a study of fire response to uk high-rise ...egyptian pyramids of cheops and subsequently the great...

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A STUDY OF FIRE RESPONSE TO UK HIGH-RISE BUILDING MOPHORLOGY

Timothy Chinedum Onyenobi, John Hudson, Marcus Ormerod

Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment, University of Salford, M5 4WT, UK.

E-mail:[email protected], [email protected],

[email protected]

ABSTRACT: With the development and use of fire sensitive construction materials, furnishings and with the relatively new vertical ambition in high-rise development within the UK, there is an increasing need for improved fire safety measures. Modern high-rise policies within the UK requires a minimum fire safety standard as prescribed in the current building regulations “Part B” which can be achieved through passive and active performance based fire protection approaches. Considering the diversity of building morphologies of modern high-rises, this research seeks to investigate the possibility of this attribute becoming an additional consideration in the (passive) built-in strategy to high-rise fire protection as compartment geometry has been discovered in the pilot study carried out to affect the behaviour of fire. Due to the scale of the sample (high-rise) and predictive nature of this study, the case study method is used for contemporary and contextual reasons forming an analytical base. Computer modelling will be applied to determine the spread pattern of the case samples and dev of “what ifs” the Fire Dynamic Simulator, which has been through a validation process, is adopted. Due to the dynamism of fire research findings globally, the Delphi approach will be use to update and validate findings.

Keywords - Building Morphology, Case study, Fire, Fire Dynamic Simulator, High-Rise. 1. INTRODUCTION

The concept of building tall has been as old as the early civilization being portrayed in the Egyptian pyramids of Cheops and subsequently the Great Lighthouse or Pharaohs of Alexandria built by Alexander the Great (Wells, 2005). Since then there have been a quest to build tall not just for symbolic but also utilitarian reasons. These tall buildings are also known as high-rise defined in the modern world as ”the building that extends higher than the maximum reach of available fire fighting equipment” (Craighead, 2003). This description though subjective, is widely accepted globally.

In Europe, the high-rise did not come into play as a building type until after the first world war, and in Britain has traditionally been resisted as unnecessary and contrary to its nature (Wells, 2005) p37. After the war and indeed well into the 1950s, London had no high-rise buildings worth mentioning. It was not until the 1960s that high-rise buildings exceeding the 100m mark were erected (Kloft and Eisele, 2003) p18. A number of issues, of which aspiration is one, have forced a re-examination of the tacit policy which was against building tall (Wells, 2005) p37. Wells (2005) believes that London is a world city and world cities need tall buildings.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s pressure from investors finally led to the development of Canary Wharf on the outskirts in the conversion zone of the London Docklands, where in 1984 the current tallest building in UK was erected - “One Canada Square” (Kloft and Eisele, 2003). Among an array of approved high-rise proposals Britain now has a 111,400 (sq m), pinnacle type, futuristic style, tall building proposal which will serve primarily for office space usage and secondarily as a hotel. Construction scheduled to start in 2007 and completed in 2010 making London Bridge Tower which was designed by Renzo Piano the tallest building in Europe (Wells, 2005).

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The current UK futuristic approach to high-rise design is clearly portrayed in the building’s shell geometry or morphology also seen in the Bishopsgate Tower by Khon Penderson Fox; GLA building by Norman Foster; 30 St. Mary’s Axe building by Norman Foster etc.

Despite this innovative vertical ambition, in agreement with O’Hagan (1977, pp. 28) attention needs to be drawn to the fact that modern high-rise buildings are less fire resistive than the previous generation because of their lightweight steel construction and their greater potential for bigger fires because of an open floor design (Craighead, 2003) p41. This has necessitated continuous reviews of the British fire regulations moving from prescriptive to performance based approaches. High-rise fire control and protection strategies exist in two broad categories: ‘Active’ e.g. fire alarm, fire sprinkler etc. (Grosshandler, 2004) and ‘Passive’ e.g. lining materials, compartmentation, cavity fire barriers etc (BRE, 2002). Chow et al (2006) conducted a small scale experiment to test for flashover (rapid increase in fire size) and concluded that mixing of gas based fuel vapours by the fire-induced airflow in rooms of different geometry is a key factor in igniting each combustible item which releases more heat and generates flames to give conditions satisfying the flashover criteria.

Building on Chow et al (2006)’s theory, in line with the current trend of diverse geometries of modern high-rise in the UK, this research seeks to explore the impact of fire spread on these shapes (morphologies). Findings could result in high-rise morphology type being a consideration for ‘passive fire protection’ which will have policy implications.

2. RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To explore the impact of the morphology (geometry) of a “central core open-plan” high-rise floor on fire spread within a true life context. The following objectives are strategic set steps for achieving the above aim. They are: 1. To identify examples of modern open-plan high-rise within the UK. 2. To explore current design knowledge with respect to such buildings. 3. To explore effects of morphology on fire spread. 4. To develop policy implications and propose a design guide. 5. To propose a “fire safer morphology” model based on findings.

3. RESEARCH SCOPE This study, with its tendency to be open ended, is limited to: 1. Fire spread is concerned with rate of horizontal plume flow over a distance. The horizontal fire propagation is explored for phase one of this research. 2. This work for the PhD will be limited to the high-rise fire floor focusing on interaction between fire and domain boundaries. 3. Physical properties of the combustible surfaces will solely be considered from research findings and documented evidence contained in journals. This study will not engage in detailed analysis of the structural assessment of the high-rise but will a) consider boundary specification of the fire domain, b) all its design elements that has a potential to contribute to the fire, c) the fire spread along the wall linings as well as that within the flow field. Proposed model emphasis will not involve a complete set of detailed architectural and engineering drawings rather in addition to the theoretical model a set of 2D and 3D drawings will be used to further demonstrate study's analysis and findings on the morphology and fire interaction.

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4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Philosophy It is important to recognise that every researcher knowingly or unknowingly brings some set of epistemological assumptions into the research process (Travers, 2001). Therefore, considering the exploratory nature of this research which is of a cause and effect relationship it epistemologically positions it along positivism rather than interpretive which involves understanding the way in which the world is understood by individuals (Sexton, 2002). Within the context of this study, as flame spread phenomena in buildings is a commonly experienced external reality with predetermined nature and structure it will ontologically be classified under realism (Sexton, 2002), and in axiological terms, will be value neutral as its findings will not depend on social statistics or individual opinions which are value laden but on series of methods which is experimental in nature (Sexton, 2002). According to Sexton (2002), methods can be utilised from all different research philosophies and therefore require a clear distinction of their use. 4.2 Research design Research design is an action plan for getting from here to there (Groat and Wang, 2002), the logic that links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn (Yin, 2003) p19, a logical plan for getting from here to there, where here may be defined as the initial set of questions to be answered and there is some set of conclusions (Yin, 2003) p20. Going according to Yin (2003)’s definition which conforms with that of Groat and Wang (2002), to answer the research questions the logical plan involved certain methods which are described below and which are meant to address various aspects of the questions and achieve the research aim and objectives. In order to form this logical plan the research aim had to be as scientifically validated through a pilot study on sample models (that geometries of different fire domain actually has an impact on the incident fire). This test was carried out using the FDS (Fire Dynamic Simulator) model which on its own had been validated for this particular research using BRE’s TF2000 fire test. 4.3 Pilot Study With the FDS simulation software validated its subsequent empirical results will be adopted which leads to the next stage, i.e. does the geometry of a fire domain (enclosure) have any impact on the rate of fire spread? A pilot simulation was carried out to investigate this. Three test domains were generated. The domain geometry consists of:

• A square 6720 x 6720mm • A triangle 9500mm height and 9500mm base • A circle 3790mm radius

As temperature values are closely related to heat fluxes this could be a pointer if the flow field within the domain is identical or not. Therefore differing temperatures within the domain could most likely symbolise difference in fire spread rate. Note: all other

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Temperature values for Square domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00400.00500.00600.00700.00800.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs=t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

(deg

C)

Temperatures 600mm abovefinished floor levelTemperatures 1200mm abovefinished floor levelTemperatures 1800mm abovefinished floor level

Temperature valuer for Triangular domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00400.00500.00600.00700.00800.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs= t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

s (d

eg C

)


Temperature valuer for Triangular domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00400.00500.00600.00700.00800.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs= t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

s (d

eg C

)


computation input parameters remain uniform. The prime unifying input parameter is the floor area (45m²) and flow field volume (108m³). There was no ventilation to ensure unaffected plume propagation. Below are temperature readings for the three geometries. For a reliable figure temperatures of six levels were taken: 600mm, 900mm, 1500mm, 1800mm, 2200mm above floor assumed floor level see graph, Figs 1 to 6. Triangular plan Computational Domain:

Readings when exposed to a 60 sec flame.

Fig. 1. Temperature reading for levels 600mm, 1200mm, 1800mm (triangular)

Fig. 2. Temperature reading for levels 900mm, 1500mm, 2200mm (triangular)

Square plan Computational Domain:


Fig. 3. Temperature reading for levels 600mm, 2100mm, 1800mm (square)

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Temperature values for Square domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00400.00500.00600.00700.00800.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs=t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

(deg

C)


Temperature values for circular domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00400.00500.00600.00700.00800.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs=t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

(deg

C)

Temperature 600 abovefinished floor levelTemperature 1200 abovefinished floor levelTemperature 1800 abovefinished floor level

Temperature values for circular domain

0.00100.00200.00300.00

400.00500.00600.00700.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

Time (secs=t/10)

Tem

pera

ture

(deg

C)

Temperature 900 abovefinished floor levelTemperature 1500 abovefinished floor levelTemperature 2200 abovefinished floor level

Fig. 4. Temperature reading for levels 900mm, 1500mm, 2200mm (square)

Circular plan Computational Domain:


Fig 5. Temperature reading for levels 900mm, 1500mm, 2200mm

Fig 6. Temperature reading for levels 600mm, 2100mm, 1800mm (square) From the output data values there were identical temperature readings for all six thermocouples `2 seconds into the fire and though near close readings after the during the decay period of the flame. From the graphs in Figs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 this can also be noticed in the pattern. Analysing these shape one could say hypothetically that the spread rate during the incipient and growth stage of the flame, for the three experiments were identical. This is likely to be as a result of lack of contact of the plumes with the domain boundaries. During the fully developed fire stage which for this experiment occurred between 2.5 and 25 seconds into the fire.

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Fig. 7. A typical temperature/time fire curve and various stages of fire development as help further illustrate the experiment graph.

Visual results of simulation The test domain was sealed up to control external fire friendly factors. This accounts for the short ignition – burnout time due to O2 depletion. All three tests from ignition to decay produced a maximum temperature of 820 deg C. The triangular domain plume burnout time =32.2 seconds from ignition The circular domain plume burnout time =35.6 seconds from ignition The square domain plume burnout time =37.0 seconds from ignition From the visuals with respect to plume spread propensity, The triangular domain 20seconds from ignition had the fire plume in contact with much surface area of its rear and side left side surfaces (see Fig 8) The circular domain 20seconds from ignition had a stray fire plume grazing a small fraction of its surface (see Fig 9). The square domain 20seconds from ignition, the fire plume did not make any visible contact with its surface. (see Fig 10). Below are the three basic morphologies which were used for to investigate the effect of the building shell or the compartment shell on fire spread rate.

The arrows show the part of the boundary walls that had come in contact with the fire plume within 20 second from ignition.

Fig. 8.The circular domain

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With the findings of this experiment, it is observed that there are different fire propagation rates for each sample in the chosen test. The validation process of the FDS simulator increased the reliability of the outcomes when the available input parameters where used. This is simply a pilot experiment of simple forms but complex forms is being considered for this research therefore a more contextual approach is adopted hence the research methodology framework. The methods used to achieve the research aim are shown in the research framework diagram.

Fig. 10. The square domain

Fig. 11. The circular domain

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5. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK DIAGRAM

5.1 Informing Case Studies

Natural fires been found through research to be 10% more severe, that is, fires (TEXT MISSING). As a result, this research involves study of large scale building fire experiments

Propose a Fire Safer High-Rise Model by altering Morphology Based on Research findings.

Draw Conclusions

Delphi Process For Theory Testing And Triangulation

Theory Building (Analytical Generalisation) Pattern Matching and Rigorous Explanatory

Compare Case study findings with that of informing case study (ICS)

CASE STUDY FINDINGS

(ICS) FINDINGS

Findings from the Delphi process is expected to validate findings or further inform the research until expert near or actual consensus among participants of 10 experts and research theory can either be achieved or positively cross analyzed. This approach is important because of the dynamism of new findings in fire research and the on going development of fire models.

Case Study / Simulation Integration

Case Study / Simulation Integration

CASE STUDY Case Study M1

HSBC Headquarters Control Case

Sample

Case Study M2 London Bridge

Tower (Shard Glass) by

Renzo Piano

Case Study M3 Bishopsgate Tower by Khon Pederson

Fox

Simulation M1 HSBC

Headquarters

Simulation M3Bishopsgate Tower by Khon Pederson

Fox

Simulation M2London Bridge

Tower (Shard Glass) by

Renzo Piano

Informing Case Study of natural fire experiments

INFORMING CASE STUDY (ICS)

(ICS) F1 WTC FIRES

(ICS) F2TF 2000 BRE

Medium-rise multi-storey

Fire test

(ICS) F3BRE Cardington steel

frame fire test

Literature Review

Develop Policy Implications

Propose Design Guidance

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Fig.13. World Trade Centre New York Showing a) The twin Towers, b) Floor Plan c) Fire Spread results from FDS (Image Source, National Institute of Standards and Technology

USA)

and investigation which is expected, in addition to literature review, inform the case study samples. Due to the absence of fire in the case samples, natural large scale experiments are being used to inform the case samples there by making the case study more robust.

The Informing case study samples selected are (ISC F1, ISC F2, and ISC F3). They involve existing enclosure fire situations with documented variables. Samples had to meet the following criteria. i) Real enclosure fire scenario. ii) Accessibility. iii)Availability of documented enclosure variables. (ISC) F1, WTC (World Trade Centre) Tower 1 selected for study in New York; Basis for selection: i) Real fire, ii) Accessible iii) Comprehensive documented; evidence on event, research exercise carried out and findings compiled by scientists for the American Government have been acquired. (ISC) F2, BRE (Building Research Establishment) TF 2000 Fire compartment experiment. Basis for selection: i) Real fire, ii) Accessible, iii) Comprehensive documented; evidence based on research exercise carried out and findings compiled by the British Research Establishment (BRE)

Fig. 14. Image showing a) the test building fire b) 2nd floor plan of scale six storey brick clad timber frame (Image Source, Chiltern Fire)

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Embedded (Multiple unit of analysis)

Fig. 17. Multiple Case Designs (Yin 2003)

(ISC) F3, BRE’s (Building Research Establishment) Cardington Fire test. Basis for selection: i) Real fire, ii) Accessible, iii) Comprehensively documented; evidence on event still being gathered research, exercise carried out and findings compiled by the British Research Establishment (BRE). 5.2 Case Studies A case study is appropriate when investigators are interested mainly in information specific to the particular study object and context (Ziesel, 1991) p65. In agreement, according to Yin (2003), case studies were used because the authors simply wanted to cover contextual conditions - believing that they might be highly pertinent to the phenomenon of study. As enclosure fire is a phenomenon based on complex interaction of contextual critical variables involving; ventilation rate (Fei et al, 2003), mass, volume, temperature, density, internal energy within enclosures (Chow and Meng, 2004), distribution and type of enclosure fuel loading (Gutierrez et al, 2005), (Babrauskas et al, 2005), temperature and radiation (Hostikka and McGrattan, 2005), (Juste, 2005), enclosure boundary conditions (Kodur, 2005) etc. With the fire spread as the phenomenon of study the high-rise enclosure influencing contextual attributes are important.

Multiple Cases was selected due to the nature of the research aim and available appropriate sample to address it. In addition to exploring the variables within the research aim to answer study questions, multiple case will provide substantial analytical benefits (Yin, 2003). Due to the complex behaviour of enclosure fires, the research if not focussed, can result in ‘ecological fallacy’ gathering data on one unit of analysis and making assertions on another (Fellows and Liu, 1997). To avoid this embedded case study design was adopted (Yin, 2003).

Fig .15. Image showing the test building is a full scale six storey brick clad steel frame building fire (Image Source, Chiltern Fire)

M GROUP

M1,M2,M3

F GROUP

F1, F2, F3

Embedded unit of analysis 01 Temperature

Embedded unit of analysis 02 Heat flux

Embedded unit of analysis 01 Temperature

Embedded unit of analysis 02 Heat flux

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For case these studies, five components of a research design are especially important:

1. A study’s questions or /and objectives 2. Its propositions, if any: None yet, expected to be discovered during Exploration. 3. Its unit(s) of analysis: Temperature and Heat flux (Gutierrez et al 2005). 4. The logic linking the data to the propositions: See diagram on page 11 5. The criteria for interpreting the findings: Analytical generalisation (Yin 2003).

The sources of evidence: Multiple convergent line of evidence (Yin 2003). Due to the absence of fire in the case samples, natural large scale experiments are being used to inform the case samples thereby making the case study more robust.

The ‘M’ (Morphology) group, M1, M2 and M3, which involves existing and approved proposed high-rise in the UK. Samples had to meet the following criteria;

i) Open –Plan design, ii) Access iii) Morphological relevance.

Selection of case samples proved difficult due to limited conformity with the above criteria which had to be fulfilled in other to meet with research aim and objectives.

Factors to be studied from each M and F categories cases that will address the research objectives:

• Background of case • Design of case • Construction finishes for internal compartment • Regulations and Government Requirements • Active and Passive Fire Protection • Management and maintenance

It is expected that the data from both sets of case studies would be the basis for a comparative analysis on impact of the building morphology on fire spread. A comparison of fire-boundary interaction is required to provide the core for the case study analysis and is expected to provide lead to answering the research questions.

Case samples involve existing and approved proposed high-rise in the UK. With the predictive nature of this set simulation will be used to generate a fire environment (Fellows and Liu 1997), (Groat and Wang 2002). M1, HSBC Building by Foster and Partners (Existing). Basis for selection i) Open –Plan design, ii) Accessibility protocol initial stage. iii) Morphological relevance:- Square shape along the horizontal ‘x’ axis and straight along the vertical ‘y’ axis, which represents a majority of high-rise form not just in the UK alone. This morphological type provided a high level of external validity (Yin, 2003) making it the control sample (a reference point) during analysis. (Style Post Modern).

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Address: 8-16 Canada Square, Canary Wharf, London. E14, Status; Completed Council Responsible: Tower Hamlets, Region: London, Country: United Kingdom, Architect: Norman Foster & Partners, Developers: Tower Hamlets Primary use: Office, Number of floors: 45, Floorspace (sqm): 102,191.00

M2, London Bridge Tower by Renzo Piano (Proposed and Approved). Basis for selection i) Office floors dominant within space, ii) Accessibility protocol advance stage, iii) Morphological relevance:- Square shape along the horizontal ‘x’ axis and inclined ‘i’ along the vertical (Style- Futurist). Address: 8 32 London Bridge Street, London. SE1, Status; Proposed, Council Responsible: Southwark, Region: London, Country: United Kingdom, Architect: Renzo Piano, Developers: Sellar Property Group, Primary use: Office, Number of floors: 82, Floorspace (sqm): 111,400.00 M3, Bishopsgate Tower by Khon Pederson Fox (Proposed and Approved). Basis for selection, i) Office floors dominant within space, ii) Accessibility protocol initial stage, iii) Morphological relevance:- Curved feature along the horizontal ‘x’ axis and straight along the vertical ‘y’ axis (Style-Zoomorphic). Address: 22-24 Bishopsgate, London. EC2, Council Responsible: City of London, Region: London, Country: United Kingdom, Architect: Khon Pederson Fox, Developers: DIFA Fonds, Primary use: Office, Number of floors: 60, Floorspace (sqm): 81,000.00

This simulation on the ‘M’ samples will be done on one typical floor and generalised for samples M1 and M3 where the x axis is vertical. That of case sample M2 will test a number of floors enough to confirm external validity. This is because the floors differ by way of the inclined plane ‘I’. Results of the research will then be discussed against the case samples of Groups 01 and 02.

Fig. 18. Image showing the HSBC bank building exhibiting its contemporary morphology (image and data from skyscraper.com)

y

x

i

Fig. 19. Image showing the London bridge building exhibiting its unique morphology (Image and data from skyscraper.com)

x

i

x

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5.3 Simulation Simulation has a long linage as well as a wide scope of coverage in history of philosophy relating to the question of how reality is really constituted and how we can come to know it (Groat and Wang, 2002), Simulation is used to assist the prediction of the behaviour of a reality or/and revise a model to enhance its predictive accuracy or predictive capability (Fellows and Liu, 1997). In agreement with Groat and Wang (2002) and Fellows and Liu (1997), researches in the fire subject area widely adopts the simulation technique in comparison with alternative methods along converging line of enquiries as a research methodology (Yin, 2003). This is demonstrated in works of (Hostikka and McGrattan, 2005) while investigating attenuation of fire plume spread in a sprinkler fitted building enclosure; (Chow and Yin, 2002) in proving a theory that during burning, the power law for the mass flux with weight holds; (Maele and Merci, 2005) in demonstrating that the effect of buoyancy on turbulence is important for fire driven flows; (Beard 2003) also with the simulation demonstrated the dependence of the critical fire size as necessary for the onset of flashover (rapid fire growth) on the aspect ratio of the enclosure etc. In attempting to predict a complex behaviour of enclosure fires (Fellows and lieu, 1997) suggests that simulation is used to deal with a complex dynamic process too complex to be represented by more rigid mathematical model which explains its choice as a co technique in fire simulation. This study, after literature search, proposes simulations to generate an enclosure fire for cases M1 M2 and M3, due to its predictive nature, acquired data will be compared against informing cases F1, F2, F3 which are natural enclosure fires and then subjected to the Delphi process for triangulation and theory testing. 5.4 Delphi Studies This is a qualitative method for obtaining consensus amongst group of experts (Lewis-Beck et al, 2004). This quality of expert opinion is needed for sensitive aspects of this study e.g. simulation/case study analysis with respect to integrity of findings (Delphi 01). Also it will be used with interviews for theory testing (Delphi 02), note however that these two techniques being used for testing were used for theory building and to avoid self prophesy (Fellows and Liu, 1997), two exclusively different set of respondents will be used for Interviews 01 and 02 and Delphi 01 and 02 (see research process diagram). Fowles (1978) describes the following steps for the Delphi method similar to that described by (Lewis-Beck, 2004): 1. Participants will be invited to comment on the results of the test process for the relevant stage. 2. Selection of one or more panels to participate in the exercise, experts in the area to be investigated. They will consist of authors of journals, identified researchers, architects of group 01 ‘M’ case samples. 3. Development of the first round Delphi questionnaire 4. Transmission of the first questionnaires to the panellists 6. Analysis of the first round responses 7. This is repeated until a consensus is reached on the particular area, (theory building and

testing Delphi see Research framework diagram).

Findings from the Delphi process is expected to validating findings or further informing the research until expert near or actual consensus among participants of 10 experts and research theory can either be achieved or positively cross analyzed. This approach is

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important because of the dynamism of new findings in fire research and the on going development of fire models. 6. CONCLUSION

This research has undergone major changes from January 2005. The actual research focus went through changes became broad, encompassing substitutability of timber for steel in high-rise floors and then narrowed down to the present topic, ‘Impact of open plan high-rise morphology on fire spread in the UK - with the aim of establishing a relationship between open-plan high-rise geometry and fire spread.

So far the critique received has been constructive greatly affecting the methodology. Exposure of the work has also received feedbacks showing a need to carry the research through.

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a study of fire response to uk high-rise ...egyptian pyramids of cheops and subsequently the great...

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