. This chapter provides the conceptual framework for the research study.
Figure 4-1 provides an overview of the chapter.
Figure 4-1: Chapter overview
By using the information provided in chapter 2, a new categorisation related to
behaviours that enable creativity and innovation is developed and an associated scale.
Based on the review of Australian culture presented in chapter 3, the model and
hypotheses for investigation in this study are identified and explained.
Conceptual Framework, Scale Development and Hypotheses
Use of APEL Model to look at creativity and innovation enabling behaviours
Creativity and Innovation Scale Development
Hypotheses
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4.2 Utilisation of the APEL framework to categorise creativity and innovation enabling behaviours
At the time the APEL model was developed and behaviours were selected for
inclusion, the mid-1990s, very little work had been published on the requirements of
change leadership, specifically around managers enabling innovation and creativity.
Yukl (2010, p. 375) explains that “success in achieving potential synergies requires a
good understanding of the complex relationships among performance determinants,
leadership behaviours and management practices”. Applying behaviours associated
with leading change into the APEL framework brings into view a picture of
excellence in managerial leadership that includes the emergence of change leadership.
The development of change leadership with respect to how managers enable
creativity and innovation was discussed in chapter 2 and a categorisation that treated
the APEL categories as an artefact to consider the extant literature was completed
(see Table 2-7). From the categorisation a foundation to apply the new category into
the APEL model. Figure 4-2 illustrates the conceptual addition to the model.
Figure 4-2: Expanded APEL model with new enabling behaviours category
Adapted from Selvarajah et al. (1995)
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The identified enabling behaviour category currently sits alongside the existing
model. This extension is based on the knowledge that enabling creativity and
innovation are important aspects of change leadership behaviours that should relate to
excellence in managerial leadership. Similarly, the relationship between this new
category and the existing categories in the APEL framework is also unknown and
needs to be explored. As a result of the wide-ranging research on enabling creativity
and innovation, a clear picture has emerged of what behaviours are associated with
enabling creativity and innovation in organisations; see for example de Jong and Den
Hartog (2007). The behaviours considered in the new category associated with
enabling both innovation and creativity are vast and must be selected against the
behaviours included in the APEL framework.
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in an APEL context 4.2.1
The APEL model provides the framework upon which the behaviours associated with
enabling creativity and innovation were considered as presented in chapter 2. The
four categories established by Selvarajah et al. (1995) in the APEL model (Personal
Qualities, Managerial Behaviours, Organisational Demand and Environmental
Influence) were used to do this. These categories are interconnected, as in the APEL
model, and influence one another illustrated in Figure 4-3.
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Figure 4-3: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours in APEL context
As noted, the APEL model already has a well developed category of behaviours
associated with the external environment. Inclusion of additional behaviours linked to
this change-related subcategory would be largely redundant and have not been added
resulting in a revised framework to develop the new category, shown in Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours under investigation
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In this model the managerial leadership behaviours associated with enabling
creativity and innovation are considered in three contexts, in order to expand current
understandings and provide alignment with the APEL model. The dashed lines
between the constructs represent the recognition on the part of the researcher that
managerial leadership behaviours are not singular in nature, but rather impact on a
larger scale (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). The behaviours will be considered in terms of
the category in which they best fit.
The three broad categories in Figure 4-4 have had the associated theory explained in
subcategories based on empirical study, expert analysis and synthesis of the existing
research. These have been used to help identify the specific categories, as presented
in chapter 2. They are summarised in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1: Subcategories of enabling creativity and innovation
Personal Qualities
Managerial Behaviours
Organisational Demands
Role Modelling Team Management Organisational &
Executive Support & Practices
Tolerate Ambiguity &
Risk Resource Allocation
Organisation Vision, Goals, Strategy
Relationships Framing of Work Human Resource
Practices & Policies
Communication Leadership Expertise
Rewards & Incentives
Enabling creativity and innovation scale development 4.2.2
Through a review of relevant and existing literature a comprehensive list of creativity
and innovation enabling behaviours was developed and categorised. Approximately
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160 behavioural statements were identified that enable creativity and innovation
across the identified categories, included as Appendix 1.
This list was reduced eliminating overlap, duplication and indirect behaviour
statements where additional context was needed or where supporting research against
literature was insufficient. Once the behaviour list was processed in the above manner
it was analysed alongside the APEL behaviour statements. The APEL
statements were reviewed and items that had an impact on enabling creativity and
innovation were identified. They were considered in conjunction with the other
identified creativity enabling behaviours and where significant overlap existed
behaviours were removed from the developed categorisation.
The APEL behaviours reflect behaviours which are empirically validated as being
relevant to excellence in managerial leadership. The APEL behaviours already
address some of the stated aspects related to enabling creativity and innovation;
though they have a wider impact and application in an organisation. For example the
behaviour of “having a strategic vision for the organisation” clearly relates to
establishing a vision critical when enabling innovation at the organisational behaviour
level. Inclusion of a similar behaviour in the new scale is not necessary because it is
already in the APEL model and can lead to measurement problems. According to
Devellis (2012) this can result in issues associated with validity, bias and
overrepresentation. The overlapping behaviours were removed from the list of
identified behaviours.
Examining creativity and innovation enabling behaviours using the APEL framework
provides significant insight into the way behaviours relate to enabling creativity and
innovation within organisations. A total of 15 new behaviours were selected to be
added to the newly created scale based on the categorisation, listed in Table 4-2.
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Table 4-2: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours scale
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours Scale
Personal Qualities Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences
Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another
Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
Managerial Behaviours
Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation
Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions
Spread team membership across all departments in the organization
Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted
Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work
Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals
Organisational Demand
Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation
Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
Encourage management to embrace change and innovation
Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation
Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
The scale is a summation of the three aspects of creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours. From a personal qualities perspective items relating to engaging in
creative work; establishing a positive and challenging relationship with co-workers;
establishing reward structures that reflect intrinsic motivation; and provision of
recognition to individuals. From a managerial behaviour perspective items associated
with this category were added to the scale including encouragement to consider
alternative information; spreading team membership across the organisation;
providing abundant resources; instructing subordinates to be creative; ensure decision
making protocols are understood; and ensure information is shared across the
organisation.
Lastly, behaviours added that connect to organisational demand include bringing
diverse skills into the workplace; encouraging management to embrace change;
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linking innovation efforts with organisational goals; establishing decision making
practices that focus on innovation and creativity; and ensuring professional
development occurs that relates to innovation and creativity.
The goal of the scale development was to take a broad range of creative enabling
behaviours which are known to impact across the various categories of influence on
managers. Based upon the diverse research and the APEL model these categories
were used to reflect both the literature and the framework. However, given the
specific outcome of these behaviours and the overlap in impact across the categories,
separate components are not expected and it will be treated as a single category and
construct in this study.
4.3 Hypotheses development: Australian excellence in managerial leadership components
Excellence in managerial leadership in the APEL model is defined as leadership seen
as a combination of factors desirable for good leadership within a contextual
framework (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Specifically, excellence refers to “surpassing
others in accomplishment or achievement” (Taormina & Selvarajah 2005, p. 299).
The context in which excellence in managerial leadership emerges will be different
between cultures as it holds both an ETIC and EMIC perspective. This process allows
for a context based approach to cultural management research, which has been
identified as necessary by a number of researchers (Chhokar, House & Brodbeck
2012; Dickson, Den Hartog & Mitchelson 2003; Hinton 1998; Liden & Antonakis
2009; Scandura & Dorfman 2004; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 2003; Yukl
2012).
A review of recent cross cultural studies that have examined leadership preferences as
being universal or culturally contingent, found that both universal and culturally
contingent leadership or culture-specific approaches are dominating the direction of
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cultural leadership research (Moan & Hetland 2012). The study found that the use of
a universal foundation alongside a culture specific approach is the dominant direction
and provides a more specific level of understanding management and culture.
Use of the APEL cultural modelling approach has been demonstrated in studies
across Asia and into Europe (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah &
Meyer 2008b; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012;
Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013). To do this requires an extensive review of
literature on the culture and management in a given nation to identify cultural context
in establishing the model. This approach has been used in establishing the
components of managerial behaviours utilised in understanding Australian excellence
in managerial leadership. Having explained the conceptual framework used in the
model earlier, the first step in the process is the proposal of the hypothesised
components of excellence in managerial leadership found in Australian managers.
Excellent leader category 4.3.1
The Excellent Leader category was established in the original APEL study based on
the highest scoring items in the research project (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The category
that emerged is strongly aligned to established universal measures of leadership
behaviours. Transformational leadership as established and expanded by Burns
(1978) and Bass (1985a) respectively represents a visionary form of leadership that
empowers followers to feel connected and work towards organisational goals. The
APEL Excellent Leader category, as shown in Table 4-3, is more robust than the
above mentioned transformational leadership as it also connects to the previously
established metacategories of both being task and relationship focused (Yukl, Gordon
& Taber 2002).
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Table 4-3: Excellent leader category
Excellent Leader
10. Be honest
20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place
29. Give recognition for good work
32. Have a strategic vision for the organization
42. Motivate employees
82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry
89. Continue to learn how to improve performance
91. Organise work time effectively
93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people
In the context of the GLOBE study, the Excellent Leader category is in line with two
of the universal CLT dimensions: (1) Charismatic and (2) Team Oriented leadership
(House et al. 2004). Both of these are considered to be universally positive
dimensions of leadership. For Australia, as detailed in Table 4-4, highly ranked
leadership dimensions relate to Charismatic/Value-based Leadership, Team Oriented
Leadership and Humane Oriented Leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). The top five
primary dimensions are Charismatic/Value-Based related and are followed by three
Team Oriented dimensions. The top ten are rounded off with one more Charismatic
dimension and one Humane Oriented dimension.
Table 4-4: GLOBE leadership dimension rankings for Australia
Adapted from: Ashkanasy (2007)
GLOBE Primary Leadership Dimension Australian Rank GLOBE CLT DimensionInspirational 1 Charismatic/Value-Based
Integrity 2 Charismatic/Value-BasedPerformance Orientation 3 Charismatic/Value-Based
Visionary 4 Charismatic/Value-BasedDecisive 5 Charismatic/Value-Based
Diplomatic 6 Team OrientedCollaborative Team Oriented 7 Team OrientedAdministratively Competent 8 Team Oriented
Self-sacrificial 9 Charismatic/Value-BasedHumane 10 Humane Oriented
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Additional research relating to Australian management identifies that managerial
leadership in Australia cannot be summed up in a singular manner. Sarros et al.
(2011) identify Australia as having three leadership dimensions: transformational
leadership, universalism and benevolence. In a study looking at Australian tall poppy
attitudes and American value based leadership theory, Meng, Ashkanasy and Härtel
(2003, p.55) note “inspiring high levels of performance” as important, where
performance connects to the organisation through the managers inspiration. Similarly
Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts and Earnshaw (2002) include being visionary and
inspirational as necessary components that are constrained by mateship.
In the extended GLOBE analysis on Australian leadership, the research reports that
when vision is identified as lacking it can be explained by the increased emphasis on
short term and specific issues (Ashkanasy 2007). The GLOBE analysis goes further,
highlighting the need to find a balance that does not go against the unique aspects of
Australian culture of a fair go and egalitarianism. Rymer (2008) identifies four
components of Australian management: communication; emotional togetherness;
values and characteristics; and strategic movement and change. These four represent
both strategic level and organisational level attributes of Australian managerial
leaders.
Based on the specific nature of Australian managerial leadership under consideration
in this study and the assessments reported above, the Excellent Leader category is
identified by two components: Visionary Leader representing behaviours associated
with transformational leadership, change and adaptation; secondly Organisational
Leader representing more task and organisational oriented behaviours associated with
organisational functioning. The two components, as proposed, lead to the following
hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent
Leader category in Australia
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Hypothesis 1.2 Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader
category in Australia.
Personal qualities category 4.3.2
The Personal Qualities category is made up of 19 behaviours, as illustrated in Table
4-5. According to the GLOBE study Australia has low power distance and is
individualistic, alongside moderate scores in performance orientation and humane
orientation dimensions and a strong belief in greater gender equality (Ashkanasy
2007). In Australia, based on these cultural dimensions individualism is high, a level
of equality exists and a laissez-faire attitude is present towards differences in
society’s members.
This interpretation is accentuated by EMIC level cultural values within Australia.
Firstly, egalitarianism is inbuilt into all individuals, there is an expectation that
equality among societies members is always maintained (Thompson 1994). The right
to be seen as equal is a core value in Australian society (Department of Immigration
and Citizenship 2007). This has been identified as shown by managers through
respect, trust and information sharing according to the cultural imprint studies
(Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). An Australian manager is able to
encourage others to act in these ways by role modelling these behaviours, identified
as essential in Australian managerial leadership (Parry 1996). The original cultural
imprint study acknowledges that people will always be treated with respect even
when they do not connect to organisational good (Australian Quality Council 1994).
This idea is further supported by the research component of the Enterprising Nation
study of Australian Managers where “people skills” were the highest valued
characteristic of an ideal manger (Barraclough & Company 1995). People skills in
this context mean strong communication skills and the ability to empower a person
that allows autonomy in a safe environment. Establishing that sense of safeness is
largely achieved through respect to individuals and effective communication.
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Table 4-5: Personal qualities category
Personal Qualities
1. Accept responsibility for mistakes
2 Accept that others will make mistakes
5. Be an initiator – not a follower
6. Be consistent in dealing with people
8. Be dependent and trustworthy
11. Be informal when with employees outside work
14. Be practical
18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs
21. Deal calmly in tense situations
25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters
26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization
31. Have a sense of humour
36. Listen to the advice of others
44. Respect the self-esteem of others
45. Return favours
49. Speak clearly and concisely
53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest
57. Work long hours
58. Write clearly and concisely
Communication is an important part of establishing and maintaining challenging
relationships between subordinates and managers. Communication and relationships
are closely associated with the people skills in the Enterprising Nation study and in
the cultural imprint studies where relationships and communication were identified as
being characteristics necessary for people to contribute to organisational success
(Australian Quality Council 1994; Karpin 1995a). A relationship built on strong
communication creates a sense of trust; provides opportunities for both recognition
and feedback, and leads to a shared bond. West and Murphy (2007) indicate that in
Australia respect is earned though mentoring and support efforts on the part of a
manager. Communication and relationships will also allow for the ongoing
endorsement of mateship (Ashkanasy 2007). As noted by Densten and Sarros (2012)
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Australian CEOs must always attempt to maintain friendships and loyalties as a
recognition of the importance of mateship.
Being a person of integrity also carries weight in an Australian manager being viewed
positively. In the Enterprising Nation study, being open and genuine along with being
honest and ethical were viewed as strengths (Barraclough & Company 1995). More
recent studies of Australian managers echo the importance of integrity. A category
that includes integrity and corporate governance was the strongest managerial
capability in the 2012 Australian Management Capability Index (Australian Institute
of Management 2012). An examination of differences in managerial culture in
Australia and America identified that Australian managers prefer to work hard and
show strong values, this illustrating integrity and commitment (Department of
Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001).
Based upon this understanding the Personal Quality category has been split into three
specific components. Firstly, a Relationship component that emphasises
communication is necessary for excellence in managerial leadership. Showing
Respect is identified as necessary and integral to be a good leader in Australia. Lastly,
a high level of Integrity in managers is expected in their roles and is an identified
strength. Based upon these arguments, three hypotheses have been proposed:
Hypothesis 1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities
category in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category
in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category
in Australia.
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Managerial behaviours category 4.3.3
As a managerial leadership category Managerial Behaviours bridge a gap between the
more traditional transactional leadership and the highly valued transformational
leadership. As identified, managers acting as leaders must exist in a space where they
need to be both transactional and transformational (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999).
Balancing these needs ends up being an expectation of a managerial leader as
demonstrated in a study of Australian CEOs by Denston and Sarros (2012), where
both categories of behaviours were found to be practiced and necessary to maintain
and achieve organisational goals. The category has 27 behaviours listed in Table 4-6.
Table 4-6: Managerial behaviours category
Managerial Behaviours
4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy
7. Be consistent in making decisions
9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work
12. Be logical in solving problems
13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts
17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees
19. Consider suggestions made by employees
22. Delegate
24. Focus on the task at hand
34. Keep up-to-date on management literature
35. Listen to and understand the problems of others
39. Make decisions earlier rather than later
40. Make decisions without depending too much on others
41. Make work decisions quickly
43. Persuade others to do things
46. Select work wisely to avoid overload
51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it
52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem
54. Trust those to whom work is delegated
55. Try different approaches to management
56. Use initiative and take risks
Examining the Managerial Behaviour category in the context of Australian culture
showed the emergence of several managerial behaviour components. As earlier
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mentioned egalitarianism plays a large role in how management behaviours will be
performed in Australia (Ashkanasy 2007; West & Murphy 2007). This will take the
shape of Teamwork being emphasised by managers working with a group, where
respect for individuals, the team as a whole and their contributions is shown. This is
further supported by the low power distance found in Australia where subordinates
expect to be heard and ideas listened to (Ashkanasy 2007; Irwin 1996).
The Teamwork component highlights social justice and team oriented management is
offset by an identified shortcoming found in Australian managers, that associated
with formally being “the boss” or a “taskmaster”, as defined in the Australian cultural
imprint study (Australian Quality Council 1994). This type of manager was
autocratic, disconnected from staff and used demotivating behaviour.
This shortcoming was further confirmed in the Enterprising Nation study, where
several areas relating to managerial behaviours were highlighted as weaknesses
including: being inflexible and rigid; complacency; poor at teamwork and
empowerment; and poor people skills (Karpin 1995a). These managerial shortcoming
in Australia have been historically identified by academics and social commentators
(Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). It continues to be noted today as an area where
skill development is needed (Australian Institute of Management 2012). These
findings relate to an Officious component in Australian managers where they
emphasise self-interest, power and authority.
Alongside being Officious, but required by the very nature of the organisational role
of manager, is a Decision Making component. Given the identified Australian
attitudes associated with the ‘She’ll Be Right’ mindset; the recognised dislike
towards change; and the constraints of mateship, a manager must maintain a decision
making role to ensure results are achieved (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Lansbury
& Spillane 1991; Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). Unlike the Officious
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component, this is not an identified shortcoming, but an inherent attribute that all
managers must have (Zaleznik 2004).
Addressing Australian managerial shortcomings was a driving principle behind the
Enterprising Nation report and recommendations (Karpin 1995a). This document,
now nearly 20 years old, emphasised expanding Australian management training. The
project made numerous recommendations relating to increasing education for
Australian managers. It included focusing education on areas related to developing
new skill sets, expanding global awareness and being more innovative and
entrepreneurial to name a few.
In a follow up study it was found that many of the items relating to training and
development have been acted upon through universities, private training providers
and the managers themselves engaging in education (Innovation & Business Skills
Australia 2011b). This is further supported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
figures that show since 2001 there has been an increasing number of people in the
managerial profession with both informal and formal types of education (Australian
Bureau of Statistics 2007b). The result should be a more dynamic managerial profile
that brings with it alternative ways to lead and motivate. The importance of
developing and enhancing managerial skill has become a foundation for groups like
the Australian Institute of Management (2012) to build training, monitor and measure
skills to ensure the right type of capabilities are increasing in Australian managers.
Based upon these efforts and promotion of enhancing management in Australia, a
component focused on Progressiveness should be present.
Given the above discussion on the Managerial Behaviours, four components within
the Managerial Behaviours category are hypothesised to emerge: a Progressiveness
component reflecting the diverse tactics to lead in new ways; Decision Making, the
need for a manager to maintain authority; Teamwork, associated with managing
independent and diverse people to accomplish goals and stay on task; and Officious, a
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traditional hard-line managerial approach has been identified as present in Australia.
Four hypotheses are proposed relating to the Managerial Behaviour category:
Hypothesis 1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial
Behaviours category in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial
Behaviours category in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours
category in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours
category in Australia.
Environmental Influence category 4.3.4
The behaviour statements associated with Environmental Influence category are
included in Table 4-7.
Table 4-7: Environmental influence category
Environmental Influence
15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment
16. Be socially and environmentally responsible
27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation
30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach
33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work
38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures
66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes
70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work
77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies
78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities
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In examining the category, two perspectives have been identified as present in
Australian managerial leaders. Those behaviours that are associated with the larger
society and can be considered as part of the Macro-Environment and those that relate
more to industry as Micro-Environment oriented.
Australian organisations have been criticised as not placing enough emphasis on
connecting to the wider world around them. Australia has historically identified with
the notion of the ‘tyranny of distance’, being geographically disparate from a majority
of its trading partners, its colonial homeland and culturally similar countries
(Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Along with this concept is the identified need for
Australian managers to take on a more global perspective (Karpin 1995b). In the
Karpin report, significant shortfalls were identified with respect to the global
perspective of managers (Karpin 1995a). While a significant aspect of the report’s
recommendations, no formal practice has been established to ensure all managers
understand international business (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).
In the recent white paper on the Asian century, it was again noted that Australian
business must pick up on signals to embrace shifts in the global environment in
particular to engage more with Asia (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force
2012). Based on the identified need to do this a Macro-Environment component
should be present. This is additionally supported by the increasing population
diversification since the early 1970s, alongside other social changes that have been
embraced (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c; Department of Immigration and
Citizenship 2007; Salt 2007). The result is a more multicultural and cosmopolitan
nation.
Australian organisations have been and continue to be viewed as leaders in their
respective industries, having employed new technologies and recognised the
importance of maintaining competitive advantage. This is illustrated in productivity
measures from Australia (Australian Industry Group 2013; McNair Anderson
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Associates 1981). Similarly, Australian organisations are quick to adopt technologies
including mobile services and internet technology to remain competitive (Department
of Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001). As a result of
these perspectives, an industry specific environmental component will be included,
named Micro-Environment. Based on these two components, two hypotheses have
been proposed:
Hypothesis 1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental
Influence category in Australia.
Hypothesis 1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental
Influence category in Australia.
Organisational demand category 4.3.5
The Organisational Demand category, see Table 4-8, across the various APEL
studies, in all cases has been singular in nature (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006;
Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer
& Donovan 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung
2010; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e).
Table 4-8: Organisational demand category
Organisational Demand
3. Adaptability
23. Focus on maximising productivity
28. Give priority to long-term goals
47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public
48. Share power
50. Support decisions made jointly by others
59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation
83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice
94. Act as a member of a team
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Australian managers, the same as managers in other nations, have organisational
directives, strategies and goals that are their responsibility to achieve (Hitt, Ireland &
Hoskisson 2012).
When one examines organisational related vision, goals and strategies, the conclusion
is that they need to be thought of as interconnected and not singular in nature (Hitt,
Ireland & Hoskisson 2012). While diverse in terms of direction that each take, all
organisational related mandates should be looked as connected and an integral part of
the greater whole. Failure to do that would result in an organisation operating in
different directions and reducing efficiency, competitive advantage and ability to
achieve the diverse and required mandates. Given the singular context of
organisational directives and the consistency of the Organisational Demand category
across numerous countries the APEL model has been used in; a single component is
hypothesised for the category:
Hypothesis 1.12 Organisational Demand will be a single component of the
Organisational Demand category in Australia.
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours category 4.3.6
As discussed in Section 4.3.2 of this chapter, the creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours have been structured into a single category. These behaviours are
associated with change-oriented leadership and are viewed as a required aspect of
managerial leadership (Yukl 2012). Based on what is currently known about enabling
creativity and innovation, it is viewed as a single category in this study and the
associated scale.
In Australia, there have been numerous calls for managers and organisations to
embrace innovation and adapt to the changes being faced in the economy from a
global perspective (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian
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Institute of Management 2010; Department of Industry Innovation Science Research
and Tertiary Education 2012; Department of Innovation Industry Science and
Research 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a, b; Karpin 1995a;
Lansbury & Quince 1988; Sarros et al. 1992). Given the view of change-oriented
leadership as a universal aspect of management and the importance that Australia has
been placing on innovation, a single hypothesis is proposed.
Hypothesis 1.13 Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours will be a single
category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia.
Australian excellence in managerial leadership profile summary 4.3.7
Based upon the above sections, the Australian perspective of excellence in
managerial leadership being investigated will be made up of 13 components
summarised in Table 4-9.
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Table 4-9: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile
Component Associated HypothesisExcellent Leader
Organisational Leader1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia
Visionary Leader1.2: Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia
Personal Qualities
Relationship1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia
Integrity1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia
Respect1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia
Managerial Behaviours
Progressiveness1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Decision Making1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Teamwork1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Officious1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Environmental Influence
Macro-Environment1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia
Micro-Environment1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia
Organisational Demand
Organisational Demand1.12: Organisational Demand will be a single component of the Organisational Demand category in Australia
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB)
CIB1.13: CIB will be a single category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia
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4.4 Hypotheses: Relationships between independent and dependent variables
Having identified the components of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia
the expected relationships will now be explored between the independent variables
and the dependent variables. Of the 13 components, three are considered dependent
variables in this study: the two components of Excellent Leader; and the new
category of Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours. The hypothesised
relationships between the ten independent variables and the three dependent variables
will be explained in the following sections.
Personal qualities 4.4.1
Relationship
Literature on Australian management emphasises the balance that needs to be
maintained between being viewed as a mate, visionary and fair to employees while
still securing organisational goals and ensuring productivity (Ashkanasy 2007;
Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).
Australian management has placed importance on the concept of egalitarian
leadership and charismatic leadership to be effective and to avoid bureaucratic and
narcissistic behaviours that impede leadership (Ashkanasy 2007; Trevor-Roberts,
Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003). The importance of having a personal relationship and
being viewed as a mate, part of the team and communicating openly were found to be
key for mangers ability to succeed in a leadership role (Irwin 1996).
Supported by Sarros, Cooper and Santora (2008) and Sarros et al. (1992)
communication was a major strength of Australian managers, reflecting the ability to
personalise the delivery of information and mandates to employees rather than
present them as directives. It is important to note that in order for communication to
work in Australia, communication should not be limited in scope to speaking directly
to subordinates, but also must involve listening to ensure employees are heard (West
& Murphy 2007). This is in large part due to the low power distance in Australia,
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where members of a culture expect to have a relatively flat relationship with
managers (House et al. 2004). The result of this communication approach should
connect subordinates to achieving organisational goals associated with Visionary
Leader, largely due to the alignment in managerial studies of relationship building
with transformational leadership (Bass 2008).
Hypothesis 2.1: The Relationship component is directly related to Visionary
Leader.
The LMX theory has shown that when a positive leader–member relationship exists
there is a positive impact on almost all organisational aspects (Graen & Uhl-Bien
1995). This has been shown in particular around enabling creativity across
organisations (Graen 2006; Scott & Bruce 1994; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999;
Zhou & George 2003). Managers that have a good relationship have influence over
subordinates, are able to criticise work and challenge them to be more creative. Baer,
Oldham and Cummings (2003) identify the importance of assigning roles that
enhance intrinsic motivation and working on projects related to one’s interests.
Intrinsic motivation is directly tied to creativity (Amabile et al. 1996; Oldham &
Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004). Only through a strong relationship
can the type of motivation required in subordinates be understood. This includes
strengthening the connection to the organisation according to Zhou and George
(2003), where communicating information to employees leads to greater creativity as
it includes and engages them in creative endeavours simply by awareness and
connection.
Hypothesis 2.2: The Relationship component is directly related to enabling
creativity and innovation.
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Respect
Respect in Australia is a fundamental component and needs to be a foundation of a
manager’s approach to leadership (Australian Quality Council 1994). It should be
understood that respect is expected to be given and felt to exist by co-workers
resulting in a supportive attitude towards the hierarchy (Irwin 1996; West & Murphy
2007). Mateship as established is built on both trust and respect (Duarte 2008).
Mateship is often viewed as something that exists between most organisation’s
members including managers and subordinates (Duarte 2008; West & Murphy 2007).
As with the view hypothesised regarding Relationships, given the importance of
charismatic leadership identified in the Globe study there will be a connection to
Visonary Leader (House et al. 2006). This is further supported by the connection of
Visionary Leader with transformational leadership and LMX theory (Avolio, Bass &
Jung 1999; Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995).
Hypothesis 2.3: The Respect component is directly related to Visionary Leader.
The importance of interactional justice has been identified as important to continuous
creativity in organisations (George & Jing 2007). Interactional justice from a creative
work perspective refers to showing respect to people involved in the creative process
through a positive relationship, recognition of emotions and sharing all information
(George & Jing 2007). Without this, employees may become unwilling to continue in
a creative mode if they believe their efforts are not respected. Mumford and
Gustafson (1988) identify the creative individual may become critical of themselves
and their co-workers. A manager must show respectful understanding of the
motivations and pressures on subordinates to ensure negativity and internal
demotivation does not occur.
Social skills pertaining to respect are required to reduce negativity towards creative
people and efforts (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Mumford et al. 2002). This
means a manager needs to instil respect towards creative efforts among organisational
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members. Showing respect through role modelling has been identified as a method of
achieving this aim (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Simonton
1975; Sternberg 1998, 2006). The manager uses respect and role models it in
relationships alongside related cognitive and technical skills, largely through
emotional intelligence in their consideration on how to act and maintain support for
their subordinates (Goleman 2005).
Hypothesis 2.4: The Respect component is directly related to enabling creativity
and innovation.
Integrity
According to some opinions of Australian managers, being ethical and having high
personal standards is ideal (Barraclough & Company 1995). This involves having a
strong commitment to the company, acting in a way that leads to trust and sends the
message that managers ‘walk the talk’. In the same study, identified strengths of
Australian managers include: hard working, open, genuine and direct along with
being honest and ethical. A similar result in the cultural imprint studies also promotes
being ‘fair dinkum’ or to put it another way being true to oneself and co-workers as
necessary for managers to achieve transparency (Australian Quality Council 1994;
Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). Australian Institute of
Management’s ongoing managerial capabilities study identifies integrity and
corporate governance as the highest rated category (Australian Institute of
Management 2012).
Hypothesis 2.5: The Integrity component is directly related to Organisational
Leader.
Identified across a range of studies and one of the categories that was singled out by
de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) was high ethical standards associated with doing a
good job. Doing a good job means acting in an ethically sound manner, working
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proactively and cooperatively. A manager is expected to role model not only being
creative, but also these ethical standards. Amabile (2004) notes that the direct
involvement of supervisors takes many forms including planning, clarifying,
monitoring or networking. In doing this it will lead to consistency of expectations of
subordinates on how to act. Several studies have pointed out being engaged in
creativity and being fully committed as key aspects of Integrity that relate to enabling
creativity and innovation (Jaussi & Dionne 2003; Simonton 1975; Sternberg 1998,
2006).
Hypothesis 2.6: The Integrity component is directly related to enabling
creativity and innovation.
Environmental influence 4.4.2
Macro-Environment
In the Enterprising Nation report, significant shortfalls were identified with respect to
the global perspective of Australian managers (Karpin 1995a). Whilst a significant
recommendation, no formal practice has been established to ensure all managers
understand international business (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b).
Given the report is nearing 20 years since release there should be an increase in
awareness of the importance of accepting cues to adapt and change from the
Macro-Environment.
In the recent white paper on the Asian century, it was noted that Australian business
must pick up on signs and look to embrace shifts in the global environment in
particular to engage more with Asia (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force
2012). The emphasis placed on the external environment in the above mentioned
reports reflects a need for Australian managers to extend their awareness and
addresses the identified shortcoming of being insular in focus when it comes to the
external environment. On the other side of these issues, Australia’s population shows
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a shift is occurring with now over 20% of Australians being foreign born with an
increasing population not coming from Anglo nations, but primarily Asia (Australian
Bureau of Statistics 2012b). Along with this shift is the increasing education of
Australian managers which should indicate an increase in having a global perspective
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). This is increasing the necessity, awareness
and importance of having a multicultural perspective. The above mentioned reports
indicate that emphasis on globalisation should relate to the strategic direction of
organisations as opposed to operational considerations, focusing this component with
Visionary Leader.
Hypothesis 2.7: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to
Visionary Leader.
Micro-Environment
The importance of applying technology and knowledge has been found to be a
moderate capability of Australian managers (Australian Institute of Management
2012, 2013). Discussion over productivity gains in Australia and the connection to
technology investment have been identified as something that has been occurring, but
needs to occur at a greater pace (Australian Industry Group 2013; Enright & Petty
2013). Over the last thirty years productivity gains have been made in Australia.
Traditionally, Australian managers have worked to maintain and enhance competitive
advantage as well as adopt new technologies effectively to remain competitive
(Australian Industry Group 2013; Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade &
Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).
Technical expertise was identified as present in Australian Managers assessments of
themselves (Barraclough & Company 1995). This reflects an emphasis on the
industry specific Micro-Environment component to identify change opportunities in
organisational practices.
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Hypothesis 2.9: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment to Creativity and Innovation
Enabling Behaviours
As discussed earlier it is the external environment in many instances which signals an
organisation to evolve or change through creativity and innovation (Westwood &
Low 2003; Zhou & George 2003). Studies have shown that in order to launch
products and change offerings, it is essential for a broad range of external
stakeholders to be examined and consulted for success to occur (Elkins & Keller
2003). Managers wanting to enable creativity and innovation must look to the
external environment from both a Micro-Environment and a Macro-Environment
level. This means searching for a wide variety of information and procuring the right
type of supportive external resources (Damanpour 1991; de Jong & Den Hartog 2007;
Reiter-Palmon & Illies 2004).
Hypothesis 2.8: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to
enabling creativity and innovation.
Hypothesis 2.10: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to
enabling creativity and innovation.
Managerial behaviours 4.4.3
Decision making
Australian managers have historically been viewed as operating from a traditional
managerial perspective (Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Milton, Entrekin &
Stening 1984). The manager in this context is largely operating in a transactional
style (Kotter 1990; Kotterman 2006; Zaleznik 2004). In looking at cultural
dimensions, the GLOBE study found that Australians managers are in the highest
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scoring grouping of societies for Assertiveness and ahead of all but two of the other
nations that make up the Anglo cluster (Ashkanasy 2007; House et al. 2004). This
reflects a culture that values directness and assertiveness as necessary aspects of
Decision Making. The ranking of managerial capabilities in Australian managers
highlights the importance of maintaining decision making power along with financial
management as two areas where they are the most capable (Australian Institute of
Management 2012, 2013). Decision making power is important for managers to
maintain to ensure that organisations operate within acceptable practices and
budgetary restrictions respectively. The Decision Making component, as noted
largely aligns itself with an organisational influence as opposed to a transformational
or strategic style of leadership.
Hypothesis 2.11: The Decision Making component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
Teamwork
In GLOBE’s Australian leadership findings, teamwork and being visionary are very
strongly identified (Ashkanasy 2007). This idea of teamwork fits with the cultural
dimension of low power distance where all people have a right to contribute input and
to be heard. Egalitarianism in Australia, along with giving people a fair go, lead a
manager to making sure that subordinates are given a voice and role in completing
work (Irwin 1996). This reduces the risk of a manger being viewed as too visionary
or a tall poppy as subordinates are included in developing solutions and being
innovative (Duarte 2008). Finding the right balance between being a mate and a
manager is difficult for Australian managerial leaders because there is a preference in
many cases for a “good boss” acting as a captain-coach encouraging both consistent
and supportive behaviour (Irwin 1996). The above information indicates that the
Teamwork component will be used by Australian managers to achieve organisational
goals and priorities.
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Hypothesis 2.12: The Teamwork component is directly related to Organisational
Leader.
Teamwork that is positive, supportive and challenging is the best situation for
generating creative output in an organisation (Damanpour 1991; Woodman, Sawyer
& Griffin 1993). It is the managerial leader’s responsibility to establish supportive
teams if they want innovation efforts to succeed. Shipper and Davy (2002) studied
management skills used and found that a mix of both interactive and work structuring
skills were needed. Procedural justice in an organisation refers to the decision making
processes being viewed as just and fair which results in greater levels of creativity
and shapes a positive climate for team work (Tyler & Lind 1992). In a study by
Mumin and Mustafa (2008) it was found that procedural justice was indeed positively
related to creativity and innovation in new product development.
The importance of having responsibility for idea generation, problem solution or
other forms of creative effort is fundamental for team involvement (Basadur 2004).
When a manager establishes this, it allows the team a sense of responsibility. From an
employee perspective when they are meaningfully involved in the work they will be
more productive and committed (Gilley, Dixon & Gilley 2008; Sims 2002).
Subordinates need to have freedom in order to get the creative ideas flowing
(Amabile et al. 1996; Elkins & Keller 2003). Zhou (1998) examined high task
autonomy in a laboratory experiment and found that it led to higher levels of
creativity. Another study by Jung, Chow and Wu (2003) had shown this same
connection between autonomy and creativity. At the same time as giving them
freedom to work, it is giving them the freedom to be involved in organisational goal
setting and problem definition (Mumford et al. 2002). Together these studies indicate
that Teamwork will directly relate to enabling creativity and innovation.
Hypothesis 2.13: The Teamwork component is directly related to enabling
creativity and innovation.
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Officious
In Australia, studies have found that a more traditional managerial role is presently
identified by the bureaucratic nature of managers in the country (Milton, Entrekin &
Stening 1984). Cultural dimensions in the GLOBE study indicate that assertiveness
remains strong from an “as-is” perspective; gender equality is viewed as needing to
be stronger from a “should-be” perspective, as is future orientation and uncertainty
avoidance (Ashkanasy 2007; House et al. 2004). Taken together these show signs that
within Australian managerial leadership a more managerial oriented form is present.
This is supported in many studies of Australian management that found managers
strengths more aligned with practical roles and organisational level goals, as opposed
to being visionary or strategic (Australian Institute of Management 2012; Australian
Quality Council 1994; Barraclough & Company 1995; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995b).
This connects back to cultural contingencies such as tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll
Be Right’ attitude, where often times a good boss is preferred over a leader due to the
increased level of personal connection and emphasis on higher order strategies that
are unwanted (Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996).
Hypothesis 2.14: The Officious component is directly related to Organisational
Leader.
Progressiveness
As earlier discussed the most important leadership universal identified in the GLOBE
study for Australia was charismatic leadership (House et al. 2004). In order to be
charismatic a manager must find ways to bring employees along with them to create a
sense of shared purpose and enthusiasm. When examining the characteristics of an
ideal manager the four highest scoring items involve having people skills, being a
strategic thinker, being visionary and lastly flexible and adaptable to change
(Barraclough & Company 1995). The final one, being flexible and adaptable, was
also identified as a perceived strength of Australian managers in the same study.
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According to a recent assessment of the recommendations of the Enterprising Nation
report, it notes managers have continued to engage in learning opportunities to
expand their skill set over the last 15 years (Innovation & Business Skills Australia
2011b). Further evidence that Australian managers are becoming more skilled can be
found when examining the education level of managers in Australia. Education levels
have shown to be steadily increasing over the years (Australian Bureau of Statistics
2007b). There is and continues to be industry recognition that enhancing managerial
skills is necessary (Australian Institute of Management 2012). By utilising new
management skills and tactics, Australian managers will demonstrate a visionary
approach to leading.
Hypothesis 2.15: The Progressiveness component is directly related to Visionary
Leader.
The growing emphasis on being progressive and developing new skill sets and
approaches to management, as detailed above shows that managerial leaders in
Australia are attempting to use a variety of skills in driving innovation and creativity
in Australia. Acting progressively through role modelling and engagement in creative
endeavour, along with transferring responsibility are ways a manager enhances
innovation efforts through non-traditional management practices (de Jong & Den
Hartog 2007).
Hypothesis 2.16: The Progressiveness component is directly related enabling
creativity and innovation.
Organisational demand 4.4.4
Organisational demand is closely connected category to visionary or transformational
leadership. Transformational leadership requires the organisation to have a strong
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vision that can be communicated and support developed among subordinates (Bass
1985a, 1990b; Bass 2008; Den Hartog et al. 1999; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008).
Under the GLOBE study Australian managers strongly connect to charismatic
leadership where leadership dimensions of inspirational, integrity, visionary,
performance orientation and decisive rank highest (Ashkanasy 2007). This however is
tempered from the identified reality that Australian vision is often focused on the
short term and problem solving as opposed to long term strategic direction
(Ashkanasy 2007; Karpin 1995a). This category will be present in Australian
managerial views of excellence in leadership and it will take on an Australian specific
context, where a connection will exist to both components of being an Excellent
Leader:
Hypothesis 2.17: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
Hypothesis 2.18: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
Visionary Leader.
Organisational directives are the first step towards managers acting in a manner that
will enable creativity and innovation. It is from the organisation itself that directives
to change and innovate originate (Damanpour 1991). When managerial leadership is
considered in today’s organisations, it needs to be flexible and adaptive to deal with
these organisational demands (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004; Yukl & Mahsud 2010).
Failure to bring innovation and creativity into organisational goals would result in
organisational stagnation; therefore it is essential to have a relationship between the
organisational goals and innovation efforts.
Hypothesis 2.19: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
enabling creativity and innovation.
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Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours 4.4.5
Having identified the importance of change related leadership and enabling creativity
and innovation, recognition exists that there is a direct connection to excellence in
managerial leadership (Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002; Yukl &
Lepsinger 2004). As identified in studies relating to change leadership, behaviours in
line with change leadership may be viewed as focused on relationship centred, task
oriented and visionary behaviours working together to create an environment for
change to occur. This has been established as occurring predominantly through the
practice of enabling innovation and creativity (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999; Ekvall &
Arvonen 1991; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). Based upon the hypothesised
relationships there is a strong connection established between the innovation enabling
behaviours and the Excellent Leader components. There is evidence that a link
between the newly established category and both aspects of being an Excellent
Leader will be present.
Hypothesis 2.20: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly
related to Visionary Leader.
Hypothesis 2.21: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly
related to Organisational Leader.
The hypotheses are detailed graphically in Figure7-10.
4.5 Hypothesis on a shared view of leadership across groups
In managerial leadership studies examination of group differences have provided
interesting insights into differences in leadership across demographic and managerial
roles (Bass 2008). In Australia this is no different, with some studies having
identified differences across groups (Ashkanasy 2007; Sarros et al. 2011; Sarros,
Gray & Densten 2002; Sarros et al. 1992; Wood 2011). However, there are cultural
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imperatives in Australia that may lead to a shared perspective on what is excellence
in managerial leadership. This research study proposes that given the strong and
unique nature of these cultural values, in particular egalitarian related items and
mateship, that the profile developed will be shared across groups.
Australian egalitarianism pushes towards a sense of sameness in society that could be
extended to views on managerial leadership (Thompson 1994). Mateship is a
masculine concept that represents expected relationships between people that has
been shown to be applicable to both men and women and supported by cultural
dimension studies that found Australian to be a masculine culture. This is also
identified in additional leadership research (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Hofstede
2001; Peeters 2004; Thompson 1994). The cultural imperative studies found there to
be no significant differences in how leadership was viewed between groups in
Australian organisations (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). To
investigate the shared view of managerial leadership four groups will be examined to
see if any significant differences on excellence in managerial leadership emerge:
gender, education, age and managerial role. The selection of each will be explained
below.
Historically, Australian culture has emphasised masculine nature over feminine and
women have not had the same status in society (Thompson 1994). It has also been
identified that women in Australia do face a glass ceiling and face an “old boys
network” (Duarte 2008; West & Murphy 2007). These realities may mean that
women managers in Australia may share the same view on managerial leadership as
men. Something other leadership research shows is not always the case (Bass 2008).
The importance of an educated workforce to management is well established with
Bass (2008) providing a detailed overview of how education impacts on managers
and their organisations. The Enterprising Nation report established that Australian
managers needed to be better educated in order to better lead and prepare for change
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(Karpin 1995a). Since the report there has been an increase in managers with an
education, which could result in different managerial leadership approaches
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). Given the knowledge that education will
impact on leadership preferences and styles, the identified cultural attribute of
sameness present and the recognition that education will change Australian managers
styles and skills this group is therefore appropriate for comparison (Innovation &
Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Thompson 1994).
Australia has grouped generations of people based on age, experiences, technological
knowledge and historic events (Salt 2007). Australian managers would primarily
come from three generational groups: Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation
Y. However this research study identifies managers can be split into two groups
based upon age, experience with technology and shifts in the global landscape.
Commercial access to the internet and electronic communications was available from
the early to mid-1990s in Australia and younger users were its earliest adopters
(Clarke 2004). This places a majority of managers under the age of 40 having spent
their entire working career with access to electronic communications. The Cold War
ended with the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and this impacted globally and on the
Australian economy (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). The timing of this event means that
almost all managers under 40 would have spent their entire working career after the
end of the Cold War and consequently experienced a globalised world economy.
While this age division sits slightly outside of the traditional split between Generation
X and Generation Y, it is within an acceptable bounds to be considered as a
generational split in age for managers (Graen & Schiemann 2013).
Lastly, managers have been examined and found to be different based on the
managerial role that they play (Bass 2008). These differences are found in areas like:
approaches to management, attitudes towards change, area of focus and willingness to
transfer authority. Three categories of manager are included in this study, frontline or
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first level mangers; middle management and senior management. Given where the
largest differences in literature have been found, it was decided to examine those in
front line roles versus those in middle and senior management roles as this represents
a clear difference in responsibilities and involvement in strategic development.
Hypothesis 3.0: The perception of Australian Excellence in Managerial
Leadership will be perceived consistently across different managerial groups.
4.6 Chapter summary
This chapter has presented the development of a conceptual model that extends on the
APEL framework to include a category of behaviours associated with enabling
creativity and innovation. The expanded model adds a category of managerial
leadership behaviours focused on enabling creativity and innovation. This extension
used the APEL framework as an artefact to build a new scale reflective of change
oriented leadership, focused on enabling creativity and innovation. The scale
development was explained and the new scale presented.
This was followed by three sections detailing the hypotheses under investigation in
this study. Firstly, the hypotheses relating to the profile of Australian excellence in
managerial leadership were presented. In total 13 components are proposed to be
present, 10 components were identified as independent variables and three were
identified as dependent variables. The relationships between the independent and
dependent variables were presented. Lastly, the hypothesis on Australian
managers having a shared view of excellence in managerial leadership was presented,
to be tested across four groups.
Having presented the conceptual framework and the hypotheses to be investigated the
next chapter will present a review of the methodology used in the study.
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5. Methodology
5.1 Introduction
The previous chapters provided the theoretical background across the fields of
managerial leadership behavioural research, a review of understandings of Australian
culture and management in chapters 2 and 3 respectively. Chapter 4 presented the
conceptual framework and the hypotheses to be investigated. The purpose of this
chapter is to provide an overview of the methodology, research design and the data
analysis plan. An overview of the chapter’s contents is included in Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1: Chapter overview
The basis of selecting the research method for a research study is determined by the
information required to address the research questions. It is important to clearly
understand the desired outcomes and results required to ensure the appropriate
research design is selected (Creswell 2009). The research questions in this study
relate to understanding how managers enable creativity and innovation and how
excellence in managerial leadership is perceived by Australian Managers. By looking
at the individual perspectives, a shared perception of excellence in managerial
Methodology Chapter
Research Methodology
Research Context
Design of the Survey Instrument
Data Analysis Plan
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leadership and the relationship between its components can be determined. To
achieve this understanding, the components found in Australian managerial
leadership need to be confirmed and a model developed which can be used in
exploring the relationships between the components.
5.2 Research methodology and design
A research paradigm in its simplest sense is a model that can be used to guide
investigators on how to conduct a research project. In the larger philosophical sense a
paradigm, also referred to as epistemology or ontology represent the beliefs held that
outline the methodological view of the world at large (Creswell 2009). The paradigm
could fall into one of two broad categories: positivism or interpretivism.
Interpretivism is a qualitative paradigm and attempts to gain knowledge from
understanding shared and different perspectives. The interpretivism paradigm largely
emphasises researching differences as most essential and important, making it
difficult to apply findings across a larger population. Positivism is a natural science
based approach to research focused on an objective viewpoint, where hypotheses can
be developed based on known theory, tested and results explained in conjunction with
the theory (Collis & Hussey 2009).
The research approach employed in this research study, given the goals of the
research, is from a positivist perspective. It is built on deductive theory utilised under
the positivist research paradigm. Deductive theory builds on what is known and
explores different theoretical connections and extensions based on hypotheses derived
from literature and existent knowledge (Bryman 2012). The deductive approach is
focused on quantitative research and requires a succinct process to be applied to
research following this paradigm. The application of the deductive theory approach
results in the process as detailed in Figure 5-2.
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Figure 5-2: Positivist research approach
The above process has been used in establishing the theoretical background upon
which the research questions have been proposed and hypotheses developed. In order
to establish the hypotheses, an exploratory study has been developed that recognised
a gap in understanding the importance of creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours and how these behaviours relate to excellence in managerial leadership.
Additionally, an identified gap the research study aims to address is to increase
understanding of Australian culture and its influence on views on excellence in
managerial leadership and creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.
The research study will be utilising quantitative data collection and analysis, with
data collected through a survey. The objective nature of quantitative design, when
utilising a survey approach, is to examine behaviours of individuals to understand the
attitudes of a population through a sample (Collis & Hussey 2009). The perceptions
of managers in this study are examined collectively in order to determine causal paths
Positivist ‐ Deductive Approach
Examination of Theory
Gap identification and Hypothesis development
Research design
Data Collection
Analysis
Findings
Application of findings to theory
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of Australian managerial leadership behaviours that can effectively be measured
under a survey methodology (Creswell 2009).
5.3 Research context
This section outlines the setting for the research study, including its environment. The
study is being conducted in a single country, Australia. Australia is largely viewed as
being western, Anglo and regionally aligned as a part of the larger geographic region
of the Asia Pacific (Alomes 2012; Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012;
House et al. 2004). Given the fact that Australia shares much of its cultural values
with those of the Anglo cluster and in a wider context the western world, it is a nation
where managerial leadership is highly developed and where innovation and creativity
are regularly identified as organisational necessities (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian
Industry Group 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a).
Globally, organisational leaders are aware of the need to innovate and adapt in the
face of a changing world. In an IBM study of CEOs from organisations around the
world, 86% believed that substantial change was the reality and dealing with change
has been tagged as “the new normal” (Jørgensen, Owen & Neus 2008,p. 6). In
Australia it is no different. Both organisations and government have identified the
need to change and adapt in part through innovation and creativity in order to remain
sustainable and prosper (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian
Industry Group 2013; Australian Institute of Management 2012; Department of
Industry Innovation Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Department of
Innovation Industry Science and Research 2013; Karpin 1995a). This is a result of
increasing global competition faced by Australia, shifting trading partners and
increasing global competition for Australian business (Australia in the Asian Century
Task Force 2012; Enright & Petty 2013; Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Given these
reasons Australia is an ideal country to investigate the importance of managerial
behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation.
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As has been established, what these enabling behaviours involve is largely
understood from a variety of perspectives reflective of the influences that managers
must take into consideration. The APEL framework was selected as an artefact to
consider these newly categorised enabling behaviours as the framework includes the
primary areas of influence on a manager (Selvarajah et al. 1995). Three of the APEL
categories (Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational Demand)
were used to develop a single category reflective of enabling creativity and
innovation behaviours and an associated scale has been added to the APEL
instrument in order to test these behaviours quantitatively and address the research
questions. A survey is used to do this as it is an established quantitative technique that
has proven to be effective in addressing the needs of the research in this exploratory
study (Bryman 2012).
An ‘Australian-centric’ sample is required in order to ensure a range of organisational
managers working in Australia are included. This includes a variety of managers,
different industries, different sized organisations, geographic locations and other
demographic variables to establish a cross section of managerial types. This is a
challenge given the diversity of industry, size of organisations, managerial types and
demographics in Australia. In order to address this diversity, the 2006 Census results
on the managerial occupation and other business statistics relating to size of business
are used as a foundation to address the adequacy of the sample for the study to build a
baseline Australian managerial leadership profile (Australian Bureau of Statistics
2007a, b, c, 2012b; Clark et al. 2012). Once the diverse sample of respondents is
collected, the sample can be analysed collectively in order to determine the Australian
managerial leadership profile and the shared or different perspectives on excellence in
managerial leadership.
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5.4 Ethical considerations
The research study has followed Swinburne University of Technology’s ethical code.
Details of the research study including information on the data collection procedures,
the treatment of respondents, the reporting of the research results and the treatment of
the data once collected was provided to Swinburne University’s ethics committee. In
the case of this research study, a market research company had complete control over
access to respondents and ensured their privacy that met both industry and national
standards. The participants were informed in the introduction of the questionnaire on
how the research findings would be used and that their participation implied consent.
A copy of the ethics approval letter has been provided in Appendix 2.
5.5 Design of the survey instrument
The survey instrument utilised in this study is an expanded version of the validated
APEL questionnaire. The expansion to the survey instrument to include a new scale,
as detailed in chapter 4, was developed through extensive literature review and
consideration of behaviours associated with enabling innovation and creativity. This
section will detail the development of the expanded questionnaire.
One of the most important aspects of scale and instrument development is to ensure
that the associated statements clearly represent the specific behavioural domain
(DeVellis 2012). This is particularly important for studies where an instrument is
used across various cultures and efforts need to be made to ensure that context and
readability are understood and transferable (Harkness et al. 2003). Through review
and application of best practices in cross-cultural research, as detailed by Harkness et
al. (2003), the APEL questionnaire was determined to be feasible to use in its
extended form, with specific behaviours identified and included for analysis
purposes. The complete questionnaire is included in Appendix 3.
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APEL questionnaire 5.5.1
The APEL questionnaire was first developed and established in the ASEAN nations
(Selvarajah et al. 1995). The questionnaire was developed through an extensive
literature review process. A Q-sort process was instituted to categorise behaviours
into four dimensions or categories: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours,
Organisational Demands and Environmental influence. The survey to confirm the
Q-sort results was administered to practicing managers in the ASEAN nations. The
survey instrument included 94 behavioural statements. Across numerous studies since
the instrument was developed, approximately 68 behaviours have been consistently
confirmed to relate directly to the specific allocated category and were selected for
investigation in this study (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006; Selvarajah et al.
1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008c; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah, Meyer &
Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar
2011; Selvarajah, Meyer & Trung 2010).
Along with the existing 68 behaviours were the additional 15 new behavioural
statements representing the Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB),
bringing the total number of behavioural statements under investigation to 83.
Utilising best practices in cross cultural research methods, these behaviours were
selected in order to ensure consistent measures existed that were both valid and
reliable (Harkness et al. 2003). The research instrument was delivered in its original
format that included all previously identified 94 behaviours, as it is important that the
validated instrument be used consistently across cultures. In chapter 4, a review of the
components and the associated behavioural statements was provided and is
summarised in Table 5-1.
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Table 5-1: APEL scales from the survey instrument:
APEL Instrument Components # of Statements
Excellent Leader 9
Visionary Leader 4
Organisational Leader 5
Personal Qualities 19
Relationship 9
Respect 4
Integrity 6
Organisational Demand 9
Organisational Demand 9
Environmental Influence 10
Macro-Environment 6
Micro-Environment 4
Managerial Behaviours 21
Progressiveness 4
Decision Making 4
Teamwork 8
Officious 5
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours 15
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) 15
The behavioural statements are randomly distributed across the survey instrument and
have been given an associated number to aid in analysis. Numbers for behavioural
statements range from 1 to 109, represented with the letter ‘a’ in front in the analysis
section during procedures in AMOS. The associated behavioural statements for the
APEL categories are separated into their respective components established in
chapter 4 and summarised below. Excellent Leader has two components as detailed in
Table 5-2. The Personal Qualities Category has three separate components
summarised in Table 5-3.
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Table 5-2: Hypothesised excellent leader category
Excellent Leader Category
Organisational Leader
10. Be honest
29. Give recognition for good work
89. Continue to learn how to improve performance
91. Organise work time effectively
93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people
Visionary Leader
20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place
32. Have a strategic vision for the organization
42. Motivate employees
82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry
Table 5-3: Hypothesised personal qualities category
Personal Qualities - 3 Components
Relationship
1. Accept responsibility for mistakes
2 Accept that others will make mistakes
5. Be an initiator – not a follower
6. Be consistent in dealing with people
8. Be dependent and trustworthy
14. Be practical
21. Deal calmly in tense situations
49. Speak clearly and concisely
58. Write clearly and concisely
Integrity
11. Be informal when with employees outside work
18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs
25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters
26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization
31. Have a sense of humour
45. Return favours
57. Work long hours
Respect
36. Listen to the advice of others
44. Respect the self-esteem of others
53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest
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Managerial Behaviours have four components, summarised in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4: Hypothesised managerial behaviours category
Managerial Behaviours - 4 Components
Progressive
34. Keep up-to-date on management literature
55. Try different approaches to management
56. Use initiative and take risks
Decision Making
39. Make decisions earlier rather than later
40. Make decisions without depending too much on others
41. Make work decisions quickly
43. Persuade others to do things
Principled/Transparency/Teamwork
4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy
7. Be consistent in making decisions
12. Be logical in solving problems
13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts
19. Consider suggestions made by employees
22. Delegate
35. Listen to and understand the problems of others
54. Trust those to whom work is delegated
Officious
9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work
17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees
24. Focus on the task at hand
51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it
52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem
Organisational Demand is a single category, as detailed in Table 5-5.
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Table 5-5: Hypothesised organisational demand category
Organisational Demand
3. Adaptability
23. Focus on maximising productivity
28. Give priority to long-term goals
47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public
48. Share power
50. Support decisions made jointly by others
59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation
83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice
94. Act as a member of a team
Environmental Influence is made up of two components, Macro-Environment and
Micro-Environment detailed in Table 5-6.
Table 5-6: Hypothesised environmental influence category
Environmental Influence
Macro-Environment
15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment
16. Be socially and environmentally responsible
27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation
30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach
33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work
38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures
Micro-Environment
66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes
70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work
77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies
78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities
5.6 Operationalising the creativity and innovation enabling behaviours construct
As presented in chapter 2 and 4, an intensive process went into reviewing existing
literature and understanding of how managers enable innovation and creativity across
different organisational roles and responsibilities. The researcher collected and
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catalogued the identified behaviours to reflect the managerial leadership categories
utilised in the APEL framework. This process resulted in the establishment of a scale
with 15 behavioural statements added. As detailed in Table 4-2, three of the four
categories used in the APEL framework are used as broad categories for the CIB
scale development. These are: Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and
Organisational Demand. The scale as developed represents a single category of the
entire domain of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation.
In reviewing and studying the literature a total of approximately 160 behavioural
statements across these three categories were identified. These have been included in
Appendix 1. Managerial behaviours, rarely impact solely in one area or category,
rather impacting across organisations and managerial influences (Yukl, Gordon &
Taber 2002). As this was expected to occur, overlap needed to be addressed between
the identified behaviours. The identified CIB behaviours were cross referenced
against the literature and overlap eliminated in order to decrease the number of
behaviour statements.
The existing APEL behaviours were next considered against the additional CIB
behaviours. The APEL behaviours were examined and the additional CIB behavioural
statements were dropped where redundancy or significant overlap existed. By way of
this process a total of 15 behaviours were selected. In order to be considered for
inclusion the behavioural statements were articulated to address the following
statement, as detailed in the questionnaire in Appendix 3, “to be an excellent leader
how important is it to” (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The 15 statements were added to the
APEL instrument and identified as the CIB scale as detailed in Table 5-7, and have
been given an identification code from a95 to a109.
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Table 5-7: CIB scale
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) Scale
95. Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation
96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation
98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation
99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions
101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization
102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted
103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation
104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work
105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals
106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences
107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
109. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
5.7 Description of the survey instrument
The survey instrument, shown in Appendix 3, is comprised of an introduction with
details on the study and two separate sections detailed below.
Section one - demographic and managerial information 5.7.1
Demographic information and managerial categories were selected to address the
hypotheses and to ensure the sample developed in some ways reflects the managerial
occupation in Australia. Detailed breakdowns of each are included in the following
sections.
5.7.1.1 Minimum years of Australian work experience
To ensure that all respondents understand and are operating from an Australian
perspective, a minimum of five years’ work experience in Australia was selected as a
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requirement for all respondents. As Australia has open and inviting policies towards
the migration of skilled workers, potential respondents could consider managerial
leadership from a non-Australian perspective and this needed to be addressed.
Various standards are used to categorise migrated skilled labour to be deemed a long
term migrant. According to the OECD (2013), the UN indicates a person to be a long
term migrant after 12 months. However, it is felt that this is too brief a period for a
manager to adopt a culturally specific view. In an OECD study on the localisation of
migrants, it defined migrants with less than five years of settlement in a country as
‘recent’ and those residents with five years settlement ‘localised’ (Brezzi et al. 2010).
This context is used for this study and the five year mark is extended to work
experience. The five year figure for country-based work experience provides a
sufficient period of time working in organisations based in Australia to understand
cultural values that impact in the work place. Managers with five years’ work
experience should be operating in an Australian context.
5.7.1.2 Country/Region of birth
From a related perspective, it is also important to ensure that the sample reflects the
multicultural aspects of the country. If only Australian born residents were included it
would exclude a portion of the population that are foreign born, but are also an active
part of the management profession. The inclusion of the country of birth variable is
used in targeting respondents that fit the 2006 Census results (Australian Bureau of
Statistics 2007c).
5.7.1.3 Australian state/territory of residence
Australia’s population is distributed unevenly across the country, with greater
numbers living in large capital cities in the urban states of New South Wales
(Sydney) and Victoria (Melbourne). Smaller populations are located in the major
urban centres across the remaining States and Territories and in rural communities
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nationwide (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). Given the geographic distance,
the differing levels of urbanisation and industry between States and Territories it is
important, in order to allow for a cross section of respondents that are similar to the
distribution of managers found in the Census. This is monitored in the data collection
process. Inclusion of this demographic variable is important to ensure a baseline
Australian-wide view of excellence in managerial leadership emerges.
5.7.1.4 Industry and industry sector
The Industry Sector variable is included to ensure respondents come from diverse
industries and sectors reflective of the economy and management profile.
Damanpour’s (1991) meta-analysis of organisational innovation found that private
sector firms are more apt to be engaged in innovative activities than public sector and
NGO firms. However, government and NGO organisations are present in Australia
and need to be considered when developing a profile of a national perspective on
managerial leadership.
Similarly, specific industries can be viewed as being creative and innovative. Certain
industries have been identified and studied specifically in the context of creativity and
innovation because of their greater inherent connection to these fields. De Jong and
Den Hartog (2007) looked at knowledge intensive service industries, including
engineers and consultants when assessing innovation enabling behaviours of
managers. Leadership research on R & D organisations was compiled by Elkins and
Keller (2003) to build a conceptual framework related to LMX theory. In a study
outlining efforts to map Australia’s creative industries, several broader industry
sectors are identified including: marketing; advertising, software, television and film
production along with specific arts related industries (Higgs & Cunningham 2007).
Other studies, such as those done by Sternberg (2005a) include the education sector
as a highly innovative and creative sector. If this research study is limited in scope to
a singular sector or a group of these sectors the results would potentially be biased
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towards the importance of enabling creativity and innovation behaviours and not
reflect a broader Australian view on excellence in managerial leadership. The use of
Standard Industry Classification codes in this study allows for a diverse range of
industries to be included, but makes it difficult to specify the level of creativity and
innovation. By ensuring various sectors are included it allows for a result that more
reflective of how the CIB category fits into excellence in managerial leadership.
5.7.1.5 Gender
Gender has emerged as being relevant in many managerial leadership studies, in
particular around transformational leadership (Bass 2008). Women are often viewed
as emphasizing transformational leadership, while men emphasise a transactional
style (Bass, Avolio & Atwater 1996). In other studies using the APEL model, there
has shown to be differences between men and women (de Waal et al. 2012;
Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d; Selvarajah et al. 2013). Examining this demographic
group is necessary and has been included to partially address Hypothesis 3.
5.7.1.6 Age
Similar to gender, age may play a role in attitudes towards managerial leadership
behaviours and CIB. There have been studies on age and its impact on managerial
leadership (Bass 2008; Ralston et al. 1999; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008d). Examination
of age is used in this study to examine if differences exist at the generational level,
where working experiences have been shaped by technology, economic and political
shifts. As discussed in chapter 4, there is a distinct and recognisable difference in the
experiences between those under 40 and those 40 and over. This will be used to
examine Hypothesis 3.
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5.7.1.7 Education level
Included alongside breakdowns of gender and age is level of education. It is believed
that including level of education as a variable is worthy of investigation, given
Australia’s long term push to increase the education of managers to better lead
organisations in a competitive world (Karpin 1995a). In particular, managers with and
without a formal university education will be used in comparison between groups to
partially address Hypothesis 3, comparing those with a degree and those without.
5.7.1.8 Organisational role and size
The remaining demographic variables relate to managerial position, size of
organisation and size of department. There are clear differences in roles and
responsibilities between first line, middle and senior management (Bass 2008).
Ensuring a portion of the sample from each group is included will establish a cross
section of opinions across managerial roles. It will allow for investigation to see if
there is a difference between front line managers and the other two categories in
response to Hypothesis 3.
Similarly, size of organisation and department are included to ensure that managers
are from a cross section of different sized departments and organisations as a majority
of Australian organisations are small to medium enterprises, rather than large
corporations (Clark et al. 2012). The sample should attempt to reflect this and both
department size and organisation size will be used in the data collection phase to
ensure diversity in respondents.
Section two – managerial leadership behaviours 5.7.2
The second section of the instrument, the managerial leadership behaviour statements
are the core component of the survey. The survey includes all behavioural statements
included in the APEL model, along with the new CIB behavioural statements. The
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questions were split into groupings of 10 in order to ensure they were easy to read
and avoid survey fatigue. All behavioural statements use the same five point Likert
scale.
5.7.2.1 Likert scales
Ranking scales have long been used in measuring attitudes and behavioural
preferences in quantitative studies (Collis & Hussey 2009). Named after its creator,
Rensis Likert, this measurement scale measures intensity or strength of feelings
towards a specific area of inquiry (Bryman 2012). This type of scale has been used
for a variety of research including management, psychology and marketing to
measure the importance of behaviours. In the case of this research a five point scale
has been selected to maintain consistency with previous use of the APEL framework
as it has been effective in measuring managerial leadership behaviours (Selvarajah
2010). The five point scale, as shown in the questionnaire, is displayed in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3: Likert scale descriptor and question structure
Importance
Low High
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
Leadership behaviour statement
The level of importance of each behavioural statement is measured with a 5
indicating high importance and a 1 indicating low importance, with 3 representing
uncertainty on the importance of the behaviour. A complete breakdown of the scale is
included in Figure 5-3.
Numeric Code
5
4
3
2
1
Scale Descriptor - Importance
High importance
Moderate importance
Unsure of importance
Less importance
Low importance
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5.8 Testing of the questionnaire
Prior to collecting data, testing of the questionnaire was conducted in two stages.
Pilot testing is an integral part of ensuring the instrument is working as planned and
that questions are understandable and resulting in expected responses (Bryman 2012).
The survey questionnaire was tested by Academics at Swinburne University of
Technology to check reliability and appropriateness of the statements for syntax,
grammar and comprehension. Feedback received from this resulted in minor changes
to the layout of demographic variables to ensure a smooth flow between topics.
The second stage of testing occurred when the research firm, providing the online
panel, piloted the survey. Senior and project management staff at Research Now also
reviewed the survey to ensure comprehension and readability among respondents.
Research Now drew the sample from a specific Australian ‘Business-2-Business’
panel, used solely for business related research (ResearchNow 2012). In order to
maintain high response rates the survey was tested to ensure technology worked
properly across different systems and interfaces; and to maintain industry based
standards with respect to panellists. Upon completion of testing a guideline was
established for the time required by panellists to properly complete the questionnaire.
Instructions to participants were also adjusted to reflect the levels of awareness on
how online surveys work. Survey layout was confirmed as having the correct flow to:
reduce survey fatigue, respondent drop out and appropriate questionnaire length. This
is important in appropriately utilising and managing a panel (Cape 2010). These
changes and information could only be gathered through pilot testing directly with the
panel company. It is essential for pilot testing directly with the panel provider to
insure issues which may impact on results are addressed prior to going into field. Any
potential issues need to be understood and addressed in order for it to be delivered
effectively to panel respondents.
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5.9 Sample development
The target group of this research project, as earlier discussed are Australian
organisation managers. As discussed in the first chapter, the study is looking at
managerial leadership, specifically how managers view the importance of behaviours
associated with managerial leadership. Managers have been selected as the target
respondents as they are in some ways expected to act as leaders in their organisations;
as part of an organisation managers deal directly with organisational leadership; and
leadership has been identified as a part of a managerial role (Bass 2008; Kent 2005;
Kotterman 2006; Nienaber 2010; Simonet & Tett 2013; Zaleznik 2004). Additionally,
managers were selected as they have been identified to reflect cultural values, which
they take into consideration based on implicit leadership theory, where they act in a
manner reflective of that culture (House et al. 2002; Lord & Brown 2001).
In order to determine an appropriate sample size, consideration was required in
advance of data collection with regard to the research questions, hypotheses and
statistical techniques. As a profile of Australian managers was being generated, a
sample reflecting the presence of the occupation in Australia was needed. According
to Census data there are approximately one million people employed as managers in
Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). The consideration of feasibility and
cost needed to be considered in deciding on a sample size (de Vaus 2013). Taking
these limitations into account and the population size an absolute minimum sample
size of approximately 400 was initially considered to have a confidence level of 95%,
with a confidence interval of 5% (Rea & Parker 1997).
Given the statistical procedures being used and hypotheses to be tested, a sample size
larger than 400 was required. A sample of at least 200 is required in order to properly
conduct path analysis using structural equation modelling (Hair et al. 2006). As
invariance testing will be completed, there needs to be a minimum of 200 respondents
per group being investigated. A separate portion of the sample is required for new
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scale validation as well. These issues require a sample of greater than 400 to be
sufficient to address the required statistical techniques.
In working with the panel company, efforts were made, based on size of available
sample and the research requirements to reach all of the targeted groups and the
decision was made that 1000 responses would be collected. The larger sample would
address the needs of the study and take into account incomplete and poor quality
respondents. In total, from the sample, 690 quality responses were collected and used
in order to accomplish the research objectives. From the sample, 100 were removed
in order to conduct a separate exploratory factor analysis on the newly developed CIB
scale. This provided a sample of 590 respondents for the remainder of the analysis.
5.10 Data collection and sampling frame
Online surveys have greater acceptance and preference as a convenient and effective
survey method (Evans & Mathur 2005). Online surveys allow for a convenient,
timely and effective way to gather information from respondents who are
geographically dispersed (Biffgnandi & Bethlehem 2012). Online data collection has
now been deemed to be the dominant form of data collection in many nations,
including Australia (Menictas, Wang & Fine 2011). For the delivery of the expanded
survey instrument an online survey was developed using Swinburne University’s
licensed Opinio software.
Considering the participants are organisational managers, the question of how best to
obtain a sample needed to be addressed. There is a recognised difficulty in reaching
people Australia wide in a managerial role. The most effective manner in which to
reach them and participate is via an online survey. This method allows for complete
anonymity. After discussion with the supervisors a decision was made to select an
online panel developed specifically for business to business (B2B) surveys.
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Several issues with online surveys have been identified and best practices in
mitigating these were taken into account when determining the survey method used
(Evans & Mathur 2005). Concerns over the feasibility of an online sample;
technological and access concerns; along with privacy issues were primary issues to
adequately address in this research project. Online samples are said to exclude people
who do not have internet access, as well as possibly a limited ability to use the
internet.
According to the ABS (2012c) in 2010 and 2011 approximately 92.1% of all
businesses have internet access, for those with more than 200 employees this rate is
100%; and for those between 20 and 199 employees the rate is 98.2%. Surveying
Australian managers exclusively through an online method is a reasonable decision.
Given these facts a single sample sourced from online responses was acceptable.
5.11 Online panel
The selection of an online panel specifically made up of business professionals was
deemed to be most appropriate when addressing issues around ensuring the
demographic and other selected attributes could be addressed. Evans and Mathur
(2005) have supported the view that a panel be used to avoid issues with regard to
open surveys addressing the general population and to avoid skewed responses
towards a single group. Many online panels developed and maintained by research
companies are focused on consumer research. Research Now (2012) has developed a
specific Business to Business (B2B) panel to address the need for research directly
with business professionals and business related topics. The panels have been
established globally and are maintained according to ESOMAR standards. ESOMAR
is the internationally recognised industry body for market research firms and
professionals (ESOMAR 2013). It provides code of conduct, ethical guidelines and
best practices that must be followed in order to maintain their membership and to be
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viewed as a leading service provider. The panel provider abides by these standards in
developing, monitoring, and maintaining its online panels (ResearchNow 2012).
Research Now was contacted and developed a sampling frame for the target group
from its ‘Australian Business Panel’. Research Now had pre-screened and categorised
potential respondents that included; all active members of the panel working full time
in an Australian based organisation in a managerial role. If the potential respondent
met the selection criteria identified (in a management role, living-in and working-in
Australia for set period of time) an invitation to participate was delivered. First, the
researcher selected the broad ‘Occupational Groups’ of (1) Manager, (2) Professional
and (3) Associate Professional. These broad categories were then referenced against
the narrower panel category of ‘Organisational Role’, with the following options
selected: Company Owner/Founder; Partner; Board Director; Senior Manager;
Middle Manager/Department Manager; and Junior Manager/Supervisor/Team Leader.
As earlier noted, the criteria of a minimum five years national work experience was
used, to attempt to address any issues around recent migration and cultural context.
The acceptable and correct recruitment process involved in developing a sample from
an online panels has been detailed by Callegaro and Disogra (2008). Once an active
panel has been selected, pre-screening criteria are used resulting in a sample frame.
From here the eligible list of respondents is identified and invitations sent. In this
survey only complete responses were collected. While data collection was occurring
measures were put into place to develop a balanced sample between the earlier
identified demographic and managerial variables. As data was collected, it was
reviewed and totals for demographic variables were adjusted for the delivery of the
next set of invitations. Invitations were distributed to potential respondents in small
quantities, with a new group invited every few days until approximately 1000
complete responses were received. After cleaning the data a total sample of 690
quality responses were collected, a response rate of 69%.
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Privacy requirements along with meeting all industry established ethical guidelines
were executed by the service provider. Respondent are unable to be identified by the
researcher and no mention of a specific business was collected. This protects their
identity and assures complete anonymity. The responses were not provided to
Research Now, instead only a unique identifier was provided for those that
successfully completed the survey. Completion of the survey was monitored to ensure
no duplication in respondents occurred and surveys were completed correctly.
5.12 Data analysis plan
The data analysis plan has been developed in order to address the research questions
and hypotheses as detailed in Figure 5-4. The details about the specific steps and
requirements for each phase of analysis will be discussed in the appropriate section in
the remainder of this chapter. Data analysis occurred using two software packages
SPSS Version 21 and AMOS 21.
Figure 5-4: Data analysis plan
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Preliminary analysis 5.12.1
Once a complete sample is achieved preliminary analysis would occur. Preliminary
analysis is essential to ensure that the data meets statistical assumptions for further
analysis and includes: ensuring normality of the data, cleaning and coding the data
and examination of data for outliers (Field 2009). Details about the initial steps in the
analysis are discussed in detail in chapter 6, the preliminary analysis chapter. The
preliminary analysis chapter also includes a review of the demographic and
managerial variables of the data collected. Upon completion of these preliminary
exercises, an Exploratory Factor Analysis using SPSS Version 21 would be
completed to provide support for the hypothesised components and the newly
developed CIB scale (Hair et al. 2006).
Factor analysis 5.12.2
In order to examine the structure of latent variables a decision was made to utilise an
interdependence technique employing factor analysis (Hair et al. 2006). The term
interdependence technique refers to types of statistical analysis that looks at all
variables at once as a single set. This includes both Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Under both types of factor analysis
the constructs that emerge are referred to as factors. In this research study the term
“component” is often used to describe each factor.
EFA should be used as the primary type of factor analysis only when establishing the
undetermined underlying structure of multiple variables in a data set. In other words,
using multivariate analysis to identify the latent constructs found in the data when it
is unknown how the latent variables will emerge (Field 2009). The unknown aspect is
the key to determine the appropriate use of EFA. When a new model is being
developed or an existing model is applied in an entirely new field, EFA is the
appropriate tool to use. EFA is best used when the researcher has no real
understanding or knowledge of the latent variables that will emerge (Hurley et al.
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1997). In the case of this research study, the scales that have been proposed are built
on theory and, in all but one case, have been tested and verified extensively. The
newly developed CIB scale was built on extensive literature review and has
significant face validity and will undergo additional steps for validation, to be
discussed later in this chapter.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the other hand is based on theoretical consideration
(Hair et al. 2006). Hypotheses are developed with a priori consideration of existing
theory and literature. The result is research that is both more powerful in expanding
and connecting existing knowledge (Hurley et al. 1997). The APEL framework and
its scales were initially established across a cluster of nations in a joint study and
utilised and validated in several additional countries (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah
2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer &
Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e;
Selvarajah et al. 2006). The newly created CIB category is rooted in strong theoretical
context across the fields of managerial leadership, psychology, organisational studies
and human resources. It provides a priori foundation that makes CFA the appropriate
means to conduct a majority of this analysis.
There is however value in looking at an EFA on the hypothesised components of
Australian managerial leadership to provide additional support to the hypothesised
measures. While CFA emphasises goodness of fit measures in confirming the model,
the EFA process identifies the factor structure though visual representation of a scree
plot or eigenvalues and also identifies issues with cross loading (Hurley et al. 1997).
The strength of using both tools is that potential problems with variables can be
identified in advance before data reduction occurs in CFA to achieve acceptable
goodness of fit.
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5.12.2.1 Exploratory factor analysis on hypothesised components
EFA is not designated for variable reduction in this study or to establish goodness of
fit for each category. Rather the EFA is conducted in order to verify the
dimensionality of the hypothesised constructs of managerial leadership behaviours
based on the cultural values of Australia. The APEL framework and validated
measures used in this study have been found to be consistent across the previous
studies that have used the APEL instrument (de Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah 2006;
Selvarajah et al. 1995; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008a, d; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth
2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan 2013; Selvarajah & Meyer 2008e; Selvarajah et
al. 2006; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). As established, the components in this study
are built on a priori understanding and have all been established as valid. Given this
CFA would be used for refinement and confirmation of measures, data reduction and
factor modification to allow the exploration of the hypothesised model of Australian
excellence in managerial leadership.
5.12.2.2 Dimensionality
In this research, EFA is used as a first step in the analysis process and applied on the
data in order to verify that the established and validated scales are correct and free of
any significant problems (Hair et al. 2006). By looking at the data first in EFA the
dimensionality of the categories is verified.
5.12.2.3 Reliability
A benefit of completing an EFA on the data is to provide an assessment of the
reliability on each individual measure. Reliability assesses the consistency of the
measures of the latent variable in numerous ways (Hair et al. 2006). As a result of
completing the EFA, potential issues with the internal consistency can be looked at
on the individual indicators and the latent variable. Reliability of the latent variable
can be considered by looking at the reliability coefficient, measured with Cronbach’s
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alpha (α). This provides information on the internal consistency of the hypothesised
components.
5.12.2.4 Construct validity
Construct validity relates to how well the proposed models represent the theoretical
construct themselves (Hair et al. 2006). There are several aspects of construct validity
that are looked at during the CFA process. Several measures are examined through
the analysis process in AMOS according to Byrne (2009), which will be discussed
later in the data analysis plan. According to Hair et al. (2006) there are three types of
validity that should be considered, face validity, convergent validity and discriminant
validity.
Face validity relates to establishing theoretical support for the hypothesised
constructs a priori (Hair et al. 2006). This was done early in the research process and
is considered to be the most important validity test as it is built upon theory. As
detailed in chapter 4, each component has been shown to be supported by existing
literature on management and Australian culture.
Convergent validity relates to how well the specific indicators load on the latent
construct. Convergent validity is measured by the factor loadings, the variance
extracted and the reliability. Factor loadings are selected as the means by which the
researcher examined convergent validity. While it is suggested that indicators should
have a loading of at least 0.5 or higher, given the scales have been validated and the
study has a large sample, using measures as low as 0.3 or 0.4 are acceptable, however
should not be included if they fall below 0.3 (Hair et al. 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell
2012). In this study convergent validity is considered during the CFA process in
establishing goodness of fit for each factor, notable low loading behaviours are
removed. As noted earlier the EFA allowed for the identification of potential problem
indicators in advance.
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Discriminant validity relates to how unique the factors being examined are from each
other (Hair et al. 2006). It can be measured by looking at the correlations between the
constructs and when correlations are above 0.8 it is prone to be problematic
indicating that discriminant validity is not supported. In the EFA an observation of
any indicators cross loading between factors is used to flag a potential issue with
discriminant validity, to be fully addressed during the CFA process. Discriminant
validity is examined during the establishment of the measurement models during the
CFA (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011).
5.12.2.5 Separate EFA on the new creativity and innovation enabling behaviour scale
In developing a new scale the first steps, according to Devellis (2012), were followed
involving establishment of the purpose of the measure, generating an appropriate item
pool and developing the items to be included in the measure based on existing
knowledge and review. The next stage requires testing of the new scale in order to
provide an initial validation of it in EFA, followed by its use in CFA on a separate
sample (Worthington & Whittaker 2006). There are many considerations on the size
of the sample used in validation at the EFA level, with suggestions of samples as
large as 200 to as small as 50. A primary consideration reported by Gorsuch (1983) is
that there are at least 5 to 10 responses per item on the scale (Hair et al. 2006). Given
the data set available and the requirements of other steps in the analysis process, a
separate sample of 100 respondents was removed from the main data set and used
solely to validate the scale in EFA. A sample of 100 will allow for 6.67 observations
per item, deemed acceptable for the purpose of this EFA (Hair et al. 2006).
Confirmatory factor analysis 5.12.3
As earlier stated, CFA is driven by theory (Hair et al. 2006) In order to properly
establish measurement models, literature must be used to firstly establish a theoretical
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level of construct validity and secondly, to ascertain which variables will
hypothetically load on the factors. The result of the CFA process is what is termed a
measurement model that reflects the latent construct being examined (Kline 2011).
Once established the measurement model is assessed for goodness of fit through a
variety of statistical measures that can be used to confirm or reject the hypothesised
model against the sample data (Byrne 2009; Hair et al. 2006). The measurement
model is systematically adjusted in order to achieve an acceptable level of fit and
validity. If acceptable goodness of fit and validity does not occur, the hypothesised
model is rejected.
The CFA is a step towards structural equation modelling, referred to as SEM. SEM
has been established as the preferred means of testing theoretical relationships
between constructs (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011). The term path analysis is also
associated with structural equation modelling as relationships, or paths, are
hypothesised and tested through the modelling process (Kline 2011). To be discussed
in greater detail later in this chapter, the benefit of using SEM is largely that it
combines factor analysis and path analysis through a series of separate processes that
when followed allows for the testing of hypothesised relationships graphically, which
is significantly difficult with traditional types of multivariate analysis techniques
(Hair et al. 2006). The first step for testing of the measurement models through CFA
in AMOS is to draw the latent constructs represented by the specified indicator
variables, running the data and confirming or adapting the hypothesised constructs to
attempt to achieve goodness of fit.
5.12.3.1 CFA and goodness of fit measures
One of the powerful tools associated with CFA is its ability to determine the level of
model fit against a series of measures referred to as goodness of fit indices. Goodness
of fit indices compare the hypothesised models to the reality found in the data (Hair et
al. 2006). The strength of the SEM process is that numerous goodness of fit measures
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can be used to capture the true extent to which the theory represents the data. By
utilising several measures a strong argument can be made that the measurement
model fits the data.
The basic goodness of fit measure is referred to as Chi-square (χ²). This measure is
used to calculate the differences in the observed and estimated covariance matrix. It
may also be reported using the normed χ² measure. χ² is represented by the p-value in
the calculations utilising the degrees of freedom and χ². P-value is expected to be at or
above 0.05 in order to deem a model to have a good fit. The problem with this
measure is that a perfect population fit rarely occurs and it rarely results in a
satisfactory fit when sample sizes are large (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011). Given that
the sample size in this study is large the usefulness of this goodness of fit measure is
diminished significantly.
This means other goodness of fit measures must be used, which is suggested as best
practice regardless of sample size (Hair et al. 2006). A number of alternative indices
should be used including an absolute fit index; an incremental fit index; a goodness of
fit index and one badness of fit index. When taken together these measures provide
satisfactory support that goodness of fit has been achieved in both the measurement
model and in the final structural model. Individual goodness of fit measures may
represent more than one of the various types of fit indices, for example the Goodness
of Fit Index (GFI) serves as both an absolute fit index and a goodness of fit index,
similarly RMSEA is an absolute fit index, however is more often associated and used
as a badness of fit index. In this study, in order to achieve satisfactory goodness of fit,
three separate goodness of fit measures are used and are reported; one for absolute fit,
one for incremental fit and one for badness of fit.
In this study the GFI measure has been selected to represent the absolute fit index and
also the goodness of fit index. The absolute fit measure provides an independent
measure of how well the model fits the data. It does not compare alternative models,
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but instead serves as an objective measure of the model and the data. An incremental
fit index measures how well a model fits compared with an alternative model. In this
study the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is selected as it is one of the most widely used
incremental measures and does allow for significant complexity in the model. The
badness of fit index that is utilised is the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) measure. This measure reports a higher number with a worse fitting model
and a lower number with a good fitting model. Between these three indices, measures
of model fit will be examined.
Each goodness of fit index used has an identified point when goodness of fit is or is
not achieved. There is no clear consensus among statisticians on what the identified
points should be, The identified points to achieve fit have been deemed statistically
relevant and acceptable through numerous studies and have been used consistently
across studies using the APEL framework (Bollen & Stine 1992; Byrne 2009; de
Waal et al. 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Davuth 2012; Selvarajah, Meyer & Donovan
2013; Selvarajah, Meyer & Jeyakumar 2011). Both GFI and CFI are reported
between 0.00 and 1.00, both require a result above 0.90 given the size of the sample
and as suggested by numerous key statistical sources (Byrne 2009; Hair et al. 2006;
Kline 2011). RMSEA is reported between 1.00 (bad fit) and 0.00 (good fit) (Hair et
al. 2006). RMSEA is considered to indicate extremely good fit when the result falls at
or below 0.05. However, this level is often deemed too rigorous, resulting in a chase
for model fit at the expense of theoretical integrity and higher levels have been
suggested (Hair et al. 2006). Byrne (2009) indicates that while below 0.05 is ideal,
that values of 0.08 are reasonable and those between 0.08 and 0.1, while not
reasonable still indicate mediocre and acceptable fit and above 0.1 representing bad
fit. In the case of this research project the RMSEA of 0.08 is selected as it has been
deemed to still suggest good fit. A summary of the Goodness of Fit measures and
allocated levels of fit used in this study are listed in Table 5-8.
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Table 5-8: Goodness of fit measures
CFA and discriminant validity testing 5.12.4
Following confirmation of the goodness of fit measures, additional discriminant
validity testing is required at the CFA level between each construct. To test
discriminant validity a chi-square difference test is utilised with each component
being tested against each other. This is identified as one of the strongest tests of
discriminant validity that can be done when using CFA (Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips
1991). Each measure can be confirmed to be statistically significant and any
individual items that may cross-load can be identified and removed. After
completing these tests discriminant validity will be confirmed.
Development of composite measures of excellence in managerial 5.12.5leadership
Summated scales are often used in managerial research in order to reduce the
complexity of concepts into a single measure that will reduce measurement error
(Hair et al. 2006). Given the large number of behaviour statements and factors that
are utilised in this study, a decision has been made to utilise composite variables and
path analysis to explore the relationships between the independent variables and the
three dependent variables. As established by McDonald (1996) it is rational to
interpret path model analysis that utilises composites as similar to structural equation
modelling that utilises latent variables.
Name Measure Good Fit
Absolute Fit Index GFI ≥ 0.90Incremental Fit Index CFI ≥ 0.90Badness of Fit Index RMSEA ≥ 0.08
Significance of Fit P ≥ 0.05
Bootstrap P-value Bootstrap P ≥ 0.05
Goodness of Fit Measures
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The process used in this research study to create a composite measure involves
utilising the results of the CFA by taking the behavioural variables that load
significantly on a factor and combining them to compute a weighted average factor
score based on the standardised factor loading. The weighted average factor score is
used as the value for the composite variable. This method, along with two other
methods as described by Hair et al. (2006) were considered. Other options include use
of a single surrogate variable or utilising a mean score. Given the data is looking at
latent constructs of related, but different behaviours, the use of a single surrogate
option was deemed inappropriate. A single surrogate would remove the constructs
from the cultural perspective of Australian managers. For the use of the mean score
approach, a similar issue exists where the mean score does not adequately reflect the
the importance of each behavioural statement. Given the CFA results should reflect
the preferences of Australian managers found in the data the weighted average factor
score is more appropriate than the mean approach.
The benefits associated with using a composite variable based upon a weighted
average factor score are three fold according to Hair et al. (2006). First it represents
all of the variables loading on a factor; it is the best method for complete data
reduction and is orthogonal avoiding any complications that may arise with
multicollinearity. These benefits are offset by the primary difficulty of trying to
replicate across studies. Given the nature of the research as culturally contingent and
that the managerial behaviours reflect a ranking of importance it reduces concern
over multicollinearity (Hair et al. 2006; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Yukl & Lepsinger
2004). As relationships between the independent and dependent variables need to be
explored, the use of the composite measure for each managerial leadership behaviour
component is an acceptable and logical decision. For a composite measure to be used
there are four key issues that need to be considered, concept definition; validity,
dimensionality and reliability (Hair et al. 2006). In completing the analysis stages,
these four components have been addressed to a satisfactory degree and associated
statistics will be reported in the composition process.
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Structural equation modeling and path analysis 5.12.6
Structural equation modelling is a statistical tool that explains relationships between
variables (Hair et al. 2006). It is used to visually depict the causal paths between
variables and provide a clear representation of theory driven relationships through a
series of regression equations (Byrne 2009). This research study explores
hypothesised components surrounding Australian managers’ leadership behaviour
preferences established through the CFA process. The relationship of these
components to the dependent variables is examined using path analysis, a special case
or sub-model of SEM (Savalei & Bentler 2010). CFA followed by path analysis is an
ideal statistical solution to the research questions.
Path analysis is used for the composite variables described above as an alternative to
a full SEM on the latent constructs due to the complexity found in the model with the
large number of indicator variables and constructs. It has been determined that path
analysis can be viewed as equivalent to SEM in terms of the resulting structural
model (McDonald 1996). This method takes into account the measurement models
and treats the latent variables found in the CFA process as observed variables based
on the weighted average factor score. This allows the hypothesised relationships to be
examined in order to answer the second and third research questions (Bollen & Stine
1992; Savalei & Bentler 2010).
Invariance testing 5.12.7
The final research question and hypothesis related to examining if group differences
existed between Australian managers’ perceptions of excellence in leadership or if a
homogenous view existed. Key Australian cultural constraints including
egalitarianism, mateship, tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude were
identified as playing a role in making a homogenous view of managerial leadership as
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hypothesised. In order to examine this, invariance testing was done on four specific
groups: gender; age (under 40 and 40 and over); education level (no university degree
or a university degree); and lastly managerial role (first level managers compared
with senior and middle managers).
The sample size for the research project was 590; and issues have been identified
with completing invariance testing on samples below 200. The decision was made to
examine group comparisons that were logical, based on prior literature and suggested
statistical guidelines (Hair et al. 2006). In all instances each group has 200 or more
respondents. Three levels of analysis are used in order to test across groups to address
the final hypothesis. Firstly, invariance testing is completed in order to establish
factorial invariance for the measurement models. Secondly a t-test is done on the
difference in mean values of the composite variables used for path analysis to see if
differences are significant. Lastly the path model itself is run though the invariance
testing procedures.
Invariance testing is an aspect of multiple group analysis that provides a cross
validation across groups within a population (Hair et al. 2006). The process involves
a series of increasingly more rigorous statistical tests that compare the identified
groups. A three step process is used to complete this level of testing. A loose cross
validation is initially completed where a variety of fit statistics are examined to
determine if the cross validation criteria are met. In the first test differences in the
behavioural statements of the components are examined.
Second, a test of the factor structure equivalence is done examining if the factors are
equivalent across groups; lastly factor loading equivalence is checked to see if there
are any significant differences in loading across the groups. A minimum of two fit
statistics is suggested as appropriate, including the Chi-square difference test, CFI
and RMSEA. The Chi-square difference test has been identified as over-rejecting of
invariance at factor and model levels so the CFI and RMSEA were selected as the
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primary goodness of fit measures examined (Hair et al. 2006). The earlier stated
goodness of fit guidelines utilised in this study with CFI >.90 and RMSEA <.08 were
again considered as guidelines for use in these tests (Byrne 2009).
The t-test is a simple comparison measure of the sample means for two independent
samples for a population (Hair et al. 2006). In the case of this research project a t-test
is utilised to compare the identified groups against the composite variables. Lastly, a
repeated series of invariance tests is completed on the final model (Hair et al. 2006).
This allows for the comparison between groups and the identified paths, similar to the
process described by Byrne (2009) that provides for testing of the equivalence of
causal structure.
5.13 Chapter summary
This chapter has provided a review of the methodology. A positivist paradigm was
used along with a deductive approach in order to explore the Australian manager
perspectives of excellence in managerial leadership. In using this approach, a
quantitative methodology was used that allows for testing of hypotheses developed
based on theoretical understanding. It will also allow for an answer to the research
question associated with what role CIB plays in understanding Australian managerial
perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership. The ethical consideration and the
survey process were next explained along with a detailed review of the sections of the
survey.
Lastly, the data analysis plan was presented. This involved two steps, preliminary
analysis and primary analysis. Preliminary analysis provided an assessment of the
data for normality, review of the demographics of the sample and the EFA process.
Primary analysis included the CFA process, composite formation, path analysis and
invariance testing. Preliminary analysis is further presented in chapter 6, followed by
the primary analysis in chapter 7.
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6. Preliminary analysis
6.1 Introduction
In the last chapter the methodology was presented, along with a detailed analysis
plan. This chapter will present the preliminary analysis as detailed in Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1: Chapter overview
Preliminary analysis is essential to complete this research study. It firstly provides an
assessment of the important statistical assumptions that must be met in order to
proceed with further analysis (Hair et al. 2006). Additionally it will be useful to
understand how reflective the sample is in relation to those employed as
organisational managers in Australia. Efforts have been made to establish a sample
reflective of the managerial occupation in Australia in order to build a baseline
managerial leader profile for this study. This is essential in order to ensure that
Hypothesis 3 may be answered. Lastly, the chapter provides an EFA on the
hypothesised components in order to provide verification that they are present before
more rigorous analysis using CFA occurs. Of particular importance, the EFA on a
separate sample for the newly established CFA scale is presented in order to provide
initial validation of the newly constructed scale.
Preliminary Analysis
Data Preperation
Outliers
Normality of the Data
Sample Demographics
EFA
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6.2 Data preparation
Several steps were completed in order to properly examine and prepare the data for
all stages of analysis. To begin with, data was entered into a consistently formatted
data file. Secondly, data cleaning occurred to identify respondents that did meet the
necessary criteria for inclusion. Missing data was not an issue in this survey as
respondents were required to complete all questions in order to submit the survey. An
examination of each variable occurred to ensure that no significant outliers existed.
Tests for normality were conducted at the individual variable level to examine
departures from normality.
Data coding 6.2.1
The raw data file was loaded into SPSS version 21 and examined to ensure that it was
organised and in the appropriate place and categories. All behavioural variables were
coded with the letter ‘a’ and corresponding question number in the survey. In total
109 variables were coded from ‘a1’ to ‘a109’. Following this, data was identified as
numeric in nature and variables were identified as being scale or ordinal. These
adjustments were necessary in order to make the data set manageable and ensure
compatibility with both SPSS and AMOS software packages.
Missing data check 6.2.2
One of the established benefits of utilising an online panel for data collection is only
complete responses are included (Baker et al. 2010). A decision was made by the
researcher to exclude partially completed surveys and establish a forced answer
protocol for all questions. The forced answer approach leads to complete responses
and allows for greater level of thought about the questions by respondents (Smyth et
al. 2006). There were no cases of missing or misplaced data.
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Data cleaning 6.2.3
The data cleaning processes required for online surveys have different considerations
than a paper based survey. The issues arising relate to the concept of satisficing,
where short cuts are taken in order to reduce cognitive stress in the survey response
process (Krosnick 1999). Satisficing may take many forms such as non-response and
skipping questions; flat-lining or straight-lining, where respondents do not
differentiate response; and speeding, where surveys are completed faster than
expected given the challenge of the questions (Baker et al. 2010). Flat-lining, also
referred to as straight-lining or replicated answer pattern is a situation where survey
respondents fail to complete the questionnaire in an honest and truthful manner or
remain indifferent to diversity in response to the statements. This may take the form
of a constant and ongoing response, for example: stating “5”, “2” or “1” on a
continual basis when completing the survey; using patterns such as “5-4-3-2-1-2-3-4-
5” or “1-1-2-2-3-3-4-4-5-5” or alternating between two numbers. In this research
project the two issues that needed to be reviewed in the data cleaning process were to
ensure no ‘speeders’ or ‘flat-liners’ were included in the final data file for analysis.
In order to address the issue of speeders three steps were taken. Firstly, when the
survey was pilot tested completion times were examined. During the pilot testing
process respondents’ examination of content, flow and readability resulted in inflated
time to complete. This observation was taken into consideration when setting the
expected completion time. Secondly, the survey was completed electronically by the
researcher along with staff at the market research firm, including the client manager,
the project manager and a potential respondent from the company. The instrument
itself was time categorised by the firm based on internal processes to determine an
approximate time and appropriate incentive costs. Additionally, times were recorded
and comparisons made to set a benchmark time for survey completion. Lastly, an
initial sample of 25 respondents, were sent the survey for testing purposes by the firm
to ensure expected timing was acceptable and technical issues were solved.
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Based on these responses and the previous assessments an acceptable time range was
established, with expected times falling between 10 and 20 minutes. Respondents that
fell well below the established threshold of 10 minutes were discarded. Those slightly
below (approx. 8 minutes) were further reviewed and those well above were
reviewed, in particular those beyond 30 minutes. The review was completed on those
slightly below 10 minutes because of the skills of panel respondents, who are aware
of processes and procedures involving online surveys and may have faster response
times. For respondents that took significantly longer, checks for consistency were
done in the event they may have flat-lined or straight-lined later in the response
process. Based upon this the initial collected sample of 1000 was reduced.
In order to identify flat-lining behaviour, respondents were reviewed individually in
Excel and cases with potential problems were highlighted. Highlighted cases
included: when a pattern was detected; the same response was given for 8 or more
questions in a row; or an over emphasis on a single response point on the Likert scale.
Following identification of the flat-lining respondents a second more detailed review
occurred where the time to complete was considered alongside the frequency of the
pattern(s) or flat-line occurring. In instances where there was a clear issue they were
removed to ensure data quality. In other instances when the review showed limited
occurrence of a pattern or flat-line and the time to complete was acceptable
respondents were included in the final data sample. In total of the 1000 responses that
were collected, 310 were removed, leaving a total sample of 690. The researcher felt
that by establishing these criteria it would result in a strong data sample for the study.
6.3 Univariate outliers
Outliers in this study were reviewed at a univariate level. An univariate outlier is one
where the data collected at the single variable level is noticeably different from the
rest of the data set collected (Field 2009). A multivariate outlier is related to a
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complete construct or model made up of multiple variables in the case of this research
the factors that are being explored (Hair et al. 2006). Given that this research was
focused on examining factor level scores it was important to review the univariate
outliers. Outliers may be tested visually using histograms and Q-Q plots as well as by
calculating z-scores (Field 2009). Based on the SPSS descriptive data included in
Appendix 4, it was determined that very few outliers were present in the sample and
were acceptable to leave in as they represented individual opinions of the respondents
and would have no significant effect on the data.
6.4 Normality of the data
In order to ensure that the statistical analysis will be valid it is important that the data
is deemed to be normally distributed. This is the most important assumption in
statistical analysis and checking for normality is essential (Hair et al. 2006). To test
normality, there are several ways to look at the distribution of the data. These include
skewness and kurtosis; the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test (KS test); the Shapiro-Wik test
(SW test); as well as graphically using Q-Q plots and histograms (Field 2009). The
large sample makes the KS test and SW test less feasible to use and it was decided to
examine the graphs along with skewness and kurtosis. Skewness relates to the
symmetry of the distribution, while kurtosis relates to the peakedness of the
distribution (Hair et al. 2006). Both may be positive or negative, with a negative skew
reflecting a larger distribution to the right and a positive skew reflecting a skew to the
left. A positive kurtosis means that that the data has a strong peak and a negative
kurtosis reflects a relatively flat distribution. The criteria for the skewness and
kurtosis to be considered normal are between -1 to +1 for skewness and between -2
and +2 for kurtosis and still be deemed normal.
The skewness and kurtosis for the variables were calculated using SPSS and is
included for each indicator variable in Appendix 4. Almost all variables fell into the
range of acceptable for both skewness and kurtosis. There were a total of three
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behaviours which slightly exceeded a skewness of -1, in all cases the behaviours
associated with the higher skewness reflect items of significant importance to
Australian managers. Based on this it was felt that the skewness could be considered
acceptable. There were no cases of kurtosis exceeding +/- 2, reflecting a normal
distribution. Based on this the data was considered normal at the univariate level.
6.5 Demographics and managerial profile
As earlier established one of the objectives of the sample developed for this study
was to achieve a baseline Australian sample of managers, reflective of geographic,
demographic and managerial characteristics based on what is known about the
occupation in the country. It is not possible to achieve a representative sample of
Australian managers. The research study chose to establish a sample of Australian
managers that should share similar characteristics as those in the management
occupation in Australia.
Demographic profile 6.5.1
The following section provides a breakdown of the demographic variables for the
respondents in the sample. Efforts were made to achieve a balanced Australian
managerial profile based upon the 2006 Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics
2007a). The 2006 Census was selected because at the time of development of the
sample and applying for ethics clearance no information was available on the 2011
Census results. The Census is the most representative measure of people employed in
various occupations in Australia. In total 1,202,261 Australians identified their
occupation as that of a manager in the Census. The researcher’s intention was to build
an Australian manager profile based on census data. However, some
discrepancies were expected in order to allow for hypothesis testing and limitations in
the respondent pool. These discrepancies will be discussed below. The Census
includes all people residing in Australia at the time it is taken, regardless of country
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of residency. This means that within these figures may be people who do not have
five years Australian work experience, which was used as a selection criteria for all
respondents. While no information is available on the residency of people included in
the managerial occupation category, it was expected the number of managers with
less than five years Australian work experience would be small. Table 6-1 provides a
breakdown of the demographics of the sample compared with the 2006 Census data.
Table 6-1: Comparison of sample demographics and 2006 census figures
Demographic variables Survey % 2006 Census
Gender
Male 56.1 65.5
Female 43.9 34.4 Age
Under 25 0.8 5.2
25 - 34 18.1 18.6
35-44 33.6 27.6
45-54 28.5 27.4
55 or older 19 21.2 State/Territory
New South Wales 33.9 33
Victoria 29.5 25.5
Queensland 17.3 18.8
Western Australia 8.8 9.7
South Australia 6.9 7.7
Tasmania 1.9 2.2
Northern Territory 0.8 0.9
Australia Capital Territory 0.8 2.3 Highest level of Education
TAFE/technical program 28.8 47.9
Bachelor 29 29.2
Graduate Program/Degree 23.9 12.5
Doctorate 1.2 1.2 Country of Birth
Australia 74.4 70.9
Foreign born 25.6 29.1
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According to the 2006 Census approximately 34.4% of people in a managerial
occupation were women and 65.6% were men. The sample reflects a greater
percentage of women in this role than the census figures. However, given the
hypothesis testing required a greater percentage of female respondents was required
compared to the Census figures.
The age of respondents was again reflective of the figures as calculated in the 2006
Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). Figures collected were in five year
intervals, while figures in the census were in ten year intervals. The data reported has
been adjusted in order to allow for comparison. The largest departure from the
Census figures was in those aged under 25. The discrepancy between the survey
sample and the Census figures can be explained by two reasons. First, the researcher
had excluded respondents with less than 5 years Australian work experience from the
sample to ensure a culturally consistent sample was developed. This was done to
exclude recent immigrants and those who may be expatriates working for a limited
period in Australia. This may have resulted in younger managers who may have
entered the workforce as a migrant or quickly rose to a managerial position at a young
age being excluded. Secondly, the desire to get a balanced sample across other
demographic variables and a diverse managerial profile impacted on recruitment of
managers under the age of 25. The largest number of respondents was in the 35 to 44
years of age category with 33.6%; followed by the 45 – 54 age range with 28.8%,
both reflect a slightly larger number than reported in the Census. Based upon these
results a comparison between managers under 40 and 40 and older would be possible,
as per the requirements to address the associated hypothesis.
Respondents were asked to indicate the State or Territory in which they reside. The
goal was to establish a well distributed sample of respondents from all States
reflective of the 2006 Australian Census occupation category of management
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a). As illustrated in Table 6-1, the sample had an
approximate distribution reflective of the 2006 Census figures.
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The level of education of respondents as categorised in the survey instrument was
different from that recorded in the Census (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b).
The survey included categories for “high school graduate” and “some high school”,
not included in the Census information. The census data provided a greater
breakdown of type of qualification. In order to find a reflective category all
qualifications below bachelor degree were grouped together as equivalent to a TAFE
program or technical program, reflecting the 47.9% figure shown in Table 6-1. The
survey respondents compared with the 2006 Census figures, show approximately
comparable numbers for those with a Bachelor and Doctorate degree however, more
survey respondents reported a graduate level education than the Census. This result
would allow for hypothesis testing.
According to the 2006 Census the Australian population was made up of 19,855,287
people (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c). No data was available on the country
of birth by occupation, so it was decided that the sample should be reflective of the
Australian population from the 2006 Census. According to the census data, 6.9% of
the respondents did not provide this information however, it also reports that 22% of
the population was foreign born, making it difficult to get an accurate interpretation
of these figures for comparison.
In total 439 of the respondents were Australian born, or 74.4%, reflective of the total
population reported in the Census. The sample had 25.6% identifying themselves as
foreign born managers. However, all had a minimum of five years Australian work
experience. The sample was in line with figures found in the Census for a majority of
the larger foreign born nationalities that make up the Australian population, including
the United Kingdom (5.8% of the sample, compared with 5.2% of the population) and
New Zealand (2.4% compared to 2.0% of the population), the two largest groups of
foreign born population.
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Managerial profile 6.5.2
To ensure that the sample reflected the diversity of people in managerial roles, based
on the type and size of organisations and industries in the Australian economy, efforts
were made for a cross section of respondents.
Sector
Respondents were predominantly from the private sector, as detailed in Table 6-2, at
75.8%. Approximately 20% of respondents were employed in the government sector,
made up of those that work for federal, state and municipal organisations. Just under
5% were employed in the NGO sector. The Australian Bureau of Statistics does not
publish figures related to employment category and sector; however, given that a
profile of Australian managers was being sought, the predominant number of
respondents being managers from the private sector was acceptable.
Table 6-2: Sector of respondents
Sector Frequency % Cumulative %
Private Sector 447 75.8 75.8
Government Sector 116 19.7 95.4
NGO 27 4.6 100
Industry sector
Respondents were asked to identify the specific industry sector that they were
employed in. These categories are based on the NIC codes used in the 2006 Census
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007a, c). The sample had a reasonable distribution
across all sectors. There were notably less respondents (less than 5%) from the
Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing; Retail Trade; and Accommodation & Food Service
categories. There were notably more respondents (greater than 5%) from the
Professional, Scientific & Technical Services sector; Heath Care & Social Assistance
and Other Services categories. Due to the limited number of respondents available in
some of these professions the sample was not substantially different from the
Australian managerial occupation profile identified in the 2006 Census. This is felt to
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be a reasonable distribution reflective of the industries in Australia given the
limitations of the single sample source.
The largest number of respondents came from the professional, scientific & technical
service sector with 12.2% of respondents (72 out of 590); health care and social
assistance industry sector (63 out of 590) followed by the education & training and
finance & insurance services sector (each with 47 out of 590). The smallest
percentages were from those that were unsure about the classification of their sector
and the rental hiring & real estate sectors each with 1.4%. Given the diversity of
industry sectors and the lack of a dominant sample group to form groups there were
no groups categorised for hypothesis testing.
Years of work experience
Respondents in the study were asked to list their years of Australian work experience.
A majority of respondents indicated they have more than 20 years’ experience in the
Australian workforce (58.6%) followed closely by those with 10 to 15 years (13.9%)
and those with 15 – 19 years (13.2%), as detailed in Table 6-3. Only 3.1% of
respondents had been working for approximately 5 years. Given the distribution of
respondents it was felt this was a healthy distribution across years of work
experience.
Table 6-3: Years of Australian work experience
Australian Work Experience Frequency % Cumulative %
Approximately 5 18 3.1 3.1
5 - 9 years 66 11.2 14.2
10 - 14 years 82 13.9 28.1
15 - 19 years 78 13.2 41.4
20 or more 346 58.6 100
Years of management experience
The sample attempted to collect a cross section of managerial experience. In total
approximately 58.4% had less than 10 years’ experience; while 41.7% had more than
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ten years of experience. The largest portion of the sample were those relatively new
to the field of management will less than 5 years’ experience (218 out of 590); while
those with 20 or more years of managerial experience accounted for 15.9% (94 out of
590). The distribution of respondents is detailed in Table 6-4.
Table 6-4: Years of managerial experience
Managerial Experience Frequency % Cumulative %
Under 5 years 218 36.9 36.9
5 - 9 years 126 21.4 58.3
10 - 14 years 102 17.3 75.6
15 - 19 years 50 8.5 84.1
20 or more 94 15.9 100
While there was sufficient data to examine different groups for management based on
years of experience, the researcher felt that given the distribution of the data and
requirements to compare groups across the stages of analysis that there was a lack of
theoretical foundation to split the sample.
Managerial role
Respondents were separated by their managerial role. Given the large portion of
respondents that were at an early stage in their managerial career, it was logical that
the largest number of respondents are front line or first level managers making up
47.3% of the sample (279 out of 590). Middle managers followed with 165 responses
(165 out of 590) and lastly senior managers made up 24.7% of the total (146 out of
590). The most difficult respondents to reach are those with high levels of income,
responsibility and organisational roles in an online panel (Baker et al. 2010). The
reason for this relates to the willingness of people who earn a high income, like senior
executives, to participate in online panels given the demands on their time and the
size of the incentives offered (Wagner, Frick & Schupp 2007). Given this limitation,
achieving this cross section of managers is considered to be successful. The detailed
breakdown of managerial groups is provided below in Table 6-5. The results allow
for invariance testing for these groups.
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Table 6-5: Managerial role
Managerial Role Frequency % Cumulative %
Frontline/ First level Management 279 47.3 47.3
Middle Management 165 28 75.3
Senior Management 146 24.7 100
Size of organisation
In Australia a small business is categorised as having less than 20 employees and a
medium business as having up to 200 employees (Clark et al. 2012). Small business
makes up over 90% of the registered businesses accounting for 47 precent of
employment; medium business making up four precent of the registered business and
23% of employment; while large business accounting for less than one precent of
registered business and being responsible for 30 precent of employment. The sample
has a cross section of all business sizes. Respondents identified the size of the
business in which they manage as detailed in Table 6-6.
Table 6-6: Size of organisation
Size of Organisation Frequency % Cumulative %
Under 5 employees 104 17.6 17.6
5 - 19 employees 65 11 28.6
20 - 49 employees 57 9.7 38.3
50 - 99 employees 42 7.1 45.4
100 - 499 employees 91 15.4 60.8
500 - 999 employees 48 8.1 69
1000 or more 183 31 100 A majority of respondents work in organisations considered large with 500+
members with 39.1% of the sample. Organisations with less than 20 employees were
28.6% of the sample. Remaining respondents were from medium and large business.
Size of department
Given the large number of small and medium sized organisations reflected in the
sample, a majority of respondents were managers in relatively small departments,
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with 51% coming from departments with less than 10 employees. The remaining 49%
came from departments with more than 10 employees up to 1000 or more, as detailed
in Table 6-7. The researcher was not able to form groups relating to either
organisational size or department size based on theoretical information, with respect
to potential differences.
Table 6-7: Size of department
Size of Department Frequency % Cumulative %
Under 5 employees 190 32.2 32.2
5 - 9 employees 111 18.8 51
10 - 19 employees 96 16.3 67.3
20 - 49 employees 81 13.7 81
50 - 99 employees 53 9 90
100 or more employees 59 10 100
6.6 EFA on APEL categories and CIB
The EFA using Principle Axis Factoring (PAF) estimation method is completed on all
of the hypothesised categories, as PAF has been identified as giving the best results
based on the assessment of normality of the data (Costello & Osborne 2005). The
selected rotation was Direct Oblimin, an oblique rotation that considers correlations
exist between the factors (Field 2009). Kaiser Normalisation criterion is utilised
where the least important factors are ignored determined by examination of
eigenvalues above 1.0. Alongside the consideration of the eigenvalues is the use of
the scree plot which was deemed as the final check against the eigenvalue results in
determining if the hypothesised factor structure was supported. In total 6 categories of
variables forming endogenous constructs were examined in EFA analysis. Table 6-8
provides the summary of the EFA for the constructs.
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Table 6-8: EFA completed on excellence in managerial leadership components
EFA on Hypothesised Categories # of
StatementsExcellent Leader 9
Visionary Leader 4 Organisational Leader 5
Personal Qualities 19 Relationship 9
Respect 3 Integrity 7
Organisational Demand 9 Organisational Demand 9
Environmental Influence 10 Macro-Environment 6 Micro-Environment 4
Managerial Behaviours 21 Progressiveness 4
Decision Making 4 Teamwork 8 Officious 5
Creativity & Innovation Enabling Behaviours 15 Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) 15
Excellent Leader was divided into two components: Visionary Leader and
Organisational Leader, with four and five behaviours respectively. Personal Qualities
had three hypothesised components: “Relationships”, “Respect” and “Integrity” with
nine, four and six behaviours respectively. Organisational Demand was anticipated to
be a single category with nine behaviours. Environmental Influence had two
components identified, with four behaviours categorised as “Micro-Environment” and
six behaviours associated with external influence on the firm named
“Macro-Environment”. In total the 21 behaviours associated with Managerial
Behaviours were considered as four components: “Progressive” with four behaviours;
“Decision Making” had four statements; “Teamwork” had eight behaviours; and
lastly “Officious” had five statements. The newly established CIB category was a
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single category and had 15 statements associated with it. Appendix 5 includes
additional output from the EFA process.
EFA for excellent leader category
The identified variables for the two hypothesised components that make up Excellent
Leader were represented by 9 behavioural statements. The associated results of the
EFA on the two factor solution for the construct are included in Table 6-9.
Table 6-9: Pattern matrix for EFA on excellent leader
Organisational Visionary
Excellence in Leadership Statement Leader Leader
91. organise work time effectively 0.667
37. listen when employees want to say something 0.657
93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people 0.638
29. give recognition for good work 0.638
89. continue to learn how to improve performance 0.512
10. be honest 0..434
32. have a strategic vision for the organisation 0.688
82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry 0.603
42. motivate employees 0.469
20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place 0.383 0.384
% of Variance Extracted = 52% Cronbach's Alpha 0.78 0.73
Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden
The EFA revealed that the two proposed components were indeed present. The
variance explained in the two identified factors was 52% with a Cronbach alpha of
0.78 and 0.73 for the Organisational Leader and Visionary Leader Components
respectively. Factor loadings reflected an acceptable loading in all cases above +/-.30
given the large sample size (Hair et al. 2006). One item cross loaded, and was noted
as a potential issue to be aware of during the CFA process.
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EFA for personal qualities category
The hypothesised three components that make up Personal Qualities are represented
by 19 behavioural statements. After examining the points of inflection on the scree
plot, three factors were identified (Field 2009). The results are shown in Table 6-10
with three factors representing the identified constructs.
Table 6-10: Pattern matrix for EFA on personal qualities
Excellence in Leadership Statement Relationship Integrity Respect
6. be consistent in dealing with people 0.727
1. accept responsibility for my mistakes 0.600
8. be dependable and trustworthy 0.569
5. be an initiator, not a follower 0.548
21. deal calmly in tense situations 0.516
14. be practical 0.488
2 accept that others will make mistakes 0.476
49. speak clearly and concisely 0.456
58. write clearly and concisely 0.385
25. follow the heart & not the head in compassionate matters
0.546
18. behave in accordance with your religious beliefs 0.544
11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work
0.375
26. follow what is morally right, not what is right for self or organisation
0.367
45. return favours 0.363 -0.363
31. have a sense of humour 0.339
57. work long hours
44. respect the self-esteem of others -0.566
36. listen to the advice of others -0.421
53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest
0.417 -0.416
% of Variance Extracted = 41% Cronbach's Alpha 0.80 0.60 0.66
Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden
There was a lower variance extracted than is ideal at 41% and the reliability of the
components were 0.80, 0.60 and 0.66 for Relationship, Integrity and Respect
respectively. The EFA showed one variable cross loading and one with a loading of
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less than 0.30 loading that would need to be considered during CFA of the constructs.
The Integrity component had several acceptable, but low loading behavioural
statements.
EFA for organisational demand category
The hypothesised single organisational demand construct consisted of 9 behavioural
statements, again tested on the 5 point Likert scale. An initial EFA ran found a single
factor was present. The results shown in Table 6-11 indicated that all variables had
acceptable loadings except one which would need to be considered in the CFA
process. Reliability for the scale was acceptable with 0.61 (Hair et al. 2006). Variance
extracted was however low at 31%.
Table 6-11: Factor Matrix for EFA on organisational demand
Excellence in Leadership Statement Organisational Demand
50. support decisions made jointly by others 0.645
48. share power 0.592
83. adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice 0.556
47. sell the professional or corporate image to the public 0.521
23. focus on maximising productivity 0.466
3. be adaptable 0.458
28. give priority to long-term goals 0.424
94. act as a member of a team 0.387
59. ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation
% of Variance Extracted =31% Cronbach's Alpha 0.61
Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden
EFA for environmental influence category
The identified variables for the two constructs that make up Environmental influence
are represented by 10 behavioural statements. The EFA verified that two factors were
present. Results showed that all variables loaded at an acceptable level on the two
factors as shown in Table 6-12. The scale had a variance extracted of 49% for the two
factors with a reliability of 0.75 for Macro-Environment and 0.68 for
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Micro-Environment. The EFA showed one variable in each factor loading below 0.4
that would need to be considered during the CFA process.
Table 6-12: Pattern matrix for EFA on environmental influence
Macro Micro
Excellence in Leadership Statement Env Env
38. look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures 0.776
30. have a multicultural orientation and approach 0.720
27. foster an international perspective in the organisation 0.543
16. be socially and environmentally responsible 0.494
33. identify social trends which may have an impact on work 0.44
15. be responsive to political realities in the environment 0.339
77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies 0.703
78. check constantly for problems and opportunities 0.635
70. study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work 0.563
66. use economic indicators for planning purposes 0.392
% of Variance Extracted = 49% Cronbach's Alpha 0.75 0.68
Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden
EFA for managerial behaviour category
Four factors are hypothesised for the Managerial Behaviour category, which was
made up of 21 behaviours. In examining the scree plot it was decided that four factors
are present based on the points of inflection on the curve (Field 2009). The four factor
solution had two variables cross loading between the factors and three variables that
were below the necessary loading level (0.3) that would need to be considered during
the CFA process. The total variance extracted for four factors was 47%. Reliability
for each of the factors was as follows: 0.64 for Officious; 0.77 for Teamwork; 0.61
for Progressive and 0.70 for Decision Making. Table 6-13 provides a summary of the
results.
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Table 6-13: Pattern matrix for EFA on managerial behaviours
Excellence in Leadership Statement
Officious Teamwork Progressiveness Decision Making
51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it
0.557
24. focus on the task-at-hand 0.442 17. be strict in judging the competence of employees
0.376
52. think about the specific details of any particular problem
0.364 0.338
9. be formal when dealing with employees at work
13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts
0.721
19. consider suggestions made by employees
0.544
12. be logical in solving problems 0.333 0.507 54. trust those to whom work is delegated
0.437
35. listen to and understand the problems of others
0.403
4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy
0.402
7. be consistent in making decisions 0.399
22. delegate 0.314
46. select work wisely to avoid overload
55. try different approaches to management
0.623
56. use initiative and take risks 0.508 34. keep up-to-date on management literature
0.484
41. make work decisions quickly -0.882
40. make decisions without depending too much on others
-0.611
39. make decisions earlier rather than later
-0.521
43. persuade others to do things
% of Variance Extracted=47% Cronbach's Alpha
0.64
0.77
0.61 0.70
Note: Loadings below 0.3 are hidden
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6.7 Separate sample EFA on new CIB scale
One new scale has been developed for use in this study which required a separate
validation test through an EFA on a separate data sample. As discussed in chapter 5, a
sample of 100 was removed from the main data set and used for this singular purpose.
The data selected was reviewed and checked for normality as per guidelines and
procedures used in the preliminary analysis. After completing this an EFA was run on
the data, using Principle Axis Factoring with a Direct Oblimin rotation. The EFA
would provide initial validation of the newly developed scale (Hair et al. 2006). In
total 15 behaviours are included in the scale. As detailed in Table 6-14, with other
relevant output included in Appendix 5, a single factor was found. All variables had
acceptable loadings on the single factor. Reliability and Variance extracted for the
scale was again acceptable with 0.97 and 74% respectively (Hair et al. 2006).
Table 6-14: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB – separate sample of 100
Excellence in Leadership Statement CIB
98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation 0.897
96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals 0.885
109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative 0.88
100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions 0.874
103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation 0.872
108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
0.867
102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted 0.853
106. develop reward structures that reflect employees' motivation and preferences 0.847
105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals 0.844
101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation 0.842
97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation 0.833
104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work 0.813
107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 0.811
99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts 0.797
95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation 0.795
% of Variance Extracted = 74% Cronbach's Alpha 0.97
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EFA for CIB category
A single factor was expected to represent the CIB category. In total 15 behaviours
were included in the scale. In examining the scree plot a single factor was present. As
detailed in Table 6-15 all indicators had loadings above 0.50 indicating that the initial
factor loading was acceptable (Hair et al. 2006). Reliability for the scale was again
acceptable with 0.92 (Hair et al. 2006). Variance extracted was however low at 48%.
Table 6-15: Factor matrix for EFA on CIB
Excellence in Leadership Statement CIB
103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation 0.765
97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation 0.732
98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation 0.723
108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
0.707
100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions 0.693
105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals 0.692
109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative 0.689
96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals 0.685
102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted 0.671
104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work 0.625
95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation 0.617
99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts 0.608
106. develop reward structures that reflect employees' motivation and preferences 0.607
107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 0.589
101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation 0.583
% of Variance Extracted = 48% Cronbach's Alpha 0.92
Having verified through statistical analysis, support for the hypothesised constructs
the EFA analysis was complete. It provided some insight into which components and
behavioural statements may cause problems and the next phase of analysis involving
CFA.
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6.8 Chapter summary
The purpose of the first three steps in the data analysis process was to examine the
collected data from the online survey. The data sample that did not contain any
missing data. Once collected the data was cleaned and coded according to planned
statistical analysis. Cleaning of the data revealed that a portion of the respondents’
data had to be excluded due to issues associated with speeding and flat-lining. This
was expected to occur when using both an online survey tool and an online panel
where an incentive is offered. In total, a sample of 590 made up the primary data
sample. As discussed the data collected was deemed to have some very slight
departures from normality, but these were not statistically significant and the data was
deemed normal indicating it was feasible to continue to proceed with the planned
analysis.
The demographic and managerial profile of the respondents was also reviewed. The
sample has been shown to have a satisfactory number of Australian managers, based
on the 2006 Census. There was an approximate number of Australian and foreign
born respondents. Similarly the sample had comparable percentages to the Census for
the number of managers by State and Territory. The review of respondents found that
there were a few sectors that were in need of a slightly larger number of respondents
and others that were in need of slightly fewer, this was not considered an issue that
would impact on creating a baseline profile of the Australian perspective of
excellence in managerial leadership.
The managerial profile of respondents was also discussed and it was found that the
data had a reasonable cross section of managers from different age ranges, education,
years of work experience and managerial experience, managerial role, size of
organisation and department.
An initial EFA was completed on a separate sample of 100 removed from the main
data set in order to allow for validation of the CIB scale before proceeding, as
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required in new scale development. The EFA had positive results and the scale as
developed was supported. Following this, an EFA was completed on the four primary
APEL categories, the Excellent Leader category and the newly created CIB category
in order to verify that the hypothesised models existed. Having verified that the
hypothesised models did exist, preliminary analysis was complete.
The above discussed analysis was completed in order to continue on with further data
analysis that will be discussed in the following chapter, which looks at using CFA in
order to construct measurement models; followed by path analysis in structural
equation modelling used to explore the relationships between the variables.
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7. Analysis
7.1 Introduction
In chapter 5 the methodology was presented along with a detailed analysis plan.
chapter 6 included the preliminary analysis. This chapter presents the primary
analysis and results of this research study. The findings are discussed in the next
chapter. The study is based on a sample of 590 Australian managers, with a minimum
of five years Australian work experience. Figure 7-1 provides an overview of the data
analysis processes that will be found in this chapter.
Figure 7-1: Chapter overview
The chapter follows, step by step, the statistical procedures used to complete the
analysis plan. First looked at are the development of measurement models for the
hypothesised constructs. Measurement model development is presented with
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) along with a review of the hypotheses against the
results. Based upon the results of the CFA process and the hypothesised relationships
structural equation modelling utilising path analysis on the weighted factor average
scores is completed. Path analysis is a type of structural equation modelling that suits
Data Analysis Process
CFA
Composite Formation
Path Analysis
Invariance testing
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this study as presented in the methodology chapter. The development of a path model
for the hypothesised model is tested, followed by adjustments to the model to achieve
acceptable goodness of fit. The final model is presented and reviewed hypothesised
relationships. In conclusion, a series of invariance tests on the measurement models,
the composite constructs and the final model are reported across four key managerial
groups addressing the final hypothesis.
The 13 components being examined consist of 3 dependent variables and 10
independent variables. The 3 dependent variables are Visionary Leader and
Organisational Leader, from the Excellent Leader category, and the CIB category.
The 10 independent variables are the remaining components from the four excellence
in managerial leadership categories.
7.2 Measurement models for the excellence in leadership components
The measurement models representing the categories of managerial leadership
behaviours included in this study each had a CFA completed separately and are
reported below. In order to accommodate working with the AMOS software,
indicator variable labels were replaced with the letter ‘a’ and the associated number
from the questionnaire, as detailed in Appendix 3. Additional output from the CFA
process is included in Appendix 6, including the initial hypothesised model and the
final measurement model. An examination of the relevant hypotheses will be
provided upon completion of the CFA on the measurement models.
CFA for measurement model of Excellent Leader
The measurement model for Excellent Leader consisted of two components,
Visionary Leader and Organisational Leader. Four statements were categorised as
relating to Visionary Leader and five statements were categorised as relating to
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Organisational Leader. A CFA on the Excellent Leader measurement model was
performed and illustrated in Figure 7-2.
Figure 7-2: Standardised measurement model of excellent leader
All of the statements loaded well on both of the constructs with loadings above .40,
with the exception of a10, “Being Honest”, with a factor loading of .36, this was
deemed acceptable given the large sample size as a loading above .30 is still
considered minimally acceptable (Hair et al. 2006). Based on the CFA results an
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.97 0.95 0.07Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 94.20 df= 26
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acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an
absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .97. Incremental fit was measured with
CFI and had an acceptable fit of .95. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .07
indicating that it was also acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA confirmed
the two constructs for Excellent Leadership.
Discriminant validity was identified as a potential issue with the high correlation
between the constructs. However, given that face validity has been established and is
of greater importance, it was decided that this was not a major issue (Hair et al.
2006). Implied correlations regression weights are included in Table 7-1.
Discriminant validity would be looked separately once all models have been
confirmed, prior to forming composite measures.
Table 7-1: Regression weights for excellent leader
Estimate S.E. C.R. p
a29 <--- Organisational_Leader 1
a89 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.226 0.1 12.221 *** a91 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.083 0.09 12.095 *** a93 <--- Organisational_Leader 1.18 0.095 12.47 *** a10 <--- Organisational_Leader 0.553 0.074 7.476 *** a32 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.996 0.079 12.664 *** a42 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.972 0.071 13.741 *** a82 <--- Visionary_Leader 0.963 0.094 10.242 *** a20 <--- Visionary_Leader 1
Note: ***: p < 0.000
CFA for Personal Qualities
The measurement model for Personal Qualities consisted of three components,
Relationship, Respect and Integrity. Nine statements were categorised as relating to
Relationships; three statements related to Respect and seven statements related to
Integrity. An initial CFA on the Personal Qualities measurement model was
constructed and performed. The results indicated that there were significant problems
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with the three factor solution, in particular with the third component Integrity. Three
statements (a11, a18 and a57) had loadings well below 0.40 and one statement (a25)
cross loaded with the Relationship construct. The identified statements were removed
and the CFA run again. An examination of the standardised residual covariances
indicated an additional statement for the Integrity component was troublesome (a45)
and was removed. The elimination of a45 from the Integrity component resulted in it
now being under-identified. Therefore the data did not adequately support its
inclusion and the Integrity component was eliminated (Hair et al. 2006).
Figure 7-3: CFA for personal qualities
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Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.96 0.94 0.06
Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 134.10 df= 43
A revised two factor CFA for the Relationship and Respect constructs was run and an
additional behaviour (a1) was identified as needing to be eliminated to ensure an
acceptable model fit, based on the standardised residual covariances. The final
Personal Qualities measurement model is shown in Figure 7-3.
Based on the above CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a
goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .96.
Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had acceptable fit of .94. The badness of
fit measure, RMSEA, was .06 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these
measures the CFA confirmed the two independent constructs for Personal Qualities.
Discriminant validity was demonstrated with the correlations and significant
regression weights included in Table 7-2, again to be checked later.
Table 7-2: Regression weights for personal qualities
Estimate S.E. C.R. p
a2 <--- Relationship 1.102 0.11 10.053 *** a5 <--- Relationship 1.139 0.119 9.576 *** a6 <--- Relationship 1.099 0.102 10.764 *** a8 <--- Relationship 0.847 0.086 9.799 *** a21 <--- Relationship 1 a49 <--- Relationship 1.279 0.113 11.308 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.192 0.113 10.538 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.195 0.122 9.834 *** a53 <--- Respect 0.813 0.076 10.65 *** a36 <--- Respect 0.842 0.075 11.238 *** a44 <--- Respect 1
Note: ***: p < 0.000
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CFA for Managerial Behaviours
The measurement model for Managerial Behaviours consisted of four components,
Progressiveness, Decision making, Teamwork and Officious. Three statements were
categorised as relating to Progressiveness; Decision Making was represented by four
statements; Teamwork had eight statements; and Officious had five statements
associated with it. A CFA was run and model fit was not achieved. The standardised
residual covariances were studied to identify problems. Initial problems were largely
associated with the Officious component. Problematic statements (a52, a51, a9) were
eliminated and the factor was under-identified so the decision was made to remove
the component, as the data could not support its inclusion.
The revised three factor CFA for Progressiveness, Decision Making and Teamwork
was run. In examining the standardised residual covariances two behaviours from the
Teamwork component were eliminated (a4 and a12) in order to achieve an acceptable
model fit as shown in Figure 7-4.
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Figure 7-4: CFA for managerial behaviours
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.96 0.92 0.06
Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 181.30 df= 62
Based on the CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of
fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .96. Incremental fit
was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of .92. The badness of fit measure,
RMSEA, was .06 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA
confirmed the three independent constructs for Managerial Behaviours. Discriminant
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validity was demonstrated and the correlations and significant regression weights
included in Table 7-3. Discriminant validity will again be checked later.
Table 7-3: Regression weights for managerial behaviours
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
a43 <--- Decision 1
a41 <--- Decision 1.592 0.177 9.021 *** a40 <--- Decision 1.595 0.185 8.637 *** a39 <--- Decision 1.564 0.175 8.952 *** a34 <--- Progressiveness 1 a55 <--- Progressiveness 1.097 0.112 9.801 *** a56 <--- Progressiveness 1 0.108 9.227 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1 a35 <--- Teamwork 1.326 0.132 10.085 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.106 0.122 9.067 *** a7 <--- Teamwork 1.004 0.114 8.781 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.075 0.117 9.198 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.187 0.116 10.238 ***
Note: ***: p < 0.000
CFA for Environmental Influence
The measurement model for Environmental Influence consisted of two components,
Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment. Six statements were categorised as
relating to Macro-Environment and four statements were related to
Micro-Environment. A CFA on the constructed measurement model was run on the
Environmental Influence category. An examination of the standardised residual
covariances identified two behavioural statement problems with both components.
One statement (a66) was removed from the Micro-Environment component followed
by the removal of one statement (a38) from the Macro-Environment component in
order to achieve an acceptable model fit, as depicted in Figure 7-5.
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Figure 7-5: CFA for environmental influence
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.98 0.96 0.05
Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 48.90 df= 19
Based on the CFA an acceptable model fit was achieved. GFI provided a goodness of
fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was acceptable at .98. Incremental fit
was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of .97. The badness of fit measure,
RMSEA, was .05 indicating that it was acceptable. Based on these measures the CFA
confirmed the two independent constructs for Environmental Influence. Discriminant
validity was demonstrated with the correlations and significant regression weights,
included in Table 7-4, again to be checked later.
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Table 7-4: Regression weights for environmental influence
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
a30 <--- MacroENV 1
a27 <--- MacroENV 1.037 0.11 9.39 *** a33 <--- MacroENV 0.91 0.093 9.78 *** a16 <--- MacroENV 0.821 0.092 8.92 *** a15 <--- MacroENV 0.743 0.085 8.78 *** a70 <--- MicroENV 1 a77 <--- MicroENV 1.472 0.162 9.1 *** a78 <--- MicroENV 1.011 0.111 9.134 ***
Note: ***: p < 0.000
CFA for Organisational Demand
The measurement model for Organisational Demand consisted of a single component
of the same name. In total nine behavioural statements were included in the category.
An initial CFA was run on Organisational Demand and acceptable model fit was not
achieved. An inspection of the factor loadings found one statement to have a loading
well below 0.4 (a59) and it was eliminated. The CFA was rerun and an examination
of the standardised residual covariances indicated that two statements (a38 and a23)
were an issue and were eliminated respectively. Following the eliminations the CFA
was run again and the final model achieved acceptable model fit, see Figure 7-6.
GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was
acceptable at .98. Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of
.94. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .07 indicating that it was acceptable.
Based on these measures the CFA confirmed the independent construct for
Organisational Demand. The significant regression weights are included in Table 7-5.
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Figure 7-6: CFA for organisational demand
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.98 0.94 0.07
Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 37.42 df= 9
Table 7-5: Regression weights for organisational demand
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
a28 <--- Org Demand 1
a48 <--- Org Demand 1.772 0.231 7.687 *** a50 <--- Org Demand 1.55 0.197 7.885 *** a94 <--- Org Demand 0.917 0.139 6.607 *** a83 <--- Org Demand 1.201 0.178 6.739 ***
a3 <--- Org Demand 0.909 0.134 6.757 ***
Note: ***: p < 0.000
CFA for CIB
The measurement model for CIB category consisted of a single component of the
same name. In total, 15 behavioural statements were included in the category. An
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initial CFA was run on CIB and acceptable model fit was not achieved. An inspection
of the factor loadings found all statements loaded at an acceptable level. Given the
large number of statements in the construct several were in need of being removed
based on the standardised residual covariances (Byrne 2009). Individually 4
statements (a96, a103, a105 and a109) were removed respectively and the analysis
rerun a final time and the model achieved acceptable fit as shown in Figure 7-7.
Figure 7-7: CFA of CIB category
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.94 0.94 0.08
Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 207.40 df= 44
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GFI provided a goodness of fit measure and an absolute measure of fit that was
acceptable at .94. Incremental fit was measured with CFI and had an acceptable fit of
.94. The badness of fit measure, RMSEA, was .08 indicating it was acceptable. Based
on these measures the CFA confirmed the construct for CIB. The significant
regression weights are shown in Table 7-6.
Table 7-6: Regression weights for CIB
Estimate S.E. C.R. P a95 <--- CIB 1 a97 <--- CIB 1.241 0.087 14.251 ***a98 <--- CIB 1.213 0.083 14.671 ***a99 <--- CIB 0.954 0.073 13.134 ***a100 <--- CIB 1.162 0.081 14.292 ***a101 <--- CIB 1.003 0.087 11.539 ***a102 <--- CIB 1.114 0.085 13.043 ***a104 <--- CIB 1.072 0.093 11.535 ***a106 <--- CIB 1.179 0.097 12.176 ***a107 <--- CIB 1.162 0.094 12.331 ***
a108 <--- CIB 1.282 0.095 13.453 *** Note: ***: p < 0.000
7.3 Discriminant validity of components
Having established construct validity and reliability in order to form the composite
measures it is next important to complete a check for discriminant validity. A variety
of methods are available to test discriminant validity (Bertea & Zait 2011). However,
given that there are numerous components across the categories, utilising a chi-square
difference test was best suited as it will allow for all components to be tested against
each other and behavioural statements to be examined. According to Bagozzi, Yi and
Philips (1991), a chi-square difference test is more rigorous than the traditional AVE
test often used. In order for discriminant validity to be achieved a significant
difference in the chi-square at p<0.05 with a value surpassing 3.84 between each pair
of components is required (Rahim 2013).
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In total, 55 tests were run across the different pairings of the components. In
completing the tests three behaviours were identified as causing discriminant validity
issues with cross loading. The three behaviours were “Be adaptable” from the
Organisational Demand component; “Listen to and understand the problems of
others” and “Trust those to whom work is delegated” from the Teamwork component.
The Organisational Demand behavioural statement was felt to have issues around
clarity and may have had problems with interpretation. The Teamwork statements
had issues with Relationship and Respect components respectively. This could be a
result of cross-cultural interpretation as the categorisation was established in Asia and
there may have been interpretation issues in the Australian context often occurring in
cultural study (Harkness et al. 2003).
Having identified the behaviours that were cross loading, the discriminant validity
tests were re-run and all results were statistically significant and discriminant validity
was demonstrated. The results of these tests are included in Appendix 6. With the
removal of the behaviours the Organisational Demand and Managerial Behaviour
components were subjected to an additional CFA and revised results are included in
Figures 7-8 and 7-9. In removing the identified behaviours goodness of fit indices
improved for both.
Figure 7-8: CFA for organisational demand
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Figure 7-9: CFA for managerial behaviour
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.06 0.99 0.99 0.04Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 10.61 df= 5
Measure P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.97 0.94 0.05Acceptable No Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 109.60 df= 41
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7.4 Measurement models and hypotheses
The second and third research questions that this study addresses are related to how
Australian culture shapes perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership. Using
implicit leadership theory, the methodology associated with the APEL model was
applied, where managers reflect the cultural values held in society (Lord & Brown
2001; Selvarajah 2010; Selvarajah et al. 1995; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). This
resulted in the categorisation of the managerial leadership behaviours, based on
literature, onto specific components that reflect Australian culture and attitudes
towards managerial leadership.
In total the five categories of excellence in managerial leadership and a single CIB
category were considered and 13 theorised components of Australian excellence in
managerial leadership were investigated. Of the 13 hypotheses, as detailed in chapter
4 (see Table 4-9), eleven were supported and two were not summarised in Table 7-7.
The Integrity component of Personal Qualities and the Officious component of
Managerial Behaviours could not be supported by the data. The following two
hypotheses were not possible to test:
Hypothesis 1.4: Integrity will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in
Australia.
Hypothesis 1.9: Officious will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours
category in Australia.
Having completed the measurement model development in CFA this stage of analysis
was now complete. The remaining ten excellence in managerial leadership
components and the CIB category were confirmed as valid and having acceptable
goodness of fit. The next phase of analysis could proceed involving computing of
composite variables in order to complete path analysis.
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Table 7-7: Supported components of Australian excellence in managerial
leadership
Component Associated Hypothesis Excellent Leader
Organisational Leader 1.1: Organisational Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia
Visionary Leader 1.2: Visionary Leader will be a component of the Excellent Leader category in Australia
Personal Qualities
Relationship 1.3: Relationship will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia
Respect 1.5: Respect will be a component of the Personal Qualities category in Australia
Managerial Behaviours
Progressiveness 1.6: Progressiveness will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Decision Making 1.7: Decision Making will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Teamwork 1.8: Teamwork will be a component of the Managerial Behaviours category in Australia
Environmental Influence
Macro-Environment 1.10: Macro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia
Micro-Environment 1.11: Micro-Environment will be a component of the Environmental Influence category in Australia
Organisational Demand
Organisational Demand 1.12: Organisational Demand will be a single component of the Organisational Demand category in Australia
CIB
CIB 1.13: CIB will be a single category within the managerial leadership profile in Australia
7.5 Development of composite measures of excellence in leadership
Composite measures for the excellence in managerial leadership components were
computed in SPSS. The standard procedure utilising factor loadings from the CFA
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process resulting in the creation of a weighted average factor score for each
component in the model (Field 2009; Hair et al. 2006). As detailed in Table 7-8, all
composites of the managerial leadership components had acceptable Cronbach’s
alpha scores exceeding 0.60 indicating they were reliable (Hair et al. 2006). In the
previous stages of analysis all components had acceptable goodness of fit measures
and discriminate validity was demonstrated. The results showed the data had some
departures from normality, as measured by the skewness figures. These departures
were acknowledged, however given the limitations of the study the data was deemed
approximately normal indicating it was feasible to continue with the planned analysis.
Table 7-8: Descriptive statistics for the excellence in leadership components
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Mean 4.48 4.28 4.37 4.26 3.97 3.63 3.86 3.73 4.31 3.79 4.04
Standard Deviation .44 .53 .41 .51 .49 .63 .69 .66 .44 .60 .53
Cronbach Alpha .74 .73 .78 .66 .69 .70 .66 .62 .72 .71 .89
Skewness -.66 -.61 -.55 -.45 -.24 -.37 -.45 -.30 -.30 -.28 -.33
Kurtosis .07 .16 .25 -.17 .29 .22 .01 .04 -.12 -..09 -.16
Correlations
1.Organisational Leader 1.00
2.Visionary Leader .58 1.00
3.Relationship .71 .58 1.00
4.Respect .58 .47 .55 1.00
5.Organisational Demand .57 .61 .61 .60 1.00
6. Macro-Environment .40 .52 .51 .38 .57 1.00
7.Micro-Environment .45 .47 .43 .35 .45 .41 1.00
8.Progressiveness .48 .51 .52 .41 .55 .54 .47 1.00
9.Teamwork .62 .49 .73 .57 .56 .45 .31 .44 1.00
10.Decision Making .37 .40 .47 .28 .43 .35 .41 .41 .33 1.00
11.CIB .69 .68 .62 .54 .67 .57 .57 .59 .55 .40 1.00
7.6 Path analysis
Having computed the composite measures, path analysis was the next step in the
analysis process. In chapter 4 the measurement models and the hypothesised
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relationships between the independent and dependent variables were presented and
resulted in the original hypothesised structural model shown in Figure 7-10.
Figure 7-10: Hypothesised model of Australian excellence in leadership
The hypothesised model as initially built needed to be adjusted following the CFA
process as two measures of excellence in managerial leadership were not supported
by the data for inclusion, those being Officious and Integrity. Given these
eliminations it was now not possible to test Hypothesis 2.5, 2.6 and 2.13 and the
model was redrawn based on the hypotheses that could be tested as detailed in Figure
7-11.
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Figure 7-11: Revised hypothesised model - corrected for CFA results
The revised hypothesised model was tested and the resulting analysis has been
included in Appendix 7 along with a visual representation of the model that includes
error terms and covariances. The hypothesised model resulted in unsatisfactory model
fit as detailed in Table 7-9 and displayed in Figure 7-12. As earlier started, a problem
exists with achieving an acceptable p-value as a fit measure. The problem with this
measure is that a perfect population fit rarely occurs and it rarely results in a
satisfactory fit when sample sizes are large (Hair et al. 2006; Kline 2011).
Bootstrapping was done on the final model in order to allow for the issues arising out
of the size of the sample and to allow for a more robust goodness of fit measure on
the final model (Hair et al. 2006). Bootstrapping measures the estimates for the
standard error and significance on an expanded number of random samples (Bollen &
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Stine 1992; Byrne 2009). 2000 random samples were run on the hypothesised model
resulting in a poor fit being reported with a Bollen-Stine bootstrap p=0.00. This
indicated the hypothesised model did not have good fit and revisions were required.
Figure 7-12: Result of hypothesised model
Table 7-9: Goodness of fit indices of hypothesised model
Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.97 0.14
Acceptable No No Yes Yes No
χ² = 105.50 df= 9
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Regression weights were first examined in Table 7-10 The regression weights
indicated that five relationships did not have an acceptable P value, exceeding 0.05,
indicating the relationship needed to be removed (Hair et al. 2006). These included:
(1) CIB to Teamwork; (2) Organisational Demand to Organisational Leader; (3)
Progressiveness to Visionary Leader; (4) Respect to Visionary Leader; and (5)
Decision Making to Organisational Leader (see Figure 7-12).
Table 7-10: Regression weights for hypothesised model
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Acceptable
CIB <--- MacroEnv 0.11 0.03 3.75 *** Yes
CIB <--- MicroEnv 0.19 0.02 7.88 *** Yes
CIB <--- Respect 0.11 0.04 3.05 0.00 Yes
CIB <--- Org. Demand 0.25 0.04 6.11 *** Yes
CIB <--- Progressive 0.11 0.03 3.96 *** Yes
CIB <--- Teamwork 0.08 0.05 1.73 0.08 No
CIB <--- Relationship 0.18 0.05 3.35 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.05 0.04 1.54 0.12 No
Org. Leader <--- CIB 0.34 0.03 10.1 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- MacroEnv 0.07 0.03 2.35 0.02 Yes
Vis. Leader <--- CIB 0.36 0.04 8.17 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- Progressiveness 0.05 0.03 1.75 0.08 No
Vis. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.18 0.05 3.75 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- Respect 0.02 0.04 0.61 0.54 No
Org. Leader <--- MicroEnv 0.05 0.02 2.10 0.04 Yes
Org. Leader <--- Teamwork 0.32 0.03 9.30 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- Relationship 0.23 0.05 4.39 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- Decision Making 0.03 0.02 1.34 0.18 No
Note: ***: p < 0.000
The modification index indicated that three additional relationships were required.
These were Relationship and Organisational Leader (M.I. 22.42 Parameter Change
Statistic .14); Respect to Organisational Leader (M.I. 12.08 Parameter Change
Statistic .08); and Macro-Environment to Organisational Leader (M.I. 4.47 Parameter
Change Statistic -.040).
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With the additional relationships added, the revised model was tested again and
regression weights were reviewed. As detailed in Table 7-11, all the goodness of fit
indices indicated acceptable fit. However the relationship between Micro-
Environment and Organisational Leader was removed as it did not have a significant
p-value (p= .084).
Table 7-11: Goodness of fit indices for first revision of final model
Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.11 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.03
Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 16.92 df= 11
The final revision to the model resulted in all relationships having an acceptable
p-value, satisfactory goodness of fit and a satisfactory bootstrapping result, as
detailed in Table 7-12, Table 7-13 and illustrated in Figure 7-13 respectively. The
achievement of an acceptable model fit supported the final model as revised.
Table 7-12: Regression weights for final model
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Acceptable
CIB <--- MacroEnv 0.11 0.03 3.87 *** Yes
CIB <--- Respect 0.12 0.04 3.53 *** Yes
CIB <--- Org. Demand 0.26 0.04 6.30 *** Yes
CIB <--- Progressiveness 0.11 0.03 4.00 *** Yes
CIB <--- Relationship 0.23 0.05 4.93 *** Yes
CIB <--- MicroEnv 0.18 0.02 7.73 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- CIB 0.32 0.03 10.86 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- MacroEnv 0.09 0.03 2.81 0.005 Yes
Vis. Leader <--- CIB 0.37 0.04 8.94 *** Yes
Vis. Leader <--- Org. Demand 0.20 0.04 4.39 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- Teamwork 0.11 0.04 2.91 0.004 Yes
Vis. Leader <--- Relationship 0.25 0.05 4.94 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- Relationship 0.39 0.04 8.83 *** Yes
Org. Leader <--- Respect 0.12 0.03 4.35 *** No
Org. Leader <--- MacroEnv -0.07 0.02 -3.29 *** Yes
Note: ***: p < 0.000
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Table 7-13: Goodness of fit indices for the final model
Measure P Bootstrap P GFI CFI RMSEA
Result 0.07 0.79 0.99 1.00 0.03
Acceptable Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
χ² = 19.88 df= 12
Figure 7-13: Final model with satisfactory goodness of fit
R² = .53
R²=.63
R²=.63
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According to Kline (2011) and based on Cohen’s (2013) recommended rules for
examining path coefficients, an insubstantial path is below 0.1, a small path is about
0.1, a medium path is 0.3 and a large path is at least 0.5. All path coefficients between
the independent variables and CIB had a small path, with the largest being
Organisational Demand (0.24) and Micro-Environment (0.23), both approaching a
medium path. The independent variables and the respective path coefficients to
Visionary Leader were all small. The final model produced diverse relationships
between the independent variables and Organisational Leader. A small path existed
between Teamwork and Organisational Leader (0.11), additionally a small path (0.14)
was discovered between Respect and Organisational Leader. A medium relationship
existed between Relationship and Organisational Leader (0.36). Lastly of note, a
small path with a negative relationship emerged between Macro-Environment and
Organisational Leader (-0.10). The relationship between CIB and both Excellent
Leader components were noticeably strong, with CIB and Visionary Leader (0.38)
and a slightly stronger relationship for CIB and Organisational Leader (0.39), both
having a medium path.
One of the independent variables, Decision Making, did not have direct relationships
with either measure of Excellent Leader. Given Decision Making was identified in
the literature as being a component and the measurement models was supported in the
CFA process, a review of the correlations for Decision Making and the other
independent variables was explored, as detailed in Table 7-14. Based on these results,
there are strong correlations between Decision Making and the other independent
variables. These strong correlations indicate Decision Making does serve a role in
how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived by Australian managers and it
does belong in the model and could be considered an underlying or foundational
component of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia.
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Table 7-14: Correlations between Decision Making and other independent
variables
Estimate
Respect <--> Decision Making 0.28
MacroEnvironment <--> Decision Making 0.352
Progressiveness <--> Decision Making 0.407
MicroEnvironment <--> Decision Making 0.413
Teamwork <--> Decision Making 0.325
Org. Demand <--> Decision Making 0.430
Relationship <--> Decision Making 0.467
Standardised total effects
In examining the standardised total effects, the strongest effects were at the medium
level (0.3< r <0.5) and are between Relationship and CIB, as detailed in Table 7-15.
Table 7-15: Standardised total effects
Micro-
Env Team-work
Relation-ship
Org. Demand
Progress-iveness
Respect
Macro-Env
CIB
CIB 0.24 0.00 0.17 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.00
Vis. Leader
0.09 0.00 0.26 0.27 0.05 0.04 0.15 0.38
Org. Leader
0.09 0.11 0.40 0.09 0.05 0.19 -0.05 0.39
Inclusion of CIB category
In terms of the inclusion of the CIB category in the APEL model, it is seen as having
mediating roles (Baron & Kenny 1986). As illustrated in the final model, Figure 7-13,
CIB has a partial mediating effect between the independent and dependent variables
for Macro-Environment, Respect, Organisational Demand and Relationship. A full
mediating effect is observed for Micro-Environment and Progressiveness
components.
In order to determine how large an effect the inclusion of CIB had in the model, with
respect to the observed mediation, a decision was made to use the effect size (ƒ²)
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(Chin 2010). By utilising Cohen’s effect size calculation a ƒ² statistic is generated that
indicates the impact of the inclusion of the variable, as shown in Table 7-16. When
effect size falls between 0.02 and 0.15 the effect is small; between 0.15 and 0.35 the
effect is medium and above 0.35 the effect is large. Results indicate that the effect
size of including CIB on Organisational Leader is medium and the inclusion on
Visionary Leader is small, though at the high end of this category.
Table 7-16: Cohen’s d effect size calculation - change in variance explained
CIB Included Excluded f-squared Effect size
Organisational Leadership R² 0.63 0.56 0.19 Medium
Visionary Leadership R² 0.53 0.47 0.13 Small
7.7 Path model and hypotheses
The second and third research questions of this study explored the relationships of the
components of the four APEL categories to the CIB and Excellent Leader category.
The results differed from that hypothesised, resulting in a re-specification of the final
model, as illustrated in Figure 7-13. Based upon the results of the re-specified model
an examination of the hypotheses against the final model was completed.
Personal qualities 7.7.1
Personal qualities relating to the internal abilities, personality and talents of leaders
were viewed from three perspectives in the context of what constituted excellence in
managerial leadership in Australia. The three perspectives are Relationship; Respect;
and Integrity. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Integrity was not supported in the
CFA process and the associated hypotheses could not be tested. The hypothesised
relationships were examined against the final model for all components of the
Personal Qualities category and are summarised in Table 7-17.
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Table 7-17: Personal qualities related hypotheses
Hyp. Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight
Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Relationship
2.1 Relationship → Visionary Leader 0.19 0.26 Yes
2.2 Relationship → CIB 0.17 0.17 Yes
Unhypothesized Results
Relationship → Organisational Leader 0.36 0.40
Respect → Organisational Leader 0.14 0.19
Respect
2.3 Respect → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.04 No
2.4 Respect → CIB 0.12 0.12 Yes
The Relationship component was hypothesised having a relationship to Visionary
Leader (Hypothesis 2.1) and to CIB (Hypothesis 2.2). The results indicated that both
of these hypotheses were supported. However, the strongest connection with
Relationship and Excellent Leader was actually with Organisational Leader, a
relationship which was not hypothesised. Respect was hypothesised to have a
relationship with Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.3) however; this hypothesis was not
supported, as an insignificant relationship and minimal effect size resulted. The
relationship between Respect and CIB (Hypothesis 2.4) was tested and found to be
supported in the final model.
Supported hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.1: The Relationship component is directly related to Visionary Leader.
Hypothesis 2.2: The Relationship component is directly related to enabling creativity
and innovation.
Hypothesis 2.4: The Respect component is directly related to enabling creativity and
innovation.
Rejected hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.3: The Respect component is directly related to Visionary leader
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Though the hypothesis was rejected, the Respect component was related to the other
Excellent Leader component, Organisational leader.
Environmental influence 7.7.2
The Environmental Influence category relates to external influences on the firm. It
had two components that were hypothesised to have relationships in the model of
Australian excellence in managerial leadership, detailed in Table 7-18.
Table 7-18: Environmental influence related hypotheses
Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardize
d Reg. Weight
Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Macro-Environment
2.7 Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader 0.10 0.19 Yes
2.9 Macro-Enviro → CIB 0.13 0.13 Yes
Discovered Relationship
Macro-Enviro → Organisational Leader -0.10 -0.05
Micro-Environment
2.8 Micro-Enviro → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No
2.10 Micro-Enviro → CIB 0.23 0.24 Yes
Macro-Environment component includes behaviours related to picking up cues from
society in general, other cultures and international influence on the firm. It was
hypothesised that this component would have a relationship with Visionary Leader
(Hypothesis 2.7). Macro-Environment was also hypothesised to have a connection to
CIB, given the external environments influence on innovation (Hypothesis 2.9).
The Micro-Environment component, rather than looking at society and a global
perspective, focuses on industry related cues for a firm to adapt and remain
competitive. Micro-Environment was hypothesised to have relationship with
Organisational Leader (Hypothesis 2.8) and to have a relationship with CIB
(Hypothesis 2.10). The results supported two of the four hypotheses, with
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Micro-Environment to Organisational Leader being rejected and all others supported.
An additional relationship was discovered with a negative relationship existing
between Macro-Environment and Organisational Leader.
Supported hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.7: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to Visionary
Leader.
Hypothesis 2.8: The Macro-Environment component is directly related to enabling
creativity and innovation.
Hypothesis 2.10: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to enabling
creativity and innovation.
Rejected hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.9: The Micro-Environment component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
While Hypothesis 2.9 was rejected a mediating relationship still exists through CIB to
the Organisational Leader component.
Managerial behaviours 7.7.3
The managerial leadership behaviours associated with the category of Managerial
Behaviours was hypothesised to have four components, Decision Making;
Teamwork; Officious; and Progressiveness. The behaviours associated with this
category relate to maintaining productivity and the completion of work in an effective
manner seen as a primary role of being a manager. The Officious component was not
supported by the data in the CFA process and the associated hypothesis (Hypothesis
2.14) was not tested. The remaining hypotheses were examined against the final
model and results are summarised in Table 7-19.
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Table 7-19: Managerial behaviours related hypotheses
Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight
Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Decision Making
2.11 Decision Making → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.00 No
Teamwork
2.12 Teamwork → Organisational Leader 0.11 0.11 Yes
2.13 Teamwork → CIB 0.00 0.00 No
Progressive
2.15 Progressiveness → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.05 No
2.16 Progressiveness → CIB 0.14 0.14 Yes
Decision making was hypothesised to have a relationship with Organisational Leader
(Hypothesis 2.11) however this hypothesis was not supported. Teamwork was
hypothesised to have relationships with Organisational Leader and CIB (Hypotheses
2.12 and 2.13 respectively). The relationship to Organisational Leader was supported,
but the relationship to CIB was not. Progressiveness was hypothesised to have a
relationship with CIB (Hypothesis 2.16), and was supported. However, the
hypothesised relationship between Progressiveness and Visionary Leader (Hypothesis
2.15) was not supported.
Supported hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.12: The Teamwork component is directly related to Organisational
Leader.
Hypothesis 2.16: The Progressiveness component is directly related enabling
creativity and innovation.
Rejected hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.11: The Decision Making component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
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Though this hypothesis was rejected, the Decision Making measure was strongly
correlated with all components indicating that it does have a role in understanding
how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived in Australia.
Hypothesis 2.13: The Teamwork component is directly related to enabling creativity
and innovation.
Hypothesis 2.15: The Progressiveness component is directly related to Visionary
Leader.
Organisational demand 7.7.4
Organisational Demand behaviours stem from organisational directives and strategy,
reflecting the direction the organisation wants managers to endorse and pursue.
Organisational Demand had three hypotheses identified. Organisational demand was
hypothesised to have a relationship with both Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.18) and
Organisational Leader (Hypothesis 2.17). A relationship was hypothesised between
Organisational Demand and CIB (Hypothesis 2.19), detailed in Table 7-20.
Table 7-20: Organisational demand related hypotheses
Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardize
d Reg. Weight
Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Organisational Demand
2.18 Org Demand → Visionary Leader 0.18 0.27 Yes
2.17 Org Demand → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No
2.19 Org Demand → CIB 0.24 0.24 Yes
Results from the final model show that Organisational Demand did in fact have a
relationship to Visionary Leader and CIB. The relationship between Organisational
Demand and Organisational Leader did not remain significant in the final model and
the relationship (Hypothesis 2.17) was not supported.
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Supported hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.18: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
Visionary Leader.
Hypothesis 2.19: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
enabling creativity and innovation.
Rejected hypotheses
Hypothesis 2.17: The Organisational Demand component is directly related to
Organisational Leader.
Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours 7.7.5
The behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation relate to a range of
behaviours where the result of enacting the behaviours positions an organisation to
see increased innovation and creative effort. The category had two hypothesised
relationships to Visionary Leader (Hypothesis 2.20) and Organisational Leader
(Hypothesis 2.21), detailed in Table 7-21. Both relationships had an overall medium
effect size and were supported.
Table 7-21: CIB related hypotheses
Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg.
Weight Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours
2.20 CIB → Visionary Leader 0.38 0.38 Yes
2.21 CIB → Organisational Leader 0.39 0.39 Yes
Supported hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2.20: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly
related to Visionary Leader.
Hypothesis 2.21: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours will be directly
related to Organisational Leader.
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7.8 Invariance testing
Invariance testing was completed on four groups as detailed in chapters 4 and 5.
Gender was firstly examined; followed by an age comparison split between managers
under 40 and managers 40 and older; managers with and without a university degree
were next looked at; and finally first level managers were examined against middle
and senior managers. Each group underwent three levels of testing that will be
reported concurrently.
Gender 7.8.1
7.8.1.1 Measurement model tests of invariance
Excellent leader
The initial loose cross validation test showed a slight difference between male and
female managers. However, CFI remained at an acceptable level. The RMSEA result
for female managers was slightly above the recommended cut off of 0.08 however, it
was below the identified level of bad fit of 0.1 as noted by Kline (2011). Given the
proximity to acceptable fit there was not sufficient reason to reject the measurement
model for women, and the groups were deemed invariant. The Factor Structure
Equivalence test had acceptable results for both CFI and RMSEA and supported
invariance. Similarly the Factor Loading Equivalence test reflects an acceptable level
of both CFI and RMSEA and invariance is supported. The results of the three
invariance tests on this category are provided in Table 7-22.
Table 7-22: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 70.90 26 0.00 0.94 0.072Women 79.01 26 0.00 0.91 0.089Factor Strucutre Equivalence
149.92 52 0.00 0.93 0.057Factor Loading Equivalence
159.61 59 0.00 0.93 0.054
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CIB
The CIB component was tested across all three invariance test levels. Initial
differences were found with the RMSEA scale, with the women number being just at
the absolute cut off level of 0.1; however the CFI was acceptable. The next two tests
indicated that both the level and changes in CFI and the RMSEA were acceptable to
claim that the two groups were invariant, as summarised in Table 7-23.
Table 7-23: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model
Personal qualities
The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of
invariance testing the results had acceptable CFI and RMSEA results, see Table 7-24.
Table 7-24: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model
Managerial behaviours
The three Managerial Behaviour components were tested together. In all three phases
of invariance testing results had acceptable CFI and RMSEA results, see Table 7-25.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 116.81 44 0.00 0.95 0.071Women 162.79 44 0.00 0.90 0.100Factor Strucutre Equivalence
279.63 88 0.00 0.92 0.061Factor Loading Equivalence
291.75 98 0.00 0.92 0.058
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 105.30 43 0.00 0.92 0.920Women 76.06 43 0.01 0.95 0.055Factor Strucutre Equivalence
181.31 86 0.00 0.93 0.043Factor Loading Equivalence
198.64 95 0.00 0.93 0.043
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Table 7-25: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model
Environmental influence
The two Environmental Influence components were tested together and results shown
in Table 7-26. In the initial phase of the invariance testing process, results showed
acceptable CFI and RMSEA results. The initial test highlighted women managers had
a better fit than men. In the second and third phase of the invariance testing process
acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA resulted and the groups were deemed invariant.
Table 7-26: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model
Organisational demand
The single Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels. In the first
instance, during the loose cross validation test there was a difference between men
and women. While men had satisfactory scores, including a non-significant p score,
women had a poor fit in the RMSEA measure however an acceptable CFI result. It
was further tested at the Factor Structure and Factor Loading Equivalence measures
and found to have acceptable results in both measures. Results are detailed in Table
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 87.79 41 0.00 0.93 0.058Women 89.26 41 0.00 0.91 0.068Factor Structure Equivalence
177.05 82 0.00 0.92 0.044Factor Loading Equivalence
181.61 90 0.00 0.93 0.042
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 46.70 19 0.00 0.94 0.066Women 25.70 19 0.14 0.98 0.037Factor Strucutre Equivalence
72.30 38 0.00 0.96 0.039Factor Loading Equivalence
87.32 44 0.00 0.95 0.041
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7-27. Given that this was the only measurement model that had a slightly higher
RMSEA result at the loose cross validation level, there was a decision to proceed
with further tests as this was felt to relate to a single behavioural statement.
Table 7-27: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model
As identified in the sections above, the three stage invariance testing of the Gender
groups resulted in only a single discrepancy from the ascribed measures of goodness
of fit. Given only a single measure across all of the tests and only at the loose cross
validation level, it was determined that the groups could be considered invariant.
7.8.1.2 Composite measure t-tests
SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the
composite structures, as detailed in Table 7-28.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 7.83 5 0.17 0.99 0.041Women 26.09 5 0.00 0.90 0.128Factor Strucutre Equivalence
33.93 10 0.00 0.94 0.064Factor Loading Equivalence
41.23 14 0.00 0.94 0.064
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Table 7-28: Independent sample t-tests for gender groups
The tests showed that for a majority of the components of excellence in managerial
leadership there was no real difference in mean values. However, Organisational
Leader; Visionary Leader, Relationship and Progressiveness components were found
to be significantly different as the significance level was less than 0.05. The effect
size was calculated for these four, as well as the other components, in order to
determine the impact of the differences. If the results showed an effect size (r) below
0.10 the difference was negligible, if it was between 0.10 and 0.30 it is small, if it is
between 0.30 and 0.50 it is medium and above 0.50 meaning a large effect. The effect
F Sig. Lower Upper
2.315 .129 -3.537 588 .000 -.12736 .03601 -.19807 -.05664
-3.581 576 .000 -.12736 .03557 -.19722 -.05750
.227 .634 -2.341 588 .020 -.10215 .04364 -.18787 -.01644
-2.358 568 .019 -.10215 .04332 -.18724 -.01707
1.305 .254 -1.996 588 .046 -.06742 .03378 -.13376 -.00108
-2.004 562 .046 -.06742 .03364 -.13350 -.00134
.998 .318 -0.791 588 .429 -.03360 .04249 -.11705 .04985
-0.785 539 .433 -.03360 .04279 -.11765 .05045
.001 .981 -1.335 588 .182 -.05469 .04096 -.13513 .02576
-1.332 550 .183 -.05469 .04105 -.13532 .02594
.040 .841 -1.451 588 .147 -.07627 .05254 -.17946 .02693
-1.451 553 .147 -.07627 .05257 -.17954 .02701
9.065 .003 1.109 588 .268 .06325 .05704 -.04878 .17527
1.089 511 .277 .06325 .05807 -.05084 .17733
.088 .767 -2.722 588 .007 -.14812 .05442 -.25500 -.04123
-2.728 559 .007 -.14812 .05429 -.25475 -.04148
.000 .986 -1.641 588 .101 -.08201 .04999 -.18019 .01617
-1.636 548 .102 -.08201 .05014 -.18050 .01647
1.249 .264 -1.450 588 .148 -.05260 .03627 -.12383 .01864
-1.468 576 .143 -.05260 .03583 -.12297 .01777
1.024 .312 -1.666 588 .096 -.07385 .04434 -.16093 .01323
-1.659 546 .098 -.07385 .04450 -.16126 .01357
Decision Making 0.067
Teamwork 0.060
CIB 0.068
Macro-Environment
0.056
Micro-Environment
0.045
Progressiveness 0.111
0.010
Respect 0.033
Organisational Demand
0.055
Interval
r
Organisational Leader
0.144
Visionary Leader
0.097
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
t dfS ig. (2-tailed)
Mean Diff.
Std. Error Diff.
Test
Relationship
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size (r) was below 0.10 in the case of Visionary Leader and for Relationship was only
slightly over the minimum level of having a small effect (where r = .10). For
Organisational Leader and Progressiveness there was a small effect indicating very
little difference (Field 2009). All other effect sizes were well below the minimum
having a negligible effect. Based upon this it was established that there were no real
significant differences in the means of the component variables for men and women.
7.8.1.3 Invariance tests for the final path model
Lastly, the invariance tests were used to test the final path model to determine if any
significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table 7-29. The tests
showed that both men and women had acceptable fit. The final two tests, for factor
structure and loading equivalence found that the path models had acceptable fit and
no significant change in CFI. Based upon this information it was established that
there were no real significant differences in the path model for men and women.
Table 7-29: Invariance test for path model
Under 40 and 40 or older 7.8.2
7.8.2.1 Measurement model tests of invariance
Excellent leader
The two Excellent Leader components were tested at the three levels of invariance
testing. Those under 40 had satisfactory fit with a CFI score at an acceptable level
and the RMSEA at the cut-off point of 0.08, while those 40 and over had acceptable
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationMen 38.87 14 0.00 0.99 0.073Women 32.28 12 0.00 0.99 0.071Factor Structure Equivalence
71.15 28 0.000 0.99 0.051Factor Loading Equivalence
90.61 41 0.000 0.99 0.045
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fits on both goodness of fit measures. The final two tests had acceptable results for
CFI and RMSEA and an insignificant change in CFI, detailed in Table 7-30.
Table 7-30: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model
CIB
CIB was tested across all invariance test levels. Initial differences were found with
the RMSEA, those 40 and Over were just below the acceptable fit cut off of 0.10;
however the CFI was acceptable for under 40, both measures were acceptable. Follow
on tests reported both acceptable CFI and RMSEA levels along with the changes in
CFI to claim that the two groups were invariant as detailed in Table 7-31.
Table 7-31: Invariance testing for CIB measurement model
Personal qualities
The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of
the invariance testing process, results showed acceptable CFI and RMSEA results and
there was no significant change in CFI, as detailed in Table 7-32.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 60.51 26 0.00 0.94 0.08040 and Over 68.60 26 0.00 0.95 0.065Factor Structure Equivalence
129.13 52 0.00 0.94 0.050Factor Loading Equivalence
148.58 59 0.00 0.93 0.051
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 132.00 44 0.00 0.91 0.09940 and Over 146.05 44 0.00 0.94 0.078Factor Structure Equivalence
278.15 88 0.00 0.93 0.061Factor Loading Equivalence
298.55 98 0.00 0.92 0.059
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Table 7-32: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model
Managerial behaviours
The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together and results reported in Table
7-33. In the initial comparative results both the CFI and RMSEA measures were
acceptable in the loose cross validation test. The following factor structure and factor
loading tests showed that both CFI and RMSEA and the associated changes in value
were at acceptable levels to deem the three components invariant across those under
40 and 40 and over.
Table 7-33: Invariance testing for managerial behaviours measurement model
Environmental influence
The two Environmental Influence components were tested together. In all three
phases of the invariance testing process, shown in Table 7-34, results were acceptable
for CFI and RMSEA results and changes in CFI, indicating the groups were invariant.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 65.39 43 0.02 0.95 0.05040 and Over 120.36 43 0.00 0.92 0.069Factor Structure Equivalence
185.76 86 0.00 0.93 0.044Factor Loading Equivalence
196.73 95 0.00 0.93 0.043
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 72.71 41 0.00 0.92 0.06140 and Over 81.51 41 0.00 0.95 0.051Factor Structure Equivalence
154.27 82 0.00 0.94 0.039Factor Loading Equivalence
167.58 90 0.00 0.94 0.038
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Table 7-34: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model
Organisational demand
The Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels, as detailed in Table
7-35. In the first instance, during the loose cross validation test, there was a noteable
difference between those under 40 and those over 40. Those under 40 had a better fit
to the data, including a non-significant p score, those over 40 had acceptable fit for
both CFI and RMSEA. In the remaining tests both the CFI and RMSEA values and
change in CFI were acceptable to indicate that the two groups were invariant.
Table 7-35: Invariance testing of the organisational demand measurement model
7.8.2.2 Composite measure t-tests
SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the
composite structures, as detailed in Table 7-36.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 27.48 19 0.09 0.97 0.04740 and Over 48.86 19 0.00 0.95 0.062Factor Structure Equivalence
74.34 38 0.00 0.96 0.040Factor Loading Equivalence
95.12 44 0.00 0.94 0.044
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 3.27 5 0.66 1.00 0.00040 and Over 17.11 5 0.04 0.96 0.080Factor Structure Equivalence
20.36 10 0.03 0.97 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence
25.35 14 0.03 0.97 0.037
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Table 7-36: Independent sample t-tests for -40 and 40+age groups
The tests showed that for all but one component in the model there was no significant
difference in mean values. The Relationship component had a significant difference.
The effect size was calculated and found to be below 0.10 in the case of Relationship,
indicating there was little to no effect from the mean difference. In all other cases the
effect size was well below the level of r = 0.1, indicating a negligible effect (Field
2009). Based upon this it was established that there were no significant differences in
the means of the composite variables for mangers under 40 and those 40 and older.
F Sig. Lower Upper
1.455 .228 -1.678 588 .094 -.06334 .03775 -.13747 .01080
-1.632 390 .104 -.06334 .03882 -.13966 .01298
8.757 .003 -0.717 588 .474 -.03266 .04557 -.12216 .05685
-0.678 361 .498 -.03266 .04816 -.12736 .06205
.218 .641 -2.668 588 .008 -.09347 .03503 -.16228 -.02467
-2.585 385 .010 -.09347 .03617 -.16458 -.02237
1.490 .223 -1.707 588 .088 -.07529 .04410 -.16190 .01132
-1.681 404 .094 -.07529 .04478 -.16333 .01275
.187 .665 -0.325 588 .745 -.01388 .04265 -.09765 .06989
-0.327 427 .744 -.01388 .04249 -.09740 .06964
.014 .905 -0.482 588 .630 -.02635 .05472 -.13383 .08113
-0.476 409 .634 -.02635 .05535 -.13516 .08245
.894 .345 -0.788 588 .431 -.04678 .05934 -.16333 .06977
-0.785 417 .433 -.04678 .05962 -.16398 .07043
.120 .729 -1.230 588 .219 -.06997 .05687 -.18168 .04173
-1.217 409 .224 -.06997 .05750 -.18300 .04305
.629 .428 -0.839 588 .402 -.04368 .05207 -.14595 .05859
-0.823 400 .411 -.04368 .05309 -.14804 .06068
.011 .917 -1.360 588 .174 -.05132 .03772 -.12541 .02277
-1.334 399 .183 -.05132 .03847 -.12696 .02431
.183 .669 -0.109 588 .913 -.00506 .04621 -.09582 .08571
-0.108 406 .914 -.00506 .04683 -.09712 .08701
Teamwork 0.056
CIB 0.005
Micro-Environment
0.032
Progressiveness 0.050
Decision Making 0.035
Respect 0.070
Organisational Demand
0.013
Macro-Environment
0.020
r
Organisational Leader
0.069
Visionary Leader
0.036
Relationship 0.109
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
t dfS ig. (2-tailed)
Mean Diff.
Std. Error Diff.
IntervalTest
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7.8.2.3 Invariance tests for the final path model
Lastly, the invariance tests were again used to test the final path model in order to
determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table
7-37. The tests showed that the model fit well for managers 40 and over. Those under
40 had a higher RMSEA value above 0.08, but had an acceptable CFI result. At the
factor structure equivalence level and the factor loading level the fit indices and the
change in CFI were at acceptable levels to indicate the two groups were invariant.
Based upon the final path model invariance tests, the ascribed final model was still
invariant for both groups.
Table 7-37: Invariance test for path model
Degree or no degree 7.8.3
7.8.3.1 Measurement model tests of invariance
Excellent leader
The two Excellent Leader components, Visionary Leader and Organisational Leader,
were tested at the three levels of invariance testing. Those without a degree compared
with those with a degree, had acceptable CFI scores; however, the RMSEA score for
those with a degree was just outside a good fit, but still well above an acceptable fit.
The second and third tests showed that all groups had acceptable levels of fit and had
no significant change in CFI, detailed in Table 7-38. The groups were deemed
invariant.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationUnder 40 70.01 14 0.00 0.96 0.13940 and Over 33.91 14 0.02 0.99 0.061Factor Structure Equivalence
103.99 28 0.00 0.98 0.068Factor Loading Equivalence
124.13 41 0.00 0.98 0.059
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Table 7-38: Invariance testing of the excellent leader measurement model
CIB
The CIB category was tested across all three invariance test levels. The initial test had
acceptable levels for those with a degree and was at the cut-off point for an
acceptable fit for CFI and RMSEA. The follow on two invariance tests indicated that
both the CFI and the RMSEA were at acceptable levels to claim that the two groups
were invariant as detailed in Table 7-39.
Table 7-39: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model
Personal qualities
The two Personal Qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of
the invariance testing process, results showed acceptable levels of change in CFI and
in the CFI and RMSEA goodness of fit results, as detailed in Table 7-40. The two
groups were deemed invariant at the measurement model level.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 82.54 26 0.00 0.92 0.090Degree 62.07 26 0.00 0.94 0.069Factor Structure Equivalence
147.61 52 0.00 0.93 0.056Factor Loading Equivalence
160.89 59 0.00 0.93 0.054
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 167.32 44 0.00 0.89 0.100Degree 127.53 44 0.00 0.94 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence
294.87 88 0.00 0.92 0.063Factor Loading Equivalence
305.19 98 0.00 0.92 0.063
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Table 7-40: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model
Managerial behaviours
The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together. All three tests of goodness of
fit measures had acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA as was the change in CFI. All
tests indicated the groups were invariant for those with and without a degree, detailed
in Table 7-41.
Table 7-41: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model
Environmental influence
The two environmental influence components were tested together. In all three phases
of the invariance testing process, the results for the no degree and degree groups
showed acceptable CFI and RMSEA results as detailed in Table 7-42.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 79.68 43 0.00 0.94 0.056Degree 97.12 43 0.00 0.93 0.063Factor Structure Equivalence
176.80 86 0.00 0.94 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence
189.19 95 0.00 0.93 0.042
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 60.77 41 0.02 0.96 0.042Degree 82.28 41 0.00 0.94 0.056Factor Structure Equivalence
143.04 82 0.00 0.95 0.036Factor Loading Equivalence
153.24 90 0.00 0.95 0.035
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Table 7-42: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model
Organisational demand
The single Organisational Demand factor was tested at the three levels. As in similar
tests between groups without a degree and with a degree results supported that the
two groups were invariant, as detailed in Table 7-43.
Table 7-43: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model
As identified in the sections above, the three stage invariance testing of the No
Degree and Degree holding managers resulted in largely positive results towards the
two groups being invariant. Where discrepancies existed from the ascribed measures
of goodness of fit, they were minor.
7.8.3.2 Composite measure t-tests
SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the
composite structures for the two groups, as detailed in Table 7-44. The tests showed
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 41.74 19 0.00 0.95 0.067Degree 35.23 19 0.01 0.96 0.052Factor Structure Equivalence
76.97 38 0.00 0.95 0.042Factor Loading Equivalence
89.30 44 0.00 0.95 0.042
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 8.92 5 0.11 0.98 0.054Degree 5.49 5 0.36 1.00 0.018Factor Structure Equivalence
14.41 10 0.16 0.99 0.027Factor Loading Equivalence
22.90 14 0.06 0.98 0.033
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that for a majority of the components of excellence in managerial leadership there
was no real difference in mean values. However, Organisational Leader, Relationship
and Respect were found to be significantly different as the significance level was less
than 0.05. The effect size was calculated for these three. The effect size (r) was below
0.10 in all cases indicating negligible difference (Field 2009). Based upon this effect
size it was established that there were no real significant differences in the means of
the component variables for those with and without a degree.
Table 7-44: Independent sample t-tests for no degree and with a degree groups
F Sig. Lower Upper
2.351 .126 1.976 588 .049 .07135 .03612 .00042 .14229
1.994 587 .047 .07135 .03578 .00108 .14163
.144 .705 0.278 588 .781 .01212 .04366 -.07362 .09786
0.279 581 .780 .01212 .04345 -.07323 .09747
.010 .920 2.027 588 .043 .06818 .03363 .00212 .13423
2.042 585 .042 .06818 .03339 .00261 .13375
1.958 .162 2.268 588 .024 .09558 .04215 .01280 .17837
2.282 583 .023 .09558 .04189 .01330 .17787
2.646 .104 1.728 588 .084 .07043 .04075 -.00960 .15045
1.739 583 .083 .07043 .04051 -.00913 .14999
.029 .865 0.972 588 .332 .05089 .05237 -.05198 .15375
0.978 584 .328 .05089 .05203 -.05130 .15308
.430 .512 1.558 588 .120 .08841 .05674 -.02304 .19985
1.557 571 .120 .08841 .05680 -.02315 .19996
.395 .530 1.943 588 .053 .10562 .05436 -.00115 .21238
1.952 582 .051 .10562 .05410 -.00064 .21188
1.518 .218 1.935 588 .053 .09626 .04974 -.00142 .19395
1.948 584 .052 .09626 .04942 -.00081 .19333
.006 .938 -0.032 588 .974 -.00116 .03618 -.07222 .06991
-0.032 578 .974 -.00116 .03609 -.07204 .06972
1.734 .188 1.643 588 .101 .07254 .04416 -.01419 .15926
1.655 585 .098 .07254 .04383 -.01354 .15862
Teamwork 0.001
CIB 0.068
0.040
Micro-Environment
0.064
Progressiveness 0.080
Decision Making 0.080
Macro-Environment
Organisational Demand
0.071
Mean Diff.
Std. Error Diff.
Interval
r
Organisational Leader
0.081
Visionary Leader
t dfS ig. (2-tailed)
Test
0.011
Relationship 0.083
Respect 0.093
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
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7.8.3.3 Invariance tests for the final path model
Lastly, the invariance tests were again used to test the final path model in order to
determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table
7-45. The tests showed that the model fit well for managers both without and with a
degree however, the RMSEA result was slightly outside of acceptable for those
without a degree. Given the small departure from acceptable fit it was decided that
this difference was not large enough to deem the groups variant and stop the
invariance testing process. In all instances of the further tests, the goodness of fit
measures presented at a good level and there was no change in the CFI level. The two
groups across the final path model were invariant.
Table 7-45: Invariance test for path model
First level managers and middle and senior manager groups 7.8.4
7.8.4.1 Measurement model tests of invariance
Excellent leader
The two Excellent Leader components were tested together at the three phases of
invariance testing. The first level had an acceptable goodness of fit for CFI and was
just slightly above a good fit for RMSEA, as detailed in Table 7-46. Middle and
senior managers had results that showed good fit. At the next two levels of invariance
testing good results emerged for both the goodness of fit measures and the change in
CFI, indicating that the two groups were invariant.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationNo Degree 64.15 14 0.00 0.97 0.115Degree 36.35 14 0.01 0.99 0.071Factor Structure Equivalence
100.51 28 0.00 0.98 0.066Factor Loading Equivalence
110.86 41 0.00 0.98 0.054
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Table 7-46: Invariance testing of excellent leader measurement model
CIB
The CIB component was tested across all three invariance test levels. The initial test
had acceptable levels of fit for first level managers. The RMSEA score for middle
and senior managers was above the good fit cut-off of 0.08, but below the bad fit of
0.10. The CFI measure was acceptable for both groups. The two follow on invariance
tests indicated that both the CFI and the RMSEA were at acceptable levels, as was the
change in CFI to claim that the two groups were invariant as detailed in Table 7-47.
Table 7-47: Invariance testing of CIB measurement model
Personal qualities
The two personal qualities components were tested together. In all three phases of the
invariance testing process, results showed acceptable levels of change in CFI and
acceptable results for CFI and RMSEA goodness of fit measures, as detailed in Table
7-48. The groups were invariant.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 78.63 26 0.00 0.92 0.085Middle and Senior level Manager 73.61 26 0.00 0.93 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence
152.24 52 0.00 0.93 0.057Factor Loading Equivalence
162.03 59 0.00 0.93 0.054
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 87.86 44 0.00 0.96 0.060Middle and Senior level Manager 174.05 44 0.00 0.90 0.098Factor Structure Equivalence
261.90 88 0.00 0.93 0.058Factor Loading Equivalence
271.56 98 0.00 0.93 0.055
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Table 7-48: Invariance testing of personal qualities measurement model
Managerial behaviours
The three Managerial Behaviours were tested together. In all three phases of
invariance testing acceptable levels of CFI and RMSEA were found, as was the
change in CFI. All tests indicated the measurement model was invariant for first level
managers and senior and middle management positions as detailed in Table 7-49.
Table 7-49: Invariance testing of managerial behaviours measurement model
Environmental influence
The two Environmental Influence components were tested together. In all three
phases of the invariance testing process, results for both groups proved them to be
invariant regardless of level of managerial role as detailed in Table 7-50.
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 81.08 43 0.00 0.95 0.056Middle and Senior level Manager 121.90 43 0.00 0.89 0.077Factor Structure Equivalence
202.97 86 0.00 0.92 0.048Factor Loading Equivalence
210.03 95 0.00 0.92 0.045
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 71.42 41 0.00 0.95 0.052Middle and Senior level Manager 89.32 41 0.00 0.93 0.062Factor Structure Equivalence
160.74 82 0.00 0.94 0.040Factor Loading Equivalence
171.01 90 0.00 0.93 0.039
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Table 7-50: Invariance testing of environmental influence measurement model
Organisational demand
The single Organisational Demand category was tested in the three phases. In the first
instance, during the loose cross validation test there was a noticeable difference
between frontline and senior/middle managers. While frontline managers had very
satisfactory fit indices, including a non-significant p score, middle and senior
managers had an acceptable CFI result and an RMSEA measure that was above the
goodness of fit cut off of 0.10, as detailed in Table 7-51. This indicated the groups
did have some differences however, it was felt this was attributable to an indicator
variable and as it was the only instance of a departure it was further tested at the
factor structure and factor loading equivalence levels.
Table 7-51: Invariance testing of organisational demand measurement model
The measure was found to have acceptable results in both additional tests. Given that
this was the only measurement model that was found to have a higher RMSEA
measure, but still an acceptable CFI result at the loose cross validation level, there
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 40.78 19 0.00 0.95 0.064Middle and Senior level Manager 42.61 19 0.00 0.95 0.063Factor Structure Equivalence
83.45 38 0.00 0.95 0.045Factor Loading Equivalence
95.19 44 0.00 0.94 0.044
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 5.70 5 0.34 1.00 0.022Middle and Senior level Manager 24.78 5 0.00 0.91 0.113Factor Structure Equivalence
30.47 10 0.00 0.95 0.059Factor Loading Equivalence
33.61 14 0.02 0.95 0.049
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was a decision to proceed further given the complexity of the model and the
acceptable results across the other components. As identified in the sections above,
the three stage invariance testing of the frontline managers and the middle and senior
found the two groups to be invariant for all but one measure and given the proximity
to acceptable fit and successful further tests the groups were deemed invariant.
7.8.4.2 Composite measure t-tests
SPSS was used to run the group t-tests in order to compare the mean values of the
composite structures for the two groups, as detailed in Table 7-52.
Table 7-52: Independent sample t-tests for First level managers compared with
Middle and Senior Manager Groups
F Sig. Lower Upper
0.401 .527 -1.229 588 .219 -.04440 .03612 -.11535 .02654
-1.226 573 .221 -.04440 .03622 -.11555 .02675
.769 .381 -1.795 588 .073 -.07802 .04346 -.16337 .00734
-1.789 572 .074 -.07802 .04360 -.16366 .00763
.390 .532 -0.996 588 .320 -.03354 .03366 -.09964 .03257
-0.992 569 .321 -.03354 .03379 -.09991 .03284
.405 .525 -0.202 588 .840 -.00855 .04226 -.09154 .07444
-0.202 578 .840 -.00855 .04230 -.09164 .07453
.022 .881 1.448 588 .148 .05895 .04070 -.02099 .13889
1.451 585 .147 .05895 .04062 -.02082 .13872
.578 .447 0.524 588 .601 .02739 .05231 -.07534 .13012
0.523 579 .601 .02739 .05235 -.07543 .13022
.537 .464 -1.723 588 .085 -.09756 .05661 -.20875 .01363
-1.721 578 .086 -.09756 .05669 -.20890 .01378
.148 .701 -0.708 588 .479 -.03851 .05441 -.14537 .06835
-0.706 576 .480 -.03851 .05452 -.14559 .06857
.772 .380 0.413 588 .680 .02056 .04980 -.07723 .11836
0.412 578 .680 .02056 .04986 -.07736 .11849
.061 .805 -1.271 588 .204 -.04583 .03607 -.11667 .02500
-1.267 573 .206 -.04583 .03617 -.11688 .02521
.111 .739 -0.150 588 .881 -.00662 .04417 -.09338 .08014
-0.150 577 .881 -.00662 .04425 -.09352 .08028
Respect
Organisational Demand
Test
0.051
Visionary Leader
0.074
Relationship 0.041
0.017
Teamwork 0.052
0.008
0.060
CIB 0.006
Macro-Environment
0.022
Micro-Environment
0.071
Progressiveness 0.029
Std. Error Diff.
Interval
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
t dfS ig. (2-tailed)
Mean Diff.
Decision Making
r
Organisational Leader
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The tests showed that for all components of managerial leadership there were no
significant differences in mean values. For the differences that were recorded, the
effect size in all cases was negligible, all well below the r = 0.1. level. Based upon
this result it was established that there were no real significant differences in the
means of the composite variables for managers at both levels of managerial role.
7.8.4.3 Invariance tests for the final path model
Lastly, the invariance tests were used to test the final path model in order to
determine if any significant differences existed. The results are compiled in Table 7-
53. The tests showed that the model fit well for first level managers and also at
middle and senior manager levels. In all instances the goodness of fit measures were
at a good level and there was little change in the CFI level. The two groups across the
final path model were invariant.
Table 7-53: Invariance test for path model
7.9 Invariance testing hypothesis
The fourth research question set out to examine what group differences may exist
between different categories of Australian managers. As a multicultural nation where
freedom for all in society is an expectation and a highly held value, one would
initially connect this to mean that managerial leadership differences would be
χ² df p CFI RMSEALoose Cross ValidationFrontline/First level Manager 29.58 12 0.03 0.99 0.073Middle and Senior level Manager 27.19 12 0.07 0.99 0.064Factor Structure Equivalence
68.57 24 0.00 0.99 0.048Factor Loading Equivalence
73.32 39 0.00 0.99 0.039
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prevalent (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007). However, despite
Australia’s strong commitment to egalitarianism, where all are equal despite
differences, it is Australia’s unique take on egalitarianism, associated with
‘sameness’, which is practiced in reality. This sense of sameness coupled with two
other strong cultural values, mateship and avoidance of tall poppies identified in
literature, and found in this study, to have a strong influence on the individual
perceptions of managers. (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994). This view was discussed in
the chapter 3 literature review and substantiated in the hypothesis development in
chapter 4. This informed position lead to the following hypothesis to be tested.
Hypothesis 3.0: The perception of Australian excellence in managerial leadership will
be perceived consistently across different managerial groups.
Four groups were investigated to examine the hypothesis. From a demographic
perspective gender and age were looked at. Gender is often viewed as a potential area
of difference in managerial leadership preferences. Those under the age of 40 and
those 40 and over can be looked at from a generational perspective. Those over 40 are
primarily baby boomers and Generation X, while those under 40 predominantly being
Generation Y and late-period Generation X (Salt 2007). As well, those below the age
of 40 were brought up in an age with greater levels of education, globalisation and
technology.
From a managerial categories perspective, two groups were selected those without a
degree and those with a degree. As managerial leadership research has identified
education does make for different types of managerial leaders (Bass 2008). Lastly,
people in different managerial roles may view excellence differently based on
responsibilities, to examine this, a decision was made to look at frontline or first level
managers compared with those in middle and senior management.
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The results indicate that while there are some minor differences at the loose cross
validation level, there are no significant differences at the Factor Structure and Factor
Loading Equivalence Tests. Across all of the tests completed departures are not
significantly different across the Measurement model tests, the t-tests of composites
and invariance testing on the final model. Indicating that across the four groups tested
Australian managers in this study can be considered invariant when it comes to the
perceptions of excellence in managerial leadership.
7.10 Chapter summary
The purpose of this chapter was to present the required analysis to address the
research questions and answer the hypotheses to complete this research study. In
quantitative research a rigorous and statistically accurate approach is required. This
chapter provided an overview of each of the required steps. Measurement models
were developed based on the hypothesised components and were tested through a
CFA process that examined goodness of fit and checked for validity in order to
answer the research questions and the associated hypotheses. Path analysis, a form of
structural equation modelling, using weighted average factor score composite
variables was completed in order to test the hypothesised model and was refined in
order to answer the second and third research questions.
The final research question related to exploring different groups of managers. An
extensive invariance testing process was performed at three levels on the
measurement model; the means of the composite variables; and finally at three levels
on the path model. The tests resulted in no significant group differences emerging.
These results will be discussed in the next chapter along with a discussion on the
contributions, limitations and future research resulting from this research project.
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8. Discussion and conclusion
8.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the primary analysis was completed and a review of the
results compared to the hypotheses provided. The purpose of this chapter will be to
provide a discussion of the findings and discussion of the results of the research study
as detailed in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1: Chapter overview
This chapter firstly provides an overview of the contributions of the study and revisits
the results of the hypotheses testing. This is followed by a more detailed review of the
research questions alongside the associated hypotheses and results. Next, a discussion
Discussion & Conclusion
Contributions
Overview
Research Question 1Enabling Creativity & Innovation
Research Question 2 Managerial Leadership
Components & relationships
Research Question 3Australian Excellence in Managerial Leadership& Importance of CIB
Research Question 4Managerial Group Differences
Theoretical Contributions
Managerial Implications
Limitations of the Research
Future Research
Conclusion
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on the theoretical contributions and managerial implications of this research study are
presented. Lastly, will be a discussion on limitations of the research study and future
directions for related research.
The major outcomes from this thesis are summarised as follows:
1. A new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours that enable
creativity and innovation and associated scale that allowed for the quantitative
examination of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours alongside other
managerial leadership behavioural categories.
2. Support for the inclusion of the CIB category in the APEL framework as a
category of excellence in managerial leadership as perceived by Australian
managers.
3. An extended APEL model that incorporated managerial leadership behaviours
associated with enabling creativity and innovation, a part of change-oriented
leadership.
4. An increased understanding of how managerial leadership behaviour
categories influence CIB related behaviours and how CIB relates to
excellence in managerial leadership in Australia.
5. The establishment of an Australian model of managerial perceptions of
excellence in leadership
6. An exploratory study that combined behavioural theory, leading for change
and innovation and EMIC assessments of Australian managerial behaviours.
In order to achieve these contributions the exploratory study was completed on a
sample of Australian managers, across a variety of demographic categories and
managerial characteristics. Utilising leadership theories, cultural studies and existing
understanding of Australian management, a profile of Australian managerial
leadership based on the APEL framework was hypothesised and tested as
summarised in Table 8-1. 13 components were proposed within this framework. They
encompassed the four primary managerial leadership categories, the Excellent Leader
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category and the newly established CIB category. Of the 13 components, 11 proved
to be present and contributed to Australian excellence in managerial leadership.
Table 8-1: Hypothesised Australian excellence in leadership profile
Hypothesised Leadership Components CFA
Excellent Leader
H1.1: Visionary Leader Supported
H1.2: Organisational Leader Supported
Personal Qualities
H1.3: Relationship Supported
H1.4: Respect Supported
H1.5: Integrity Not Supported
Organisational Demand
H1.6: Organisational Demand Supported
Environmental Influence
H1.7: Macro-Environment Supported
H1.8: Micro-Environment Supported
Managerial Behaviours
H1.9: Progressiveness Supported
H1.10: Decision Making Supported
H1.11: Teamwork Supported
H1.12: Officious Not Supported
Creativity & Innovation Enabling Behaviours
H1.13: CIB Supported
The hypothesised relationships between the components of Australian managerial
leadership and the CIB scale and the Excellent Leader categories were the next series
of hypotheses tested as detailed in Table 8-2. A majority of the hypothesis were
supported and the hypothesised model was adapted in order to achieve acceptable
model fit.
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Table 8-2: Hypothesised relationships
Hyp Associated Hypothesis Standardized Reg. Weight
Standardized Total Effect
Supported
Relationship
2.1 Relationship → Visionary Leader 0.19 0.26 Yes
2.2 Relationship → CIB 0.17 0.17 Yes
Unhypothesised Results
Relationship → Organisational Leader 0.38 0.40
Respect
2.3 Respect → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.04 No
2.4 Respect → CIB 0..12 0.12 Yes
Unhypothesised Results
Respect → Organisational Leader 0.14 0.19
MacroEnvironment
2.7 Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader 0.10 0.15 Yes
2.8 Macro-Enviro → CIB 0.13 0.13 Yes
Unhypothesised Results
Macro-Enviro → Organisational Leader -0.10 -0.05
MicroEnvironment
2.9 Micro-Enviro → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No
2.10 Micro-Enviro → CIB 0.23 0.24 Yes
Decision Making
2.11 Decision Making → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.00 No
Teamwork
2.12 Teamwork → Organisational Leader 0.21 0.25 Yes
2.13 Teamwork → CIB 0.00 0.00 No
Progressiveness
2.15 Progressiveness → Visionary Leader 0.00 0.05 No
2.16 Progressiveness → CIB 0.14 0.14 Yes
Organisational Demand
2.17 Org Demand → Visionary Leader 0.18 0..27 Yes
2.18 Org Demand → Organisational Leader 0.00 0.09 No
2.19 Org Demand → CIB 0.24 0.24 Yes
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours
2.20 CIB → Visionary Leader 0.38 0.38 Yes
2.21 CIB → Organisational Leader 0.39 0.39 Yes
The final hypothesis related to the influence of EMIC level cultural values in
Australia, such as egalitarianism and mateship, driving similar views on managerial
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leadership across different managerial groups, which was supported and will be
discussed in detail later in this chapter.
8.2 Research question 1 – Categorisation of managerial behaviours that enable creativity and innovation
In this study, the original APEL framework categorisation of managerial behaviours
was utilised as an artefact to categorise the range of behaviours associated with
enabling creativity and innovation. The CIB behaviours as described in chapters 2
and 4 were examined in the context of three of the four primary categories of the
APEL model (Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational
Demand), reflecting the APEL conceptual approach. These behaviours represent
more specific actions on the part of the manager with a clear outcome that should
move organisational members, their departments and the organisation as a whole to
embrace innovation and creative efforts as part of efforts towards change. The
behaviours are largely associated with the change leadership metacategory firstly
identified by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) and Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002).
Once categorised behaviours were identified across the extant literature and an
abbreviated scale, including behaviours from all three categories, was proposed in
order to examine the strength of the categorisation and the validity of the new
measure. The new scale was first validated with a separate sample, showed strong
reliability with a Cronbach alpha of .97. Equally impressive were the factor loadings.
In the EFA, all 15 behaviours loaded on a single factor and had a loading between
0.90 and 0.80 approximately, considered ideal to use (Hair et al. 2006). The EFA on
the main data set also showed positive results, with a Cronbach alpha of .92. Again
all 15 behaviours loaded on a single factor with 5 having loadings greater than or
equal to .70, considered ideal, while the remainder had a factor loading of
approximately 0.60 or higher, considered statistically significant (Hair et al. 2006).
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Initial tests in the CFA process found all had acceptable loadings of a similar nature,
while the goodness of fit measures was initially unacceptable. After removing four
indicator variables, acceptable fit was achieved on a single factor with the remaining
11 indicator variables, all statistically significant. As discussed in earlier chapters and
indicated in the analysis, validity for the new scale was demonstrated. The inclusion
of a large number of behaviours on a single scale, considering parsimony is
acceptable and necessary given the context of cultural modelling used in this study
(Hair et al. 2006). The cultural modelling that the APEL framework is based on
means a more robust construct is needed (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The category must
be able to account for cultural variation which is necessary to build a culturally
relevant construct, where some behaviours may be more important than others. This
approach leads to a culturally relevant category being developed.
With respect to the CIB behaviours themselves in an Australian context, the most
important behaviours relating to the overall model were “recognise and acknowledge
all individual subordinates for their efforts” a personal quality related behaviour
(ranked 11th); and “bring diverse skills, education and experience into the
organisation”, an organisational demand related behaviour (ranked 19th). These two
behaviours were in the top 20 most important behaviours for Australian managers.
The next two most important CIB behaviours “encourage employees to consider
alternative ideas, information and solutions” and “ensure subordinates share ideas and
knowledge across the organisation” were viewed as managerial behaviours and both
are in the top 30 behaviours in the model. These top four behaviours were classified
as relating to all three influences on a managers’ leadership practices. The emphasis
of Australian managers on these CIB behaviours reflects aspects of the cultural
constraint of mateship, where a relationship needs to exist that shows respect, but
allows for challenge and leads to all people being treated equally (Duarte 2008). This
is supported in the LMX leadership theory where a positive relationship leads to
greater ability to challenge subordinates (Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Tierney, Farmer &
Graen 1999). This categorisation and the scale will be discussed from a theoretical
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and managerial contribution perspective later in this chapter as well as the limitations
of its development and future research opportunities in the associated sections.
8.3 Research question 2 - Australian managerial leadership components
The following section begins the discussion on the second research question and the
hypothesised components of Australian managerial leadership that were identified
within the context of the APEL model that took into account the theoretical and
cultural understanding of Australian managerial leadership.
Excellent leader 8.3.1
The Excellent Leader category reflects behaviours that have been ranked as most
important across the APEL categories (Selvarajah et al. 1995). The nine behaviours
which make up the two components were again highly ranked, with “Being Honest”
as the most important behaviour statement to Australian managers in the study. Four
of the five Organisational Leader statements were included in the top ten behaviours
and two of the Visionary Leader variables were in the top 20. In total seven of the
nine behaviours relating to Excellent Leader were included in the top ten most
important. The results reflect that the categorisation of these groupings of behaviours
as relating to Excellent Leader is again supported. The behaviours as categorised also
have strong connections to other hierarchical categorisations of leadership universals.
Contextualising this category within the four leadership metacategories (change
leadership, task, relationship and external), found that only two significant streams
could be identified, a Visionary component and a more Organisational component
(Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). Taken together the Organisational Leader component
includes task-focused behaviours and relationship-oriented behaviours, while the
Visionary Leader component represents the change leadership metacategory. The
Visionary component clearly relates to transformational leadership or charismatic
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leadership as described respectively by Bass (1985) and in the GLOBE study (House
et al. 2004). Charismatic leadership was the highest ranked culturally endorsed
leadership theory dimension (CLT) for Australia in the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy
2007). The Organisational Leader component as defined reflects supportive and
collaborative behaviours as defined in GLOBE as part of team oriented behaviour,
ranked second most important of the CLTs for Australian managers. Organisational
Leader also includes indicators that relate to more task oriented or organisational
work related behaviours (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002).
The hypothesised components of Excellent Leader were supported in this study. The
two, while having a strong correlation, still remain distinct and illustrates how being
an Excellent Leader is perceived in Australia. Australian studies have indicated that
being strategic is important as well as maintaining the cultural constraints of mateship
when leading, supporting this result are works of Ashkanasy (2007), Barraclough &
Company (1995), Irwin (1996), Sarros et al. (2011) and Sarros et al. (1992).
Australian managerial leadership requires more than being strategic, the need to
appease subordinates and ensure work and tasks progress as planned is also a
principal focus, exceeding the visionary focus in terms of importance to the managers
in this study.
Personal qualities 8.3.2
The Personal Qualities components that were proposed for Australian managerial
excellence in leadership consisted of three factors, Respect, Relationships and
Integrity. Respect in Australia is built on egalitarianism, arguably Australia’s most
cherished value, given that all managers are expected to treat subordinates equally
and with respect (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2007; Thompson
1994). To show respect was clearly identified in the cultural imprint studies as
essential in order to increase motivation of employees and as a key aspect of people
skills in the Enterprising Nation study (Australian Quality Council 1994; Barraclough
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& Company 1995). In the Respect category the most important behaviour was
“respect the self-esteem of others”.
The people skills category in the Enterprising Nation study includes behaviours
associated with the Relationship component (Barraclough & Company 1995). The
behaviours are closely aligned with relationship establishment and maintenance and
are used as a tool by managers to be clear in communication, attitude and support for
employees. These relationship building efforts fit with the GLOBE assessment of
Australian managers needing to reflect mateship values with subordinates (Ashkanasy
2007). From a managerial leadership theory perspective, it provides re-enforcement
of the importance of a manager having a relationship with their subordinates
associated with LMX theory (Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999). The importance of the
Relationship component is related to being transformational and connecting people
with the vision and strategy set forth by organisational leadership. The most
important behaviours associated with this component reflect the foundation of a
trusting and supportive relationship between subordinates and managers, with “be
dependent and trustworthy” tied with “Being Honest” for the most important
behaviour in the study. This component in fact had a total of six behaviours in the top
20 most important behaviours, highlighting the importance of Relationships to
Australian managers, reflecting the unique requirement of mateship. When a manager
acts as a mate they gain respect and buy-in to achieve organisational objectives,
without a relationship this would prove to be difficult in Australia.
Integrity was initially hypothesised to be present, but could not be supported in the
CFA stage of analysis. This component of Personal Qualities was initially
hypothesised based on the studies that identified these characteristics as important
strengths of Australian managers (Australian Institute of Management 2012;
Barraclough & Company 1995; Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade & Australian
APEC Studies Centre 2001). The data however did not support its inclusion with the
factor loadings of many of these behaviours being low indicating that they may have
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been influencing other components in the profiling of Australian managerial
leadership. The component was removed from consideration in the model at the CFA
stage of analysis. Arguments made by Yukl (2012) state that managerial leadership
behaviours are difficult to categorise because leadership behaviours are not singular
in nature and impact is felt across categorisations (Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). This may
be the case with the behaviours in the Integrity component.
The two components of Personal Qualities that were supported had strong correlation
as expected given the two go hand in hand. Establishing respect in order to have
relationships and the importance of a relationship to respect explains the association
between the two components. Australian managers in this study recognise that they
must show respect to all and establish relationships across the organisation to achieve
both organisational commitment and support for the organisational vision.
Organisational demand 8.3.3
Organisational Demand was initially proposed and found to be a singular category in
this profile of Australian managers. The category has been found to be represented by
a single component in nearly all studies using the APEL framework across cultures,
reflecting the organisationally driven direction and influences on a manager
(Selvarajah et al. 1995). In the case of Australian managers in this study, this category
had significant loadings, though they were not that large, and several behaviours were
ranked lower, in particular “give priority to long term goals” and “sharing power”.
These lower rankings provide evidence to support early studies that found Australian
managers to be less visionary and more bureaucratic (Barraclough & Company 1995;
Byrt & Masters 1974; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984).
At the other end of the spectrum, those behaviours that ranked highly do indicate that
Australian managers are in fact reflecting more of what is expected of them in terms
of leadership with “act as a member of a team” both ranking highly and reflecting
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Visionary and Team oriented attributes that are looked upon highly in Australia
(Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Institute of Management 2012; Irwin 1996).
Managerial behaviours 8.3.4
The Managerial Behaviour Category was hypothesised to have four components,
representing the behaviours associated with accomplishing work, maintaining
organisational effectiveness and managerial control. As established by Ashkanasy
(2007) and Irwin (1996), being egalitarian in accomplishing managerial tasks can be
done through applying a Teamwork approach. The teamwork approach is illustrated
by behaviours associated with supporting social justice, providing independence and
support to subordinates. Australia’s low power distance and higher individualism
scores in the GLOBE study also supported the Teamwork component being present
(Ashkanasy 2007). Upon completion of the CFA analysis this component proved to
be present and was highlighted by the most important behaviours of “be objective
when dealing with work conflicts” (fifth most important behaviour) and “be
consistent in making decisions” (13th most important). These behaviours highlight the
need for an Australian manager to be both fair and consistent. Being fair is associated
with egalitarianism and being consistent fits with the need for a manager to be
steadfast, dependable and reliable (Ashkanasy 2007; Irwin 1996). The importance of
having this consistency by Australian managers in this study relates to the findings of
Irwin (1996) who identified the preference of a consistent manager to a good leader,
as a good leader may be too intrusive and involve too much engagement, which is
less preferred by many Australian workers.
The Progressiveness component was proposed as a newly identified component that
has developed out of the observed increase in management education in Australia
over the last 30 years. Managerial education has been emphasised as a way to address
shortcomings in Australian organisational leaders (Karpin 1995b; Ralph 1982).
During this time, and supported by the figures reported by the ABS (2007b, 2012b),
Australian managers have been increasing their educational engagement. The result
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of this increased educational engagement was expected to reflect an increase in new
practices and approaches which this study categorised as Progressiveness. The results
indicate that although this component is present, it is of limited importance based
upon the ranking of behaviours. The highest ranking behaviour “try different
approaches to management” falling into the 38th most important behaviour,
approximately in the middle of all behaviours. This reflects that the Australian
managers in this study, while engaging in more education and willing to act
differently, have not necessarily translated new managerial leadership approaches in
to regularly acting in a transformational manner or in their overall approach to
managing organisations.
The Decision Making component was hypothesised as being present, based largely on
the traditional view of managers in Australia being pragmatic or bureaucratic
(Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Lansbury & Spillane 1991;
West & Murphy 2007). As well, being a decision maker is firmly rooted in the
expected actions of both leaders and managers (Zaleznik 2004). This component was
supported in the CFA process with “make decisions earlier rather than later” being
the most important behaviour, again ranked in the middle (33rd most important).
Given the low ranking of behaviours in this component it could be indicating that
while not always a preferred way to lead, Australian managers still maintain decision
making behaviours in terms of management in order to facilitate completion of work
and achieve organisational objectives.
The forth component proposed was Officious and was not supported by the data. It
was hypothesised to be present based on older assessments of Australian managers
behaving in a manner associated with being strict and domineering. This was
identified in studies such as in the Enterprising Nation study, the cultural imprint
studies and early assessments of Australian managers (Australian Quality Council
1994; Karpin 1995b; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). The original cultural imprint
study, characterised Australian managers as being inflexible and rigid, autocratic and
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characterised managers as task masters (Australian Quality Council 1994). This
component was not supported by the data in the CFA process. The lack of support for
this component may indicate a shift occurring within Australian management away
from this style of managerial leadership found in older assessments which were quite
critical of Australian managerial leadership skills. Given efforts by government,
educational institutions, professional organisations and the businesses and managers
themselves to better understand leadership, as discussed in the Progressiveness
component, there may have been a shift away from this type of management. Along
with this shift the recognition that managerial leadership requires less heavy-handed
tactics and more visionary and supportive strategies.
Together the three components of Managerial Behaviours had acceptable
|correlations, with Teamwork and Progressiveness being strongly related and
associated with positive outcomes. Although the association between these two
components and Decision Making was weaker, it was still positive and acceptable
reflecting that the Decision Making responsibility cannot be removed from a
managers’ purview, especially when dealing with bringing together organisational
objectives, work requirements and people management.
Environmental influence 8.3.5
The hypothesised Environmental Influence category had two components,
Macro-Environment and Micro-Environment. Macro-Environment represented the
larger external environment that relates to society at large, the global community and
includes external cultural influence. The presence of this component was proposed
based on the diverse and shifting trading partners of Australia, the recognised need
for managers and organisations to think and act globally and the demographics of
Australia becoming more multicultural (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force
2012; Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007c; Karpin 1995b; Mascitelli & Tinney
2013). The Micro-Environment relates to industry specific or industry related external
influences on the organisations. Recognised by government and industry bodies,
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Australian organisations have been interested in maintaining competitive advantage
and achieving productivity gains through efforts such as adopting new technologies
when identified (Australian Industry Group 2013; Department of Foreign Affairs &
Trade & Australian APEC Studies Centre 2001; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).
The analysis supported the inclusion of both components for Environmental
Influence. The Macro-Environment component had all behaviours ranking fairly low
in importance in the bottom half of behaviours, with “Identifying social trends which
may have an impact on work” being the most important, ranked 44th, and also
included the least important behaviour identified by Australian managers, “foster an
international perspective in the organisation”. The low rankings of these behaviours
provide further support that Australian managers may not emphasise reflection on the
global environment, as identified as far back as the Enterprising Nation study of 1995
and again identified recently in the Australian government white paper on the Asian
century (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Karpin 1995b).
The Micro-Environment component behaviours were also largely in the bottom half
of important behaviours, though ranked higher than the Macro-Environment
behaviours. The most important of these behaviours was “check constantly for
problems and opportunities” (ranked 32nd). The average to low rankings of
behaviours in this category are possibly a sign that the importance of productivity
gains have fallen from earlier levels of importance, as industry reports suggest
(Australian Industry Group 2013). The two components were correlated showing the
connection between both aspects of looking at the external environment.
Importance of each Australian managerial leadership component 8.3.6
In terms of the overall importance of the 11 different measures of excellence in
managerial leadership, Organisational Leader was the most important. This was
followed by Relationships, Teamwork, Visionary Leader and finally Respect to round
out the top five most important components, as detailed in Table 8-3. CIB was ranked
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sixth, while Organisational Demand was ranked seventh. The least important
components in order were Macro-Environment, Progressiveness, Decision Making
and Micro-Environment.
Table 8-3: Importance of excellence in leadership components and CIB category
Rank Leadership Component APEL Category Mean
1 Organisational Leader Excellent Leader 4.48
2 Relationship Personal Qualities 4.37
3 Teamwork Managerial Behaviours 4.31
4 Visionary Leader Excellent Leader 4.28
5 Respect Personal Qualities 4.26
6 CIB CIB 4.04
7 Organisational Demand Organisational Demand 3.97
8 Micro-Environment Environmental Influence 3.86
9 Decision Making Managerial Behaviours 3.79
10 Progressiveness Managerial Behaviours 3.73
11 Macro-Environment Environmental Influence 3.63
The importance of Organisational Leader reflects the overarching emphasis of
Australian managers in this study on ensuring that people and required work are
looked after, resulting in a highly functioning organisation. The results support
findings from the cultural imprint studies that indicated that the preferred type of
manager is a good boss who acted in a role as a captain coach, allowing for work to
be completed and support to be given to subordinates (Australian Quality Council
1994; Irwin 1996). The GLOBE study found Australians emphasis on the Team
Oriented CLT dimension was second strongest and in this research study the Team
Oriented CLT connected to the Organisational Leader component (Ashkanasy 2007).
The Performance Orientation dimension of GLOBE, allocated to the Charismatic
CLT in GLOBE, was third most important and also aligned strongly with the
Organisational Leader component in this study.
The importance of Visionary Leader reflects the established emphasis on
transformational leadership which has become arguably the most accepted leadership
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universal (Bass 2008; Yukl 2010). Australian managers who have engaged in
education, training courses or have followed mainstream business publications will
have encountered a significant endorsement that being transformational, visionary or
charismatic is one of the most important aspects of being a leader. This viewpoint is
supported by the dominance of the Charismatic CLT for Australian managers found
in the GLOBE study (Ashkanasy 2007).
This research study asked about the importance of managerial leadership behaviours
from a forward looking perspective by asking “to be an excellent leader in your
organisation, how important is it to be” followed by the leadership behaviour
statements. Organisational Leader, as defined in this study related more to task and
people management as opposed to the change-inspiring Visionary Leader. The results
of this research study indicate that a distinction still exists for Australian managers
when considering leadership and management respectively. Where the functional, or
managerial, aspects associated with Organisational Leader take precedence over the
transformational aspects of being a Visionary Leader. This result indicates that
cultural values around ensuring mateship; avoiding tall poppy syndrome; and
minimising the ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude may be constraints to higher level strategic
leadership associated with Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008).
Australian culture has been identified as emphasising egalitarian values, beliefs and
practices (Duarte 2008; Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy
2003). This is clearly identified and present in the other highest ranking categories,
Relationships, Teamwork and Respect. All of these components relate to being
egalitarian, emphasising the culture dimensions of low power distance; high
individualism, high gender egalitarianism and high humane orientation (Ashkanasy
2007; Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts & Kennedy 2000). Based on the results and
identified cultural dimensions, Australian society may be viewed as one which highly
values strong working relationships built on trust, respect and independence. All three
components also reflect the values associated with Mateship, a cornerstone of
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Australian society and organisational culture (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; West &
Murphy 2007). Mateship and associated concepts of supporting one another,
achieving mutual benefit and being loyal may be viewed as impossible to separate
from the Australian psyche. Mateship is arguably the second most fundamental
cultural value, beside egalitarianism, found in the Australian culture. Together these
components create positive supporting relationships with the manager and between
subordinates, where managers are recognised as supportive, trustworthy and
respectful, absolutely necessary for Australian organisations to function effectively.
The low ranking components associated with the Environmental Influence category
found in this study are also supported by the existing understanding of Australian
culture. There has been considerable critique of Australian organisations and
managers needing to be more focused on the external environment, including finding
ways of increasing productivity, acting globally, and embracing and interacting with
new and emerging markets (Alomes 2012; Australia in the Asian Century Task Force
2012; Australian Industry Group 2013; Innovation & Business Skills Australia
2011b; Karpin 1995b; McNair Anderson Associates 1981). Clearly the presence of
these components highlights the recognition on the part of Australian managers that it
is fundamental to look at the external environment to be an excellent managerial
leader. The lower level of importance though, may signify the slow process involved
in shifting the mindset of Australian managers. If a strong emphasis on the
Environmental Influence components were present it would go against the historic
perspective that Australian organisations have largely played as exporters of
commodities with value added activity occurring in other nations (Mascitelli &
Tinney 2013). Alongside this, both geographic and psychic distances are present
when examining the trading relationships of Australian businesses. The fact that these
components are still found to be present though highlights the growing recognition
and distancing from former negative assessments of Australian managers and
organisations when it comes to following cues from the external environment.
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The emergence of the Progressiveness component highlights the shifts in skills of the
nation’s organisational leaders. Managerial education, having been identified as the
major issue needing to be addressed for several decades, shows that development and
advancement in managerial practices is being made (Innovation & Business Skills
Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). The identification of the
Progressiveness component provides evidence that efforts by Australian educational
institutions and management supporting organisations, like the Australian Institute of
Management and the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, are working to
serve organisational needs and ensure economic sustainability. Progressiveness
having emerged as a component of Australian excellence in managerial leadership
provides evidence that the perception of managerial leadership needs to be studied
continually and efforts to shift practices, behaviours and values need ongoing
investigation. Its lower ranking does indicate that while important it is not the most
relevant way to behave for managers in this study.
Similarly, the low ranking of the Decision Making component highlights a shift away
from Australian managers acting as authoritarian or as task masters, long identified as
a negative attribute of Australian managers (Australian Quality Council 1994;
Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a;
Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). The presence of this
component would be expected to be present given the inability to separate the
traditional role of managers and the parallel actions of being a leader. Within this
study, its low ranking could be considered a sign that Australian managers are
downplaying emphasis of this role.
The CIB category is the sixth most important, in between Respect and Organisational
Demand. The behaviours in the CIB category reflect a range of behaviours that when
enacted will result in increased creative and innovative output from staff, departments
and organisations as a whole. The CIB category importance to the Australian
managers included in this sample provides support that enabling creativity and
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innovation is an aspect of excellence in managerial leadership in Australia. This
support helps answer the research question as to where these behaviours fit in the
context of excellence in managerial leadership.
The fact that the CIB category of behaviours were newly added to the model and
regarded as more important than other categories highlights how managerial
leadership and the necessary behaviours to be a leader adapt and change over time.
The original APEL behaviours were established in the early to mid-nineties and were
based on established literature available at the time (Selvarajah et al. 1995). In the
approximately twenty years since the APEL behaviours were identified and
instrument established there has been significant change occur through globalisation,
development of new technologies and new industries. Similarly, leadership research
has progressed providing evidence that additional behaviours are required to be added
for evaluation when it comes to understanding excellence in managerial leadership.
Having added to the model a clearly defined and well researched category, the
behaviours included appear to be both relevant and important to Australian managers.
Australia itself has faced significant changes on an economic and business front since
the economy began liberalising 40 years ago, having gone from a protected economy
to being one of the most open and prominent promoters of free trade. It has floated its
currency and added to its trading partners in order to take advantage of its natural
endowments and increased technological advancement to be one of the top twenty
economies in the world (Mascitelli & Tinney 2013). Given these significant changes,
it is obvious that managers in this nation’s organisations would view behaviours
associated with Change leadership as important.
In looking at the GLOBE findings on leadership specifically for Australia, the results
include many high ranking leadership dimensions that would suggest that the CIB
category would be present, including Inspirational, Visionary, Diplomatic,
Collaborative, Team Oriented and Humane, largely associated with the CLT positive
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universals of Charismatic Leadership and Team Oriented Leadership (Ashkanasy
2007). The inclusion of the CIB category into the model indicates that its proposed
inclusion as a part of excellence in managerial leadership was appropriate for
Australia and found in this sample to be relevant to excellence in leadership.
Overall the Australian managerial perspective of Excellence in Managerial
Leadership reported in this study is supportive of existing literature and provides
evidence that the leadership mind-sets of Australian managers are changing and have
evolved away from past negative views of Australian organisational management.
Other recent and ongoing assessments, by the Australia Institute of Management
(2012, 2013), support this finding that Australian managers are recognising their
strengths alongside weaknesses and addressing them in order to maximise
effectiveness as leaders in the changing environment in which they operate. Had the
expanded APEL model been applied twenty years ago in Australia, it is unclear if
these particular components would have emerged, based on what was then known.
However, from this sample, it is clear that Australia’s modern managers have a
profile sufficiently different from early assessments as bureaucratic, autocratic and
closed off from the world around them (Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984).
8.4 Research question 2 - Australian excellence in managerial leadership and associated relationships
Initially there were 21 hypothesised relationships in this study connecting the
independent variables to the dependent variables of CIB and the two components of
Excellent Leader. However, three relationships were not possible to test after
completing the measurement model analysis using CFA, which resulted in 18
relationships to be examined.
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Relationships to visionary leader 8.4.1
Visionary Leader was a component of the Excellent Leader category in this study. It
was associated with the change metacategory where strategic leadership takes on a
transformational role and a connection between the organisational strategies, goals
and the employees is established. The inclusion of this component would enable
managers to achieve these larger goals, in particular towards change. The
relationships that were hypothesised and emerged in this study of Australian
managerial leadership with respect to Visionary Leader are summarised in Table 8-4.
Table 8-4: Hypothesised relationships to visionary leader
Visionary Leader Relationships Relationship
Relationship → Visionary Leader Supported
Macro-Enviro → Visionary Leader Supported
CIB → Visionary Leader Supported
Org Demand → Visionary Leader Supported
Progressiveness → Visionary Leader Not supported
Respect → Visionary Leader Not supported
Supported relationships
All but two of the hypothesised relationships were supported in examining the data
and finalising the model. The Relationship component was felt to connect to
Visionary Leader. This was in large part due to the earlier noted fact that in order to
connect employees to the strategic objectives and push them forward in committing
to the organisation, a manager would need to engage in behaviours associated with
transformational leadership requiring a relationship and identified as necessary for
Australian organisations (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Quality Council 1994; Bass
1990b; Densten & Sarros 2012; Parry 1996; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Stewart
2006; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).
The presence of this relationship confirms that Australian managers do use
relationships as an aspect of Visionary Leader.
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The connection between the Macro-Environment and Visionary Leader was also
found to be supported. The cues from the external environment to adapt and change
are paramount for a manager to be aware of and utilise (Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002;
Yukl & Lepsinger 2004). More and more the external environment is being identified
as an area that managers need to focus on in Australia (Australia in the Asian Century
Task Force 2012; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a). The
managers in this sample are indeed connecting the external environment influenced
by globalisation to connect to merge with vision and strategy.
Lastly, the Organisational Demand to Visionary Leader relationship was supported.
This relationship brings together the managers’ commitment to the organisation and
communicates that through to the employees by their actions. As stated before, this is
key in transformational leadership. These results are supported by findings from the
GLOBE study and from assessments of Australian managers skills that identify
charismatic and transformational leadership as being present (Ashkanasy 2007;
Australian Institute of Management 2012).
Unsupported relationships
The relationship between Progressiveness and Visionary Leader was not supported in
this study. The nature of acting progressively as a manager is a skill that should result
in transformational successes and it was felt that it would be a component that relates
directly to Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Barraclough & Company 1995).
Further support for this is found in the educational push that the Australian
government has promoted to managers for many years (Karpin 1995b; Ralph 1982).
From the statistics measuring educational engagement, the ongoing concern over this
and the availability of educational programs, both formal and informal in Australia,
evidence indicated that it would directly relate to the Excellent Leader category
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b; Australian Graduate School of Management
et al. 1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013; Innovation & Business Skills
Australia 2011b; Sarros et al. 1992). While the Progressiveness component failed to
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directly show up, it was indirectly present through a mediating relationship with the
CIB category, to be discussed next.
The lack of relationship could be related to the diversity of managers and industry in
the sample, where new approaches to management may be both viewed as
unnecessary and lead to potential dissatisfaction among employees (Australian
Quality Council 1994; Duarte 2008; Irwin 1996; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003;
Peeters 2004; Turnell & Washbourne 1991). However, the fact that it still has a direct
connection to the mediating category of CIB indicates that it is present and Australian
managers will use progressive behaviours when working towards achieving change
and innovation.
One of the most interesting findings was the lack of relationship between Respect to
Visionary Leader. Given the Australian belief in egalitarianism and the presence of
low power distance, high individualism and believe in supportive and team related
managerial behaviours and the strong support for charismatic and transformational
leadership, it was expected to be a component related to Visionary Leader
(Ashkanasy 2007; Thompson 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003;
West & Murphy 2007). Respect did have a relationship with Organisational Leader
that may explain as to why this relationship was not supported to be discussed in
Section 8.4.2.
Relationships to organisational leader 8.4.2
Organisational Leader associated with the Excellent Leader category in this study was
related to looking after the required tasks and providing positive support for the
subordinates engaged in the work. Based upon this understanding several components
associated with Australian managerial leadership were hypothesised to have a direct,
positive relationship to Organisational Leader as summarised in Table 8-5. However,
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through the analysis process some of the hypothesised relationships were not
supported and others were discovered.
Table 8-5: Hypothesised relationships to organisational leader
Organisational Leader Relationships Relationship
Teamwork → Organisational Leader Supported
CIB → Organisational Leader Supported
Org Demand → Organisational Leader Not supported
Decision Making → Organisational Leader Not supported
MicroEnv → Organisational Leader Not supported
Relationship → Organisational Leader Discovered
Respect → Organisational Leader Discovered
MacroEnviro → Organisational Leader Discovered
Supported relationships
Only the hypothesised relationships between CIB and Teamwork to Organisational
Leader were found to be present and supported in the final model. Each of these
relationships supports existing understanding of Australian managerial leadership and
the current understanding of the impact of leadership behaviours. The relationship
with CIB will be discussed in section 8.5 of this chapter. The ‘good boss’, described
in Irwin’s (1996) cultural imprint study refers to a captain-coach role that is
consistent, supportive and encouraging, fits well with understanding the connection
between Teamwork and Organisational Leader in this study. The manager needs to
work with all team members and create a balance between supporting and directing
so that members of the organisation can keep work progressing and a positive
environment is established. These are the key outcomes of the Organisational Leader
component.
Unsupported relationships
There were three unsupported relationships in the model to Organisational Leader:
Organisational Demand, Decision Making and Micro-Environment. Organisational
Demand was proposed to have a relationship with Organisational Leader due to the
connection between organisational goals that managers would communicate through
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to subordinates and their work. By connecting the organisational goals to the work
being done, managers are able to connect Organisational Leader and Visionary
leader. This connection is one of the primary motivations behind practicing
transformational leadership (Bass 1985a, 1990b; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008).
Initial results indicated a relationship was present, though it was too weak to include
in the model. The emphasis on people management that emerged in the
Organisational Leader component provides evidence as to why that is the case.
Managers who see a need to keep work progressing and employees productive, could
view emphasis on organisational objectives as being too bold to stress given
Australian cultural attitudes towards acting as a tall poppy (Feather 1989; Meng,
Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003; Peeters 2004). Continued emphasis on these behaviours
could make subordinates construe a manager to be more concerned for the
organisation and reaching its goals, instead of looking after the people in it.
Decision Making did not have a direct relationship with Organisational Leader, as
hypothesised, or with Visionary Leader. Historically, Australian managers have been
viewed as maintaining too high a level of control and was a recognised challenge that
managers needed to address (Australian Quality Council 1994; Barraclough &
Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a; Lansbury &
Spillane 1991; Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). Given the identification of this
component across numerous studies and the inability for managers to fully remove
themselves from the decision making role it was decided to look at the correlations
between Decision Making and the other components. The results showed that there
was indeed an underlying role that this component plays influencing the actions of
Australian managers. In comparison with Respect, which had a strong association
with all other components, Decision Making had a more moderate, but still strong
correlation with all components. This suggests that within all actions the Australian
managers in this study want to maintain a level of Decision Making control, but not
make it dominant in their approach to management. Australians’ have been identified
as having a ‘She’ll Be Right’ attitude in organisations with employees being
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indifferent toward change, willing to accept mistakes or deliver only adequate
solutions (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008; Turnell & Washbourne 1991; West &
Murphy 2007; Yallop 2005). This cultural value, alongside the need for a manager to
be a mate could explain why this particular outlook is the case (Ashkanasy 2007;
Duarte 2008; Irwin 1996; West & Murphy 2007).
A manager in Australia has to find a balance between being a friend and being
accepted by employees as the boss or risk being looked at only as a mate. The lack of
inclusion of Decision Making directly to the Excellent Leader components, and
correlation with the other components, may be an Australian management tactic to
keeping organisations functioning positively, without being seen to be too
controlling. The originally hypothesised, but not supported component, Officious,
may also relate to Decision Making as an older managerial leadership style
previously found in Australian managers, reflecting a change in how they view their
role. With the lack of direct relationship for Decision Making and the inability to
support the Officious component in this study, Australian managers may be viewed
as separating out more managerial responsibilities from that of being a leader.
The Micro-Environment to Organisational Leader relationship was hypothesised to
be present because of the identified skills and abilities of Australian manages as
identified in the Managerial Capabilities index of the Australian Institute of
Management (2012, 2013). Australian managers will engage in looking for and
implementing technologies and knowledge that will support their organisations.
Managers themselves have identified with the importance of having technical
expertise in their industry and actively look to find ways for their organisation to
remain competitive (Australian Industry Group 2013; Barraclough & Company 1995;
McNair Anderson Associates 1981). The connection between using these external
influences to keep an organisation competitive is clearly required as part of
Organisational Leader. While there was initially found to be a positive relationship
present, it could not be supported through the analysis.
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The weakness of the relationship and its removal from the final model may again
reflect some of the traditional views on Australian management. In past studies
Australian managers were identified as insular and focused less on the need to adapt
and change (Barraclough & Company 1995; Byrt & Masters 1974; Karpin 1995a;
Milton, Entrekin & Stening 1984). The Micro-environment category reflected
behaviours that emphasise industry related cues and engagement that may lead to
change. The previous assessments of Australian managers may still hold true with
managers less engaged in monitoring for industry related items. This however may be
offset by the relationship that exists between Micro-Enviornment and CIB that was
present. As noted in discussing behaviours that enable creativity and innovation
looking externally is a part of this and managers may look to these types of
behaviours when in the change mindset associated with CIB, but otherwise not
emphasise them.
Discovered relationships – not hypothesised
The link between Relationships and Organisational Leader was found to have a
strong relationship that was not originally hypothesised. The researcher hypothesised
only a relationship between Visionary Leader and the Relationship component, due to
the literature research indicating a strong belief in transformational leadership in
Australia (Ashkanasy 2007; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008). The fundamentals of
the change metacategory suggest that a transformational type of relationship, building
the connection between organisational strategy and subordinates efforts would result
in a strong relationship to Visionary Leader for the purpose of empowering
employees. Previous studies have indicated Australian managers needing to connect
the work of their employees to organisational goals and direction (Ashkanasy 2007;
Australian Quality Council 1994; Trevor-Roberts, Ashkanasy & Kennedy 2003;
Turnell & Washbourne 1991).
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Results of this study indicate a lower level of promotion of visionary objectives in
relationships, rather emphasising the importance of high quality working
relationships with subordinates. Given the strength of egalitarianism, the need to
balance the conflicting cultural imperatives of mateship, tall poppy syndrome, and
‘She’ll Be Right’ attitudes, managers in Australia attempt to establish unique positive
personal relationships, identified as a strength of Australian managers (Barraclough &
Company 1995; Duarte 2008; Feather 1989; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003;
Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). This result
adds clarification to the results of the cultural imprint studies of the 1990s. Those
studies pointed out that American managerial leadership styles that emphasise more
on the transformational tactics, large vision and crisis approach to reaching change
are not overly effective in Australia (Australian Quality Council 1994; Innovation &
Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996). This research study’s results suggest
that Australian managers have a preference to turn to more easy-going, flexible and
subtler leadership approaches with more personal communication and relationship
building practices focused on the organisation in order to connect subordinates to the
work of the organisation and less towards being transformational.
As earlier stated the relationship between Respect to Visionary leadership was not
supported. It was based on the perceived emphasis and belief in transformational
leadership that Respect would be viewed as part of the process that would lead to
being able to act as a Visionary leader and secure commitment from subordinates
(Ashkanasy 2007). However, the Respect component has a relationship to the
Organisational Leader component. This indicates that Australian leaders are mindful
of constraints on them not to be too visionary and have to close a relationship to
employees as identified in the cultural imprint studies of the 1990s (Australian
Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996). The Australian employee preference for a good
boss over a leader as identified in these studies reflects managers picking up on
cultural values and preferences.
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Additionally, mateship and tall-poppy may be playing a role in the Respect
component. In Australia, mateship is required and not being a tall-poppy is also
required, focusing managers to show respect through being an Organisational Leader
as opposed to a Visionary Leader (Ashkanasy 2007; Feather 1998; Peeters 2004;
Thompson 1994; West & Murphy 2007). The results indicate support for
Ashkanasy’s (2007) assessment of Australian leadership being a paradox and a
challenge to understand. While in some instances Australians managers may highly
view Visionary leadership, there are aspects of managerial leadership that may
require a more traditional management emphasis fit with the culture.
The final discovered relationship was the only negative relationship found. This was
the relationship between Macro-Environment and Organisational Leader. The two
aspects of Environmental Influence were separated by the researcher based on
theoretical and behavioural differences. One focused on behaviours associated with
direct impact on the firm (Micro-Environment) and one that looks at broader
environmental influence that includes cultural diversity, globalisation, politics, the
environment and society at large (Macro-Environment). The results show that the
latter are viewed negatively from an Organisational Leader perspective in this
sample. Re-examination of the literature shows there may be a few different reasons
for this negative relationship having been found.
The first relates to the previously identified challenge facing Australian managers and
organisations as needing to embrace a more global perspective (Australia in the Asian
Century Task Force 2012; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin
1995b). This challenge could still be a reality for many Australian managers and
organisations. Additionally, as the sample was specifically focused on capturing a a
broad national sample of Australian managers it included different managerial roles,
industry sectors and various organisational sizes including many small and medium
sized firms, frontline managers and sectors that may largely service domestic
markets. This could mean that consideration of these largely external factors are
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
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viewed as unnecessary or a distraction from core managerial expectations and
organisational goals.
Along those same lines, the long standing concept referred to as the “tyranny of
distance” may explain why a more domestic focus exists (Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts
& Earnshaw 2002; Blainey 2001; Egri et al. 2012). Possibly the respondents in this
sample are influenced by this concept reflecting the negative relationship. Similarly,
given the differences in culture between Australia and its neighbouring nations in
Asia and key trading partners, a psychic distance could be present. This is supported
by cultural dimension studies that show significant cultural differences between key
trading partners of China, Japan and South Korea (House et al. 2004; Mascitelli &
Tinney 2013; Peterson 2003). Lastly, given Australian managers need to maintain
relationships and provide a supportive, but not controlling environment that
subordinates will commit to, emphasis on behaviours that would bring in so much
external influence may be viewed as being of lower relevance or too far removed for
subordinates to care about. This would result in managers having a negative
perspective on emphasising these behaviours with respect to Organisational Leader
(Feather 1989; Meng, Ashkanasy & Härtel 2003; Peeters 2004).
8.5 Research question 3: Australian excellence in managerial leadership and the relationship with CIB
The CIB category added into the APEL model has been shown to play a role in how
excellence in managerial leadership is perceived in Australia. It largely has a
mediating effect, both partial and full across the variety of hypothesised relationships.
The relationship between CIB and the two components of Excellent Leader have also
been shown to be significant. All of the CIB relationships are detailed in Table 8-6.
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Table 8-6: Hypothesised relationships to and from CIB
CIB Relationships Relationship
Relationship → CIB Supported
Respect → CIB Supported
Macro-Enviro → CIB Supported
Micro-Enviro → CIB Supported
Progressiveness → CIB Supported
Org Demand → CIB Supported
Teamwork → CIB Not Supported
CIB Relationships to Excellent Leader Relationship
CIB → Visionary Leader Supported
CIB → Organisational Leader Supported
Supported relationships
The relationships that were proposed to be present in the study connecting to and
from the CIB category were in fact all found to be valid with the exception of the
relationship to Teamwork. From a Personal Qualities perspective, both Relationships
and Respect had a positive relationship. The importance of having these personal
qualities in order to enable creativity and innovation is firmly rooted in previous
research and further validated here. Several well established leadership theories have
stressed the need for both a relationship and respect between supervisor and
subordinates to achieve goals relating to creativity and innovation including
transformational leadership, LMX theory, interpersonal skills in the skills strataplex
model and when acting as a coach (Bass 1990b; Brown & Moshavi 2005; Ferres
2006; Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995; Jung, Chow & Wu 2003; Mumford, Campion &
Morgeson 2007; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008; Tierney, Farmer & Graen 1999;
Yukl & Mahsud 2010). There is concrete evidence across all of these theories that a
positive, challenging and supportive two-way relationship results in greater
commitment, stronger connection to the work and goals of an organisation and
recognition that the supervisor values all effort and work of each subordinate.
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One of the most important aspects of encouraging employee creativity is ensuring
that intrinsic motivation is understood, and this is only possible when a strong
relationship exists (Amabile 1997; Amabile et al. 1996; Baer, Oldham & Cummings
2003; Oldham & Cummings 1996; Shalley, Zhou & Oldham 2004). Communication
is a large part of a positive relationship and in establishing mutual respect leading to
creativity (Zhou 1998; Zhou 2008; Zhou & George 2003). Given Australian culture
focuses on equality, has low power distance, high individualism and the presence of
culturally specific values associated with mateship, it is clear to see why there is a
relationship between the Personal Quality components and the CIB category
(Ashkanasy 2007). Australian managers have long been identified, by subordinates,
foreign managers and themselves as emphasising personal qualities to achieve results
(Australian Institute of Management 2013; Australian Quality Council 1994;
Barraclough & Company 1995; Curtin University of Technology & Institute for
Research into International Competitiveness 1994; Irwin 1996; Karpin 1995a). Taken
together Australian managers will utilise Personal Qualities, through Relationships
and showing Respect, to establish the foundation for enabling creativity and
innovation.
Two components of Managerial Behaviours were identified as having a connection to
the CIB category, Progressiveness and Teamwork. Team work was not supported and
will be discussed in the unsupported hypothesis section below. Progressiveness
behaviours relate to shifting management approaches that can enhance innovation
efforts. In doing so, managers act differently and present information in new ways.
This sends a message that taking risks is endorsed, that the established norms in
organisations should be shifted and it leads to communication that ideas for change
will be supported (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Dewett 2004; Jaussi & Dionne 2003;
Scott & Bruce 1994; Zhang & Bartol 2010). Given the emphasis placed on Australian
managerial education in order to do things differently, it was hypothesised that this
would lead to there being a positive relationship between Progressiveness and the
CIB category (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Australian Graduate
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School of Management et al. 1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013;
Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). Results of
this study support these previous findings.
Organisational Demand reflects the behaviours that will be called upon in order to
accomplish the organisational objectives and these often involve introducing change.
As established, Australian managers firmly believe in transformational leadership
where a known and direct connection between organisational change and
empowering subordinates exists (Ashkanasy 2007; Bass 1990b; Sarros, Cooper &
Santora 2008). The Australian manager must connect the organisational objectives to
subordinates in order to allow change to occur through innovation efforts. The
relationship was found to be present supporting this connection between enforcing
organisational focus to connect with innovation efforts.
The two components associated with Environmental Influence were both included as
expected relationships to CIB. Research into just what the CIB behaviours are has
shown that managers turning to the external environment for cues to change and also
encouraging subordinates to do the same is fundamental to achieving creativity and
innovation (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007; Elkins & Keller 2003; Westwood & Low
2003; Zhou & George 2003). The APEL model includes a strong series of behaviours
associated with the external environment that are associated with CIB that were
intentionally left out of the CIB scale (Selvarajah et al. 1995). As established,
Australian managers recognise the need to add new technologies and enhance
productivity at the Micro-Environment level and to look to other societal and cultural
influences both to sustain and expand globally at the Macro-Environment level
(Australian Industry Group 2013; Australian Institute of Management 2012;
Barraclough & Company 1995; Karpin 1995a; McNair Anderson Associates 1981).
The relationship from Micro-Environment to CIB proved to be stronger than the
Macro-Environment, substantiating evidence that when Australian managers think
about change and innovation, they look more at the specific industry related influence
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
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as opposed to the larger external environment. This is a recognised challenge for
Australian managers to address (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012;
Australian Institute of Management 2013; Karpin 1995b).
Unsupported Hypothesis – Teamwork to CIB
Teamwork was established as a component of Managerial Behaviours and fits closely
with the required behaviours needed to achieve innovation. The relationship was
initially present, but was weak and to ensure statistical rigor it was removed. Reasons
for this relationship being weak and not supported may relate to the challenges of
maintaining mateship, the importance of egalitarianism in Australia and the country’s
preference for individualism over collectivism. In the GLOBE study Australian
results in the collectivist dimensions were related to egalitarianism and the preference
for high levels of freedom and tolerance towards individuals, emphasizing
individualism over collective attitudes (Ashkanasy 2007). Additionally, as was noted
in the cultural imprint studies and other studies that have looked at US or UK
management practices, aggressive approaches and crisis techniques delivered to a
group to change and adapt, often fail as group members will disconnect from this
aggressive approach (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Parry 1999;
Turnell & Washbourne 1991). Australian managers when enabling creativity and
innovation may tend to place greater emphasis on dealing with individual
relationships as opposed to trying to push behaviours associated with Teamwork.
This is supported by the GLOBE results related to individualism over collectivism.
The Relationship to CIB was present and supported, indicating that managers are
working towards ensuring that individual workers understand where managers are
coming from when enabling creativity and innovation, possibly making Teamwork a
less important component.
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CIB and mediating effects 8.5.1
Understanding the role that CIB has to excellence in managerial leadership in the
context of the APEL framework and how CIB relates to managerial leadership
behaviours in general was an objective of this study. The results of this study indicate
that these behaviours have a mediating role in the leadership behaviours of Australian
managers.
The path coefficients for all of the supported hypothesised relationships between the
leadership components and the CIB category were positive. In developing the CIB
categorisation and associated scale, the APEL framework was utilised in interpreting
behaviours in the established categories. The existing APEL categories could be
considered antecedents to the CIB category, as the other behavioural components are
considered fundamental to managerial leadership as opposed to achieving a specific
organisational outcome, as the CIB category behaviours are focused on.
The strongest connection existed with Organisational Demand. The impact of
Organisational Demand with respect to change and innovation is identified in early
studies on this subject by the likes of Damanpour (1991), who clearly linked the
organisational goals and objectives to organisations becoming more innovative.
Organisational culture also has been shown to directly relate to being able to observe
increased levels of innovation, communicated through managers and their behaviours
(Lee, Tan & Chiu 2008). Given the large impact that senior managers, goals and
strategies have on culture, this is further evidence to support the mediating effect and
to understand why it is strongest in this category. Managers, while possessing their
own leadership style and understanding of their departments and teams, are strongly
influenced to heed cues on how to act from the organisational mandates and
strategies. The situation in Australia is not different, where managers themselves have
noted the need to be push for change and innovation as a required skill to succeed
from an organisational perspective (Australian Institute of Management 2013;
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Densten & Sarros 2012; Sarros, Cooper & Santora 2008). It is clear to see from this
literature that CIB would mediate the forms of excellence in managerial leadership.
In terms of the overall mediating effect that the CIB category had in this study, the
key statistic that was used to determine this was examining the change in variance
explained by looking at the total standardised effect using Cohen’s d formula (Hair et
al. 2006). The results indicated that there was a medium effect size by including CIB
on Organisational Leader (0.19) and a small, albeit a large small result (0.13) on
Visionary Leader. This clearly shows that the inclusion of the CIB category in the
APEL model, with respect to this sample of Australian managers, is indeed
appropriate and the CIB category is important when examining managerial
leadership. The difference in the variance explained was notable for both
components, with Visionary Leader decreasing from 0.53 to 0.47 and for
Organisational Leader decreasing from 0.63 to 0.56.
Interestingly, a slightly larger impact of CIB was on Organisational Leader, as
opposed to Visionary Leader, which was associated with the change metacategory in
this study (Yukl 2008; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). The initial study by Ekvall and
Arvonen (1991) identified the change metacategory did require behaviours associated
with tasks and the management of the people to make successful change feasible and
that considering change only in a transformational context is flawed. The results of
this study support that finding.
Culturally speaking, the constraints already discussed at length regarding the need for
Australian managers to emphasise positive and collegial relationships with employees
that maintain mateship and to counter the effect of negative attitudes towards change
and advancement, associated with tall poppy syndrome and ‘She’ll Be Right’
attitudes requires greater emphasis than the more strategic, long range
transformational behaviours associated with Visionary Leader. The CIB behaviours
are largely about providing encouragement, resources, freedom and connection.
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Australian managers in this study are naturally inclined to emphasise CIB in the
context of the organisation, as opposed to a visionary perspective when viewing how
to lead.
With that said though, the CIB category was important to both and the partial
mediation for a majority of the components and most interestingly, the full mediation
of two components highlight this. The Progressiveness component is associated with
finding new ways of managing and leading and this directly related to the CIB
category, but not to either aspect of Excellent Leader. A manager would need to turn
to doing things differently when there was a need to increase innovation. The natural
tendency of Australian managers towards not doing things differently would require
leaders to emphasise progressive behaviours through unique management styles and
practices. These actions would require the types of behaviours associated with the
Progressiveness component as found in this study.
The full mediation effect between Micro-Environment and CIB also highlights this
same issue, taking on new technologies and different business and industry related
practices would require a managerial leader to position the employees to engage in
establishing these changes. The distain for mandated change from managers, as
illustrated in the cultural imprint studies in Australia and in the TQM efforts,
highlight the need to ensure subordinates are a part of identifying these cues to
change and adapt (Australian Quality Council 1994; Irwin 1996; Turnell &
Washbourne 1991). Originally a partial mediation was proposed, but the results
showing full mediation proves interesting in that the Australian managers in this
study want to ensure subordinates identify the need for change as well. This could
relate to the strong level of importance the Relationship component had in the entire
model.
From the perspectives discussed above, the inclusion of the CIB category has proved
to provide some interesting insights into both managerial leadership and Australian
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specific views on managerial leadership. Studying behaviours that have a clear and
specific result has been identified as lacking in managerial leadership studies and has
been shown to be a mediator in this study (Yukl 2012). The APEL framework itself
has proved to be an effective tool for expansion as the originally included behaviours
represent a broad range of comportments associated with managerial leadership, but
not necessarily specific in nature. In the case of Australian managers, the perspectives
of excellence in managerial leadership do include behaviours associated with
enabling creativity and innovation. When one considers other organisation specific
outcomes impacted by managers, the consideration reached is that the APEL
framework could be an ideal context upon which to further build managerial research
based on organisational objectives, whether they be change-oriented leadership, as
looked at here, or financial management, corporate social responsibility or other
emerging areas and goal oriented initiatives where specific behaviours would be
required to be categorised.
However, the results in this study and across the relationships hypothesised and
discovered indicate that the framework is not fully explaining managerial leadership
in Australia. This is due to limitations in the framework as it currently stands and
there are ways that it can be improved upon if used in the future. This will be
discussed in the limitations and future research sections of this chapter.
8.6 Research question 4 – differences in managerial perspectives of excellence in leadership
The forth research question examined managerial groups to see whether they held
similar or different views on excellence in managerial leadership. The research
question was developed to examine the opposing positions in understanding
Australian culture. Cultural dimensions such as low power distance, high
individualism, high gender egalitarianism suggest that managerial leadership
perspectives would be different across groups, while the EMIC cultural values
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associated with Australian egalitarianism, which has imbedded a consciousness of
“sameness” in how people should be treated and how people are expected to act
would lead to little difference between groups (Ashkanasy 2007; Duarte 2008;
Thompson 1994).
Groups compared
This research study hypothesised that there will be a shared sense of how Australian
excellence in managerial leadership is perceived. To test this four different groups
were examined, two demographic groups and two managerial categories. Gender was
considered as numerous studies have shown women and men lead and act differently
in managerial roles (Bass 2008). The age of a manager has also been shown to result
in different approaches to leadership. In this study the age group being looked at was
under 40 and those 40 and older. This split was based on the premise that a majority
in the under 40 category would be Generation Y and late period Generation X (Salt
2007). This group would have experienced more technological advancements, a more
globally connected economy, work in or with multi-national organisations, and have
a greater sense of cultural differences and minority diversity in the work place. The
second group consisted primarily of baby boomers, older managers from what is
considered the “greatest generation” and early to mid-period members of Generation
X. These managers would have had a more constricted and insular view of the world
based on when they entered the labour force and when they were developing their
managerial skills.
The two management categories compared consisted of those with and without a
university degree and those who were first level managers compared with those in
middle and senior management. Australia has emphasised the need for increasing
managerial education for over 30 years, under the paradigm that this leads to a higher
archetype of a leader (Australia in the Asian Century Task Force 2012; Innovation &
Business Skills Australia 2011b; Karpin 1995a; Ralph 1982). Australia still has a
large number of people in management positions with limited formal education
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(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2007b). These managers have reached their positions
in a variety of ways, for example, rising through the ranks in their organisations based
on experience, being entrepreneurs themselves or having had managerial abilities
recognised by senior managers in the organisation. The second group examined were
those in junior versus more senior roles, which have been studied many times, with
differences found in areas of emphasis, techniques and strategies to accomplish
organisational objectives (Bass 2008). First level managers may face different levels
of work and interaction with subordinates than those in middle and senior
management. Consequently, strategy and goals may prove to be of greater importance
to their roles and responsibilities.
Shared values across groups
Across the four groups being examined three levels of invariance testing were done
between groups: at the measurement model level; at the composite variable level; and
invariance testing for the final model. Across these tests, there were some slight
differences, but in all cases the groups were deemed to be invariant having similar
views on the excellence in managerial leadership components and the relationships in
the final model. From these results, the hypothesis tested was supported in the study,
where Australian managers, regardless of demographic or managerial category
examined had similar views on how excellence in managerial leadership is perceived.
This provides evidence that there is a shared view on how to best lead an organisation
in Australia, one that takes into account the strong cultural imperatives found in the
nation. This is important as it highlights the underlying cultural values, which may be
missed if only looking at broad cultural dimensions. The results provide support for
implicit leadership theory, where managers act in a manner that is endorsed by
subordinates and the cultural values they hold. This indicates that national cultural
imperatives have the ability to counter what may be the more obvious view on how to
manage in Australia, identified often as the same as the United States or the United
Kingdom or other Anglo nations.
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8.7 Contributions to theory
This study attempted to utilise managerial leadership behavioural theory in
conjunction with theories relating to leading for creativity and innovation and the
cultural studies of managerial leadership. This study brings together the above noted
fields through the APEL framework of managerial leadership behaviours (Selvarajah
et al. 1995). The APEL framework provided the primary questionnaire and
behavioural categorisations that served as a foundation for this study.
Leading for Creativity, Innovation and Change
Leading for creativity and innovation has developed into an emerging and growing
field to support managerial leadership theory (Dinh et al. 2014). This study
endeavoured to build a new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours that
enable creativity and innovation, identified as a key component of change leadership
as a metacategory of managerial leadership behaviours (Yukl 2012). From a
managerial behaviour perspective this theory has yet to have a comprehensive
categorisation of relevant behaviours developed that reflect areas of influence from
managers, rather focus has been placed on individualised behaviours that managers
emphasise (de Jong & Den Hartog 2007).
The APEL framework approach that conceptualises the categories of influence on a
manager was applied in this study as an artefact. These categories of influence are:
Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviour, Organisational Demand and
Environmental Influence. In examining the literature on how managerial leaders
enable change across organisations, a new categorisation of behaviours titled enabling
creativity and innovation was established and this was added to the APEL framework
for exploration and validation. This new scale was tested in the context of excellence
in managerial leadership in Australia.
Contribution 1: An increased understanding of creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours as a categorisation to understand and explore managerial behaviours.
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This study provided an opportunity to specifically categorise and examine the
behaviours that have been identified to enable creativity and innovation in
organisations through a theoretically valid approach, using the APEL framework
(Selvarajah et al. 1995). In applying the newly developed scale into the APEL model,
it allowed for quantitative analysis on managerial behaviours that enable creativity
and innovation that has been largely limited to qualitative research. As stressed by de
Jong and Den Hartog (2007), quantitative examination of creativity and innovation
enabling behaviours and their importance has been identified as needing to occur.
The foundation of the theory building in creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours has seen employees and organisations with respect to innovation and
creativity largely examined separately. For example, studies have specifically focused
on organisational directives and practices, like the work of Damanpour (1991) and
Lee, Tan and Chiu (2008). Other research has looked at how managers engage
employees to be creative (Amabile 1997; Jaques 1989; Mullin & Sherman 1993;
Mumford 2000; Oldham & Cummings 1996). Further studies have looked at
managerial actions and directives that create environments for teams and departments
to successfully engage in innovation such as the works of Cardinal (2001), Horwitz
and Horwitz (2007), Keller (2001), Mumin and Mustafa (2008) and Paulus (2008) to
name a few. Lastly other research identified the importance of looking externally for
cues to be creative and innovative (Basadur, Taggar & Pringle 1999; Brand 1998;
Needle 2010; Yukl 2008). Bringing together these different creativity and innovation
enabling components has proven to be a challenge with early models, such as that by
Woodman, Sawyer and Griffin (1993) not being able to fully address the full
spectrum of behavioural influences that cover managerial leadership roles.
The categorisation developed by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) provided a 13
category model of broad classifications of the types of behaviours used by managers
to enable creativity and innovation. It largely focused on the personal level
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behaviours, not directly including behaviours associated with team/department
management or the organisation as means to enable innovation. While effectively
summarising existing research, the de Jong and Den Hartog (2007) model lacks
identification of specific behaviours; has no context under which managers specific
actions may be categorised; and as developed does not allow for quantitative
investigation. However, by utilising this categorisation and other related research not
included in the work of de Jong and Den Hartog (2007), and in applying the APEL
framework a new categorisation of managerial leadership behaviours has been
developed. Based on three of the four primary areas of influence on managerial
behaviour, as explained in the APEL model and in chapters 2 and 4, the three
categories of personal qualities, managerial behaviours and organisational demands
have 12 subcategories summarised in Table 8-7.
Table 8-7: Categories of behaviours enabling creativity and innovation
Personal Qualities Managerial Behaviours Organisational Demands
Role Modelling Team Management Organisational & Executive Support
& Practices
Tolerate Ambiguity & Risk
Resource Allocation Organisation Vision, Goals, Strategy
Relationships Framing of Work Human Resource Practices &
Policies
Communication Leadership Expertise
Rewards and Incentives
This categorisation is comprehensive and provides an effective framework upon
which the quantitative scale could be developed. By examining the extant literature
against the areas of influence of a manager, it allowed for identification of specific
behaviours. The development of the categorisation extends beyond personal and
relationship based behaviours reflecting a more comprehensive classification based
on areas of managerial influence.
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Contribution 2: Development of a Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviour
Scale in the APEL framework.
The newly established CIB scale had 15 behaviours. The new scale proved to have
strong validity and reliability in this study and is summarised in Table 8-8. This scale
has been developed for quantitative study of creativity and innovation enabling
behaviours in the APEL framework. This scale will prove to be a useful addition to
the existing APEL quantitative measures to examine managerial leadership
behaviours that focus on enabling creativity and innovation.
Table 8-8: CIB scale
Creativity and Innovation Enabling Behaviours (CIB) Scale
To be and excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to:
95. Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation
96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation
98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation
99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions
101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization
102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted
103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation
104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work
105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals
106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences
107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another 108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
109. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
EMIC focused Australian leadership profile
The study of managerial leadership from a cultural perspective has identified that
national culture plays a large role in how managerial leadership takes shape (Den
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Hartog et al. 1999; House et al. 2002; Lord & Brown 2001; Lord, Foti & De Vader
1984). From a cultural perspective, researchers are calling for less emphasis on
comparative studies and more emphasis on culture specific, or EMIC, levels of
analysis (Buckley et al. 2014; Dickson et al. 2012; Leong, Leung & Cheung 2010;
Leung 2009; Lu 2012).
The study included EMIC insights and analysis in cultural research, specific to
managerial leadership. The APEL framework and cultural modelling approach was
used to develop a relevant profile of Australian managerial leadership that used
EMIC understandings of Australian culture.
Contribution #3: The establishment of an Australian model of managerial
perceptions of excellence in leadership that explores relationships to creativity and
innovation enabling behaviours.
Over the past 50 years there have been a variety of assessments of Australian culture
and studies focused on Australian managerial leadership. Early cross-cultural studies,
such as Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) cultural dimensions provided broad insights into
understanding the Australian culture. The profile arising from Hofstede’s (1991,
2001) highlighted an individualistic culture with low power distance bearing
similarity with other western nations, in particular the UK and the US. While useful,
the relevance of Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) findings to understanding specifics of
Australian organisations and leadership is limited, with several studies highlighting
managerial leadership approaches and organisational strategies from other Anglo
nations being ineffective in Australia (Australian Quality Council 1994; Frenkel &
Manners 1980; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Milton,
Entrekin & Stening 1984; Parry 1996; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).
Research has identified a variety of perspectives on Australian managerial leadership
including examination of styles, strategies, effectiveness and capabilities (Ashkanasy,
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Trevor-Roberts & Kennedy 2000; Australian Graduate School of Management et al.
1990; Australian Institute of Management 2013; Barraclough & Company 1995;
Densten & Sarros 2012; Frenkel & Manners 1980; Lansbury & Quince 1988; Sarros
et al. 2011; Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002; Sarros et al. 1992; Wood 2011). Studies in
Australian managerial leadership have identified continued study as necessary to
better understand managerial leadership in Australia.
The specific outcome from the GLOBE study’s Australian research further provided
identification of cultural dimensions, the most important leadership attributes as well
as insights into specific cultural values and beliefs that influence leadership
(Ashkanasy 2007). While Ashkanasy (2007) clearly highlights the types of
managerial leadership and some EMIC considerations, such as mateship, that are
valued in Australia, the GLOBE study does not provide insight into how EMIC
concepts take shape in the behaviours of managers. Australian leadership as
summarised in the GLOBE study is an ‘enigma’ that is difficult to understand. The
information uncovered in the GLOBE study and identified in the extant literature on
Australian culture, values, managerial leadership, and organisational practices need to
be brought together in order to better understand how managerial leadership is
shaped.
In the APEL model used in this study, influences on managerial leadership are
identified and an explanation is developed as to how this shapes managerial
leadership preferences are connected to cultural understanding of Australia. The
results of the study extends existing knowledge by providing insight into how specific
behaviours, cultural imperatives and constraints, like Australia’s unique
egalitarianism, maintaining mateship and downplaying tall poppy behavioural values
influences managerial behaviours. The study provides some practical understanding
to the Australian enigma of managerial leadership.
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Results of this study show Australian managers emphasise relationships; maintain
effective teamwork; ensure communication remains open; and support subordinate
contributions to the organisation, when considering excellence in managerial
leadership. To be an excellent leader involves two aspects: ensuring organisational
work and relationships are met and maintained; and visionary leader practices related
to strategy and adaptation. These findings provide a culture based model of
excellence in managerial leadership that can be applied to future research in
explaining and understanding how Australian managers effectively lead change in
organisations through enabling creativity and innovation.
Australian views on creativity and innovation enabling behaviours were also
identified in this study. The category itself was found to be a relatively strong
component of the perceptions of managerial leadership in this study, ranking six out
of the 11 tested components. Behaviours from across the three groups of behaviours
(Personal Qualities, Managerial Behaviours and Organisational Demand) were all
found highly ranked in the measurement model established in the CFA process with
no single focus to enabling creativity and innovation being dominant.
The CIB component was identified to be a moderator in the model in how managers
view excellence in leadership. All, but Teamwork and Decision Making had a
relationship with the CIB component. The strongest relationship was from
Organisational Demand, reflecting the need for Australian organisation to focus on
innovation in order for managers to emphasise enabling behaviours. The second
strongest relationship was from Micro-environment reflecting a need for management
to recognise cues from the industry-related environment to change. The third
strongest relationship was from the Relationship component indicating Australian
managers push for change through their established relationships with subordinates.
These results reflect an individualistic approach to dealing with subordinates in
Australia. These results suggest that Australian managers use a variety of unique
behaviours and tactics in relation to enabling creativity and innovation. The results
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provide support for the CIB category as part of excellence in managerial leadership,
reflecting understanding in Australia, a western-oriented country.
CIB was found to have a strong relationship to both Visionary and Organisational
leader components. This supports findings from earlier studies by Ekvall and
Arvonen (1991) and Yukl, Gordon and Taber (2002) on change leadership where
more than being visionary or transformational is needed; consideration must also be
given to work and people in the organisation. In this study, managers have identified
a stronger relationship to Organisational Leader than Visionary Leader. This suggests
that while managers may identify and support visionary and transformational
leadership, their focus remains on work and people in the organisation.
The understanding gained from this study could serve well in providing a foundation
to look at how Australian managers’ view enabling creativity and innovation in future
studies. Results indicate that it is fundamental that an organisational mandate must be
present; external influences to change from industry identified; and emphasis in
promoting creativity and innovation achieved through strong managerial-subordinate
relationships. Having established these fundamentals, to how enabling creativity and
innovation takes shape, more exploration of how Australian managers effectively
enable creativity and innovation may be able to develop.
Refinement and extension of the APEL framework and taxonomy
The original APEL model was developed with an understanding of managerial
leadership behaviours up to the early 1990s (Selvarajah et al. 1995). At the time of
development of the APEL model, there was significantly less understanding of
specific leadership behaviours. The change-oriented metacategory was relatively new
and starting to emerge in the same period as the APEL model was developed,
illustrating the ongoing development of leadership research (Arvonen & Ekvall 1999;
Ekvall & Arvonen 1991; Yukl 2008, 2012; Yukl, Gordon & Taber 2002). One of the
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key areas identified in these studies on how managers can effectively lead change was
increasing innovation and creativity within organisations through their behaviours.
Contribution #4: An extension of the APEL framework that includes identified
behaviours associated with change leadership, specifically enabling creativity and
innovation behaviours.
In separate fields of organisational and managerial leadership research, the
behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation were identified
(Mumford 2003, 2004). As previously stated the most comprehensive efforts to bring
these categories together were compiled by de Jong and Den Hartog (2007). De Jong
and Den Hartog’s (2007) categorisation, as previously discussed, was incomplete and
not developed to allow for quantitative study. In applying the same framework used
in the APEL model to consider CIB, a new category of behaviours was compiled and
a scale developed that were added to the existing APEL framework.
In developing and studying behavioural inventories, questionnaires and taxonomies,
these have had to be expanded as theory developed and understanding increased
(Bass 2008). Even one of the most applied leadership questionnaires, the Leader
Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), has been revised many times since it
was created (Bass 2008; Goodwin, Wofford & Whittington 2001; Stogdill, Scott &
Jaynes 1956). In a similar vein, the cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1991, 2001)
have been expanded. Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) dimensions have contributed to the
development of the GLOBE study dimensions (Hofstede 2010; House et al. 2004).
Similarly, extending the APEL framework is an important contribution to theory, as it
can reflect additional behaviours that are known to be associated with excellence in
managerial leadership. By connecting the various research streams that were
developing concurrently over the last 20 to 30 years relating to enabling creativity
and innovation and adding this to the APEL model, it has proved to be an effective
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extension. While effective in building cultural models of managerial leadership in
different nations, the APEL model lacked the inclusion of change-oriented leadership
behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation. With this extension, it
is now able to capture the importance of behaviours associated with enabling
creativity and innovation. This extension creates a more robust framework and will
allow for further study that includes this important aspect of managerial leadership in
other nations where the APEL framework may be applied.
Connecting managerial leadership behaviour theories from different contexts
There is a growing recognition that for managerial leadership studies to contribute to
the greater body of knowledge, studies should bring together different theoretical
fields and phenomena (Dinh et al. 2014). Since 2000, studies in leadership relating to
culture have been ongoing and continue to receive attention. Additionally, leading
creativity and innovation has become one of the major theoretical growth areas.
Traditional behavioural theories however, have not received significant attention
despite calls to utilise them more and to connect with emerging fields of study (Dinh
et al. 2014; Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004).
Research on culture and leading creativity and innovation are often based on the
foundations developed in behavioural theory, yet limited exploration of these areas in
the broader behavioural context and at a culture specific level has occurred. In this
study, different managerial leadership theories were brought together in order to
further understand and explain managerial leadership as an important direction to
move managerial leadership research (Dinh et al. 2014).
Contribution 5: This study brings together managerial leadership behavioural
metacategory theory that examines both cultural specific aspects of managerial
leadership and how managers enable creativity and innovation.
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The APEL framework was applied as a managerial leadership artefact in this study. It
was examined firstly from the perspective of its development and how it compares
with other identified taxonomies (Yukl 2012). In doing this, the Asian developed
taxonomy was found to have initially been more complete than the other taxonomy,
but as research developed gaps in the APEL framework emerged. These gaps related
to the behaviours associated with change leadership, where enabling creativity and
innovation is a fundamental part of what is required of managers in order to
effectively lead change efforts. By applying the APEL categorisation of areas of
managerial influence to the various fields of management research that examine how
to enable creativity and innovation in organisations two outcomes occurred
(Selvarajah et al. 1995). Firstly, the APEL framework was extended in order to
explore a category of behaviours associated with change leadership, absent from the
APEL model. Secondly, the gap in understanding how managerial behaviours
influence different organisational constituents was addressed by developing a
creativity and innovation enabling behaviours categorisation.
Research in the fields of creativity and innovation has largely been focused on
western nations, again driven by US based studies and theories (Lubart 2010; Lubart
1990; Puccio & Cabra 2010). There has been a growing amount of research on how
creativity is perceived across cultures (Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010). Studies show
that creativity itself and how it is manifested across cultures is different and should
not be considered as universally the same. Given the recognition that creativity is
different between cultures, than how to enable it in individuals and organisations is
also potentially going to be different (Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010; Lubart 1990;
Puccio & Cabra 2010).
This study recognises that the current research, such as de Jong and Den Hartog
(2007) and Isaksen and Akkermans (2011), on how to enable creativity and
innovation is western focused and considered as universal across societies. To
address this, this study chose to examine the enabling creativity and innovation
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phenomenon to managerial leadership in Australia, an Anglo-nation. The study
results indicate support for APEL and CIB categorisations.
The categorisations, should allow for cultural specificity to be explored. The scale
was developed to allow for cultural modelling with specific behaviours being
included or excluded as identified in literature and cultural understanding. The
cultural modelling approach of the APEL framework has worked well to explore
relationships between cultural specific aspects of managerial leadership and by
utilising the same approach in considering the CIB category to allow for important
cultural values to shape the managerial behaviours.
In the previous paragraphs an overview of how cultural study, leading for creativity
and innovation and managerial behaviour theory worked together in this study. As
indicated by Dinh et al. (2014) understanding of managerial leadership is developed
when different theories are brought together. This study illustrated that
multi-theoretical perspectives can be built into a framework to extend and expand
understanding. This is not to say that it is not without its weaknesses. Results of this
study indicate that there are challenges in combing theoretical approaches to study
leadership phenomena in terms of the results generated. These will be explored in the
limitations and future research sections.
8.8 Managerial implications
From a managerial implications perspective this study provides important insights
into what the managerial leadership behaviours are that enable innovation and
creativity; how these behaviours fit into managerial leadership and useful insights
into Australian culture.
This study examined a variety of research related to how managers as leaders enable
creativity and innovation, across areas of responsibility and organisational
perspectives. From an organisational perspective, it looked at strategies and
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organisational goals, human resource policies and practices and the attitudes of senior
executives. From a managerial perspective it looked at how teams are selected,
managed and resourced. From a personal perspective it looked at how managers
themselves, through their interactions with individuals will lead to increased
innovation and creativity. In developing the research project under the same context
as the APEL framework, the literature was explained in a categorised manner that is
much more applicable to today’s practicing managers and organisations.
By positioning this research through a lens that captures managerial roles,
responsibilities and spheres of influence has meant a larger context of how to behave
could be provided. In order to achieve higher levels of creativity in organisations and
be transformed through innovation it requires a broad range of behaviours that are not
always considered together. Table 8-7 provides a categorisation that is easily
understood by managers and that can be considered in the context of their individual
organisation, managerial responsibilities and interactions with subordinates. Not
unlike trying to bake a cake without all of the ingredients, attempting to understand
how managerial leaders enable creativity and innovation without considering the
myriad responsibilities and perspectives of management, the results can prove to be
less than successful. What has been developed for use in this study will prove a useful
categorisation against which managers can evaluate their own actions.
These behaviours are not acted upon in isolation; an innumerable number of other
behaviours are required of managerial leaders. The behaviours that fall under the CIB
category could be considered specific to a certain outcome, achieving
innovation and creativity leading to change. This alone, while important, does not
present a full understanding of how managerial leadership comes together. It also
requires an understanding of the behaviours that are concomitant and antecedents in
order to position the specific CIB behaviours to achieve results. The importance of
each component and the relationships between the components provide a road map on
how to behave in order to achieve excellence in managerial leadership. As this is an
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Australian sample and the results as developed reflect a perspective on excellence in
leadership from Australian managers, it still proves to be a useful yardstick for a
variety of managers both from Australia and from other nations. The need to develop
strong relationships before pushing for change, as a single example, illustrates how
these antecedents work towards the use of specific behaviours required for achieving
the desired organisational outcome.
For an Australian manager or organisation, the profile developed including the
individual components and final model can serve as a benchmark to compare their
behaviours against. Being innovative is considered one of the key concerns for
organisations and nations to remain competitive in the modern global world (Schwab
et al. 2009). In particular, the goal of increasing innovation is stressed as important by
business organisations, researchers and the federal government (Australian Institute
of Management 2010; Densten & Sarros 2012; Department of Industry Innovation
Science Research and Tertiary Education 2012; Innovation & Business Skills
Australia 2011b; Sarros et al. 2011; Sarros, Gray & Densten 2002). However, in 2011
- 2012 less than 50% of Australian businesses were actively engaged in innovation
efforts of any kind, including incremental efforts (Department of Industry 2013). This
indicates a significant gap exists between necessity, national objectives and the reality
of Australian organisational activities. Increasing innovation efforts in
Australian organisations can be driven by the actions of the organisational leaders.
This will require managers to understand just how their actions may lead to increased
levels of innovation and creativity and in a broader context how they could go about
achieving innovative change. This study provides a framework for managers to
consider their actions and compare how they behave in what has been identified in
this study as leading a change mandate.
Equally important, and arguably more important, is the usefulness of this information
to foreign firms and expatriate managers that may find themselves operating and
managing in Australia. There continues to be a large number of foreign managers
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brought into fill important roles in Australian based organisations, this is a reality of
the Australian labour force and is not expected to stop being the reality in the near
term (Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2013). Similarly the level of
foreign direct investment into Australian organisations continues to increase as the
global economy continues to expand, resulting in an increased level of foreign
managers and owners overseeing Australian operations and organisations (Austrade
2013).
Australia has been found to require a uniquely Australian managerial leadership style.
This study provides further insights into what that involves and the types of
behaviours that are viewed to be most effective and important. Given the evidence
that management styles from the US are not effective, a similar case can be made for
managerial styles from other nations (Ashkanasy 2007; Australian Quality Council
1994; Innovation & Business Skills Australia 2011a; Irwin 1996; Turnell &
Washbourne 1991). By examining the managerial perceptions of Australian
leadership in this study, foreign managers and owners would be aided in better
comprehending Australian managerial leadership and Australian organisations and
thus be better placed to lead effectively.
8.9 Limitations of the research
This research study has limitations that need to be acknowledged. The following
section provides an overview of the limitations with respect to the sample, the
questionnaire, methodology and theory.
Limitations identified in the sample
A single sample was used in this study. While proving to be an effective tool in
generating a cross-sectional profile of Australian managers, a single source is a
limitation in itself. The sample represented managers based on gender, education
level and age from three levels (senior, middle, and front line managers) across
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industry groups and located in various states of Australia. Though invariance testing
was carried out to understand the influence of these demographic variables, a single
model of managerial leadership excellence was generated and became the basis for
the reporting of results. Due to this deliberate broadness, the results highlight what
could be considered a benchmark or average profile of what the perceptions of
excellence in managerial leadership are. Individual managers, managers from a
specific industry, managers of different ethnicity may have a different profile. In the
GLOBE study on Australia, there were differences between the two industry groups
under investigation, indicating there are different views on managerial leadership at
the industry level (Ashkanasy 2007). Given the objectives of this research, this was
an acceptable and expected limitation. However, it does limit the applicability of the
results to a specific sector, industry or an individual manager. The sample was
collected through an online business-to-business panel where respondents opted to
participate. However, given the potential respondents were preselected, regularly
engaged in research and paid a small incentive; the sample selection does have
limitations. Together these limitations may have prompted responses that would
differ from a manager who is not actively engaged in research activities.
The survey itself required a minimum time of at least ten minutes to complete and
often took longer. Given the survey length there is the possibility that respondents
could have experienced survey fatigue. By examining the respondent times, looking
for respondents that flat-lined or developed response patterns, as well as checking the
normality of data for each individual behavioural variable, efforts were made to
eliminate potentially problematic respondents. However, no certainty can be made
that all of such respondents can be removed. Given the size of the sample, and the
tactics it was felt that this limitation was controlled as much as possible.
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Limitations identified in the questionnaire
The statements used in the instrument also present a limitation. All the statements
used in this study are worded positively. Given this, it may be difficult to determine
the true significance of the behavioural statement to the managers. The skewness of
the results towards higher scores could have been a result of the way the questions
were worded. The results indicate that respondents tended to rate items higher rather
than lower. This result suggests that the measurement tools used, both the statements
and the response format, may need refinement to capture a more accurate level of
importance and addresses bias (Podsakoff et al. 2003). As currently developed the
statements positive wording may have resulted in acquiescence and agreement bias as
explained by DeVellis (2012) where wording leads to respondents not giving enough
consideration to the statements importance.
The response format used in the APEL framework is also a limitation. The scale is a
five point Likert scale with poles reflecting levels of importance of each behavioural
statement. While the decision was made to use the pre-existing scale and response
format to maintain consistency in how it was delivered, a greater range of responses
may have better served the behavioural statements (Chang, Van Witteloostuijn &
Eden 2010; Podsakoff et al. 2003). The selection of a greater number of response
options in the scale response format can increase its ability to reflect levels of
importance (Nunnally & Bernstein 1994). The response format with five options may
not have been sufficient to determine the level of importance of the behaviours given
the positive wording and that all have been identified as relevant to managers.
Limitations identified in analysis
The results generated during the analysis indicate that while statistical results and
variance explained are acceptable, there are some issues with its overall
characteristics. Firstly, a few factor loadings were lower than 0.5 (Hair et al. 2006).
These loadings are similar to those used in other cultural leadership studies such as
GLOBE and again are still considered acceptable given the sample size (Dyer,
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Hanges & Hall 2005; Hair et al. 2006). Skewness results indicated some slight
departures from normality. Negatively skewed component scores are not unexpected
given the positively worded statements. In terms of skewness, associated means and
standard deviations; Organisational Leader, Relationship and Teamwork components
deviated from normality, see Table 7-8. The same components display correlations
above 0.7, which may raise concerns about multicollinearity. As noted, given the
sample size and the statistical guidelines that should be followed the results were
acceptable, but these results do need to be acknowledged as a limitation of the model
(Hair et al. 2006).
Utilising research instruments across cultures does often lead to less effectual
categorisation of behaviours (Harkness et al. 2003). Criticism has been directed to
how behavioural statements are interpreted when applied in different cultures (Fang
2003; Graen 2006; Hofstede 2010; Javidan et al. 2006; Jones 2007; McSweeney
2002; Scandura & Dorfman 2004; Tung & Verbeke 2010; Venaik & Brewer 2013).
This could be the case with the APEL categorisation reflecting an Asian perspective
that may not be applicable in Australia. Given the identified presence of a paradox in
Asian views on managerial leadership this could be a reason as to why there may be
issues of cross-loading and lower factor loadings (Fang 2003, 2012; King & Wei
2014; Leung 2009; Taormina & Selvarajah 2005).
The behavioural statements may not fully reflect clear separation in terms of the
managerial behaviour category in which they were placed. This validity limitation
needs to be acknowledged. Validity has been identified as an issue with behavioural
taxonomies going back to the two metacategory split between task and relationships
leading to interpretive issues (Judge, Piccolo & Ilies 2004). Similarly Yukl, Gordon
and Taber (2002) highlight behaviours are not singular in their impact and
interpretation issues are an ongoing issue with behavioural theories and studies.
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An additional limitation regarding the use of behaviours available in the APEL
framework relates to how effective they are in fully representing the component
identified indicating refinement may be necessary. As identified in chapter 2, there
were some differences in how Yukl’s (2012) hierarchical taxonomy of leadership
behaviours categorised behaviours when compared with APEL. In developing the
components that make up Yukl’s (2012) model, nine different managerial leadership
measurement tools were used, with behaviours of relevance being identified across
the different tools. The APEL taxonomy on the other hand has only had comparison
against the Leadership Behaviour Development Questionnaire and the comparison
did not lead to any amendments to the behaviours included (Selvarajah et al. 1995;
Taormina & Selvarajah 2005). The statement pool in the APEL framework to draw
behaviours and categorise from may not be fully reflective of the four metacategories
of managerial leadership behaviours leading to weaker than desired components. The
cross-loading items found during analysis illustrate this.
Limitations due to the methodology and theory
A limitation of the study relates to the identified enigma of Australian leadership,
where it is hard to fully understand or explain with established understanding of
managerial leadership (Ashkanasy 2007). Australian culture plays a significant role in
how managers need to act to be effective in their organisations. This has been
identified in numerous studies, where styles of leadership from other nations may not
work and may lead to disconnection from employees (Australian Quality Council
1994; Irwin 1996; Parry 1999; Turnell & Washbourne 1991).
This study utilised a cultural modelling approach where the behaviours were grouped
together in developing the hypothesised components. The modelling approach,
capturing EMIC level insights against the extant literature, did not fully explain
Australian managerial leadership. Using cultural modelling alone does not allow for
behaviours specific to Australian managers to be included. In Australian
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organisations there needs to be greater understanding with respect to managerial
choices in behaviours.
As a quantitative study alone, it did not allow for any specific input from Australian
managers as to what behaviours may be viewed as important to managerial
leadership. The APEL framework is comprehensive, however as this research has
shown no managerial leadership behaviour model is complete. This is a limitation
related to studying managerial leadership behaviours where there are many more
considerations that could be included (Yukl 2012). Had qualitative research been
completed in the initial stages where specific behaviours could be identified and
added to the model and the measures themselves discussed in an Australian context, it
could have provided a more complete result and led to greater insights into the
Australian managerial perspective on excellence. Unfortunately, neither cost not time
permitted this extension to the study. The inclusion of additional measures, such as
qualitative addition to these findings is recommended as future research.
The identification of the need to extend the APEL framework to include behaviours
associated with enabling creativity and innovation reflects a reality in all managerial
leadership research. Understanding leadership is constantly evolving and leadership
knowledge expanding (Yukl 2012). The extension into creativity and innovation
enabling behaviours is based on theoretical developments since the APEL model was
created. There are other managerial objectives that have emerged that were also not
considered. Corporate social responsibility could be an area where specific
behaviours are required that necessitates specific study (Yukl 2010). Similarly, since
the global financial crisis, more firms are concerned about financial accountability
and control that may require specific behaviours worthy of examination (Davila,
Foster & Oyon 2009). These areas are outside the scope of the APEL framework and
may be worthy of consideration given the importance of managerial influence.
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Lastly, the behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation categories
to develop the scale have been developed from literature that could still be viewed as
limited. Clearly from the number of potential behaviours identified, included in
Appendix 1, and the final 15 that were selected for inclusion, all potential enabling
behaviours may not be represented. Further, the understanding of enabling creativity
and innovation used in this study is largely developed in western nations. It has been
identified in research that how creativity is viewed differs between culture and it may
also be different in how it may be enabled in different cultural contexts (Kim et al.
2012; Lubart 2010; Puccio & Cabra 2010). Therefore, the measures and associated
categorisation developed may be limited in how CIB should be framed.
Having presented many of the significant limitations of this research study, the next
consideration is how to address these limits and how to move forward with theory
development.
8.10 Future research
Based on this study there are several suggestions for further research. These future
opportunities for research relate to the study of enabling creativity and innovation,
understanding Australian managerial leadership, further use of the APEL model and
combining theory.
Enabling Creativity and Innovation
The categorisation and scale associated with CIB developed in this study was
undertaken in accordance with scale development procedures (DeVellis 2012). More
however, will need to be done in order for it to be considered a fully validated scale
for cultural study. The scale developed has only been tested in a single nation and on
two samples from the same source. In order to ensure its effectiveness for
cross-cultural research it needs to be further tested with another sample and in an
additional country. This should lead to greater certainty as to its validity and
reliability as a measure of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.
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The scale itself has some deficiencies with respect to the number of items. The scale
took a limited number of statements from across the range of behavioural categories
identified, see Appendix 1, and other behavioural statements could have been
considered for inclusion or been framed differently. By rewording or reframing some
statements against management constraints such as financial, work deadlines and
employee management they may better represent the importance that they are meant
to have (DeVellis 2012). Future research that considers using the scale developed
would benefit from considering adjustment to the statements and the wording, if used
outside of the APEL framework.
The categorisation and the scale as developed were treated as universal. This was
done due to current western driven understanding. However, it has been identified
that creativity is viewed and interpreted differently across cultures; if creativity is
interpreted differently, then enabling creativity and innovation is likely to be different
as well (Hoegl, Muethel & Parboteeah 2012; Kim et al. 2012; Lubart 2010; Puccio &
Cabra 2010). Given the growing recognition that enabling creativity and innovation
may be different, additional research is recommended to determine and understand
how it could be different across cultures. This requires EMIC insights.
Based on results of other studies that have developed cultural managerial leadership
profiles using the APEL framework, it is not wrong to believe that enabling creativity
and innovation will require different approaches in different cultures. Exploring the
specific ways that different cultures engage in enabling creativity and innovation is a
logical next step. This could be done from both a quantitative and qualitative
approach. Quantitative examination may be best suited to compare views on CIB as a
universal concept. Further use of the categorisation and scale in this study may be
useful for that. While developed to allow for cultural modelling, the scale could be
looked at as a universal and results compared across cultures.
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Qualitative study will allow for a deeper and richer understanding of enabling
creativity and innovation at a culture specific level. Parry et al. (2014), in a recent
article in The Leadership Quarterly, highlights the contributions that can be gained
by including qualitative study to understand leadership phenomena. Qualitative
approaches and mixed methodologies would prove beneficial to understanding what
is important, what is not and why with respect to how managerial leaders enable
creativity and innovation. Additionally, different managerial strategies could be
explored specific to achieving creativity and innovation to change and adaptation in
an organisation. Emphasis, with respect to a specific culture, needs to be placed on
qualitative study to establish an EMIC cultural foundation against what is currently
known about enabling creativity and innovation.
Australian managerial leadership
The perspective of excellence in managerial leadership developed here provides a
framework in which to consider Australian managerial leadership. This research has
indicated how the various components of managerial leadership lead to views on
excellence and how these components relate to enabling creativity and innovation.
Results of this study, supported by other researchers such as Ashkanasy (2007),
indicate that understanding Australian managerial leadership is a challenge. The
categorisation and identification of managerial leadership components used in this
study relied on the extant literature to determine against the behaviours in the APEL
framework. This approach did work effectively as the profile generated fit well with
understanding of Australian cultural values impacting on management. The profile
could serve future research as a dimension of cultural perspective on managerial
leadership in Australia. However more insight is needed for greater understanding of
how and which behaviours Australian managers emphasise.
In order to have deeper insight in future cultural studies specific to Australian
management, exploration of values through qualitative study would be of great
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 389
benefit. The richness and specific detail of qualitative investigation can inform
researchers in advance of quantitative study and also follow completion of surveys to
explain results (Parry et al. 2014). As identified by Niblo and Jackson (2004) in
psychology research, the addition of traditional ETIC to EMIC approach to studying
a phenomenon may be beneficial. This approach involves qualitative study occurring
after extensive literature review and initial work is completed on developing
measures for exploration. This approach, while more intensive, could lead to greater
understanding of managerial leadership in Australia under a cultural modelling
approach.
Having examined and confirmed the importance of the CIB category to Australian
managerial leadership, more needs to be understood on how creativity and innovation
is enabled in the country. In particular, around the cultural values that impact on
innovation and creativity, including mateship, tall poppy “She’ll Be Right” attitudes
and tendencies for employees to disconnect from change and innovation efforts.
Future research needs to explore effective managerial efforts to promote innovation in
Australian organisations. Through the examination of successful managerial efforts to
achieve innovation and creativity, a culturally relevant framework to lead change can
be developed. From this study, it is clear that emphasis on relationships is important,
as well as coping with cultural roadblocks which may inhibit successful innovation.
Given the calls for innovation in Australia there needs to be a greater understanding
of Australian specific managerial leadership strategies, tactics and solutions. Once
understood they can be used by other Australian based organisations to achieve
innovation and change. Similarly, examining where innovation efforts have fallen
short could also serve well to understand how cultural constraints in Australia result
in managerial challenges.
In identifying the cultural values in Australia there are several EMIC values that
proved to be the most dominant and are worthy of further study. In particular,
mateship and relationships seem to shape and influence how managers need to deal
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 390
with individuals and also with teams and departments (Ashkanasy 2007). The cultural
imprint studies identify a preference for a “captain-coach” style of manager and
preference for a good-boss over a leader (Irwin, 1996). Taken together more
exploration needs to occur around these preferences and cultural influences on how
managers can lead effectively in Australia. As noted by Yukl, Gordon and Taber
(2002) behavioural approaches using quantitative studies have limited applicability
due to interpretation of behaviours. Cultural specific information incorporated
through qualitative study may provide the necessary insights.
Future use of the APEL model
In this study the APEL framework was used as an artefact to examine and categorise
behaviours associated with enabling creativity and innovation. Results indicate that
the categorisation and scale that was developed is effective at providing insights into
how to categorise behaviours associated with change leadership, specific to enabling
creativity and innovation. As identified by Yukl (2012), understanding the
importance of behaviours with a specific outcome needs to be incorporated into the
field of managerial leadership research. The successful extension of the APEL model,
by including a change leadership dimension, in this study shows that the APEL
framework is sufficiently robust to be used as an artefact to understand the influence
of creativity and innovation enabling behaviours and may also work well in
examining other specific managerial leadership behaviours.
In cultural study there are concerns about biases found in questionnaires and with
behavioural statements (Harkness et al. 2003). In this study, while convergent and
discriminant validity were confirmed, there were limitations identified relating to the
correlations of the constructs and factor loadings. Interpretation issues are a reality
when using a construct developed in one culture for another culture, referred to as
construct equivalence (Harkness et al. 2003). Construct equivalence or functional
equivalence refers to a construct being the same across cultures. Concerns also relate
to common method biases found in behavioural research and wording of behavioural
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 391
statements (Podsakoff et al. 2003). Future research may be able to address some of
these concerns with respect to the results of this study and the APEL questionnaire.
Revisiting and revising instruments for the purposes of improvement has been a
necessary and important part of the research process, in particular in managerial
leadership research (Bass 2008).
In order to deal with concerns about common method bias and statement wording,
use of negatively worded statements that can be recoded is a potential solution
(Podsakoff et al. 2003). Negatively worded items however, raise their own method
bias concerns (DeVellis 2012; Podsakoff et al. 2003). To deal with the interpretation
issues arising from construct equivalence and the behavioural measures in the APEL
framework, future research may examine the APEL managerial leadership behaviours
alongside other behavioural measures of managerial leadership. These may include
the MBS and the MLQ, to name two leading measures (Bass & Avolio 2004; Yukl &
Lepsinger 1990). The examination of the behaviour statements against other
managerial leadership measurement tools in a separate study could serve as a
criterion check to deal with biases that may be present, addressing construct
equivalence concerns (Harkness et al. 2003)
The five point Likert scale was pointed out as a potential issue leading to problems
with skewness in this study. It is suggested in cultural study that the instrument be
utilised and delivered in a consistent manner across studies that use it (Harkness et al.
2003). Utilising the same response format for a measurement tool raises concerns of
another type of bias, referred to as response function equality (Harkness et al. 2003).
Response function equality relates to the manner in which respondents in different
nations respond to a given response format, where differences may exist. Given the
positive wording of the statements a greater range of response options may serve the
instrument well. While the inclusion of a greater number of response options has been
identified as having diminishing returns, it could lead to the managers having greater
ability to express their opinion on the statements (DeVellis 2012; Nunnally &
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 392
Bernstein 1994). Again, comparison against other managerial leadership tools
developed outside of Asia could prove beneficial before making a decision on
changing the response format to address response function equality bias (Harkness et
al. 2003).
Integrative behavioural theory approaches
This study brought together managerial leadership behaviour theory using a broad
managerial leadership framework to look at enabling creativity and innovation to
categorise behaviours and included culture specific insights into managerial
behaviours. Bringing these different fields together has proved to be beneficial and
led to a profile of managerial leadership that is culturally relevant and is able to
explain influences on creativity and innovation enabling behaviours.
From the results in this study, it is clear that future studies that look at managerial
leadership need to consider culture when interpreting how management takes shape
and is enacted. This can be through ETIC insights such as the GLOBE CLTs and
cultural dimensions, but greater insights are gained from including EMIC insights
(Dorfman et al. 2012; House et al. 2006). EMIC insights are necessary when studying
managerial leadership in a particular nation. Managerial leadership studies should
explore a society’s culture in advance of examining specific aspects of leadership for
greater relevancy and to drive culture specific understanding. This includes the
further study of how managerial leadership enables creativity and innovation.
8.11 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a reflection upon the results of the exploratory study of
excellence in managerial leadership as perceived by Australian managers. The profile
created of Australian managers was discussed and the relationships that exist between
the components explained. The Australian managerial profile and relationships
Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusion
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 393
discussed is a unique cultural model that provides insight into Australian culture and
helps explain the challenges of leading organisations in an interesting and important
nation. The results also indicate that extension of the APEL model to include and
examine the CIB category in the same context has proved to be effective and adds
support to understanding how creativity and innovation are operationalised through
the behaviours of Australian managers.
The study has made several contributions to theory and the results have been
identified as being practical for managers to examine, both in Australia and for
foreign business leaders that may be doing business with Australian organisations or
that become part of an Australian organisation. The limitations of the study were
presented and means of addressing the limitations and opportunities for future
research.
The research has shown that a unique Australian managerial profile exists with
respect to excellence in managerial leadership. Enabling creativity and innovation is
something that Australian managers view as important and essential to both being a
visionary leader and being an effective organisational leader. Almost all components
relating to excellence in managerial leadership in Australia have a relationship
directly to enabling creativity and innovation. The difficulty of managing
organisations in Australia and how to deal with complexities have been identified.
Strong relationships need to be established and management of those relationships
against organisational objectives, attitudes of organisational peers and finding ways
to effectively communicate the vision through actions are required to lead effectively.
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Appendix 1
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 437
Appendix 1: Creativity and innovation enabling behaviours
Personal Qualities
Role Modelling for Creativity
1. Engage in creative endeavours yourself
2. Adjust behaviour in unexpected ways around being creative
3. Be seen as involved in creative endeavours
4. Share with team members that they are serving as role models for their peers
5. Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
6. Regularly participate in your own training programs and share with the staff
Tolerate Ambiguity & Risk
7. Be a risk taker
8. Comfortable with subordinates working without your guidance or direction
9. Encourage others to take risks
10. Encourage divergent thinking
11. Let subordinates establish their own preferred work routine and practices
Relationships
12. Establish relationships with subordinates
13. Provide supportive supervision to subordinates
14. Encourage employees to find problems or identify unrecognised problems
15. Understand and appeal to the feelings of employees when attempting to drive innovation
16. Identify sources of frustration felt by subordinates
17. Treat employees, their ideas and suggestions with the most respect possible
18. Show clear support for ideas generated by subordinates
19. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another
Communication
20. Create forums and opportunities to discuss organisational initiatives
21. Give feedback in an informal manner
22. Ensure feedback occurs in a time sensitive manner
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A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 438
23. Provide abundant information to subordinates
24. Continually look for ways to improve your communication skills
25. Promote and engage in an open door communication policy between yourself,
subordinates and other members of management
26. Subordinates know they are safe in communicating criticisms
27. Evaluate projects based on technical expertise and organisation mission
28. Challenge subordinates to reflect organisational mission in their creative efforts
29. Develop a strong sense of connection within subordinates between creative endeavours
and organisation mission
30. Encourage subordinates to lead critical dialogue on their own ideas.
31. Challenge subordinates to deeper levels of inquiry
32. Evaluate based on gains against expectations
33. Provide ongoing progress monitoring
34. Regularly reflect on and adjust levels of motivation and encouragement to staff
35. Engage employees to provide input into organisational processes and goals
36. Provide formal feedback on projects that is both critical and relevant
37. Ensure subordinates discussion projects across the organisation
38. Let other subordinates share in the acknowledgement of individuals with encouraged
behaviour
39. Engage subordinates in discussions around ideas, organisational problems and
opportunities
40. Include ideas, analysis and solutions of subordinates in communication in the
organisation.
41. Provide enthusiastic support for work related efforts regularly
42. Control the flow of information to reach all members of the organisation; (reversed)
Allow primary information flow to occur through the management teams
43. Establish communication involving sharing of ideas
44. Engage in communication efforts across informal channels to promote innovation
45. Engage in communication efforts across formal channels to promote innovation
46. Create a sense of urgency and adaptability when communicating the need for creativity
47. Engage in organisational networking and public relations activities to secure support for
initiatives under your leadership 0
48. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
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A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 439
Reward and Incentives
49. Share reward making decisions with actively involved co-workers
50. Develop reward structures with subordinates in mind to reflect employee preferences
51. Understand individual employee motivation
52. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences
Managerial Behaviours
Team Related
53. Assign diverse and challenging work projects to subordinates
54. Ensure team membership is diverse in terms of experience and background
55. Facilitate knowledge management processes to ensure information is regularly shared
between subordinates
56. Share decision making with subordinates to ensure they are a part of organisational
processes and not outside of them
57. Encourage employees to establish their own systems and processes
58. Create opportunities for flexible decision making in the organisation
59. Assign project leadership that is collaborative and not controlling
60. Establish teams with people who have never worked together
61. Direct subordinates to share their knowledge when asked to do so by their peers
62. Review work assignments and adjust pressures, work load to meet with output
expectations
63. Embrace uncertainty in efforts related to improving the organisation
64. Connect creative endeavours across the organisation.
65. Build synergies across the organisation and projects
66. Establish practices to expose staff to new subordinates and peers.
67. Encourage productive conflict on projects
68. Encourage social cohesion on teams
69. Frame decisions based on non financial rationale
70. Encourage employees to engage in free thought
71. Share stories of creative effort
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72. Include innovation efforts in organisational strategy
73. Spread team membership across all departments in the organisation
74. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation
Resource Allocation
75. Ensure that subordinates have access to internet and other external knowledge tools to
develop work
76. Budget for the purchase of new technologies on an ongoing basis
77. Ask subordinates to investigate and provide recommendations on new technologies that
could be used by the organisation.
78. Provide slack resources across the organisation in terms of funds, administrative support,
meeting space and opportunities for engagement
79. Encourage subordinates to provide rationale for resource requests
80. Connect motivational requirements of employees to resources provided
81. Provide all necessary administrative support to creative teams
82. Provide dedicated time for the purpose of exploration
83. Monitor and adjust subordinates’ time allocations to reflect individual and project needs
84. Ensure project deadlines are justified
85. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals
Framing of Work
86. Transfer ownership of work to subordinates including identifying solutions.
87. Provide freedom in all aspects of creative endeavour from idea development to solution
proposal
88. Encouraging subordinates to look for information internally and externally when solving
problems
89. Push employees to consider alternative sources or perspectives
90. Encourage employees to apply new information when found
91. Ensure solutions developed by subordinates are incorporating new information
92. Engage employees to look at work form multiple perspectives
93. Engage subordinates in knowledge management practices and behaviours
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A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 441
94. Direct teams to expand the use of and consider numerous approaches and sources of
information
95. Have subordinates focus on originality
96. Change meeting structure to increase creative output
97. Guide subordinates through encouraged actions and calls for greater consideration, not
specific direction.
98. Ensure solutions use a process that includes both internal and external stakeholders
99. Clearly state new and innovative solutions are always wanted
100. Phrase feedback in the context of organisational and project goals
101. Push for diverse consideration of problems and solutions
102. Expand participation to junior subordinates in problem solving endeavours
103. Establish team guidelines to be both supportive and challenging
104. Establish working teams with strong terms of reference and procedural justice
105. Emphasise a sense of unity in subordinates involved in team work
106. Encourage constructive criticism
107. Discourage ridicule of employee efforts by peers
108. Discourage the taking of negative feedback from peers personally.
109. Replace personal commitment to an individual idea or solution with team agreement
110. Extend discussions to allow for creative ideas to emerge
111. Use disagreements to develop ideas further
112. Discourage peer feedback that could be taken personally.
113. Challenge your employees to be creative
114. Provide work and projects that will push the knowledge and skills of subordinates
115. Instruct employees that every opportunity for improvement should be investigated
116. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions
117. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted
Leadership Expertise
118. Become an expert in the organisation’s industry
119. Become an expert in the relevant fields related to your firm’s operation
120. Bring your own creativity into the job
121. Develop new ideas for projects
122. Engage in analytical thinking
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A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 442
123. Actively identify problems
124. Monitor employee efforts towards creative endeavour
125. Serve as a champion of new developments by subordinates
126. Actively assist in the development of ideas and creative endeavours
127. Actively assist in the promotion of ideas
128. Actively support in the implementation of ideas.
129. Evaluate opportunities to engage in creative solutions.
130. Remove yourself from efforts where you lack sufficient skills to fully participate and
analyse the work being done.
Organisational Demand
Human Resource Practices
131. Developing a mandate to introduce more diverse skill sets in new hires
132. Ensure selection criteria takes into account people from diverse educational, cultural
and industrial background and experience
133. Ensure expertise exists across departments not to limited departments
134. Identify diverse roles and responsibilities for professionals in your organisation based
on their education and experience
135. Develop an understanding of the skill sets and backgrounds of all of your
subordinates
136. Incorporate recognition based on creative output.
137. Establishment of training programs for creativity and innovation
138. Develop rewards for employees in various ways, other than promotion and money
139. Contribute to the diversification of employees’ education and professional
development.
140. Expand knowledge of subordinates outside of principle organisational focus
141. Encourage employee involvement in training and post-secondary education
142. Participate in and ensure subordinates participate in creativity training and
professional development.
143. Bring diverse skills, education and different industry experience into the organisation
Appendix 1
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 443
Organisational and Executive Level Support and Practices:
144. Formally criticise resistance to change across the organisation
145. Promote creative endeavours across the organisation
146. Challenge all organisational stakeholders to embrace change
147. Establish and justify deadlines to employees
148. Champion the work of your subordinates across the organisation
149. Use internal networks to drive project efforts
150. Ensure management, teams and individuals in the organisation are on a shared
trajectory, with no one operating ahead of it.
151. Communicate innovation efforts in terms of organisational goals, mission and
mandates
152. Participate regularly with all departments across the organisation
153. Apply and learn new knowledge relevant to the organisation
154. Advocate the importance and connection of work being done internally in the
organisation.
155. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation
156. Management embrace change and innovation
Organisation Vision, Goals and Structure
157. Establish mandates to be innovative in the organisation
158. Apply a strategy for creative and innovation efforts
159. Include being creative as a goal for subordinates
160. Create goals that are clear and engaging
161. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
Environmental Influence
162. Encourage subordinates involvement in external organisations reflective of
professional and personal interests.
163. Identify environmental signals to update processes, technology and business
practices
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A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 444
164. Look externally to identify ways to improve the organisation or develop
opportunities
165. Return knowledge to the organisation learned through liaising directly with
numerous external stakeholders
166. Have a general understanding of your subordinate’s personal life
Appendix 2
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 445
Appendix 2: Swinburne Ethics Approval
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 446
Appendix 3: Survey Instrument
AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
University of Swinburne Research Information Statement and Informed Consent Form
Introduction
This is a study about excellence in leadership in Australia. As managers you represent
Australian business leaders.
The statements in the attached questionnaire were derived from management literature
concerning the behaviours of excellent leaders. All of the identified leadership behaviours
are known to be important to leadership. We are not asking you to identify the behaviours
as important or not. Rather their level of importance to you.
The purpose of the questionnaire is to obtain your opinion about what you think constitutes
excellence in leadership. Your opinion may or may not agree with the management
literature.
We estimate that you will need about 20 to 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire.
The outcome of the study will be published in a PhD dissertation and journal articles. Thank
you very much for your assistance.
Confidentiality
Your responses will remain completely confidential and anonymous. The information you
provide will never be attributed to you or to your organisation.
Completing the questionnaire will be taken as your informed consent to participate in this
study. This means you understand that your privacy, anonymity and confidentiality is
assured because at no time will names of individuals or organisations be used in reporting
on this research. Informed consent also means that you understand that your participation
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 447
is voluntary and that you understand the purpose of the study.
Contact
If you have any questions, or would like a copy of the findings, please contact:
Please find more information on the researcher and the research project here.
This project has been approved by or on behalf of Swinburne's Human Research Ethics
Committee (SUHREC) in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Inv
Humans.
If you have any concerns or complaints about the conduct of this project, you can contact:
Research Ethics Officer, Office of Swinburne Research (H68), Swinburne University of Technology,
P O Box 218, HAWTHORN VIC 3122. Australia
Tel (03) 9214 8468 or +(03) 9214 5218 or [email protected]
Senior Researcher
Professor Christopher Selvarajah
Faculty of Business and Enterprise
Swinburne University
PO Box 218
OR
Student Researcher:
Mr Richard Laferriere, PhD Candidate
Faculty of Business and Enterprise
Swinburne University
PO Box 218
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 448
Part 1: Biographical information
Below we ask a number of questions about you and your
organisation. Please read each question and tick the number
beside the response which, for you, is correct. If there is a line
beside the question, we want you to write in the answer or the
information requested.
Country or
Region of
Birth:
Australia
China
Germany
Greece
India
Italy
Lebanon
Malaysia
Netherlands
New Zealand
Philippines
South Africa
United Kingdom
Viet Nam
Eastern Europe
Middle East
North America
South & Central America
Other African
Other East Asia
Other South Asia
Other South-east Asia
Other Western European
Other
State/Territory ACT
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Queensland
South Australia
Tasmania
Victoria
Western Australia
Other
Country
If you selected a region in the question above,
please enter the name of the country of birth
(Optional)
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 449
Industry Private sector Government NGO
Industry Sector Agriculture, forestry, fishing and
hunting
Mining
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas and water supply
Construction
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Accommodation, cafes and
restaurants
Transport and storage
Communication services
Finance and insurance
Property and business services
Government administration and
defence
Education Health and
community services
Cultural and recreational services
Personal and other services
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 450
Managerial Profile
Gender Male Female
Your age:
Under 25 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 45 45 - 49 50 - 55 55 or older
Education (Highest
Achieved
Some High
School
High School
Diploma TAFE Program
Bachelor
Degree
Graduate
Program/DegreeDoctorate
Years of Australian
Work Experience
Approximately 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 or more
Years of Australian
Management
Experience
Under 5 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 or more
Position First Level/Line Management Middle Management Senior Management
Size of
Organisation
(Employees)
Under 5 5-19 20-49 50-99 100-499 500-999 1000 or more
Size of Department
(Employees)
Under 5 5 - 9 10-19 20 - 49 50 - 99 Over 100
Managerial Profile
Gender Male Female
Your age: Under 25 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 45 45 - 49 50 - 55 55 or older
Education (Highest Achieved
Some High School
High School Diploma
TAFE Program Bachelor Degree
Graduate Program/Degree
Doctorate
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 451
Years of Australian Work Experience
Approximately 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 or more
Years of Australian Management Experience
Under 5 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 or more
Position
First Level/Line Management Middle Management Senior Management
Size of Organisation (Employees)
Under 5 5-19 20-49 50-99 100-499 500-999 1000 or more
Size of Department (Employees)
Under 5 5 - 9 10-19 20 - 49 50 - 99 Over 100
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 452
Part 2: Excellence in leadership items
We are now going to show you 109 statements related to excellence in leadership.
All of the identified leadership behaviours are known to be important to leadership. The nature of
leadership makes it impossible to view all identified behaviours as being "most" important. We are
not asking you to identify the behaviours as important or not. Rather there level of importance.
We would like you to read each statement carefully and indicate how important you think each
statement is in relation to an ideal leader in your organisation.
A 5 on the scale indicates high importance and a 1 indicated of little importance. If you are not sure of
the level of importance please tick 3
The questions relating to excellence in leadership will now begin, please respond accordingly.
(Please tick the appropriate circle under the number):
Importance
Please start Low High
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
1. Accept responsibility for mistakes
2 Accept that others will make mistakes
3. Adaptability
4. Allow subordinates authority and autonomy
5. Be an initiator – not a follower
6. Be consistent in dealing with people
7. Be consistent in making decisions
8. Be dependent and trustworthy
9. Be formal when dealing with employees at work
10. Be honest
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 453
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
11. Be informal when with employees outside work
12. Be logical in solving problems
13. Be objective when dealing with work conflicts
14. Be practical
15. Be responsive to political realities in the environment
16. Be socially and environmentally responsible
17. Be strict in judging the competence of employees
18. Behave in accordance with his or her religious beliefs
19. Consider suggestions made by employees
20. Create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
21. Deal calmly in tense situations
22. Delegate
23. Focus on maximising productivity
25. Follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters
26. Follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organization
27. Foster an international perspective in the organisation
28. Give priority to long-term goals
29. Give recognition for good work
30. Have a multicultural orientation and approach
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 454
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
31. Have a sense of humour
32. Have a strategic vision for the organization
33. Identify social trends which may have an impact on work
34. Keep up-to-date on management literature
35. Listen to and understand the problems of others
36. Listen to the advice of others
37. Listen when employees want to say something
38. Look for and use the positive aspects of other cultures
39. Make decisions earlier rather than later
40. Make decisions without depending too much on others
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
41. Make work decisions quickly
42. Motivate employees
43. Persuade others to do things
44. Respect the self-esteem of others
45. Return favours
46. Select work wisely to avoid overload
47. Sell the professional image or corporate image to the public
48. Share power
49. Speak clearly and concisely
50. Support decisions made jointly by others
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 455
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
51. Tell subordinates what to do and how to do it
52. Think about the specific details of any particular problem
53. Treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest
54. Trust those to whom work is delegated
55. Try different approaches to management
56. Use initiative and take risks
57. Work long hours
58. Write clearly and concisely
59. Ignore personal morality in the interest of the organisation
60. Manipulate people to achieve work goals
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
61. Be involved in organisational politics
62. Use rank and power to get things done
63. Think frequently about the practice of management
64. Have formal management training
65. Choose management ethics before self or the organization
66. Use economic indicators for planning purposes
67. Negotiate with various professionals and interest groups
68. Make allowance for emotional pressure on staff at work
69. Be prepared to compromise on important work issues
70. Study laws and regulations which may have an impact on work
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 456
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
71. Allow other people time to do things
72. Give priority to short-term goals
73. Be competitive
74. Be sensitive to people of different background
75. Promote staff welfare and development
76. Be skilled in work related technology
77. Constantly evaluate emerging technologies
78. Check constantly for problems and opportunities
79. Understand and analyse complex problems
80. Think about the general implications of any problem
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to
1 2 3 4 5
81. Think about what may happen in the future
82. Develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry
83. Adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice
84. Keep to work deadlines
85. Be skilled in public relations
86. Cope with pressures of work
87. Turn up for a 3 p.m. meeting at 3 p.m.
88. Be knowledgeable about work of the industry
89. Continue to learn how to improve performance
90. Respond to expectations of consumers
Appendix 3
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 457
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to 1 2 3 4 5
91. Organise work time effectively
92. Deal with work problems openly and honestly
93. Have confidence in dealing with work and with people
94. Act as a member of a team
95.Bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation
96. Establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
97. Encourage management to embrace change and innovation
98. Ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the
organisation
99. Recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
100. Encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and
solutions
To be an excellent leader in your organisation, how important is it to 1 2 3 4 5
101. Spread team membership across all departments in the organization
102. Establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and
accepted
103. Apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and
innovation
104. Instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work
105. Ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve
goals
106. Develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and
preferences
107. Establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge
one another
108. Ensure you and subordinates participate in professional
development related to innovation
109.Regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 458
Appendix 4 – Descriptive & Normality Data for Indicator Variables
Descriptives for Indicator Variables
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
1. accept responsibility for my mistakes
4.57 .024 .580 .337 -1.000 .101 .005 .201
2 accept that others will make mistakes
4.35 .027 .668 .446 -.719 .101 .160 .201
3. be adaptable 4.51 .025 .599 .359 -.793 .101 -.351 .201
4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy
3.97 .030 .732 .536 -.297 .101 -.248 .201
5. be an initiator not a follower
4.19 .030 .737 .543 -.594 .101 -.058 .201
6. be consistent in dealing with people
4.53 .025 .604 .365 -.885 .101 -.216 .201
7. be consistent in making decisions
4.40 .027 .651 .424 -.747 .101 .012 .201
8. be dependable and trustworthy
4.68 .022 .532 .283 -1.402 .101 1.019 .201
9. be formal when dealing with employees at work
3.37 .040 .975 .951 -.135 .101 -.388 .201
10. be honest 4.68 .023 .552 .305 -1.550 .101 1.449 .201
11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work
3.22 .039 .943 .889 -.078 .101 -.027 .201
12. be logical in solving problems
4.28 .028 .677 .459 -.781 .101 .872 .201
13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts
4.50 .024 .585 .342 -.683 .101 -.504 .201
14. be practical 4.30 .028 .676 .458 -.511 .101 -.490 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 459
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
15. be responsive to political realities in the environment
3.76 .035 .843 .710 -.576 .101 .450 .201
16. be socially and environmentally responsible
3.80 .037 .909 .827 -.515 .101 -.026 .201
17. be strict in judging the competence of employees
3.70 .033 .805 .648 -.422 .101 .398 .201
19. consider suggestions made by employees
4.23 .025 .604 .364 -.199 .101 -.283 .201
20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place
4.44 .026 .632 .400 -.848 .101 .453 .201
21. deal calmly in tense situations
4.49 .023 .567 .322 -.568 .101 -.685 .201
22. delegate 4.11 .028 .685 .470 -.432 .101 .155 .201 23. focus on maximising productivity
3.99 .030 .735 .540 -.345 .101 -.175 .201
24. focus on the task-at-hand
3.99 .030 .721 .519 -.335 .101 -.105 .201
26. follow what is morally right not what is right for self or organisation
3.74 .037 .897 .805 -.309 .101 -.323 .201
27. foster an international perspective in the organisation
3.15 .043 1.055 1.112 -.224 .101 -.421 .201
28. give priority to long-term goals
3.74 .031 .749 .561 -.260 .101 -.025 .201
29. give recognition for good work
4.54 .024 .589 .348 -.868 .101 -.235 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 460
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
30. have a multicultural orientation and approach
3.65 .042 1.030 1.062 -.671 .101 .165 .201
31. have a sense of humour
4.00 .032 .788 .621 -.411 .101 -.117 .201
32. have a strategic vision for the organisation
4.22 .030 .732 .535 -.630 .101 -.034 .201
33. identify social trends which may have an impact on work
3.80 .035 .857 .735 -.590 .101 .394 .201
34. keep up-to-date on management literature
3.45 .040 .968 .937 -.357 .101 -.116 .201
35. listen to and understand the problems of others
4.19 .029 .693 .480 -.487 .101 -.051 .201
36. listen to the advice of others
4.13 .027 .665 .442 -.330 .101 -.091 .201
39. make decisions earlier rather than later
3.99 .033 .793 .628 -.399 .101 -.273 .201
40. make decisions without depending too much on others
3.48 .037 .898 .807 -.316 .101 -.090 .201
41. make work decisions quickly
3.81 .032 .782 .611 -.256 .101 -.328 .201
42. motivate employees 4.42 .026 .643 .413 -.798 .101 .305 .201
43.persuade others to do things
3.87 .032 .779 .607 -.618 .101 .752 .201
44. respect the self-esteem of others
4.39 .026 .637 .406 -.649 .101 -.176 .201
45. return favours 3.62 .040 .972 .945 -.401 .101 -.230 .201
46. select work wisely to avoid overload
3.90 .034 .823 .678 -.601 .101 .580 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 461
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
47. sell the professional or corporate image to the public
3.82 .039 .955 .911 -.751 .101 .492 .201
48. share power 3.60 .035 .848 .720 -.419 .101 .192 .201
49. speak clearly and concisely
4.35 .027 .652 .426 -.620 .101 -.114 .201
50. support decisions made jointly by others
4.21 .026 .641 .411 -.369 .101 .025 .201
51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it
3.32 .037 .905 .819 -.317 .101 -.048 .201
52. think about the specific details of any particular problem
3.96 .031 .747 .557 -.458 .101 .091 .201
53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest
4.21 .028 .690 .477 -.483 .101 -.131 .201
54. trust those to whom work is delegated
4.24 .027 .652 .425 -.439 .101 -.053 .201
55. try different approaches to management
3.89 .033 .809 .654 -.289 .101 -.402 .201
56. use initiative and take risks
3.78 .035 .862 .743 -.400 .101 -.193 .201
58. write clearly and concisely
4.07 .031 .746 .557 -.482 .101 -.064 .201
66. use economic indicators for planning purposes
3.58 .037 .889 .790 -.443 .101 .133 .201
70. study laws and regulations which may have an impact on
3.83 .041 .988 .976 -.683 .101 .098 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 462
work
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies
3.77 .037 .896 .803 -.550 .101 .090 .201
78. check constantly for problems and opportunities
3.99 .032 .777 .604 -.358 .101 -.399 .201
82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry
3.95 .037 .898 .806 -.776 .101 .584 .201
83. adjust organisational structures and rules to realities of practice
3.88 .033 .796 .634 -.467 .101 .338 .201
89. continue to learn how to improve performance
4.33 .027 .664 .441 -.655 .101 .129 .201
91. organise work time effectively
4.48 .025 .596 .355 -.663 .101 -.514 .201
93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people
4.45 .026 .620 .384 -.758 .101 .021 .201
94. act as a member of a team
4.48 .026 .632 .399 -.889 .101 .131 .201
95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation
4.25 .030 .731 .535 -.742 .101 .259 .201
96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals
3.97 .031 .757 .573 -.421 .101 .178 .201
97. encourage management to embrace
4.11 .031 .754 .568 -.569 .101 .029 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 463
change and innovation
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation
4.17 .029 .707 .500 -.482 .101 -.105 .201
99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts
4.42 .027 .648 .420 -.740 .101 -.145 .201
100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions
4.21 .029 .703 .495 -.434 .101 -.480 .201
101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation
3.76 .033 .804 .647 -.395 .101 .201 .201
102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted
4.08 .031 .764 .583 -.428 .101 -.368 .201
103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation
4.07 .032 .777 .603 -.663 .101 .613 .201
104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work
3.70 .035 .859 .739 -.323 .101 -.105 .201
Appendix 4
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 464
Mean
Std. Deviatio
n Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Statistic Statistic
Std. Error Statistic
Std. Error
105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals
3.96 .034 .820 .673 -.453 .101 -.328 .201
106. develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences
3.92 .036 .884 .781 -.605 .101 .096 .201
107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one another
3.77 .035 .857 .735 -.416 .101 .083 .201
108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to innovation
3.85 .035 .843 .711 -.496 .101 .185 .201
109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative
3.76 .036 .875 .765 -.482 .101 .128 .201
N = 590
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 465
Appendix 5: Exploratory Factor Analysis Results
EFA on Excellent Leader
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .882
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 1668.265
df 45
Sig. .000
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings
Rotation Sums of Squared
Loadingsa
Total % of
Varianc
e
Cumulativ
e %
Total % of
Variance
Cumulativ
e %
Total
1 4.111 41.113 41.113 3.538 35.383 35.383 3.236
2 1.126 11.264 52.377 .508 5.083 40.466 2.532
3 .860 8.601 60.977
4 .766 7.663 68.640
5 .677 6.773 75.413
6 .562 5.620 81.033
7 .541 5.409 86.442
8 .486 4.859 91.301
9 .449 4.494 95.795
10 .420 4.205 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 466
Pattern Matrix
Factor
1 2
91. organise work time effectively .667
37. listen when employees want to say something .657
29. give recognition for good work .638
93. have confidence in dealing with work and with people .620
89. continue to learn how to improve performance .512
10. be honest .434
20. create a sense of purpose and enthusiasm in the work place .383 .384
32. have a strategic vision for the organisation .688
82. develop strategies to gain a competitive edge in the industry .603
42. motivate employees .469
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.
EFA on Personal Qualities
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .869
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 2336.624
df 171
Sig. .000
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 467
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings
Rotation Sums of Squared
Loadingsa
Total % of
Varianc
e
Cumulativ
e %
Total % of
Variance
Cumulativ
e %
Total
1 4.858 25.571 25.571 4.200 22.106 22.106 3.743
2 1.697 8.934 34.505 .965 5.081 27.186 1.770
3 1.213 6.386 40.891 .546 2.874 30.060 2.241
4 1.159 6.098 46.989
5 .965 5.077 52.066
6 .932 4.906 56.972
7 .893 4.699 61.671
8 .815 4.289 65.960
9 .760 3.998 69.958
10 .721 3.797 73.755
11 .687 3.615 77.370
12 .660 3.472 80.842
13 .641 3.375 84.217
14 .611 3.216 87.433
15 .537 2.826 90.259
16 .501 2.636 92.895
17 .479 2.523 95.418
18 .436 2.297 97.715
19 .434 2.285 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 468
Pattern Matrixa
Factor
1 2 3
6. be consistent in dealing with people .727
1. accept responsibility for my mistakes .600
8. be dependable and trustworthy .569
5. be an initiator – not a follower .548
21. deal calmly in tense situations .516
14. be practical .488
2 accept that others will make mistakes .476
49. speak clearly and concisely .456
58. write clearly and concisely .385
25. follow the heart – not the head – in compassionate matters .546
18. behave in accordance with your religious beliefs .544
11. be informal when dealing with employees outside work .375
26. follow what is morally right – not what is right for self or organisation .367
45. return favours .363 -.363
31. have a sense of humour .339
57. work long hours
44. respect the self-esteem of others -.566
36. listen to the advice of others -.421
53. treat most people as if they were trustworthy and honest -.416
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 469
a. Rotation converged in 11 iterations.
EFA on Organisational Demand
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .776
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 784.786
df 36
Sig. .000
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative
%
1 2.818 31.310 31.310 2.105 23.385 23.385
2 1.117 12.412 43.722
3 .995 11.059 54.781
4 .914 10.155 64.936
5 .764 8.488 73.424
6 .748 8.308 81.732
7 .641 7.127 88.860
8 .546 6.072 94.932
9 .456 5.068 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 470
Factor Matrixa
Factor
1
50. support decisions made jointly by others .645
48. share power .592
83. adjust organisational structures and
rules to realities of practice
.556
47. sell the professional or corporate image
to the public
.521
23. focus on maximising productivity .466
3. be adaptable .458
28. give priority to long-term goals .424
84. keep to work deadlines .387
59. ignore personal morality in the interest
of the organisation
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. 1 factors extracted. 5 iterations required.
EFA on Environmental Influence Demand
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .820
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 1320.531
df 45
Sig. .000
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 471
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings
Rotation Sums of Squared
Loadingsa
Total % of
Varianc
e
Cumulativ
e %
Total % of
Variance
Cumulativ
e %
Total
1 3.523 35.232 35.232 2.901 29.008 29.008 2.563
2 1.344 13.444 48.676 .758 7.583 36.591 2.179
3 .881 8.807 57.483
4 .865 8.646 66.129
5 .688 6.883 73.012
6 .649 6.493 79.505
7 .627 6.272 85.777
8 .556 5.560 91.337
9 .473 4.731 96.068
10 .393 3.932 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 472
Pattern Matrixa
Factor
1 2
38. look for and use the positive aspects of other
cultures
.776
30. have a multicultural orientation and approach .720
27. foster an international perspective in the
organisation
.543
16. be socially and environmentally responsible .494
33. identify social trends which may have an impact
on work
.440
15. be responsive to political realities in the
environment
.339
77. constantly evaluate emerging technologies .703
78. check constantly for problems and opportunities .635
70. study laws and regulations which may have an
impact on work
.563
66. use economic indicators for planning purposes .392
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.
EFA on Managerial Behaviours
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .889
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 3054.726
df 210
Sig. .000
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 473
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings
Rotation Sums of
Squared
Loadingsa
Total % of
Variance
Cumulative
%
Total % of
Variance
Cumulative
%
Total
1 5.630 26.808 26.808 5.004 23.828 23.828 2.268
2 2.011 9.575 36.383 1.394 6.640 30.468 3.460
3 1.277 6.080 42.463 .679 3.234 33.701 2.959
4 1.085 5.168 47.631 .511 2.432 36.134 3.317
5 1.035 4.929 52.560
6 .899 4.282 56.842
7 .867 4.131 60.973
8 .780 3.716 64.688
9 .765 3.645 68.333
10 .734 3.497 71.830
11 .685 3.261 75.091
12 .661 3.146 78.237
13 .614 2.923 81.160
14 .574 2.735 83.895
15 .547 2.605 86.500
16 .530 2.523 89.023
17 .509 2.424 91.447
18 .503 2.394 93.841
19 .478 2.278 96.119
20 .421 2.002 98.121
21 .395 1.879 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 474
Pattern Matrixa
Factor
1 2 3 4
51. tell subordinates what to do and how to do it .557
24. focus on the task-at-hand .442
17. be strict in judging the competence of employees .376
52. think about the specific details of any particular problem .364 .338
9. be formal when dealing with employees at work
13. be objective when dealing with work conflicts .721
19. consider suggestions made by employees .544
12. be logical in solving problems .333 .507
54. trust those to whom work is delegated .437
35. listen to and understand the problems of others .403
4. allow subordinates authority and autonomy .402
7. be consistent in making decisions .399
22. delegate .314
46. select work wisely to avoid overload
55. try different approaches to management .623
56. use initiative and take risks .508
34. keep up-to-date on management literature .484
41. make work decisions quickly -.882
40. make decisions without depending too much on others -.611
39. make decisions earlier rather than later -.521
43. persuade others to do things
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 475
EFA on CIB
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .935
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 4376.189
df 105
Sig. .000
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 7.235 48.232 48.232 6.692 44.615 44.615
2 1.113 7.419 55.650
3 .893 5.950 61.601
4 .817 5.444 67.045
5 .651 4.337 71.381
6 .611 4.072 75.454
7 .603 4.017 79.471
8 .517 3.450 82.921
9 .491 3.277 86.197
10 .434 2.896 89.094
11 .395 2.632 91.726
12 .374 2.494 94.220
13 .313 2.085 96.305
14 .280 1.865 98.170
15 .275 1.830 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Appendix 5
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 476
Factor Matrixa
Factor
1
103. apply decision making principles that encourage creativity and innovation .765
97. encourage management to embrace change and innovation .732
98. ensure subordinates share ideas and knowledge across the organisation .723
108. ensure you and subordinates participate in professional development related to
innovation
.707
100. encourage employees to consider alternative ideas, information and solutions .693
105. ensure subordinates have an abundance of resources to achieve goals .692
96. establish linkages between innovation efforts and organisational goals .689
109. regularly engage in work and projects that are creative .685
102. establish protocols for decision making that are transparent and accepted .671
104. instruct subordinates to be creative in all aspects of their work .625
95. bring diverse skills, education and experience into the organisation .617
99. recognise and acknowledge all individual subordinates for their efforts .608
106. develop reward structures that reflect employees’ motivation and preferences .607
107. establish a relationship with co-workers that allows you to challenge one
another
.589
101. spread team membership across all departments in the organisation .583
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
a. 1 factors extracted. 3 iterations required.
Appendix 6
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 477
Appendix 6: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results
Excellent Leader
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a29 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.000 a89 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.101 .085 12.952 *** a91 <--- Organisational_Leadership .977 .076 12.835 *** a93 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.078 .080 13.451 *** a20 <--- Visionary_Leadership 1.000 a32 <--- Visionary_Leadership .966 .076 12.690 *** a42 <--- Visionary_Leadership .967 .068 14.122 *** a82 <--- Visionary_Leadership .937 .092 10.229 *** a10 <--- Organisational_Leadership .532 .066 8.008 *** a37 <--- Organisational_Leadership 1.100 .082 13.469 ***
Appendix 6
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 478
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a10 a82 a42 a32 a20 a93 a91 a89 a29 a10 .000 a82 -2.242 .000 a42 -1.192 -.289 .000 a32 .308 2.645 -.054 .000 a20 .475 -1.218 .172 -.355 .000 a93 -.960 .758 -.411 -1.684 .734 .000 a91 -.118 -2.270 -.265 -1.046 -.418 .805 .000 a89 .185 1.173 .608 .167 -.258 .088 .382 .000 a29 1.934 -.117 .515 .087 2.277 -.447 -.254 -1.129 .000 Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 19 94.197 26 .000 3.623 Saturated model 45 .000 0 Independence model 9 1381.812 36 .000 38.384 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .020 .967 .942 .558 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .134 .514 .393 .411 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .932 .906 .950 .930 .949 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .067 .053 .081 .027 Independence model .252 .241 .263 .000
Appendix 6
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 479
Personal Qualities
Hypothesised Model
Appendix 6
A study of enabling creativity and innovation through excellence in managerial leadership in Australia Page 480
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a1 <--- Relationship 1.000 a2 <--- Relationship 1.125 .104 10.823 *** a5 <--- Relationship 1.114 .112 9.975 *** a6 <--- Relationship 1.092 .096 11.374 *** a8 <--- Relationship .835 .081 10.273 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.143 .105 10.842 *** a21 <--- Relationship .934 .088 10.640 *** a49 <--- Relationship 1.153 .103 11.202 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.097 .112 9.762 *** a11 <--- Integrity 1.000 a18 <--- Integrity 1.310 .262 5.007 *** a25 <--- Integrity 1.183 .208 5.693 *** a26 <--- Integrity 1.281 .218 5.874 *** a31 <--- Integrity 1.316 .213 6.191 *** a45 <--- Integrity 1.695 .271 6.265 *** a36 <--- Respect 1.000 a44 <--- Respect 1.130 .094 11.986 *** a53 <--- Respect .923 .091 10.134 *** a57 <--- Integrity .418 .154 2.717 .007
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a57 a53 a44 a36 a45 a31 a26 a25 a18 a11 a58 a49 a21 a14 a8 a6 a5 a2 a1
a57 0
a53 ‐0.338 0
a44 ‐2.493 0.467 0
a36 ‐1.522 ‐0.169 ‐0.279 0
a45 0.444 ‐0.085 1.855 2.111 0
a31 0.112 0.642 0.27 0.495 0.213 0
a26 ‐0.702 ‐0.652 1.708 0.283 ‐1.696 ‐0.358 0
a25 1.705 ‐0.98 ‐1.492 ‐0.717 0.457 ‐1.838 1.562 0
a18 1.434 ‐2.631 ‐3.907 ‐0.199 ‐1.601 ‐0.4 2.038 2.975 0
a11 ‐0.702 ‐0.017 ‐1.373 0.029 ‐0.448 0.806 ‐1.388 0.995 2.622 0
a58 1.469 1.043 ‐0.88 ‐0.64 1.275 0.947 ‐0.467 ‐0.977 ‐1.537 ‐0.39 0
a49 ‐0.211 1.204 1.276 0.569 2.128 0.766 ‐0.652 ‐2.079 ‐1.867 ‐1.444 4.465 0
a21 0.535 ‐1.143 0.313 0.6 ‐1.353 1.446 1.826 ‐1.707 ‐0.903 ‐1.902 1.267 0.985 0
a14 1.451 ‐0.531 0.179 ‐0.338 2.833 2.37 0.734 ‐0.991 ‐0.257 1.463 0.478 ‐0.181 0.495 0
a8 ‐0.642 ‐0.877 ‐0.142 ‐0.878 ‐1.072 1.624 1.199 ‐2.213 ‐2.005 ‐0.216 ‐1.581 ‐0.613 0.77 0.87 0
a6 ‐0.366 ‐0.668 ‐1.053 ‐0.946 ‐0.882 0.496 ‐0.568 ‐1.007 ‐0.371 ‐0.807 ‐1.527 ‐1.212 ‐0.715 0.405 0.942 0
a5 1.984 ‐1.197 ‐0.285 ‐1.418 0.628 0.781 0.589 ‐0.193 ‐0.301 ‐0.343 ‐0.965 0.088 ‐0.777 ‐0.087 ‐0.536 2.516 0
a2 ‐3.654 0.973 0.882 2.059 0.307 0.23 0.399 ‐0.794 ‐0.286 ‐0.373 ‐0.863 ‐1.252 ‐0.612 ‐1.464 ‐0.648 0.166 ‐0.307 0
a1 0.086 0.432 ‐0.462 0.953 0.035 ‐0.527 1.324 ‐2.093 ‐1.34 ‐1.312 ‐1.34 ‐2.406 ‐1.052 ‐0.925 1.174 1.343 0.274 2.875 0
Page 481
Appendix 6
Page 482
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 41 431.302 149 .000 2.895 Saturated model 190 .000 0 Independence model 19 2365.405 171 .000 13.833 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .034 .926 .906 .726 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .112 .521 .467 .469 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .818 .791 .873 .852 .871 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .057 .051 .063 .038 Independence model .148 .142 .153 .000
Appendix 6
Page 483
Final model:
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a2 <--- Relationship 1.000 a5 <--- Relationship 1.034 .112 9.207 *** a6 <--- Relationship .997 .097 10.249 *** a8 <--- Relationship .769 .082 9.405 *** a14 <--- Relationship 1.082 .108 10.052 *** a21 <--- Relationship .908 .090 10.053 *** a49 <--- Relationship 1.160 .108 10.715 *** a58 <--- Relationship 1.085 .115 9.436 *** a36 <--- Respect 1.000 a44 <--- Respect 1.187 .106 11.238 *** a53 <--- Respect .965 .098 9.819 ***
Appendix 6
Page 484
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a53 a44 a36 a58 a49 a21 a14 a8 a6 a5 a2 a53 .000 a44 .189 .000 a36 -.028 -.148 .000 a58 .789 -1.239 -.672 .000 a49 .789 .695 .412 3.646 .000 a21 -1.325 .035 .668 .773 .255 .000 a14 -.572 .089 -.110 .159 -.701 .270 .000 a8 -.767 -.031 -.508 -1.694 -.881 .759 1.042 .000 a6 -.496 -.869 -.475 -1.599 -1.445 -.666 .662 1.391 .000 a5 -1.129 -.228 -1.103 -1.121 -.230 -.839 .025 -.256 2.903 .000 a2 1.286 1.256 2.678 -.752 -1.258 -.369 -1.034 -.054 .907 .220 .000
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 23 134.100 43 .000 3.119 Saturated model 66 .000 0 Independence model 11 1468.918 55 .000 26.708 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .019 .959 .938 .625 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .117 .523 .427 .436
Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .909 .883 .936 .918 .936 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .060 .049 .072 .073 Independence model .209 .200 .218 .000
Appendix 6
Page 485
Managerial Behaviours
Hypothesised Model
Appendix 6
Page 486
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a4 <--- Teamwork 1.000 a7 <--- Teamwork 1.207 .160 7.567 *** a12 <--- Teamwork 1.369 .175 7.835 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1.163 .149 7.787 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.305 .163 8.028 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.204 .163 7.392 *** a35 <--- Teamwork 1.418 .180 7.871 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.137 .154 7.367 *** a9 <--- Officious 1.000 a17 <--- Officious .942 .115 8.169 *** a24 <--- Officious .957 .110 8.686 *** a51 <--- Officious .908 .121 7.485 *** a52 <--- Officious .922 .110 8.396 *** a39 <--- DecisionMaking 1.000 a40 <--- DecisionMaking 1.060 .086 12.314 *** a41 <--- DecisionMaking 1.006 .077 13.026 *** a43 <--- DecisionMaking .651 .070 9.237 *** a34 <--- Prog 1.000 a55 <--- Prog 1.110 .111 9.982 *** a56 <--- Prog .949 .104 9.141 ***
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a56 a55 a34 a43 a41 a40 a39 a52 a51 a24 a17 a9 a54 a35 a22 a19 a13 a12 a7 a4
a56 0
a55 0.757 0
a34 ‐0.827 ‐0.382 0
a43 1.556 0.787 2.08 0
a41 ‐0.196 ‐2.321 0.627 0.674 0
a40 ‐0.303 ‐1.865 0.971 ‐0.81 0.962 0
a39 1.842 0.301 1.801 ‐1.358 0.002 ‐0.354 0
a52 ‐0.926 1.155 0.247 ‐0.557 ‐1.377 0.085 1.345 0
a51 ‐3.99 ‐1.839 0.94 0.615 ‐0.755 2.9 ‐0.002 2.589 0
a24 ‐1.993 ‐0.647 2.3 0.806 ‐0.604 ‐0.663 ‐0.525 ‐0.844 ‐0.012 0
a17 ‐0.403 0.132 0.562 1.859 ‐1.695 0.357 ‐0.26 ‐1.447 0.249 1.148 0
a9 0.059 0.956 4.456 0.23 1.721 0.258 ‐0.192 ‐2.151 0.673 0.266 0.192 0
a54 1.28 1.875 ‐1.524 1.974 ‐2.121 ‐2.189 1.863 2.698 ‐2.332 ‐0.322 ‐0.538 ‐3.312 0
a35 0.241 1.35 2.922 2.041 ‐0.799 ‐1.658 1.936 2.221 ‐2.617 0.851 ‐0.819 ‐1.437 0.266 0
a22 1.319 1.805 0.346 1.431 ‐0.25 ‐1.892 0.154 ‐1.221 ‐2.963 0.578 ‐0.38 0.662 ‐0.095 ‐0.493 0
a19 0.03 ‐0.288 ‐0.347 1.168 ‐2.464 ‐2.272 1.16 0.31 ‐3.862 ‐0.533 ‐0.322 ‐1.539 0.24 0.819 0.659 0
a13 ‐0.895 ‐2.444 ‐2.15 ‐0.19 ‐1.015 ‐3.221 1.002 2.084 ‐4.093 ‐1.522 ‐0.677 ‐1.391 0.509 0.536 ‐0.543 0.322 0
a12 ‐2.575 ‐0.043 ‐0.453 1.13 1.913 1.455 3.763 3.886 1.116 3.595 3.466 2.183 ‐2.048 ‐0.548 ‐1.564 ‐0.758 1.719 0
a7 ‐0.853 ‐1.066 1.486 0.84 1.104 ‐0.827 1.887 1.793 ‐0.024 1.48 2.03 2.13 0.286 ‐1.99 ‐0.16 ‐0.791 0.475 0.932 0
a4 1.848 0.851 ‐2.465 0.033 ‐1.364 ‐3.663 ‐0.278 ‐1.647 ‐5.665 ‐2.814 ‐2.792 ‐0.594 0.932 ‐1.141 2.392 1.964 0.452 ‐1.745 0.352 0
Page 487
Appendix 6
Page 488
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 46 612.969 164 .000 3.738 Saturated model 210 .000 0 Independence model 20 2902.953 190 .000 15.279 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .041 .901 .874 .704 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .137 .472 .416 .427 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .789 .755 .836 .808 .835 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .068 .062 .074 .000 Independence model .156 .151 .161 .000
Appendix 6
Page 489
Final model:
Appendix 6
Page 490
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a43 <--- Decision 1.000 a41 <--- Decision 1.592 .177 9.021 *** a34 <--- Progressiveness 1.000 a55 <--- Progressiveness 1.097 .112 9.801 *** a56 <--- Progressiveness 1.000 .108 9.227 *** a13 <--- Teamwork 1.000 a35 <--- Teamwork 1.326 .132 10.085 *** a22 <--- Teamwork 1.106 .122 9.067 *** a40 <--- Decision 1.595 .185 8.637 *** a39 <--- Decision 1.564 .175 8.952 *** a7 <--- Teamwork 1.004 .114 8.781 *** a54 <--- Teamwork 1.075 .117 9.198 *** a19 <--- Teamwork 1.187 .116 10.238 ***
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a19 a54 a7 a39 a40 a56 a55 a34 a41 a43 a22 a35 a13 a19 .000 a54 -.218 .000 a7 -.302 .460 .000 a39 1.398 1.896 2.466 .000 a40 -1.883 -2.013 -.157 -.141 .000 a56 -.481 .651 -.818 1.540 -.388 .000 a55 -.433 1.510 -.643 .349 -1.600 .610 .000 a34 -.525 -1.849 1.763 1.781 1.128 -1.021 -.082 .000 a41 -2.290 -2.139 1.641 -.300 1.061 -.566 -2.351 .545 .000 a43 1.388 2.048 1.270 -1.344 -.544 1.422 .897 2.126 .597 .000 a22 .413 -.535 .187 .306 -1.609 .840 1.619 .152 -.146 1.583 .000 a35 .382 -.373 -1.719 2.029 -1.405 -.416 1.008 2.591 -.766 2.162 -.922 .000 a13 .589 .472 1.304 1.474 -2.642 -1.042 -2.209 -2.025 -.595 .176 -.390 .579 .000
Page 491
Appendix 6
Page 492
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 29 181.297 62 .000 2.924 Saturated model 91 .000 0 Independence model 13 1649.951 78 .000 21.153 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .030 .956 .935 .651 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .140 .551 .476 .472 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .890 .862 .925 .905 .924 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .057 .048 .067 .106 Independence model .185 .177 .193 .000
Appendix 6
Page 493
Environmental Influence
Hypothesised Model:
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a15 <--- MacroENV 1.000 a27 <--- MacroENV 1.570 .176 8.909 *** a33 <--- MacroENV 1.307 .145 9.012 *** a70 <--- MicroENV 1.000 a77 <--- MicroENV 1.059 .104 10.228 *** a78 <--- MicroENV .854 .086 9.916 *** a30 <--- MacroENV 1.684 .181 9.298 *** a16 <--- MacroENV 1.205 .144 8.385 *** a38 <--- MacroENV 1.637 .171 9.590 *** a66 <--- MicroENV .846 .093 9.131 ***
Appendix 6
Page 494
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a66 a38 a16 a30 a78 a77 a70 a33 a27 a15 a66 .000 a38 1.901 .000 a16 .218 .091 .000 a30 .307 1.945 -.677 .000 a78 -.951 -.828 -1.052 -2.253 .000 a77 -2.404 -2.499 .059 -1.026 2.180 .000 a70 2.414 -1.155 -.387 -1.839 -1.287 -.208 .000 a33 3.480 -.633 -1.002 -.646 .108 1.759 2.546 .000 a27 2.465 .030 .444 .165 -.754 .690 -.758 -.161 .000 a15 2.386 -1.485 2.449 -1.056 .381 1.544 1.340 1.352 -1.178 .000
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 21 175.185 34 .000 5.152 Saturated model 55 .000 0 Independence model 10 1329.939 45 .000 29.554 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .047 .944 .909 .583 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .226 .564 .468 .462 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .868 .826 .891 .855 .890 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .084 .072 .096 .000 Independence model .220 .210 .230 .000
Appendix 6
Page 495
Final Model
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a33 <--- EN1 1.000 a30 <--- EN1 1.098 .113 9.703 *** a27 <--- EN1 1.138 .118 9.671 *** a16 <--- EN1 .902 .101 8.928 *** a70 <--- EN2 1.000 a77 <--- EN2 1.461 .124 11.781 *** a78 <--- EN2 1.000 a15 <--- EN1 .816 .089 9.184 ***
Appendix 6
Page 496
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a15 a78 a77 a70 a16 a27 a30 a33 a15 .000 a78 .102 .032 a77 .397 .317 .000 a70 1.681 -.242 -.418 -.040 a16 1.779 -.958 -.693 .314 .000 a27 -1.679 -.491 .044 .150 .508 .000 a30 -.858 -1.435 -1.051 -.424 .162 1.353 .000 a33 .437 .104 .742 3.271 -1.325 -.263 .134 .000
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 16 48.914 20 .000 2.446 Saturated model 36 .000 0 Independence model 8 841.023 28 .000 30.037 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .033 .980 .964 .544 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .209 .646 .545 .502 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .942 .919 .965 .950 .964 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .050 .032 .067 .488 Independence model .222 .209 .235 .000
Appendix 6
Page 497
Organisational Demand
Hypothesised Model
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a28 <--- OrgDemand 1.000 a48 <--- OrgDemand 1.719 .211 8.144 *** a50 <--- OrgDemand 1.404 .168 8.336 *** a94 <--- OrgDemand .845 .126 6.709 *** a83 <--- OrgDemand 1.314 .175 7.492 *** a3 <--- OrgDemand .914 .127 7.208 *** a47 <--- OrgDemand 1.575 .210 7.490 *** a59 <--- OrgDemand -.088 .158 -.560 .576 a23 <--- OrgDemand .982 .146 6.707 ***
Appendix 6
Page 498
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a23 a59 a47 a3 a83 a94 a50 a48 a28 a23 .000 a59 2.224 .000 a47 -.354 .423 .000 a3 1.375 -1.640 -.247 .000 a83 1.090 .043 2.510 .861 .000 a94 .493 -1.052 -2.116 2.845 -.704 .000 a50 -.864 -.895 -.800 -.060 -.936 .941 .000 a48 -2.018 .600 1.596 -1.707 -1.369 -.703 1.260 .000 a28 3.433 1.191 -2.049 -1.372 .424 -1.032 -.345 1.180 .000 Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 18 132.425 27 .000 4.905 Saturated model 45 .000 0 Independence model 9 803.817 36 .000 22.328 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .033 .953 .922 .572 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .124 .684 .605 .547 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .835 .780 .864 .817 .863 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .081 .068 .096 .000 Independence model .190 .179 .202 .000
Appendix 6
Page 499
Final model
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a28 <--- OrgDemand 1.000 a48 <--- OrgDemand 1.772 .231 7.687 *** a50 <--- OrgDemand 1.550 .197 7.885 *** a94 <--- OrgDemand .917 .139 6.607 *** a83 <--- OrgDemand 1.201 .178 6.739 *** a3 <--- OrgDemand .909 .134 6.757 ***
Appendix 6
Page 500
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 12 37.423 9 .000 4.158 Saturated model 21 .000 0 Independence model 6 505.386 15 .000 33.692 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .020 .979 .950 .419 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .122 .717 .604 .512 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .926 .877 .943 .903 .942 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .073 .050 .098 .051 Independence model .236 .218 .253 .000
Appendix 6
Page 501
CIB
Complete Model
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a95 <--- CIB 1.000 a97 <--- CIB 1.231 .083 14.822 *** a98 <--- CIB 1.135 .078 14.630 *** a99 <--- CIB .873 .068 12.769 *** a100 <--- CIB 1.074 .076 14.094 *** a101 <--- CIB 1.038 .084 12.331 *** a102 <--- CIB 1.137 .082 13.818 *** a104 <--- CIB 1.189 .091 13.045 *** a106 <--- CIB 1.182 .093 12.699 *** a107 <--- CIB 1.114 .090 12.401 *** a108 <--- CIB 1.314 .092 14.306 *** a96 <--- CIB 1.164 .082 14.164 *** a103 <--- CIB 1.315 .086 15.218 *** a105 <--- CIB 1.243 .089 14.010 *** a109 <--- CIB 1.326 .095 14.011 ***
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a109 a105 a103 a96 a108 a107 a106 a104 a102 a101 a100 a99 a98 a97 a95 a109 .000 a105 .923 .000 a103 .811 .338 .000 a96 .344 -2.008 -.109 .000 a108 2.321 .944 -1.038 .207 .000 a107 -.188 -.556 -.952 -.759 2.575 .000 a106 .068 3.447 -.191 -2.605 .198 1.500 .000 a104 2.961 3.446 1.218 -.560 .477 .605 -.089 .000 a102 -.853 -.016 2.235 -.430 .127 -.750 .355 -1.802 .000 a101 .950 .513 1.006 -.661 -1.086 -1.080 -.308 1.008 2.010 .000 a100 -1.951 -.590 -1.548 .104 -.456 1.365 -.442 -1.130 -.501 -.133 .000 a99 -2.221 -.264 -1.166 -.666 -1.467 .129 .797 -2.475 .919 -.585 2.915 .000 a98 -1.892 -1.337 -.336 .090 -.394 .246 -.352 -1.593 -.660 -1.293 1.989 2.850 .000 a97 -.510 -2.118 .298 2.944 -.895 -.971 -.754 -1.812 -.980 -.715 .918 .329 2.250 .000 a95 -.668 -.514 -.534 2.371 -.602 -.725 -.749 -.306 .141 .291 .444 .599 -.161 .304 .000
Page 502
Appendix 6
Page 503
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 30 656.526 90 .000 7.295 Saturated model 120 .000 0 Independence model 15 4419.963 105 .000 42.095 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .035 .858 .810 .643 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .260 .261 .156 .228 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .851 .827 .869 .847 .869 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .103 .096 .111 .000 Independence model .264 .258 .271 .000
Appendix 6
Page 504
Final model
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label a95 <--- CIB 1.000 a97 <--- CIB 1.241 .087 14.251 *** a98 <--- CIB 1.213 .083 14.671 *** a99 <--- CIB .954 .073 13.134 *** a100 <--- CIB 1.162 .081 14.292 *** a101 <--- CIB 1.003 .087 11.539 *** a102 <--- CIB 1.114 .085 13.043 *** a104 <--- CIB 1.072 .093 11.535 *** a106 <--- CIB 1.179 .097 12.176 *** a107 <--- CIB 1.162 .094 12.331 *** a108 <--- CIB 1.282 .095 13.453 ***
Standardized Residual Covariances (Group number 1 - Default model)
a108 a107 a106 a104 a102 a101 a100 a99 a98 a97 a95 a108 .000 a107 2.647 .000 a106 .691 1.378 .000 a104 1.910 1.308 .983 .000 a102 .845 -.721 .794 -.505 .000 a101 -.351 -.954 .175 2.292 2.714 .000 a100 -.759 .442 -.920 -.663 -.835 -.313 .000 a99 -1.830 -.772 .272 -2.144 .516 -.826 1.448 .000 a98 -.581 -.581 -.735 -1.001 -.882 -1.367 .585 1.454 .000 a97 -.434 -1.208 -.555 -.663 -.577 -.236 .224 -.394 1.654 .000 a95 -.130 -.867 -.516 .763 .563 .766 -.076 .042 -.579 .483 .000
Page 505
Appendix 7
Page 506
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 22 207.398 44 .000 4.714 Saturated model 66 .000 0 Independence model 11 2559.322 55 .000 46.533 RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI Default model .027 .936 .904 .624 Saturated model .000 1.000 Independence model .235 .352 .223 .293 Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1 RFI
rho1 IFI
Delta2 TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .919 .899 .935 .918 .935 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model .079 .069 .090 .000 Independence model .278 .269 .287 .000
Discriminant Validity Tests
Organisational Demand to Other constructs
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 166.3 186.23 19.93
Visionary Leader 185.86 205.3 19.44
Relationship 240.75 272.89 32.14
Respect 57.94 65.04 7.1
Macro-Environment 120.28 152.52 32.24
Micro-Environment 165.59 317.1 151.51
Progressiveness 87.15 108.97 21.82
Teamwork 62.44 82.44 20
Decision Making 105.22 227.34 122.12
CIB 443.87 469.19 25.32
Appendix 7
Page 507
CIB
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 427.87 496.69 68.82
Visionary Leader 324.2 396.03 71.83
Relationship 468.3 693.04 224.74
Respect 330.83 417.34 86.51
Macro-Environment 408.76 662.3 253.54
Micro-Environment 378.58 486.65 108.07
Progressiveness 324.16 379.98 55.82
Teamwork 527.22 608.02 80.8
Decision Making 308.59 583.45 274.86
Teamwork
Organisational Leader 84.61 97.03 12.42
Visionary Leader 85.27 127 41.73
Relationship 238.6 243.37 4.77
Respect 31.8 43.82 12.02
Macro-Environment 80.46 142.49 62.03
Micro-Environment 73.76 215.55 141.79
Progressiveness 30.26 84.25 53.99
Decision Making 95.12 320.24 225.12
Relationship
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Organisational Leader 241.08 252.69 11.61
Visionary Leader 210.27 287.95 77.68
Respect 134.1 192.2 58.1
Macro-Environment 196.57 306.98 110.41
Micro-Environment 161.98 295.93 133.95
Progressiveness 155.16 212.67 57.51
Decision Making 210.51 384.19 173.68
OrgLeader
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Visionary Leader 94.2 164.94 70.74
Respect 48.09 85.78 37.69
Macro-Environment 128.04 311.13 183.09
Micro-Environment 61.48 163.69 102.21
Progressiveness 172.8 281.75 108.95
Decision Making 80.69 317.22 236.53
Appendix 7
Page 508
Vis_Leader
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Respect 55.24 126.85 71.61
Macro-Environment 111.29 185.96 74.67
Micro-Environment 83.312 170.59 87.278
Progressiveness 145.1 214.4 69.3
Decision Making 134.13 302.1 167.97
Respect
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Macro-Environment 74.6 180.98 106.38
Micro-Environment 23.68 142.41 118.73
Progressiveness 128.75 214.94 86.19
Decision Making 58.58 245.7 187.12
Macro-Environment
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Micro-Environment 48.9 165.92 117.02
Progressiveness 160.77 188.69 27.92
Decision Making 76.01 275.34 199.33
Micro
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Progressiveness 129.3 193.3 64
Decision Making 39.59 167.26 127.67
Progressiveness
Constructs χ²(unconstrained) χ² (constrained) Δχ² Decision Making 133.76 264.89 131.13
Appendix 7
Page 509
Appendix 7: Path Analysis
Hypothesised Model Results
Modification Index
Regression Weights:
Regression Weights: (Group number 1 - Default model)
M.I. Par Change
ORG_LEAD <--- Relation 22.424 .138
ORG_LEAD <--- Respect 12.084 .080
ORG_LEAD <--- MACRO 4.467 -.040
Bollen-Stine Bootstrap
The model fit better in 2000 bootstrap samples.
It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.
It fit worse or failed to fit in 0 bootstrap samples.
Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .000
Appendix 7
Page 510
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF
Default model 57 105.503 9 .000 11.723
Saturated model 66 .000 0
Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552
RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI
Default model .005 .971 .786 .132
Saturated model .000 1.000
Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228
Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1
RFI
rho1
IFI
Delta2
TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .972 .826 .974 .839 .974
Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000
Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE
Default model .135 .112 .159 .000
Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000
Appendix 7
Page 511
Revised Model:
Bollen-Stine Bootstrap (Default model)
The model fit better in 152 bootstrap samples.
It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.
It fit worse or failed to fit in 1848 bootstrap samples.
Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .924
Appendix 7
Page 512
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF
Default model 55 16.919 11 .110 1.538
Saturated model 66 .000 0
Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552
RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI
Default model .004 .995 .969 .166
Saturated model .000 1.000
Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228
Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1
RFI
rho1
IFI
Delta2
TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .995 .977 .998 .992 .998
Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000
Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE
Default model .030 .000 .057 .874
Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000
Appendix 7
Page 513
Final Model
Correlations: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Estimate
MICROEnv <--> Respect .378
Respect <--> Progressive .410
Respect <--> DECISION MAKING .280
Respect <--> Org. Demand .599
Respect <--> Relationship .551
MICROEnv <--> Progressive .544
MICROEnv <--> DECISION MAKING .352
MICROEnv <--> Org. Demand .569
Appendix 7
Page 514
Estimate
MICROEnv <--> Teamwork .453
MICROEnv <--> Relationship .507
Progressive <--> DECISION MAKING .407
Progressive <--> MICROEnv .466
DECISION MAKING <--> MICROEnv .413
DECISION MAKING <--> Teamwork .325
DECISION MAKING <--> Relationship .467
Relationship <--> MICROEnv .432
Org. Demand <--> Teamwork .563
Relationship <--> Teamwork .725
Progressive <--> Teamwork .442
Progressive <--> Org. Demand .548
Org. Demand <--> Relationship .606
Progressive <--> Relationship .520
DECISION MAKING <--> Org. Demand .430
Respect <--> MICROEnv .347
Respect <--> Teamwork .565
Teamwork <--> MICROEnv .308
Org. Demand <--> MICROEnv .445
MICROEnv <--> MICROEnv .408
Bollen-Stine Bootstrap (Default model)
The model fit better in 428 bootstrap samples.
It fit about equally well in 0 bootstrap samples.
It fit worse or failed to fit in 1572 bootstrap samples.
Testing the null hypothesis that the model is correct, Bollen-Stine bootstrap p = .786
Appendix 7
Page 515
Model Fit Summary
CMIN
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF
Default model 54 19.875 12 .069 1.656
Saturated model 66 .000 0
Independence model 11 3715.347 55 .000 67.552
RMR, GFI
Model RMR GFI AGFI PGFI
Default model .004 .994 .965 .181
Saturated model .000 1.000
Independence model .134 .274 .128 .228
Baseline Comparisons
Model NFI
Delta1
RFI
rho1
IFI
Delta2
TLI
rho2 CFI
Default model .995 .975 .998 .990 .998
Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000
Independence model .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
RMSEA
Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE
Default model .033 .000 .059 .847
Independence model .336 .327 .345 .000