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3 8 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

document- level i nf or mation and

c on c e p t s o r i s s u e s , r a t h e r t h a n

the r ecor d- l evel inf or mat ion that

t r a d i t io n a l s y s t e m s d o [7 ].

T h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n t r a n e t w i t h

it s br owser s, sear ch capabili t ies,

and inf or mation- shar ing abil i t ies,

e n a b l e s a d e f a c t o K M s y s t e m .

I ntr anet s f acil i tate communication

a n d i n t e r a c t i o n a n d c r e a t e

w h a t h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s

a “knowl edge connection” [1 ].

A n i n t r a n e t s u p p o r t s K M i n a t

least thr ee ways: ( 1) pr ovidi ng

c o m p r e s s i o n o f t i m e a n d s p a c e

a m o n g t h e u s e r s , (2 ) o ffe r in g t h e

flexibility to exchange information,

a n d (3 ) s u p p o r t in g in f or m a t io n

t r a n s f e r s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

n e t w o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t o f  d i r e c t c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n u s e r s

(cf. [8 ]). Scott [9 ] developed

a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t

s u g g e s t s t h e m u l t i p l e w a y s

i n t r a n e t s s u p p o r t k n o w l e d g e

a n d g ive s n u m e r o u s e xa m p l e s ,

includi ng t he inclusion of t imel y

inf or mat i on, metaphor s, analogies,

p r o t o t y p e s , d i s c u s s i o n t h r e a d s ,

d e b a t e s , vid e o c l ip s , a n im a t io n ,

a n d o n l i n e d a t a b a s e s o n t h e

in t r a n e t . O n lin e n e t w o r k s a l lo w

t h e c o m b in i n g o f n e w k n o wle d g ewith exi sti ng i nf or mation, and

t h e y c a n g e n e r a t e a n d s y s t e m a t i z e

k n o w le d ge t h r o u g h o u t t h e

or ganizati on [2 ] . Without shar ed

kn owledge, an intr a net’s impa ct on

organizational effectiveness would

be l imi t ed [1 ]. Therefore, KM and

intr anet s ar e closely l inked, with

in t r a n e t s e n a b l in g K M b e c a u s e o f  

their a bi li t y to conn ect peopl e.

R ec e n t ly , a t t e n t i on h a s fo c u s e d

o n h o w t o m a n a g e a n d e n a b l e

this knowledge pr ocess. Ruggles

s t a t e s t h a t K M i s “ a n a p p r o a c h t o

a d d i n g o r c r e a t i n g v a lu e b y m o r e

actively lever aging th e kn ow-how,

e x p e rie n c e a n d j u d g m e n t r e s i d e n t

w it h i n a n d , in m a n y ca s e s , o u t s i d e

of an or ganization” [1 0 , p . 8 0 ].

He views KM f r om a pr ocess

per spective. When knowledge i s

v i e w e d a s a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n

a n a s s e t, t h e e m p h a s is is o n

c r e a t in g a p r o p e r e n v ir o n m e n t t o

enable and f acil i tat e the f low of  

inf or mat ion [1 1 ] . Thus, KM can

b e v ie we d a s c r e a t in g t h e p r o p e r

e n v ir o n m e n t t h a t fa c ilit a t e s t h e

flow of tacit an d exp licit kn owledge.

I n t r a n e t s , a c t i n g a s p i p e l i n e s t o

deliver knowledge, ar e seen as

c r it ic a l t o t h a t e n v ir o n m e n t [1 2 ],

[1 3 ].

However, evidence (e.g., [5 ], [9 ],

[1 4 ]–[1 6 ] ) suggests that employee

a c c e p t a n c e o f o r r e s i s t a n c e t o

i n t r a n e t s a s a k n o w l e d g e - s h a r i n g

e n vir o n m e n t i s a m a n a g em e n t

a n d c or p o ra t e c u l t u r e i s s u e r a t h e r

t h a n a t e c h n o l o g y i s s u e . A 1 9 9 9

( b e s t p r a c t i c e s ) s t u d y b y t h e

Amer ican Pr oductivity and Quality

C e n t e r fo u n d t h a t a c o m p a n y ’s

a b i lit y t o u s e t e c h n o l og y t o s h a r e

knowledge is based on employeee n t h u s ia s m , o r l a c k t h e r e of, w h i c h

i n t u r n i s r o o t e d i n t h e c o r p o r a t e

c u l t u r e o r s u b c u l t u r e t h a t i s

s a l ie n t t o t h e e m p l oy ee [1 4 ], [1 6 ].

Th i s p a p e r e x a m in e s t h e i n f lu e n c e

t h a t t h e o r ga n iz a t io n ’s c u l t u r e

h a s o n i n t r a n e t s . T h e i n t e n t i o n

o f t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n i s t o e n s u r e

t h a t a c o m p a t i b l e c u l t u r e e x i s t s

to f aci l i t ate knowledge shar ing,

along wi th f oster ing the success of  

int r anet s and KM ef f or ts.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND

INTRANETS

S in c e s h a r i n g o n in t r a n e t s i s a l s o a

sh ar ing of some level of knowledge

(eith er explicit kn owledge in the

f o r m o f m a n u a l s o r p r o c e d u r e s ,

or taci t knowledge in the f or m of  

electronic conversations or advice),

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e t h a t

s u p p o r ts s u c h s h a r in g c a n l ea d t o

mor e ef fective KM an d intr a net u se.

In s t illin g a c u l t u r e o f s h a r i n g a n d

mai ntaini ng inf or mation is cr i t ical

t o i n t r a n e t s u c c e s s . E d v i n s s o n

a n d S u lliv a n [1 7 ] p r o p o s e a m o d e l

t h a t i d e n t i fie s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f  

c u l t u r e i n m a n a g in g k n o wle d g e b y

s u g g e s t i n g c u l t u r e i s p a r t o f t h e

in t a n g ib l e s t r u c t u r a l c a p i t a l t h a t

s u p p o r ts t h e d e ve lo p m e n t a n d

tr an sf er of knowledge.

Ye t it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a

KM cult ur e is the most dif f icult

s u c c e s s f a c t o r t o b u i l d i f t h e

c u l t u r e d o e s n o t a lr e a d y e x is t [1 3 ],

[1 8 ]. In a st u dy of KM pra ctice, only

19% of executives indi cat ed t hat

their or ganizational per f or mance

in “facilitating knowledge growth

t h r o u g h c u l t u r e a n d i n c e n t i v e s ”

was good or excellent [1 0 ] . Cult ur e

is t h e s h a r e d in t e r p r et a t io n s a n d

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f or g a n i za t i on a l

e v e n t s , a n d t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g

develops over t ime [1 9 ]. Denison

s u g ge s t s t h a t “c u l t u r e r e fe r s t o t h e

d e e p s t r u c t u r e o f or g a n i za t i on s

w h i c h i s r o o t e d i n t h e v a l u e s ,

b e l i e f s , a n d a s s u m p t i o n s h e l d

b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s ”

[2 0 , p . 6 2 4 ] . T h e s e s h a r e d

c u lt u r a l a s s u m p t io n s a r e

p r e c o n s c i o u s , p o w e r f u l , a n d

a g r o u p p h e n o m e n o n [2 1 ] t h a t d o

n o t c h a n g e q u i c k ly .

Despite or ganizationa l cu l tur e’s

i n e r t i a , s u c c e s s f u l K M

im p l em e n t a t i on h a s b e en

identif ied as tr ansf or mati ve

t o t h e o r g a n i za t i on a n d i t s c u l t u r e

[2 2 ]. M a n a g e r s b e lie ve t h a t m a n y

o f t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t g a i n s fr o m

in t r a n e t s a r e in im p r o v in g w o r k e r

pr oductivity and mor ale, deci sion

m a k i n g , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r i n g

[2 3 ]. Therefore, th e effect of cultu re

o n in t r a n e t s , a n d , w it h t h e p a s s a g eof t ime, the ef f ect of int r anets on

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a r e a n

impor tant par t of KM pr acti ce [2 4 ].

Similar ly, or ganizational cul t ur e

h a s b e e n f ou n d t o i n flu e n c e

t h e s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

of sever al other inf or mati on

tech n ologies (ITs), in clud ing

CASE, Lotus Notes, and advanced

m a n u fa c t u r in g t e c h n o l og ie s

[2 5 ]–[2 7 ]. Yet Coope r [2 1 ] a n d

R o b e y e t a l . [2 8 ] s u g ge s t t h a t

cultur e, which of f er s a pr omi si ng

p e r s p e c t i v e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g

contr a dictor y findings r egar di ng I T

a n d o r ga n iz a t io n a l t r a n s fo r m a t i o n ,

i s a f a c t o r t h a t h a s b e e n l a r g e l y

ignor ed by I T implement at ion

r e s e a r c h e r s .

In a d d i t io n , m is m a t c h e s b e t w ee n

inf or mation technologi es and

their or ganizational sett ings

h a v e c a u s e d a n I T p r o d u c t i v i t y

p a r a d o x w h e r e t h e in c r e a s e d

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RUPPE L AND HARRINGTON: S HARING KNOWLE DGE THROUGH INTRANE TS 3 9

u s e o f IT d o es n o t r e s u l t i n

expected incr eases in pr oductivity

[2 9 ] . W i t h o u t a m a t c h b e t w e e n

t h e c u l t u r e o f a n o r ga n iz a t io n

a n d t h e c u l tu r a l a s s u m p t io n s

e m b e d d e d i n a n I T i n n o v a t i o n ,

a cost l y impl ement ation f ailur e

i s l ikely to occur [3 0 ] . Cultur e

c a n p r e ve n t s o m e I T p r o je c t s a n d

t h e i r a s s o c ia t e d o r ga n iz a t io n a l

t r a n s fo r m a t i o n s fr o m o c cu r r i n g

w h e n u s e r s c lin g t o o ld

a s s u m p t io n s a b o u t a u t on o m y

a n d c on t r o l [4 ].

T h i s i s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e I T

i n n o v a t i o n , i n t r a n e t s , s i n c e ,

a s F i c h t e r s u g g e s t s , “ I n t r a n e t s

a r e i n h e r e n t l y a b o u t p e o p l e a n d

or ganizationa l cultur es ” [3 1 , p. 74 ].

S o m e m a n a g e r s h a ve s u g ge s t e dt h a t t h e in f or m a t io n / t e c h n o l og y

comp on en t of KM is on ly 20 % of th e

KM a n d i n t r a n e t is s u e ; c u l t u r e a n d

m a n a g em e n t i s s u e s d o m i n a t e [9 ].

W h e n i n t r a n e t s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d ,

t h e i r s u c c e s s d e p e n d s s t r o n g l y

o n e m p lo ye e s u s in g t h e m , n o t

m e r e ly t h e ir e x is t e n c e [3 2 ]. In

sum, impl ementation ef f ectiveness

i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f a n

or ganization’s cu ltur e f or the

i mplement ation of the s pecifi c IT

i nnovat i on [3 3 ].

Wh a t k in d o f c u l tu r e s u p p o r ts

i n t r a n e t s ? A c u l t u r e t h a t r e w a r d s

m e m b e r s f o r i n n o v a t i o n a n d

l e a r n i n g c a n c a u s e n e w i n s i g h t s t o

gr ow ou t of new IT imp lemen tations

[3 4 ] . Other wise, the exi sti ng

c u l t u r e m a y fin d a w a y t o p r e s e r ve

ol d f or ms, such as f ace- to- f ace

m e e t i n g s o r h a r d - c o p y d o c u m e n t s ,

despite el ect r oni c al ter nati ves,

b e c a u s e t h e o ld f or m s a r e p a r t o f  

t h e e m p l oy ee s ’ in g r a i n e d h a b i t s

a n d a r e fa m ilia r a n d c o m fo r t in g t o

o r ga n iz a t io n a l m e m b e r s [2 8 ], [2 9 ].

I n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t e r s m a y a l s o

n e e d t o e n c o u r a g e c o op e r a t i on

a n d w i n – w i n s t r a t e g i e s t o b e

effective [3 1 ]. Some inter pr etivist

st udies ( e.g. , [2 4 ], [3 5 ]) have

f o u n d t h a t c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d

c o o p e r a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t r u s t ,

a r e k e y t o u n d e r s ta n d in g

im p l em e n t a t io n , u s a g e, a n d

o u t c o m e s o f in f or m a t io n s y s t e m s .

M i s t r u s t i s a n a s p e c t o f c u l t u r e

t h a t h a s a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n

b u ild i n g a KM c u l t u r e , w h e r e a s

“ p l e a s u r e i n h e l p i n g o t h e r s ”

h a s a p o s i t i v e i m p a c t [1 8 ], [3 4 ].

T h e r e f o r e , a c u l t u r e t h a t i s n o t

c o n d u c i v e t o i n t r a n e t s i s o n e t h a t

e m p h a s i ze s u n i la t e r a l c o n t r o l,

maximi zi ng winning and losing,

a n d m in i m i zin g t h e e x p r e s s i on o f  

negative feelings. This environment

c a n c r e a t e m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,

m i s t r u s t , p r o t e c t i v e n e s s , a n d

e s c a l a t in g e r r o r s [3 4 ], [3 6 ].

T r u s t o r l a c k o f t r u s t i s a

p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t g o e s b e y o n d

t h e s i m p l e r a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t ive

t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i s h e s t o

maximize economic efficiency

and ef f ecti veness [3 5 ]. T r u s t c a ncr eate soci al capital , def ined as the

in c r e a s e d c a p a b i lit y t h a t a r is e s

fr o m t h e p r e v a le n c e o f t r u s t , a n d

i s u s u a l l y c r e a t e d a n d t r a n s m i t t e d

t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l m e c h a n i s m s :

t h a t i s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s b a s e d o n

c u l t u r e s o f s h a r e d e t h i ca l v a lu e s

a n d t r u s t c a n r e d u c e r e gu l a t io n s

a n d c on t r a c t u a l o ve rh e a d [3 5 ].

Wh e r e a n e t h ic a l a n d t r u s t in g

c u l t u r e m a y a l r e a d y e x i s t , t h e r e

may be l ess need f or monitor ing or

pr ivacy gu idelines [3 7 ] . T h u s , a ne t h ic a l a n d t r u s t in g c u l t u r e m a y

r e d u c e s o m e b u r d e n s , i n c r ea s e

s o c i a l c a p i t a l , a n d a i d i n t r a n e t

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

Th e e ffe c t o f c u l t u r e m a y o n l y

in c r e a s e i n t h e fu t u r e . Wh i le t h e

less cr i t i cal , easy to implement

s y s t e m s c a n b e c o n v e r te d q u ic k ly ,

in t r a n e t - b a s e d m i s s i on - c r it ic a l

a p p l ic a t i on s a r e i n t h e e a r ly s t a g e s

o f im p l e m e n t a t i o n , a n d t h e y m a y

o n l y b e u s e d i n c e r t a i n a r e a s o f  

or ganizat i ons [1 5 ], [3 8 ]. Using

the int r anet f or collabor ative

a p p l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s d i s c u s s i o n

g r ou p s , w or k flo w, a n d d o c u m e n t

m a n a g e m e n t , c r e a t e s h i g h e r r i s k  

a n d l o n g e r t i m e f r a m e s , b u t i t

a l s o c r e a t e s g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l

fo r p e r fo r m a n c e im p r o v em e n t

(cf. [3 8 ]). E m p l oy ee s m u s t b e

w i l l i n g t o s h a r e a n d t r u s t o t h e r s

t o s h a r e [8 ]. M a n a g e m e n t m u s t

r e a l i z e t h a t k n o w l e d g e m u s t b e

n u r t u r e d , s u p p o r t e d , e n h a n c e d ,

a n d c a r e d f o r [2 ] . Plat f or ms and

c u l t u r e s m u s t b e d e v e l o p e d w h e r e

kn owledge can fr eely emer ge [2 ].

Ther ef or e, this r esear ch f ocuses

o n t h e a s p e c t s o f a n o r g a n i za t i on a l

c u l t u r e t h a t m a y a f f e c t t h e e a r l y

implementation and dif f usi on

o f i n t r a n e t s . A m o d e l o f t h e

r e s e a r ch s t u d y c a n b e fo u n d in

F i g . 1 . B e c a u s e t h e r e s e a r c h w a s

c o n d u c t e d e a r l y i n t h e i n t r a n e t

adoption tr end, i t is believed t hat

c u l t u r e i m p a c t s i n t r a n e t u s e .

H o we ve r, a s t im e p r o c e ed s , t h e

c a u s a l f lo w m a y r e ve r s e : t h a t is ,

i n t r a n e t s m a y c a u s e c h a n g e s t o

the existing cultur e. The pr edicted

continued and r apid gr owt h of both

KM a n d i n t r a n e t s , a n d t h e n e e d t o

e x p a n d in t r a n e t s e n t e r p r is e - wid eand even inter or ganizati onall y,

s u g ge s t s t h a t t h is t y p e o f r e s e a r c h

is o f gr e a t i n t e r e s t t o t h e b u s i n e s s

c o m m u n i t y a s w ell a s t h e a c a d e m i c

c o m m u n i t y .

DIMENSIONS OF

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Q u i n n a n d R o h r b a u g h [3 9 ]

developed a f r amewor k f or

or ganizationa l ef fectiveness t h at is

b a s e d o n c o m p e t in g v a l u e s . T h isf r a m e w o r k h a s b e e n u s e d a s a n

inter vention in or ganizations t o

e n h a n c e p e r fo r m a n c e , a s w e ll a s i n

emp ir ical r es ear ch (e.g. , [4 0 ]–[4 2 ])

b e c a u s e o f it s a b i lit y t o t a p in t o

t h e a s p e c t s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

effectiveness via different values,

a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

tha t def ine an or ganization’s

c u l t u r e .

T h e f i r s t d i m e n s i o n o f t h i s

fr a m e wo r k r e s u lt s fr o m a nor ganization that ei ther val ues

organizational flexibility or

or ganizational or der . The other

d i m e n s i on v a r ie s fr o m a n e x te r n a l

fo c u s t o a n in t e r n a l fo c u s . T h i s

r e s u lt s i n a f r a m e w or k c o n t a in i n g

fo u r q u a d r a n t s :

• o n e w i t h a n e x t e r n a l f o c u s

which values flexibility

(developmental),

• a n o t h e r wit h a n e x t er n a l fo c u s

which valu es or der (r at iona l ),

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4 0 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

• a n o t h e r w i t h a n i n t e r n a l

f o c u s t h a t v a l u e s o r d e r

(hi er ar ch ical ), an d

• t h e l a s t w i t h a n i n t e r n a l

focus which values flexibility

(group).

T h e s e q u a d r a n t s r e p r e s e n tf o u r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s e t s t h a t

pr ovide compet ing viewpoint s on

t h e m e a n in g o f or g a n i za t i on a l

effectiveness.

An or ganizati on may contai n

multi ple values, however ,

s u c h a s v a l u i n g o r d e r w h i l e

encou r aging s ome flexibili ty, th u s

t h e c u lt u r e d i m e n s i on s a r e n o t

m u t u a lly e x c lu s i ve . I n s t e a d , e a c h

d i m e n s i on r e fle c t s t h e s t r e n g t h

of the or ganization’s belief tha tt h e d im e n s i on is im p o r t a n t

to achieving or ganizational

effectiveness [4 1 ], [4 3 ]. Maximu m

ef f ectiveness may be achieved

w h e n a n o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s t r o n g

in all dimensions. Or ganizations

s h o u l d b e b o t h a d a p t a b l e

a n d c o n t r o l l e d , a s w e l l a s

f o c u s e d o n g r o w t h a n d r e s o u r c e

acquisi t ion whil e adher ing to t ight

in fo r m a t io n m a n a g em e n t a n d

fo r m a l c o m m u n ic a t io n [4 3 ].

W h i l e s t r e n g t h i n t h e s e f o u r

d i m e n s i o n s c o m p r i s e s s o m e

r e s e a r c h e r s ’ t h i n k i n g o n c u l t u r e ,

t h e y a r e n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a ll

e n c o m p a s s i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o

cu ltur e’s poss ible dimen sions.

O n e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n n e e d e d

f o r t h e s h a r i n g r e q u i r e d b y K M

a n d i n t r a n e t s , a n d i m p l i e d b y

t h e a b o ve d is c u s s io n , i s a n

e t h ic a l a n d t r u s t i n g c u lt u r e [1 5 ],

[4 4 ], [4 5 ] . Cultur al values f or

K M a r e “ o p e n n e s s a n d h o n e s t y ,

s i n c e r e s e r vic e a t t it u d e t o wa r d

m e m b e r s h i p , ” a n d a “ h i g h t r u s t

c u l t u r e fo r s h a r e d le a r n in g ” [4 6 , p .

52] . None of the f our dimensions

of t h e competing values fr am ewor k 

specif i cally addr ess these values of  

ethics and tr ust . Meanwhile, ethics

r e s e a r ch e r s h a v e i n c lu d e d s u c h

d i m e n s i on s in t h e i r c u l tu r e s t u d i es

b y u s i n g v a lu e s o f b e n e vo le n c e ,

e go is m , a n d o t h e r p r in c i p le s inwor k cli mates ( cf . [4 7 ], [4 8 ]).

Th u s , w h ile t h e c o m p e t i n g v a lu e s

fr a m e w or k c a p t u r e s a n in t e r n a l

v e r s u s a n e x t e r n a l f o c u s o r

flexibil ity ver sus or der , t her e

i s n o t h i n g c a p t u r e d i n t h e s e

c o m p e t i n g v a l u e s t h a t s u g g e s t s

t h e s e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f e t h i c s

and t r ust ar e specif ically r elated

t o a n y p a r t ic u l a r q u a d r a n t (s ). We

pr ef er to t hink of an ethical cultur e

a s a n o v e r a r c h i n g c o n c e r n f o r

a l l m e m b e r s o f t h e o r g a n i za t i on ,r e ga r d l e s s o f t h e in t e r n a l / e x t er n a l

focus or flexibility/ order values.

Th e r e fo r e , t h i s s t u d y w o u l d b e

r emiss with out a “fifth” di men si on

d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e

c u l t u r e f o r e t h i c s a n d t r u s t , w i t h

t h e r e s u lt in g , p r o p o s e d c o r p or a t e

c u l t u r e d i m e n s i o n s r e l e v a n t t o

KM shown in Fig. 2. We wi l l

n o w e x a m i n e e a c h o f t h e f o u r

q u a d r a n t s o f t h e c o m p e t in g v a lu e s

f r amewor k, as well as the f i f t h

dimen sion of ethical wor k climate,

w i t h r e s p e c t t o i n t r a n e t s a n d t h e

or ganizational cultur e.

D e v e l o p m e n t a l C u l t u r e A

d e ve lo p m e n t a l c u lt u r e is a c u lt u r e

that values f lexibil i ty and has

a n e x t e r n a l f o c u s . C o o p e r [2 1 ]

a n d C o o p e r a n d Q u i n n [4 0 ]

identif y a development al cul t ur e

a s o n e w h e r e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n

f a c e s a c o m p l e x , t u r b u l e n t ,and poli t icized envir onment .

M a n a g e m e n t b e lie ve s t h a t c h a n c e s

f or or ganizational sur vival and

g r o w t h a r e i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h

the pr omotion of or gani zati onal

insight, innovation, and adapt at ion

[2 1 ], [4 0 ].

T h e r a p i d s p r e a d o f i n t r a n e t s

s u g ge s t s t h a t t h o s e w h o w is h t o

r ema in competit ive would be awar e

o f t h e t r e n d t o wa r d in t r a n e t s a n d

their widely touted benef i t s andrelatively low costs [2 3 ]. With the

competit ion r apidly impl ementi ng

i n t r a n e t s a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , i t

F ig . 1 . R e s e a r c h m o d e l o f i n t r a n e t i m p l em e n t a t i on .

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RUPPE L AND HARRINGTON: S HARING KNOWLE DGE THROUGH INTRANE TS 4 1

w o u l d s e e m t h a t a n o r g a n i z a t i o n

w i t h a d e v e l o p m e n t a l c u l t u r e

w o u l d a l s o f e e l p r e s s u r e t o

im p l e m e n t o n e . O r ga n iz a t io n s

w it h a n e x t er n a l v ie w a n d c o n c e r n

f or compet it ive pr essur es would

i m p l e m e n t a n i n t r a n e t s i n c e i t s

bar r ier s ar e low. Mor eover , a

d e v e l o p m e n t a l c u l t u r e i s m o r e

flexible and innovative and willing

t o tr y new things. In su ch a cu ltur e,

c h a n g e a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o r

i deological appea l of the t as k b eing

u n d e r t a k e n m o t iv a t e s i n d i vid u a l s

[2 6 ] . I nt r anets f lour ish wher e

i nf or mati on r esour ce uti l izati on

is a n a c t ive , r a t h e r t h a n r e a c t ive ,

c u l t u r a l c o m p o n e n t [8 ]. Therefore,

w e p r o p o s e :

H 1 : T h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n ad e v e l o p m e n t a l c u l t u r e a n d

in t r a n e t im p l e m e n t a t i o n .

R ati onal C ul ture T h e r a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e i s o n e i n w h i c h t h e

or ganization i s a war e of i ts

e n v i r o n m e n t a n d r e a c t s t o

i t a s a c o h e s i v e u n i t i n a n

i ntentional ly optimizing manner .

Ke y m a n a g e m e n t a c t iv it ie s a r e

designed t o maximize pr of it

t h r o u g h p l a n n i n g , d i r e c t i n g , a n d

goal sett ing [2 1 ], [4 0 ] . The r at ionalc u l t u r e r e a c t s t o i t s e n v i r o n m e n t

i n a m a n n e r t h a t o p t i m i z e s

or ganizationa l pr odu ctivity.

B ec a u s e it va l u e s o r d e r a n d

st abil i t y, i t est abl ishes contr ol

s t r u c t u r e s w it h v a r yin g d e g r ee s o f  

f or mal i zati on and centr alization

t o d e a l w it h c o n t e xt u a l fa c t o r s ,

s u c h a s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s i z e

a n d e n vir o n m e n t a l u n c e r t a in t y

[4 0 ]. S t r u c t u r e s va r y b e c a u s e

near ly al l decisions ar e dr iven by

r ationa l -economic cr i ter ia.

S i n c e m a n y i n t r a n e t s h a v e

g r o w n w i t h o u t f o r m a l r e t u r n

on investment ( ROI ) analysis

[2 3 ], o r g a n i za t i on s t h a t r e q u i r e

s u c h R OI c a lc u l a t io n s w ou l d b e

le s s lik e ly t o c r e a t e i n t r a n e t s

in a g ra s s - r o ot s m a n n e r. It h a s

b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a m o n g

e a r ly a d o p t e r s t h e s e g r a s s - r o ot s

o r “ u n d e r g r o u n d ” i n t r a n e t s f a r

o u t n u m b e r o f fic ia l i n t r a n e t s [4 9 ].

Mor eover , t h e p r e- imp lemen tation

ROI is difficult to estimate, withp o s t - im p l e m e n t a t i o n e s t im a t e s

o n l y n o w b e i n g d e c la r e d a t 1 0 0 0 %

ROI [2 4 ] . I t m a y b e t h a t r a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e s w ill i m p le m e n t in t r a n e t s

n o w t h a t s u c h e s t im a t e s a r e

b e c o m i n g k n o w n , b u t n o t a s e a r l y

im p l e m e n t e r s w h ic h a r e t h e fo c u s

o f t h i s s t u d y .

W h i l e t h e e x t e r n a l f o c u s o f  

t h i s c u l t u r e w o u l d m a k e t h e

o r ga n iz a t io n a w a r e o f t h e r a p i d

a d o p t i on o f in t r a n e t s , t h e d e s i r ef or or der may st if le innovations

t h a t t e n d t o b e in e a r ly s t a g es

o f d e v e l o p m e n t b e c a u s e i t i s

d i ffic u l t t o m a in t a in o r d e r a n d

encour age pr oductivity while

e x p er im e n t in g w it h in t r a n e t s .

I ntr anets, especially those f or med

a s a g r a s s - r o o t s p h e n o m e n o n ,

can conf lict with th is cu ltur e’s

desir e f or f or ma lizati on an d

contr ol. Thus, while i ntr anets wer e

developed to lessen inf or mat i on

o ve r lo a d a n d t o a l lo w t h e s h a r i n g

of knowledge, they can l i kewise

le a d t o t h e ve r y t h in g t h e y

w e r e d e s i g n e d t o d e c r e a s e [5 0 ].

Ther efor e, we pr opose:

H 2 : Th e r e i s n o r e la t i on s h i p

b e t w e e n a r a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d

in t r a n e t i m p l em e n t a t i on .

H i erarch i cal C ulture Th e

h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e i s o n e i n

w h i c h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s n o t

consider ed a signif icant f actor .

R a t h e r , m a n a g e m e n t i n t e r e s t

is f oc u s e d u p o n m e a s u r e m e n t ,d o c u m e n t a t i o n , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n

m a n a g em e n t [2 1 ], [4 0 ]. Since

t h i s c u l t u r e i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h

a n i n t e r n a l f o c u s a n d o r d e r , i t

identifies wa ys to br ing or der to t h e

inter nal or ganization. I t is hi ghly

specialized, depar tmentalized, and

h a s in t e r n a l c o n t r ol s t r u c t u r e s .

Le a d e r s t e n d t o b e c o n s e r va t i ve

a n d w is h t o o b t a i n t i m e ly ,

r e g u l a r r e p o r t s o f i n t e r n a l

inf or mation. I ndividual s compl y

w it h o r ga n iz a t io n a l m a n d a t e sb e c a u s e r o le s a r e f or m a l ly s t a t e d

a n d e n fo r ce d t h r o u g h r u le s a n d

r egulations. Although t he f ocus i s

in t e r n a l , t h e e m p h a s is i s o n t h e

t a s k r a t h e r t h a n t h e i n d i v i d u a l

p e r f o r m i n g t h e t a s k [2 1 ].

F ig . 2 . F ive d i m e n s i o n s o f or g a n i za t i on a l c u l t u r e .

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4 2 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

I n t r a n e t s h a v e a n i n t e r n a l f o c u s

a n d c a n b e u s e d t o p u b l is h p o lic ie s

a n d p r o c e d u r e s . R e s e a r c h (e . g. ,

[1 5 ] ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t r a n e t s

a r e q u ic k ly a n d e a s ily u s e d

f or publ ishing inter nal policies

a n d p r o c e d u r e s , r e s u l t i n g i n

gr eatly lower ed publi cation costs,

a n d t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o s t

c o m m o n i n t r a n e t a p p l i c a t i o n .

T h u s i n t r a n e t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

a h i e r a r c h i ca l c u l t u r e ’s va l u e s t h a t

emphasi ze polici es, pr ocedur es,

a n d i n f o r m a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t w i t h

t h e i r i n t e r n a l fo c u s .

In a d d i t io n , L y n c h [4 9 ] s u g ge s t s

t h a t t h e b i g g e s t i s s u e i n i n t r a n e t

u s e i s c o n t e n t m a n a g e m e n t .

A h i e r a r c h ic a l c u lt u r e w ou ld

h a v e m u c h if n o t a ll o f t h is

c o n t e n t a l r e a d y in p l a c e, a l t h o u g h

i t m a y e x i s t i n p a p e r f o r m .

Si milar ly, Cur r y et al . [1 5 ] suggest

t h a t e s t a b l i s h i n g p o l i c i e s a n d

p r o c e d u r e s f o r i n t r a n e t u s e ,

c on t e n t m a n a g em e n t , a n d s e cu r i t y

a r e r e c o m m e n d e d a s k e y e l e m e n t s

o f in t r a n e t m a n a g em e n t . I n a

h i e r a r c h i ca l c u lt u r e w h e r e c o n t r o l

a n d s e c u r i t y a r e v a l u e d [2 6 ],

s e c u r i t y p r o c e d u r e s a n d p r o j e c t

m a n a g em e n t m e t h od s m a y a l r ea d y

b e i m p l e m e n t e d . T h e s e s e c u r i t ym e a s u r e s , a s p r e v io u s l y d is c u s s e d ,

a r e i m p o r ta n t t o t h e t e ch n ic a l

a b i lit y t o im p l e m e n t in t r a n e t s .

Ther efor e, we pr opose:

H 3 : T h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a

h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e a n d

in t r a n e t i m p l em e n t a t i on .

Group Culture T h e g r o u p c u l t u r e

i s o n e i n w h i c h t h e m a i n t e n a n c e

o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i t s h u m a n

r e s o u r c e s i s k e y , e m p h a s i z i n gcohesi ve r elat ionships, indivi dual

c o m m i t m e n t , a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n .

Wh i le t h is c u l t u r e is in w a r d l y

focused, it also values flexibility.

Ma n a g e r s p r o m o t e e m p l oy ee

d i a lo gu e , p a r t i c ip a t i on , a n d

t r a i n in g t o a c c o m p l is h t h i s g o a l

[2 1 ], [4 0 ].

Or likowski [2 4 ] , i n h e r s t u d y

o f th e im p a c t o f cu l t u r e o n

Lotus Notes, a technol ogy with

a k n o w l e d g e - s h a r i n g p u r p o s e ,

f o u n d t h a t a c o m p e t i t i v e c u l t u r e

t h a t d o e s n o t s u p p o r t c o o p e r a t i o n

o r s h a r in g i s c ou n t e r cu l t u r a l

t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e o f  

these technologies. KM r equir es a

t e c h n i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e t h a t i s m o r e

open, soci al , t r anspar ent, f lexible,

a n d r e s p e c t fu l o f e m p l o ye e s [5 1 ].

I ntr anets, with the capabili ty f or

o p en i n g u p c om m u n i ca t io n a n d

inf or mat ion in a technologically

t r a n s p a r e n t m a n n e r w i t h i n

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , h a v e t h e

c a p a b i l i t y t o e n c o u r a g e s u c h

s h a r i n g t h r o u g h f e a t u r e s l i k e

discussion gr oups or , what is being

r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s ,

communi ties of pr actice. Kir sner

[3 2 ] s t a t es in t r a n e t s u c ce s s is

6 0 % c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d 4 0 %t e c h n o l og y. I n a c u l t u r e o f  

c o op e r a t i on a n d s h a r i n g , in t r a n e t s

e n h a n c e t h e a b i l i t y t o s h a r e

k n o w l e d g e , a n d g r o u p c u l t u r e s

a p p e a r t o b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

i n t r a n e t s .

I n a d d i t i o n , g r o u p c u l t u r e s

value af f i l iat ion, human r esour ce

d e ve lo p m e n t , a n d e m p l oy ee

par ticipat ion in decision making.

S u c h v a l u e s m a y e n c o u r a g e

e m p l oy ee c o m m it m e n t t h r o u g hincr eased gr oup collabor ation,

t r u s t , a n d t r a d i t i o n [2 6 ], [4 2 ]. One

o f t h e f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d u s e s o f  

in t r a n e t s is fo r h u m a n r e s ou r c e

m a n a g e m e n t p u r p o s e s . T h e

in t r a n e t c a n b e u s e d t o p r o vid e

inf or mat ion concer ning employee

b e n e f i t s a n d j o b o p e n i n g s ,

a s w e l l a s t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s .

Mor eover , gr ea ter pa r ticipa tion

i s e n c o u r a g e d , a s i n f o r m a t i o n

not pr evi ously available now

becomes available to employees.

Th i s e n h a n c e d a b i lit y t o fin d

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o d o t h e i r

 jo b s m a y b e im p o r t a n t , f or it

h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t

p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b ilit y i s a n

enabler of KM [2 2 ]. Similarly,

it h a s b e e n s u g ge s t ed t h a t K M

e f f o r t s s h o u l d t r y t o a v o i d t h e

loss of i ntellectual capital by

r e t a in i n g e m p l oy ee s t h r o u g h

e n a b lin g p e r s o n a l d e v elo p m e n t

a n d e m p o w e r m e n t [2 2 ], [4 5 ].

In s u m , g r ou p c u l tu r e s w ou l d

likely suppor t the development of  

intr anets. Ther ef or e, we pr opose:

H 4 : T h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a

g r o u p c u l t u r e a n d i n t r a n e t

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

E thi cal C ul ture While the

competing values f r amewor k 

d e s c r ib e s va l u e s o ft e n u s e d f or

d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , i t d o e s n o t

in c l u d e s p e c ific m e a s u r e s fo r t r u s t

a n d a n e t h i c a l w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t .

G r o u p c u l t u r e i s b e l i e v e d t o

facili tate tr u st thr ough af fi li at ion

a n d m e m b e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n [2 6 ],

b u t t h e g r ou p c u lt u r e m e a s u r e

d o es n o t m e a s u r e t r u s t o r t h e

ethical values of benevolence

a n d c o n c e r n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t r u s t . Ye t e vid e n c e e x is t s t h a tif a cl imate of benevolence and

t r u s t d o e s n o t e x i s t , k n o w l e d g e

s h a r i n g w ill b e d im i n i s h e d [1 5 ],

[4 4 ], [4 5 ]. Davenp or t [1 3 ] suggest s

t h a t s h a r in g k n o w le d ge i s a n

“unnatur al act .” Ther ef or e, f or

f i r m s w h e r e e m p l o y e e s a r e

c o n c e r n e d m a in l y w it h t h e i r o wn

b e s t i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e r e i s a l o w

le ve l of t ru s t , t h e i n h e r e n t s h a r i n g

o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n a n i n t r a n e t i s

c o u n t e r - c u l t u r a l [3 4 ], [4 6 ].

E m p l o y e e s m a y f e a r s h a r i n g

kn owledge f or f ear of becoming

r e d u n d a n t , g iv in g a w a y e x p e r t is e ,

o r b e i n g e m b a r r a s s e d [1 6 ].

Employees who lack ot her f or ms

o f co n t r ol o r p o w er m a y u s e

k n o w le d ge a s a c on t r o l a n d

def ense device [4 4 ] u n l es s t h e y

f e e l t h a t t h e y w i l l b e t r e a t e d

f air ly and r espectf ul l y. The

n e e d f or e m p a t h y a n d c on c e r n

fo r o t h e r s i s fu n d a m e n t a l t o

s h a r i n g k n o w l e d g e [2 ], [3 4 ],

[4 4 ], [4 5 ] . These pr oposit i ons

a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i th fin d i n g s o f  

t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d s t u d y

o n t h e i m p a c t o f c u l t u r e o n

Lotus Notes implementati on

[2 5 ] . I t is also consistent wi th

S c h w a r tz [3 8 ] , w h o s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e r e a l va l u e o f in t r a n e t

development comes f r om t he l evel

of inter depar tmental col l abor ati on

r e q u i r e d t o d e s ig n a n d i m p l e m e n t

th e si tes. When stu dying i nt r a- f ir m

n e t w o r k s , i t w a s f o u n d t h a t

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RUPPE L AND HARRINGTON: S HARING KNOWLE DGE THROUGH INTRANE TS 4 3

cooper ative behavi or may emer ge

w h e n t r u s t e x i s t s , l e a d i n g t o

a posit i ve association between

t r u s t a n d t h e e x t en t o f r e s ou r c e s

e x c h a n g e d w i t h i n u n i t s o f a

firm [5 2 ]. Similarly, Inkpen [5 3 ]

fo u n d t r u s t a n e c e s s a r y e le m e n t

o f t h e o r ga n iz a t io n a l c u l t u r e

t hat f aci l i tates the ef f ective

i mplement ati on and uti l ization of  

knowl edge. Thus, or gani zat ions

t h a t e n c ou r a g e a c a r in g , t r u s t i n g

envir onment , while discour agi ng

sel f - int er ests, woul d be mor e

lik e ly t o im p l e m e n t in t r a n e t s

successf ully. Ther ef or e, we

p r o p o s e :

H 5 : T h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n

e t h i c a l , t r u s t i n g c u l t u r e a n din t r a n e t im p l e m e n t a t i o n .

METHODOLOGY

A s u r ve y wa s c on s t r u c t e d a n d

u s e d t o o b t a i n a s b r o a d a c r o s s

s e c t io n o f o rg a n i za t i on s a s

p o s s ib le a n d c om p a r e a c r os s

t hese or gani zat ions the ef f ect of  

d i ffe r e n t c u l t u r e t y p e s o n in t r a n e t

i mplement ati on. Accor ding t o

Kerlin ger [5 4 ] , s u c h s u r v e y s h a v e

t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a c c u r a c y a n d

c a n b e u s e d t o o b t a i n s o c i a lf acts, beli ef s, and att i tudes. Since

m a n y q u a l i t a t i v e a c c o u n t s o f  

cu ltur e’s effect on KM h ave been

r epor ted, sur vey methodology is

an appr opr i ate methodology f or

conf i r ming or denying hypotheses

g e n e r a t e d b a s e d o n q u a l i t a t i v e

a c c o u n t s .

S u r v ey s w er e s e n t t o U . S .

i nf or mati on systems ( I S) manager s

r a n d o m l y s e le c t ed f r om a n a t io n a l

maili ng l ist . I S manager s wer e

sel ected because i t was bel ieved

t h e y w e r e i n t h e b e s t p o s i t i o n

t o a s s e s s t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e a n d t h e e x t e n t o f i n t r a n e t

im p l e m e n t a t i o n . S e ve r a l s o u r c e s

h a v e a r gu e d t h a t w h e n s t u d y in g

c u l t u r e , m a n a g e r s a r e t h e

a p p r o p r i a t e s o u r c e o f e va l u a t i on

o f t h e o ve r a l l cu lt u r e [2 9 ], [5 5 ],

[5 6 ]. Man ager s’ values , b eha vior s,

a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b e c o m e t h e

s e n t i m e n t s t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

m e m b e r s r e fle c t , r e s u lt in g in a

h o m o g e n e o u s c u lt u r e w i t h r e s p e c t

to mor al i ty [1 9 ], [5 7 ] . Thus, i t

s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t m a n a g e r s

w o u l d b e i n t h e b e s t p o s i t i o n t o

d e s c rib e m a n a g em e n t va lu e s a n d

a t t i tu d e s t o wa r d t h e i r e m p l o ye e s ’

in t e r e s t s , t h e o ve r a ll m a n a g e m e n t

expectat ions that ar e r ef lected in

t h e c u lt u r e , a n d t h e c u l t u r e i t s e lf.

Appr oximately 375 sur veys wer e

mailed in 1996, and wer e believed

t o r e a c h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s o n ,

w i t h 4 4 s u r v e y s r e t u r n e d f o r a

r e s p o n s e r a t e o f 1 2 % , w h i c h i s

lo we r t h a n d e s i r ed . S i n c e o t h e r

stu dies ( e.g. , [4 7 ], [5 8 ]) on ethics

h a v e a l s o h a d l o w r e s p o n s e

r a t e s , w e w er e c o n c e r n e d t h a t

a n o n r e s p o n s e b i a s m a y h a v ee n t e r ed in t o t h e s t u d y . To e n s u r e

t h e r e w a s n o r e s p o n s e b i a s , a

f ollow- up sur vey was sent in 1998,

a s k i n g n o n r e s p o n d e n t s w h y t h e y

d id n o t r e s p on d a n d a ls o a s k i n g

t h e m t o r e p ly t o a s h o r t e n e d

ve r s io n o f t h e i n t r a n e t s u r ve y t h a t

d i d n o t i n c l u d e e t h i c s o r t r u s t

q u e s t io n s . T h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e

fo llo w- u p s u g ge s t t h a t t h e m a j or

r e a s o n s fo r n o t r e s p o n d i n g w e r e:

(1 ) t o o m a n y s u r v e ys : 3 6 % , ( 2 )

not enough t ime: 23%, ( 3) lengtho f s u r v e y: 2 0 % , a n d (4 ) c om p a n y

p o lic y n o t t o r e s p o n d t o s u r ve ys :

8 % . O n ly 3 % r e s p o n d e d t h a t t h e

s e n s it ive n a t u r e o f t h e q u e s t i o n s

w a s a r e a s o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t

t h e r e is n o r e s p on s e b ia s a m o n g

those pr evi ously r esponding.

Th e s h o r t en e d s u r ve y s e n t i n t h e

s e c o n d r o u n d d u p l i c a t e d o n l y t h e

q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g i n t r a n e t s .

B ec a u s e q u e s t io n s o n e t h ic s a n d

t r u s t w e r e n o t in c l u d e d , t h e s e c on d

s u r v ey w a s n o t in t e n d e d t o b e

u s e d i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .

I n s t e a d , i t w a s u s e d t o c o n f i r m

t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l r e s p o n d e n t s

a n d n o n r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e n o

dif f er ent i n their implementation

o f i n t r a n e t s a n d t o c o n f i r m t h a t

in t r a n e t s w er e b e in g u s e d i n a

m a n n e r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h K M a n d

t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h is s t u d y .

T o f u r t h e r t e s t f o r t h e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f t h e

r e s p o n d e n t s , i n d u s t r y

classif ications of the r espondent s

w er e c o m p a r e d t o t h e in d u s t r y

clas sification of the ma i ling l ist

a s a w h o l e , a n d n o s i g n i f i c a n t

d e p a r t u r e s w e r e fo u n d . Als o , t h e

s u r ve y a s k e d a b o u t t e c h n o lo gie s

o th e r t h a n in t r a n e ts ; s o t h e

s a m p l e i s n o t b i a s e d t o w a r d o n l y

t h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a r e u s i n g

in t r a n e t s . T h e r e fo r e , w e d o n o t

b e lie ve t h e r e is a n o n r e s p o n s e b i a s

e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e s p o n s e r a t e i s

l e s s t h a n d e s i r e d .

Measures C u lt u r e w a s m e a s u r e d

u s in g s e v er a l p r e v io u s l y u s e d

cultur e/ cl imate questions f r om

Yeun g, Br ockba nk , an d Ulr ich [4 1 ]

a n d V ic t o r a n d C u l le n [4 7 ]. These

q u e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n a n a l y z e d

i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s [4 8 ], [5 9 ]

a n d h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o h a v e

good r eliabil i ty and const r uct

validity. Pr evious r esear ch [4 1 ],

[4 2 ] h a s a ls o s u g ge s t ed t h a t a n

o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e

s t r o n g c u l t u r e t y p e i s p o s s i b l e

a n d d e s ir a b le s i n c e t h e c u l tu r e

t y p e s a r e i d e a l s . I n f a c t , t h o s e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t e m p h a s i z e

a l l fo u r d i m e n s i on s (g r ou p ,

hier ar chical , development al , and

r a t i on a l va l u e s ) h a v e b e e n fo u n dt o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e t t e r

o r ga n iz a t io n a l p e r fo r m a n c e [4 1 ].

A complete l ist of the quest ions

u s e d , t o g et h e r w it h t h e i r l oa d i n g

o n t h e r e le va n t c u l t u r a l f a c t or ,

c a n b e f o u n d i n T a b l e I . F a c t o r

a n a lys i s w a s u s e d t o d e t e r m in e

i f t h e c u l t u r e q u e s t i o n s l o a d e d

in t o t h e fo u r c o m p e t in g v a lu e s

q u a d r a n t s a s w e l l a s t h e “ f i f t h

d i m e n s i on ” o f e t h i ca l c u lt u r e , a s

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . T h e q u e s t i o n s

l o a d e d a s e x p e c t e d , a s s h o w n i nTa b l e I . Th e r e s u lt in g m e a s u r e s

also had good inter nal r eli abi l i t y,

a s s h o w n i n o u r r e s u l t s s e c t i o n .

I n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w a s

d e t e r m i n e d b y r e s p o n s e s t o

the following categories: never

c o n s i d e r e d , c u r r e n t l y b e i n g

consider ed, init ial impl ement at ion,

par tial implementation, f ul ly

im p l em e n t e d , a n d t r ie d a n d

r ejected. This categor i cal measur e

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4 4 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

is p r e fe r a b l e t o a d i ch o t o m o u s

use/ not use var iable. I t al l ows the

a s s i gn m e n t o f a r a n k o r d er t o t h e

level of i ntr anet implementation

a n d a l l o w s a n a l y s i s o f t h e

var iables with r espect to t he l evel

TABLE IFACTOR ANALYSIS

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4 6 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

c u l t u r e , a c c o u n t i n g f o r a b o u t 1 4 %

o f t h e va r i a t io n i n in t r a n e t u s e .

B e yo n d t h e e x p la n a t i on o f in t r a n e t

im p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o vid e d b y

a n e t h i c a l c u l t u r e , t h e n e x t

c u l t u r e t o e n t e r t h e r e g r e s s i o n

w a s t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e ,

a c c o u n t i n g fo r a n a d d i t io n a l 1 0 %

o f t h e va r i a t io n . Alt h o u g h t h e

h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e d o e s n o t b y

it self cor r elate with intr anet use

a t t h e p <  0.05 level (i.e., it was

si gnifi can t at p<  0.10) , i t does

e x p l a i n t h e v a r i a n c e i n i n t r a n e t

u s e b e y on d t h a t e xp la in e d b y a n

e t h i ca l c u l t u r e . T h u s , t h e r a t i on a le

pr ovided above f or a posit ive

r elationshi p between hier ar chical

c u l t u r e a n d i n t r a n e t s a p p e a r s

s u p p o r t e d w h e n a t h r e s h o l d l e v e lof an ethical cul t ur e alr eady exists.

L i m i t a t i o n s Th i s s t u d y w a s

a n a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e t h e e a r l y

a d o p t i o n a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f i n t r a n e t s a s a n i n f o r m a t i o n

technol ogy suppor ting KM. Si nce

i t w a s a n a t i o n a l m a i l i n g o f a

s o m e w h a t le n g t h y , b l in d s u r ve y

t o b u s y m a n a g e r s , w e b e l i e v e

t h e r e s p o n s e r a t e w a s l o w . E v e n

s o , b e c a u s e o f t h e l o w r e s p o n s e

r ate, t h e gener a lizabi li ty of th esefin d i n g s is s o m e w h a t in q u e s t i o n ,

a n d it is i m p o rt a n t t h a t t h e s t u d y

b e r e p l ic a t e d b o t h in t h e U . S . a n d

o t h e r c u l t u r e s .

T h e c o n c l u s i o n s f o r t h i s s t u d y

a r e l a r g e l y d r a w n o n d a t a

collect ed at t he advent of intr anets

a n d KM b e fo r e in t r a n e t s h a d

m u c h o p p or t u n i t y t o a lt e r t h e

c u l tu r e . T h is s t u d y p o in t s o u t

t h e n e e d fo r t h e c o n s i d e ra t i on o f  

c u l t u r e w h e n a n e w t e c h n o l o g y

o r p r o c e d u r e i s i m p l e m e n t e d

t h a t m a y b e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

t h e e x i s t i n g c u l t u r e . T h u s , t h i s

r e s e a r c h i s i m p o r t a n t , f o r m a n y

o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e j u s t n o w

i m p l e m e n t i n g i n t r a n e t s a n d / o r

a r e d e v o t i n g a l a r g e r s h a r e o f  

their int r anets towar d KM ef f or ts.

S u c h o r ga n iz a t io n s c a n b e n e fit

fr o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g c u lt u r e ’s

r o le i n in t r a n e t im p l e m e n t a t i o n ,

n o t o n l y a s i n t r a n e t s e x p a n d

a c r o s s t h e w i d e r e n t e r p r i s e ,

b u t a l s o a s i n t r a n e t s e x p a n d

int er - or gan izationa lly in the for m

o f e x t r a n e t s o r s u p p l y c h a i n

m a n a g e m e n t l i n k a g e s .

T h i s s t u d y o f e a r l y i n t r a n e t

ad opti on i s also impor tan t for other

r e a s o n s . W h i l e m a n y a n e c d o t a l

a c c o u n t s o f a p o t e n t i a l c u l t u r e

c l a s h w i t h K M a n d i n t r a n e t s h a v e

b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p o p u l a r

p r e s s , fe w, i f a n y , s t u d i es h a ve

emp ir ically an alyzed the pr evious ly

va l id a t e d d i m e n s i o n s o f cu lt u r e

a c r o s s m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a s

h a s t h i s s t u d y . A l s o , a s t h e t o o l s

f o r b u i l d i n g i n t r a n e t s a n d t h etechn ology cha nges, follow- up

r esea r ch would h elp iden tify which

d i m e n s i o n s o f c u l t u r e b e c o m e

m o r e i m p o r t a n t o r a r e a f fe c t ed

a s in t r a n e t s b e c o m e m o r e w id e ly

d i ffu s e d , t h e r e b y e n a b lin g t h e

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f in t r a n e t s a n d

KM implementation, as well as

cultur e, over t ime.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY AND

RESEARCH

T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t

t h a t e a r l y a d o p t io n o f in t r a n e t u s e

is most l ikely to occur i n f i r ms

w h e r e t h e o r g a n i za t i on a l c u l t u r e is

ethical or , as char acter ized i n thi ss t u d y , a s h a v i n g a h i g h c o n c e r n

f o r t h e o t h e r p e r s o n a n d a n

a t m o s p h e r e o f m u t u a l c o n f i d e n c e

a n d t r u s t . A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a f o r

t h i s r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e

e a r l y s t a g e s o f in t r a n e t a d o p t i on ,

t h e r e s u l t s a r e a p p l i c a b l e b o t h t o

o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t h a v e a l r e a d y

a d o p t e d i n t r a n e t s , a s w e l l a s t o

or ganizations consider ing int r anet

a d o p t i on , b e c a u s e o r g a n i za t i on a l

c u l t u r e c h a n g es ve r y s l o wly .

To b u ild a c u lt u r e o f t r u s t a n d

c o n c e r n f or t h e o t h e r p e r s o n t a k e s

t im e , a n d e v e n o r ga n iz a t io n s t h a t

w e r e e a r l y a d o p t e r s o f in t r a n e t s

w ou l d b e n e fit f r om u n d e r s t a n d i n g

what cultur e to str ive f or ( i . e. ,

a n e t h i c a l c u l t u r e ) a n d w h y i t i s

a d v a n t a g e o u s .

T h i s s t u d y p o i n t s o u t t h a t

w h e r e i n f o r m a t i o n s h a r i n g a n d

c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e i m p o r t a n t t o

success ( as in KM) , an ethi cal ,

t r u s t i n g c u l t u r e m a y a c t a s af acil i tator . Wher e the cult ur e

i s s u c h t h a t e m p l o y e e s a r e

c o n c e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h t h e i r

o wn b e s t i n t er e s t s a n d t h e r e is

a lo w le ve l o f t r u s t , t h e s h a r in g

o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n a n i n t r a n e t

i s c o u n t e r - c u l t u r a l . S i n c e t h i s

r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e

ear ly implementation of int r anets,

TABLE IVS TEPWISE REG RESSI O N RE S U LT S F O R INTRANET

IMPLEMENTATION

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RUPPE L AND HARRINGTON: S HARING KNOWLE DGE THROUGH INTRANE TS 4 7

fu t u r e r e s e a r c h m a y w is h t o lo ok  

a t w h e th e r a n e t h ic a l c u lt u r e

b e c o m e s m o r e o r le s s i m p o r t a n t i n

t h e s u s t a i n i n g o f i n t r a n e t u s e . F o r

e x a m p l e , it m a y b e t h a t t h e l a c k o f  

a n e t h i c a l c u l t u r e a c t s a s a b a r r i e r

t o a d o p t i on , b u t o n c e i m p le m e n t e d

a n d in u s e o ve r t im e , i n t r a n e t

u s e m a y b e i n gr a in e d a n d t h u s

n o t r e q u i r e a h i gh le ve l of t r u s t .

Alt er nat ely, i ncr easi ng emphasis

o n e l i c i t i n g a n d s h a r i n g t a c i t

kn owledge fr om emp loyees wh o ar e

e x p e r ts i n s o m e d o m a i n m a y ca u s e

a n e v e n g r e a t e r n e e d f o r t r u s t i n

f u t u r e i n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s .

C ou n t e r t o o u r h y p ot h e s is ,

g r o u p c u l t u r e d i d n o t a f f e c t

i ntr an et imp lemen tation. Yet others t u d i e s h a ve fo u n d t h a t gr o u p

c u l t u r e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r e

e m p l oy ee c o m m u n i c a t io n [4 1 ], a

f oundat i on of intr anets. However ,

a n e x p la n a t i on m a y b e o ffe r e d b y

t h i s s t u d y i n t h a t g ro u p c u lt u r e

was s tr ongly cor r elated with et hical

c u l t u r e . S u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s

b e e n f o u n d i n p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h

[4 2 ] . I t m a y b e t h a t g r o u p

c u l t u r e a c t s a s a n a n t e c e d e n t

t o a n e t h i c a l c u l t u r e , a n d s o

i ndir ect ly is impor tant in intr aneti mplement ati on. Mor eover ,

di f f er ent kinds of communication

ma y be involved; for exam ple, the

t y p e s o f c om m u n i c a t io n r e q u i r e d

f or developing t r ust r elati ons

m a y b e d i ffe r en t t h a n t h o s e

r equ ir ed for developing em ployee

c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t r a n e t s .

F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is r e qu i r ed t o

clar ify th e t ypes of comm u ni cat ion

r e q u i r e d fo r t r u s t r e la t i on s ve r s u s

in t r a n e t s a n d K M s y s t e m s , a s w e ll

a s d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r g r o u p

c u l t u r e e ffe c t s a n e t h i ca l c u l t u r e .

T h i s s t u d y f o u n d t h a t a

d e v e l o p m e n t a l c u l t u r e i s

di r ectly and posit ively r elat ed

t o i n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a s

hypothesized. Or ganizations

fo s t e r in g a d e ve lo p m e n t a l

c u l t u r e a r e m o r e p r o a c t i v e

a n d a w a r e o f c h a n g e s i n t h e ir

e n v ir o n m e n t . Th e y a l s o t e n d t o b e

i n compet it i ve envir onments. The

conf ir mat ion that or ganizations

w it h d e ve lo p m e n t a l c u l t u r e s a r e

im p l e m e n t i n g in t r a n e t s s u g ge s t s

t h a t t h e y m a y a ls o b e a m o n g t h e

fir s t t o i m p l em e n t e x t ra n e t s o r

b u s in e s s - t o- b u s i n e s s s y s t em s ,

s i n c e s u c h s y s t e m s e x t e n d t h e

in t r a n e t t o c u s t o m e r s o r s u p p l ie r s .

I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 8 2 % o f  

o r ga n iz a t io n s w it h in t r a n e t s

e x p ec t e x t r a n e t s t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e

n e x t t h r e e y e a r s ; m o r e s u p p o r t

f or coll abor ation with business

p a r t n e r s i s e x p e c t e d a s w e ll [6 0 ].

If t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y ’s fin d i n g s

a r e e xt e n d e d t o e xt r a n e t s , a

d e ve lo p m e n t a l c u lt u r e c o m b in e d

w it h a n e t h ic a l cu l t u r e m a y b e

r e q u i r e d f o r m a x i m u m e x t r a n e t

im p l e m e n t a t i o n , a s w e ll a s b r o a d e r

in ter - or gan izational kn owledges y s t e m s . A q u e s t i o n r a i s e d i s

w h e th e r a n e t h ic a l or t r u s t in g

r elationshi p will be necessar y, and,

if so, h ow will it be bu il t between

o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e i r b u s i n e s s

p a r t n e r s . An e x a m i n a t i on in t o t h e

types of tr ust r elationships ( e.g. ,

integr it y, competence, honesty,

c o m m i t m e n t , le ga l c o n t r a c t s )

b e t w e e n b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s m a y

p r o vid e in s ig h t s im p o r t a n t in

e x t e n d i n g t h e s e f i n d i n g s t o

e x tr a n e t im p l e m e n t a t i o n .

T h i s s t u d y a l s o f o u n d t h a t a

s t r o n g e r h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e h a s

some ( al beit weak) ef f ect on the

level of int r anet implementation.

I t i s p r e s u m e d t h a t h i e r a r c h i c a l

c u l t u r e s a r e c o n d u c ive t o in t r a n e t s

b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s ,

m a n u a l s , a n d c o n t r o l s t h a t a r e

alr eady i n place. I t is not clear ,

h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r a s t r o n g e r

hier ar chical cultur e will , in the

f u t u r e , a c t a s a f a c i l i t a t o r o r a

b a r r i e r t o fu r t h e r i n t r a n e t g r o wt h .

Th e in t r a n e t lit e r a t u r e s u g ge s t s

t h a t w e a r e m o v i n g i n t o p h a s e I I

o f in t r a n e t d e ve lo p m e n t [3 8 ] in

w h i c h i n t r a n e t s a r e b e i n g u s e d t o

d e l i v e r m o r e t h a n t h e p u b l i s h i n g

of policies and pr ocedur es. This

s u g g e s t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y o u r

1 9 9 8 fin d i n g s t h a t , w h i le 3 4 % o f  

i n t r a n e t s a r e u s e d f o r p u b l i s h i n g

p u r p o s e s , a n e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t

n u m b e r (3 3 % ) a r e n o w b e in g u s e d

f or knowledge shar ing. I ntr anets

a r e b e i n g u s e d t o l i n k t o l e g a c y

system s to deliver m i ssion- cr it i cal

applications, to deliver tr ai ni ng,

t o s h a r e k n o wle d g e in r e a l t im e in

chat r ooms, etc. This r apid gr owt h

a n d g r e a t e r l i n k i n g o f s y s t e m s

c a n c a u s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o l o s e

s o m e c o n t r o l [5 0 ]. Therefore,

a h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e , w h i c h

u n d e r e a r l i e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s a i d e d

in t r a n e t u s e , m a y i n h i b it i t s fu r t h e r

u s e . A s t r o n g e r h i e r a r c h ic a l c u lt u r e

may act as an init ial f acil i t at or t o

a d o p t io n b u t b e l e s s i m p o r ta n t

i n e s t a b l i s h e d i n t r a n e t s . F u t u r e

r e s e a r ch m a y w is h t o e xa m i n e

t h e s e r e la t i on s h i p s fu r t h e r .

A s h y p o t h e s i z e d , a s t r o n g e rr a t i o n a l c u l t u r e w a s n o t r e l a t e d

t o i n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

Th e gr a s s - r oo ts , a d h o c , n a t u r e

o f i n t r a n e t s t h a t d o n o t h a v e

t o b e c o s t -ju s t ifie d d o e s n o t

r e qu i r e a c u lt u r e t h a t va lu e s

o b j e c t i v e s - b a s e d m e a s u r e s .

B ec a u s e e a r ly i n t r a n e t s h a v e

been char acter ized as r el at i vel y

lo w c os t t o im p l e m e n t a n d q u ic k  

to r etur n “sof t” benef i t s, ther e

h a s n o t b e e n a n e e d f o r s u c h

m e a s u r e s . I n v e s t m e n t i n i n t r a n e t s

to expand KM abili ty and ext r anetsi s e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e [6 1 ]. As

t h e s e i n t r a n e t s a n d KM s y s t em s

m a t u r e a n d r e q u i r e i n v e s t m e n t i n

mor e sophisticated inf or mati on

a r c h i t e c t u r e s , m e t r i c s t o a s s e s s

t h e b e n e f i t s o f s u c h s y s t e m s m a y

b e n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e [5 ],

a n d t h e v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

a r a t io n a l c u lt u r e m a y t a k e o n

in c r e a s i n g im p o r t a n c e .

Overall, the significant relationship

between or ganizations with str ong

d e ve lo p m e n t a l, e t h i ca l , a n d

h i e r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e s a n d i n t r a n e t

g r o w t h m a y b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y

h o w i n t r a n e t s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d .

I nit ial intr anet implement ati on,

a s s t u d i ed h e r e , is b e lie ve d t o b e

l a r g e l y a d h o c a n d g r a s s - r o o t s

o r i e n t e d , c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n

t h e p u b l is h in g o f p olic ie s a n d

pr ocedur es. I nit ial implement at ion

im p l ie s t h a t s t r o n g d e ve lo p m e n t a l

a n d h i er a r c h ic a l c u l tu r e s a r e

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4 8 IE E E TRANS ACTIONS ON PROFE S S IONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 4 4 , NO. 1 , MARCH 2 0 0 1

m o s t c on d u c ive t o i n t r a n e t

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

A s i n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s a d d

m o r e f e a t u r e s ( d a t a b a s e a c c e s s ,

deliver i ng appl ications, and

c h a t r o o m s ) t o m e e t s p e c i f i c

or ganizationa l obj ectives,

it m a y b e t h a t t h e g r ea t er

s h a r i n g o f in f or m a t io n a c t s in

opposit ion to the contr ol valued by

h i e r a r c h i ca l c u lt u r e s , a l t er in g t h e

o r ga n iz a t io n a l m in d s e t t o w a r d t h e

v a l u e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e g r o u p a n d

r a t i on a l c u l t u r e s . Th e m o d e l in

F ig . 1 r e p r e s e n t s o n e s u g ge s t e d b y

the l i t er atur e as appr opr i ate. Whi le

t h i s s t u d y e m p i r ic a l ly e x a m i n e s

o n l y th e s o lid a r r o w s , t h e r e s u lt s

o f t h i s s t u d y , a s w e l l a s t h e

r esear ch ( e.g. , [2 2 ], [2 4 ]), suggestt h e r e la t i on s h i p s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e

d o t t e d lin e s a r e a p p r o p r ia t e a r e a s

fo r fu t u r e r e s e a r c h .

F u r t h e r , t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f  

in t r a n e t s h a s b e en d e s c r ib e d a s a

“p h e n o m e n o n ” [6 2 ], [6 3 ], a n d w e

b e l i e v e t h i s s t a t u s w a r r a n t s s t u d y

b y t h e a c a d e m i c c om m u n it y . Wh e n

a technology with low bar r ier s to

a d o p t i o n m a k e s r a p i d d e p l o y m e n t

p o s s i b l e , t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e p e op le -b a s e d is s u e ss u c h a s c u l tu r e a r e i n c r e a s in g ly

im p o r t a n t , a n d t h e y r e p r es e n t

a signif i cant pot ential bar r ier t o

ef f ective use despi te the adoption

o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y . T h u s , t h i s

s t u d y v a l i d a t e s t h e n e e d f o r t h e

s t u d y o f o r ga n iz a t io n a l c u l t u r e

a s a fa c t or i n t h e a d o p t io n a n d

implementa tion of IT innovations

s u c h a s i n t r a n e t s , a s w e l l a s o t h e r

types of innovations designed

to f acil i t ate communication.

Incr ea singly, I T innovations ha ve a

c om m u n i ca t io n s c om p o n e n t , a n d

t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s e m p i r i c a l

s t u d y s u g g e s t t h e r o l e o f  

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i n t h e

a d o p t i o n a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f  

t h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t b e

i g n o r e d w h e n c o n d u c t i n g f u t u r e

s t u d i e s .

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

O r ga n iz a t io n s w is h in g t o

i m p l e m e n t a n i n t r a n e t a r e

b e s t s e r ve d b y b u ild i n g a t r u s t i n g

a n d c o o p e r a t i v e c u l t u r e a m o n g

t h e e m p l o y e e s w h o a r e p l a c i n g

a n d u s in g i n fo r m a t io n o n t h e

in t r a n e t . I n a d d i t io n , t h e n e e d fo r

t r u s t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n t e n t

c on t a i n e d o n t h e i n t r a n e t m u s t b e

w e l l m a n a g e d a n d k e p t u p - t o - d a t e

from its inception so employees can

r e ly u p o n it s a c c u r a c y a n d t r u s t

c a n b e b u i l t i n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n

a v a ila b l e o n t h e i n t r a n e t . In t r a n e t s

a n d K M s y s t e m s r e q u i r e a s h i f t

a w a y f r om t h e t r a d i t io n a l r e w a r d

s y s t em s b a s e d o n in d i vid u a l

p e r f o r m a n c e a n d k n o w - h o w t o

a s h a r e d , c o lla b o r a t i ve w or k  

e n v ir o n m e n t [5 ]. A r ewar d system

b a s e d o n a m e a s u r e o f k n o w l e d g e

s h a r in g , s u c h a s t h e n u m b e r,

q u a lit y , a n d r e u s e o f p u b lic a t io n sp l a c e d o n t h e i n t r a n e t , m a y

expedit e t he or ganizational change

[5 ], [4 6 ].

M a n a g e r s m a y w i s h t o a n s w e r t h e

q u e s t i o n s i n T a b le I t o d e t e r m i n e

w h i c h c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s a r e

str on gest within th eir or ganization.

Also i mpor tant would be what type

of knowledge alr eady exists or is

missing f r om their or ganization.

T h e n a c t i o n c a n b e t a k e n t o e i t h e r

m a k e t h e K M e ffo r t a n d i n t r a n e tfit t h e c u l t u r e o r a lt e r t h e c u lt u r e

t o b e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e

knowledge needed. For example,

d e ve lo p m e n t a l c u l t u r e s , w h i c h a r e

innovati ve, ar e l ikely to be mor e

conduci ve to “best pr actices” or

s h a r i n g o f n e w i d e a s , w h e r e a s

h i e r a r c h i ca l c u l t u r e s m a y b e b e t t e r

o r ie n t e d t o m o r e i m m e d i a t e a c c e s s

t o e x is t in g d a t a a n d r e d u c e d

p r i n t in g c o s t s .

Als o , t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e e x t er n a l

ve r s u s in t e r n a l fo cu s o f t h e

o r ga n iz a t io n s w ill m a k e t h e

o r ga n iz a t io n m o r e o r le s s a w a r e

o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n i n t r a n e t a n d

KM ef f or ts and either mor e or

le s s c o n d u c iv e t o i m p l e m e n t in g

a n i n t r a n e t a n d K M s y s t e m .

Th e p o p u l a r i t y o f in t r a n e t s is

becomi ng incr eas ingly d ifficu lt to

i g n o r e , a n d a s a r e s u l t o f h a v i n g

a n e x t er n a l, p r o a c t iv e fo c u s ,

a d e ve lo p m e n t a l c u l t u r e w it h

employees willing to try new things

s h o u l d h e l p t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

e x p l o r e i n t r a n e t u s e , a n d p e r h a p s

n o v el u s e , i n a n e ffo r t t o r e m a in

competit ive. Ninety per cent of  

t h e o r ga n iz a t io n s w it h in t r a n e t s

i n t h i s s t u d y f o u n d i n t e r n a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i m p r o v e d , a n d a n

estimated aver age of 33% of each

or ganization’s intr a net u se was for

s h a r i n g k n o w l e d g e ( s u c h a s b e s t

p r a c t i ce s ). S u c h p r o m i s in g r e s u lt s

p u b l is h e d h e r e a n d e ls e wh e r e

m a y e n c o u r a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s

w it h s t r o n g d e ve lo p m e n t a l

c u l t u r e t o g o b e y o n d t h e

c u r r e n t t r a d it io n a l u s e s , s u c h

a s p u b l i s h i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , t o

m o r e c u t t i n g- ed g e u s e s s u c h

a s f o r p r o t o t y p e s , i n t e r n a l c h a t

r o o m s f or h o ld i n g m e e t in g s a n d

s h a r in g i d e a s , a n d b u i ld in gcomm u nities of pr a ct ice. Mor eover ,

s u c h a d e ve lo p m e n t a l m in d s e t

s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e e m p l o y e e s t o

e xt e n d t h e in t r a n e t t o p r o c es s

im p r o v e m e n t s a n d s i gn i fic a n t

m a r k e t in g - r e la t e d o u t c o m e s ,

s u c h a s c u s t o m e r - r e l a t e d

d a t a b a s e s , r e p o s i t or ie s o f e x t er n a l

knowledge ( such as competi t i ve

intell igence) , extr anet s and ot her

in t e r - o r ga n iz a t io n a l s y s t e m s s u c h

a s s u p p l y - c h a i n s y s t e m s .

A s t r o n g e r h ie r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e m a y

a i d i n t h e e a r l y im p l e m e n t a t i o n

of intr anets. However , pr ocedur es

a n d c o n t r o l s s h o u l d n o t b e

r e ga r d e d a s a m e t h o d o f r e p la c i n g

t r u s t w it h c on t r o l, b u t r a t h e r

a s a f r a m e w o r k t o f a c i l i t a t e

collabor ation and pr ovide content

f or the intr anet. I nit i al ly, the

e x is t e n c e o f or d e r a n d p r o c e d u r e s

h e l p s d e a l w it h s e ve r a l o f t h e

p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

im p l e m e n t a t i o n o f in t r a n e t s , s u c h

a s s e c u r it y, c o n t e n t m a n a ge m e n t ,

a n d m a k i n g u s e r s a w a r e o f it s

e x i s t e n c e a n d e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m

t o u s e i t [6 4 ], [3 7 ] . I n hi er ar chical

o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a p r o m i s i n g

a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e t o i n i t i a t e a

t o p - d o w n d i r e c t e d a p p r o a c h a n d ,

a ft e r i m p l em e n t in g c o m m o n d a t a

stor a ge and collabor at ion soft war e,

d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h a t s y s t e m

could save or ganizat i onal member s

t im e g a t h e r in g i n fo r m a t i o n a n d

c h e c k in g p o t e n t ia l p r o b l em s [1 6 ].

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RUPPE L AND HARRINGTON: S HARING KNOWLE DGE THROUGH INTRANE TS 4 9

E x a m p l e s o f w h a t m ig h t b e o n s u c h

a n in t r a n e t a r e s t r u c t u r e d in t e r n a l

k n o w le d ge , s u c h a s r e s e a r ch

r e p o r t s , m a r k e t i n g m a t e r i a l s ,

a n d t ec h n iq u e s a n d m e t h od s .

U s in g t h e in t r a n e t a s p a r t o f a

m e t h o d t o c h e c k t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s

o r q u a l i t y o f w o r k m a y a l s o b e

appr opr i ate. Of note, however , is

t h a t a h ie r a r c h i c a l c u l t u r e t a k e n t o

t h e e x tr e m e s is n o t a d v is a b le [4 4 ].

T o o m u c h p o w e r c o n c e n t r a t e d a t

t h e t o p a n d l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r

emp loyees m ay st ifle kn owledge

s h a r i n g b e c a u s e o f it s p o t e n t ia l ly

negative ef f ect on the et hical and

t r u s t in g d i m e n s io n o f c u l tu r e .

Wh i le s t r o n g e t h i ca l ,

d e ve lo p m e n t a l, a n d h i e r a r c h i ca l

c u l t u r e d i m e n s i o n s a r e c o n d u c i v e

t o i n t r a n e t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , i t

m a y b e d i f f i c u l t t o c h a n g e a n

e x is t i n g c u l t u r e w h e r e g r o u p o r

r a t i on a l d im e n s i on s p r e d o m i n a t e .

I m p o s i n g a t e c h n o l o g y t h a t

r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e s t h e c u l t u r e o r

b y p a s s e s t h e u s u a l o r ga n i za t io n a l

c h a i n o f co m m a n d , a s in t r a n e t s

d o , c a n r e s u lt i n p o w er s t r u g g le s

a n d u n e x p e c t e d r e s i s t a n c e ( c f . ,

e.g., [6 5 ]). I n gener a l , t he a ppr oach

t o KM a n d in t r a n e t s s h o u l d fit t h e

or ganization, i ts employees whoa r e p o t e n t ia l in t r a n e t u s e r s , a n d

i t s c u l t u r e [1 6 ], [3 1 ].

In g ro u p c u l tu r e s w h e r e

collab or ation i s a l r eady

e s t a b l i s h e d , o n e o b s t a c l e m a y

b e t h a t t h e in f or m a t io n o r m a t e r ia l

f o r t h e i n t r a n e t m a y n o t y e t

be coded. Pr oviding incentives

a n d s y s t e m s t o e n c o u r a g e d a t a

c a p t u r in g m a y b e a p p r o p r ia t e .

I ntr anet s may be buil t to f acil i tate

e a s e o f d a t a c a p t u r e . Wa y s

t o c a p t u r e i n f o r m a l , i n t e r n a l

k n o w le d g e m a y i n c lu d e d is c u s s i o n

d a t a b a s e s o f k n o w - h o w o r “le s s o n s

lear ned. ” Mor eover , chat r ooms,

d is c u s s i on t h r e a d s , a n d s ys t e m s

f o r s p o n t a n e o u s t e a m - b u i l d i n g

a n d d e b a t e s m a y b e e s p e c i a l l y

s u i t a b l e f o r g r o u p c u l t u r e s t h a t

h a v e a h i g h d e g r e e o f t e a m a n d

g r ou p in t e r a c t i on .

F or r a t io n a l c u l tu r e s ,

b e c a u s e o f t h e i r g o a l a n dm e a s u r e m e n t - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s ,

s h a r i n g k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d b e

m a d e p a r t o f t h e b u s in e s s s t r a t e gy

and ongoi ng objectives. Successes

r esult ing f r om knowledge shar ing

s h o u l d b e w id e ly d i s s e m i n a t e d .

C o n t e n t o n t h e i n t r a n e t m a y

i n c l u d e r e s e a r c h p a p e r s ( w h i t e

p a p e r s ) , l e s s o n s l e a r n e d , o r

deli ver abl es with value- added

descr ipt i on [4 6 ]. O n e a p p r o a c h is

to piggyback shar ing knowledge

onto ot her key business init iat ives

or onto efforts to solve specific

b u s i n e s s p r o b l e m s [1 6 ]. T r u s t

b u i l d i n g , t h r o u g h t h e u s e

of f ace- to- f ace contact , may

b e im p o r t a n t t o b u ild in g a

k n o w le d g e- s h a r i n g c u l t u r e w h e r e

r a t i on a l c u l t u r e s h a v e p r e vio u s l y

r ewar ded i ndividual achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

Th i s r e s e a r c h a d d s t o t h e b o d y

o f l i t e r a t u r e o n i n t r a n e t s , I T

i n n o v a t i o n , a n d K M . A s t h e

k n o w le d g e s h a r e d a c r o s s i n t r a n e t s

continues to move f r om the posti ng

o f p u b l ic d o c u m e n t s , s u c h a se m p l o y e e m a n u a l s a n d o t h e r

explicit knowledge, to gr eat er

s h a r i n g o f t a c it k n o w le d g e, a n

e t h i ca l a n d t r u s t in g c u lt u r e w ill

become incr easingly impor t ant . I t

is this shar ing of tacit knowl edge

tha t will yield or ganizations mor e

competit ive advantage f r om KM

efforts [3 ]. Mor eover , as i nt r an et s

a r e o p e n e d u p a s e x t r a n e t s t o

outside or ganizations f or access,

tr ust between or ganizati ons wi ll

l ikely gain impor tan ce. Ther ef or e,

t h e r o le o f t r u s t in in t r a n e t g r o wt h

and KM will continue to be a maj or

c o n c e r n a n d m a y i n c r e a s e i n

im p o r t a n c e a s in t r a n e t s c on t in u e

to develop.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Th e a u t h o r s a r e g r a t e fu l t o L . J in

fo r h e r a s s is t a n c e o n t h i s p r o j ec t .F u n d i n g w a s p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h t h e

Faculty Resear ch Awar d pr ogr am

of the Geor gia College and St at e

U n ive r s i ty G r a d u a t e S c h o o l a n d

R es e a r c h S e r vic e s D e p a r t m e n t a n d

t h r o u g h t h e Ac a d e m i c C h a lle n g e

p r o gr a m a t Th e U n iv er s i t y o f  

Toledo.REFERENCES

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C yn t h ia P. R u p p el i s an Assi st ant Professor of Informat i on Syst ems at The Uni versi t y

of Tol edo. Her research i nt erest s i ncl ude t he adopt i on, i mpl ement at i on, and use of IT

in n o va t i on s , fo c u s i n g o n t h o s e r e l a t e d t o e n a b l in g v ir t u a l b u s i n e s s a r r a n g e m e n t s ,

a n d s h e is p a r t ic u l a r ly in t e r e s t e d i n t h o s e fa c t o r s r e l a t in g t o t h e h u m a n / s oc ia l

a s p e c t s o f t h e s e IT s . S h e h a s p u b l is h e d i n IE E E TRANSACTIONS O N PROFESSIONAL

COMMUNICATION, Dat abase , Journal of Busi ness Et hics , a n d Information Resources

  M anagement Journal, a s w e ll a s o t h e r s .

S u s a n J . H a rr in g t o n is a Professor of Information Systems (IS) at Georgia College and

S t a t e U n i ve r s i ty . S h e h a s 1 2 y e a r s o f IS e x p e r ie n c e i n F o r t u n e 5 0 0 c o m p a n i e s a n d

has spent t he l ast 14 years researchi ng t he effect i ve i mpl ement at i on of i nformat i on

t e c h n o lo gi es a n d h o w m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v io r s i m p a c t IS e m p l oy ee p e r f or m a n c e . S h e

h a s p u b l is h e d a r t i cl es a n d b e e n q u o t e d in s e ve r a l IS a c a d e m i c a n d p r a c t i ti on e r

  j ournal s, i ncl udi ng MIS Quarterly a n d Comp ute rw orld . H e r c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h e x a m i n e s

t he rol e of t he organi zat i on’s a bsorpt i ve capaci t y and cu l t ure i n t h e adopt i on an d

su ccessful i mpl emen t at i on of a wide vari et y of emergi ng t echn ologies, i ncl ud i ng

vi rt ual corporat i ons and e-commerce.