a study of poverty and women’s education doc/2017/ijrss_december2017/ijmra-1292… · poverty can...

International Journal of Research in Social Sciences Vol. 7 Issue 12, December 2017, ISSN: 2249-2496 Impact Factor: 7.081

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456 International Journal of Research in Social Sciences

http://www.ijmra.us, Email: [email protected]

A STUDY OF POVERTY AND WOMEN’S EDUCATION

Dr. M.ANITHA1

ABSTRACT:

Poverty can be defined as a social phenomenon in which a section of the society is unable to

fulfil even its basic necessities of life. Attempts have been made in all societies to define

poverty, but all of them are conditioned by the vision of minimum or good life obtaining in

society. Poverty entails lack of empowerment, lack of knowledge and lack of opportunities as

well as lack of income and capital. Human Capital Theory asserts that education creates skills

which facilitate higher levels of productivity amongst those who possess them in comparison

with those who do not. Education, then, is costly but it brings associated benefits which can be

compared with its costs in much the same way as happens with any investment project. India

ranks 132 out of187 countries on the gender inequality index, lower than Pakistan (123)

according to the United Nations Development Program‘s Human Development Report 2013.

The purpose of this study is, first, to study the literacy status of women in Kadapa District of

Andhra Pradesh. Kadapa is Drought Prone Area, the total district population living in rural

areas constitutes 1,903,337, of which males and females represent 959,693 and 943,644

respectively. The sex ratio is 983 females per 1000 males. Literacy rate is 63.15 % as per 2011

Census. Gender wise, male and female literacy stood at 74.72 and 51.49 per cent respectively.

Poverty can be defined as a social phenomenon in which a section of the society is unable to

fulfil even its basic necessities of life. Poverty is thus both a cause and an effect of insufficient

access to completion of quality education.

Key Words Poverty, Women, Education and Drought

1 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, Yogi Vemana University, KADAPA

ISSN: 2249-2496 Impact Factor: 7.081



1.0. Introduction:

Human Capital Theory draws links between education and poverty in terms of education as

a means of poverty reduction; another significant linkage runs the other way - i.e. the effect of

macro- and micro-level poverty on levels of education. At the macro-level, it is generally the

case that levels of enrolment correlate with GNP. At the household level evidence suggests that

children of poorer households are generally likely to receive less education. According to

Human Development Report 1996, the introduction of the Capability Poverty Measure (CPM)

which includes female education (in the form of female literacy levels) as part of a composite

poverty measurement. In this context, education is seen not just as an ‗input‘ to poverty

reduction (in the sense of increasing productivity and incomes) but as an asset which can be

realised in terms of ‗entitlements‘ (e.g. to labour, capital, social welfare support). Education -

especially basic (primary and lower-secondary) education - helps reduce poverty by increasing

the productivity of the poor, by reducing fertility and improving health, and by equipping people

with the skills they need to participate fully in economy and society (World Bank 1995: 1).

The 2014 Human Development Report (HDR) presents the Human Development Index

(HDI) values and ranks for 187 countries in terms of three basic parameters: to live a long and

healthy life, to be educated and knowledgeable, and to enjoy a decent standard of living. India‘s

HDI value for 2013 is 0.586, positioning the country at 135 out of 187 countries and territories—

the lowest among the BRICS countries, with Russia at 57, Brazil at 79, China at 91, and South

Africa at118, and slightly ahead of Bangladesh and Pakistan. Significantly, while China

improved its ranking by ten places between 2008 and 2013, India‘s position improved by just

one rank. Thus a lot remains to be done to bridge the gap.

In this paper, an attempt is made to study Status of women Literacy in Kadapa District,

Rayalaseema Region of Andhra Pradesh. Kadapa is Drought Prone Area, cultivation depends

on monsoon which is erratic and the average annual rainfall in the district is 696.6 mm which is

insufficient for cultivation. Out of 51 Mandals, nearly 38 Mandals considered as Drought

Mandals. The data is collected from secondary sources ie., Census of India, Sample Registration

System, NSSO Data, Hand Book of Statistics, Kadapa.




The work of Amartya Sen (1992, 2001) has broadened our understanding of poverty by

defining it as a condition that results in an absence of the freedom to choose arising from a lack

of what he refers to as the capability to function effectively in society. This multidimensional

interpretation moves far beyond the notion of poverty as being solely related to a lack of

financial resources. For example, Sen‘s viewpoint would suggest that inadequate education

could, in itself, be considered as a form of poverty in many societies.

Both absolute and relative poverty are relevant for education. Lack of financial resources may

limit school attendance among the absolutely poor in developing countries.

The idea of seeing poverty in terms of poor living is not— emphatically not—new. Indeed,

the Aristotelian account of the richness of human life was explicitly linked to the necessity to

―first ascertain the function of man,‖ followed by exploring ―life in the sense of activity.‖ In this

Aristotelian perspective, an impoverished life is one without the freedom to undertake important

activities that a person has reason to choose (D. Rose (1980). Adam Smith too felt impelled to

define ―necessaries‖ in terms of their effects on the freedom to live non impoverished lives (such

as ―the ability to appear in public without shame‖).

Because educational quality differs so greatly between countries, recent research that shows

the effect of quality adjusted education is particularly important (Barro & Lee, 2001;

Hanushek & Kimko, 2000; Hanushek & Zhang, 2006; Hanushek & Wößmann, 2007). Such

research demonstrates quite conclusively that education of a good quality promotes economic

growth. The impact of high and sustained levels of economic growth on a society and on general

development can in turn be very large. An increase in the economic growth rate of developing

countries can reduce poverty dramatically, as has recently been seen in countries such as China

and India. In this way, better education can translate into sustained growth which can reduce

poverty drastically.

Londoño (1996) argues that inadequate education has been the most important factor holding

back Latin American economic growth and thereby sustaining high levels of inequality and

poverty.




The benefits of education result in changes in people‘s behaviour as a consequence of the

knowledge gained. A long list of such benefits can be identified (Wolfe & Haveman, 2002), but

not all of these changes in behaviour necessarily have an impact on poverty.

Frequently, these benefits to a society are particularly large when female education improves.

It is well known, for instance, that lower fertility is strongly linked to higher female education.

Mothers‘ education is also an important determinant of health care and sanitation in a household.

This is reflected in, among other things, infant and child mortality levels that are much lower for

the children of better educated mothers (Schultz, 1999). Better health status (for instance, lower

levels of stunting) is in turn translated into greater success at school, thereby bringing positive

feedback to education itself in the next generation. Similarly, parental education – and again,

particularly that of the mother – also influences the support that parents can give to children,

improving the quality and success of education in the next generation.

The education of girls has a further strong and very important effect on the role of women in

society. It tends to draw more women into the labour market. This increase in female labour

force participation expands income-earning opportunities for many households and better utilises

the labour, skills, and talents of women.

The study is here organised into three sections: first section presents the literacy status of

women in India , second is focus on the state of Andhra Pradesh and rest of the section reveals

that Kadapa District women‘s literacy status and its impact on poverty.

Hence, women not only earn less than men, but they also have more limited means of

changing their conditions. [Ending Poverty and Bringing Peace through Sustainable Human

Development, 1997]. Women also face much gender-stereotypic discrimination as well, such as

being prevented by statute from working night shifts and being perceived of needing protection

from heavy and dangerous work, low expectations of commitment to long-term employment, and

lower levels of basic education [Joekes, 1995].




The latest estimates of poverty are available for the year 2011-12. These estimates have been

made following Tendulkar Committee methodology using household consumption expenditure

survey data collected by the NSSO in its sixty-eighth round (2011-12). Over a span of seven

years the incidence of poverty declined from 37.2 per cent to 21.9 per cent in 2011-12 for the

country as a whole, with a sharper decline in the number of rural poor (Table 1.1).

Table1.1: Number and Percentage of Poor

Year Poverty line (in ` No. Of poor (million) Poverty ratio (per ceent)

Rural Urban Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total

2004-05 446.68 578.80 326.3 80.8 407.1 41.8 25.7 37.2

2011-12 816.00 1000.00 216.5 52.8 269.3 25.7 13.7 21.9

Source: Neeti Aayog, * Estimated by Tendulkar Method

POVERTY ESTIMATES:

The Planning commission has periodically estimated poverty lines and poverty ratios for

each of the years for which large sample surveys on Household Consumer Expenditure have

been conducted by the NSSO

These surveys are normally conducted on quinquennial basis

The last quinquennial survey in this series was conducted in 2009-10 (66th

round). Since

2009-10 was not a normal year because of a severe drought the NSSO repeated the large scale

survey in 2011-12 NSS 68th

round.

The Planning Commission has updated the poverty estimates for the year 2011-12 as per

the methodology recommended by Tendulkar Committee.

To decide the Poverty line, bundle of goods and services in the consumption pattern

observed in the 2011-12 NSS survey (68th

round)

During NSS 68the round (2011-12) data has been collected for 133 food items like

cereals, pulses, edible oil, vegetables, milk etc. and 212 non-food items like clothing, footwear,

medical expenditure, educational expenditure, durable items, services etc.

The Poverty lines would vary from state to state because of inter – state price

differentials.




The poverty line has been expressed in terms of Monthly Per capita Consumption

Expenditure (MPCE) based on Mixed Reference Period (MRP) for Rural and Urban areas

separately.

The Percentage of persons below the poverty line in 2011-12 has been e in estimated as

25.7 % in Rural areas, 13.7 in Urban areas and 21.9% for the country as whole.

The percentage of persons below the poverty line in 2011-12 has been estimated as

10.96% in Rural areas, 5.81% in Urban areas and 9.20 % for the Andhra Pradesh State as a

whole.

2.0.Women’s literacy status in India:

In terms of gender equality, which is clearly reveals by Economic Survey, 2014, the HDR

ranks India 127 out of 152 countries with a Gender Inequality Index (GII) of 0.563. The GII for

149 countries reveals the extent to which gender inequality erodes national achievements in

reproductive health, empowerment and labour market participation. A comparison with India‘s

developing country peers in the G20 grouping also shows India in poor light on gender equality

issues. Unlike the HDI, a higher GII value indicates poor performance. The Gender

Development Index (GDI), defined as a ratio of the female to male HDI measures gender

inequality according to three basic parameters of human development: health (LEB) education

(expected years of schooling for children and mean years for adults aged 25 years and older); and

command over economic resources (estimated GNI per capita). Country rankings are based on

absolute deviation from gender parity in HDI. The GDI is calculated for 148 countries. The

female HDI value for India is 0.52 as compared to 0.63 for males, resulting in a GDI value of

0.828. In comparison, Bangladesh and China are ranked higher with values of 0.908 and 0.939

respectively.

Another concern is the secular decline in the child sex ratio (CSR– girls per 1000 boys aged

0-4 or 0-6) in India from 976 in 1961 to 918 in 2011; the SRS (2013) reports a figure of 909 for

2011-13. Globally CSR is calculated as boys per 100 girls. Comparatively, in Asia and the

Pacific, the CSR (boys per 100 girls aged 0-14) was 110 in 2012, much higher than the sex ratio

under natural conditions (105). While China‘s CSR declied from 121 in 2010 to 117 in 2012,

India‘s CSR increased from 109 to 111 over the same period




Literacy is the first step towards formal education. It refers to the ability to read and write.

Female literacy has been improving over the years. The proportion of women who are literate

has increased by 15 per cent over the last decade from 39 per cent in 1991 to 54 per cent in 2001

and the recent Census reveals that 65.46 percent. The details is as follows:

Table:2.1 Literacy rate in India (%)

Census Year Person Male Female

1951 18.33 27.16 8.86

1961 28.30 40.40 15.36

1971 34.45 45.96 21.97

1981 43.57 56.38 29.76

1991 52.21 64.13 39.29

2001 64.83 75.26 54.16

2011 74.04 82.14 65.46

Source: Census Data, 2011

Table2.2.: India‘s Sex Ratio (Females 1000 per Males)

Year Sex ratio

1901 972

1911 964

1921 955

1931 950

1941 945

1951 946

1961 941

1971 930

1981 934

1991 927

2001 933

2011 940

Source: Census Data




3.0. Andhra Pradesh scenario:

Andhra Pradesh State, annually producing about 140.27 Lakh Metric Tons of Foodgrains

(2012-13), is an important State in Nation‘s Food Production. With about 49.38 Million

Population, most of who live in rural areas, agriculture is the main stay of their livelihood. 50.6

% of State‘s Main workforce is engaged in Agriculture & allied activities and Agriculture and

allied Sectors accounts for 27.30 % of Gross State domestic product (GSDP) at current price.

As per the World Agriculture Census (WAC) 2010-11, in Andhra Pradesh 7.62 million

farmers of which 86.29% are Small and Marginal Farmers. With more than 50% of un irrigated

area under cultivation, agriculture continues to be monsoon dependant, primarily on South West

Monsoon (SWM) through which State receives 2/3 of its rainfall. The State with 5 chronically

drought prone districts (viz., Ananthapur, YSR Kadapa, Chittoor, Kurnool, and Prakasam) out of

13 districts.

With two distinct geographical regions, Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra, the State covers

an area of 160,204 square KMs accounting for 4.87 % of total area in the country, Coastal

Andhra 92,906 Sq KMs ( 58 % of State area) and Rayalaseema covering an area of 67,298 Sq

KMs (42 % of State area).

As per Census – 2011 (Provisional), total population of the state is 493.8 lakhs. Of which,

population in Coastal Andhra 341.9 lakhs (69.2 % of total population) and Rayalaseema Region

151.85 lakhs (30.8 % of total Population). Population of Scheduled Castes is 17.1 % of total

Population and population of Scheduled Tribes is 5.3 % of total population. In Andhra Pradesh,

Agriculture Work Force is 50.6 % of total work force as per Population Census –2011.

Total number of farmers in the State are 76,21,118 ( Land holdings as per Agriculture

Census-2010-11). The highest number of farmers are in Ananthapur (7.28 lakhs) followed by

Guntur (7.61 lakhs), East Godavari (6.99lakhs), Prakasam (6.71 lakhs), Chittoor (6.67lakhs),

Kurnool (6.33 lakhs), West Godavari (5.66 lakhs), Krishna (5.52 lakhs), Srikakulam (5.26 lakhs),

Visakhapatnam (4.75 lakhs), SPS Nellore (4.57 lakhs), Vizianagaram (4.47lakhs) and YSR

Kadapa (4.41 lakhs).




Comparison of Poverty in trends of 2011-12 over 2004-05 in respect of Andhra Pradesh

show dramatic improvement. The improved performance of AP compared to most of the states

and it relative standings (better than advanced states of Punjab and Kerala) deserves additional

financial support from the centre.

A person aged 7 years and above who can both read and write with understanding in any

language is considered as a Literate. The literacy rate of the State was 67.66 percent in 2011 as

against 60.47 percent in 2001. The literacy rate of the State is lower than the All India literacy

rate of 74.04 percent. The literacy rate in India increased from 64.84 to 74.04 percent during

2001-2011. The overall literacy rate has gone up from 60.47 percent in 2001 to 67.66 percent in

2011, the male literacy rate has increased from 70.32 percent to 75.56 percent. Female literacy

rate has gone up from 50.43 percent in 2001 to 59.74 percent in 2011. Hyderabad is at the top

with 80.96 percent and Mahabubnagar is at the lowest with 56.06 percent in 2011 among the

districts (AP Economic Survey, 2014).

Table:3.1 Female Literacy Rate in Andhra Pradesh

Census Year Literacy rate (%)

1951 ---

1961 21.19

1971 24.57

1981 35.66

1991 44.08

2001 60.47

2011 65.46

Source: Census Data, 2011.

It is evident from the above data, that the highest gap in literacy rates of males and females

are recorded in districts of Kadapa, Kurnool, and Prakasam. Whereas, very low gender gap in

literacy rates is found in the districts of West Godavari, East Godavari and Krishna. The

literacy rates are significantly varied by gender among the districts in Andhra Pradesh.

Moreover, high range of male female gap in literacy rate is exiting in most of the districts. The




highest gap is recorded in top ten district of Kadapa. Therefore, female literacy is a key aspect in

the process demographic change thereby lead to socio-economic development in India

(Dharmalingam and Morgan, 1996).

Table-3.2. District-wise Literacy rates and Gap between Genders

in Andhra Pradesh- 2001

S.no. Name of the

District

Literacy Rate (%)

Total Male Female Gap

1 Srikakulam 62.30 72.25 52.56 19.69

2 Vizainagaram 54.49 69.04 50.16 18.88

3 Vishakapatnam

67.70 75.47 60.00 15.47

4 East Godavari 71.35 74.91 67.82 7.09

5 West Godavari 74.32 77.63 71.05 6.58

6 Krishna 74.37 79.13 69.62 9.51

7 Guntur 67.99 75.40 60.64 14.76

8 Prakasam 65.53 75.53 53.40 20.13

9 Nellore 69.15 75.93 62.30 13.63

10 Kadapa

67.88 78.41 57.26 21.15

11 Kurnool 61.13 71.36 50.81 20.55

12 Anantapur 64.28 74.09 54.31 19.78

13 Chittoor 72.36 81.15 63.65 17.50

A.P

67.66 75.56 59.74 15.82

INDIA

74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68

Source: Census of India, 2011; Provisional Population Totals.




Table- 3.3Educational facilities during 2010-11

Type of School No. of

Schools

Total

Enrolment

Enrolment

of Boys

Enrolment

of Girls

Teachers

Student

teacher

ratio

Primary 66,834 54,63,896 27,75,065 26,88,831 1,74,069 31

Upper primary 15,421 23,29,730 12,14,470 11,15,260 93,003 25

High Schools 18,776 53,97,690 27,50,725 26,46,965 83,344 65

Higher Secondary 173 1,26,870 56,601 70,269 4,304 29

Special Education 5 444 444 0 7 63

Oriental Education 61 8,534 4,393 4,141 371 23

Source: Statistical Abstract of Andhra Pradesh 2011, Directorate of Economics and

Statistics, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

As far as higher secondary education is concerned, there are 1,26,870 students in that boys are

56,601 and girls are 70,269 who are being imparted education and knowledge by 4,304 teachers

in 173 institutions. On an average for every 29 students one teacher is available in high

secondary schools. Similarly, 444 students have got enrolled their names in 5 special education

schools where 7 teachers are discharging their sincere and honest services to the students in

providing good education. With on an average for every 63 students one teacher is available in

special education schools. And there are 371 teachers who have been imparting education to

8534 enrolled students out of that boys are 4,393 and girls are 4,141 studying in 61 oriental

educational schools. With on an average for every 63 students one teacher is available in oriental

education schools.

4.0. Women’s educational status of Kadapa:

Rayalaseema region, comprising of Kadapa, Kurnool, Anantapur and Chitoor, lies in the rain

shadow zone of Western Ghats. Consequently, this area receives very low rainfall during the

South West and the North East monsoons as well. The rainfall of 365.8 mm of the Khariff

period in Rayalaseema is still distributed and undependable. It is utterly inadequate even to raise

the dry crops like groundnut or jowar. Kadapa District is the extreme south eastern district of

Andhra Pradesh rainfall situated within the geographical co-ordinate of 13043‘And15014‘ of




northern latitude and 77055‘and 79029‘ eastern longitude. The latitude varies from 269 to 3787

meters above sea level. The District is bounded on north by Kurnool District, on the south by

Chittoor District on the west by Anantapur District and on the east by Nellore District. Total

Geographical area of the District is 15,379 Sq.Kms. with 3 Revenue Divisions, 51 mandals, 831

Gram Panchayats, 965 Revenue Villages and 4533 Habitations. As per the 2011 Census the

population of the District is 2882469 of which the Rural Population is 1903337 and the Urban

Population is 979132. The density of population in the District is 188 per Sq.Km.

The total geographical area of Y.S.R. District is 1535900 hectares which constitutes an extent of

forest is 500961 hectares, Barren & Uncultivable land is 221994 hectares, Land put to Non-

agricultural uses is 181029 hectares, Cultivable Waste is 46013 hectares, Permanent Pastures and

other grazing lands is 9409 hectares, Land under miscellaneous tree crops & groves not included

in net area sown is 6831 hectares, Current fallows is 135935 hectares, Other fallow land is 80861

hectares and Net Area Sown is 352762 hectares and Area sown more than once is 80208 hectares

during the year 2011-12.

Kadapa district is drained by the Penneru Basin and its tributaries. The chief northern tributaries

to Penneru are the Kunderu, Sagileru and the southern tributaries – the Cheyyeru, Papaghni and

the Chitravati. The Soils in the district are of two types i.e., Red Ferruginous and Black Soils.

Black Clay is the most superior soil in the district, which occupies 23.7% area in the district.

The district is rich in Minerals value. The Major Minerals in the district are Barites, Lime Stone

and Asbestos.

The average annual rainfall in the district is 696.6 mm. The rainfall generally increases from the

North-West to the South-East in the district. The rainy season starts from June and lasts till

November. October is the month with the highest normal rainfall. The rainfall in South-west

monsoon period is most important for the sowings of dry crops in the district which covers 75%

of the total cropped area.

The Majority of the people here are depend on Agriculture only. The major crops in the District

are Paddy, Groundnut, Sunflower, Cotton, Betel leaves and Horticultural crops like Mango,




Papaya, Banana, Lemon and Oranges. The Major Source of Irrigation is under K.C. Cannal.

There is a Major Irrigation Project on Penna at Mylavaram. Pincha Project, Lower Sagileru

Project, Upper Sagileru Project, Annamay Project, Brahma Sagar Project and Pulivendula

Branch Canal are Medium Irrigation Projects in the District.

The district has been served by 3312 primary schools, 537 upper primary schools, 730 high

schools, 126 junior colleges, 46 Degree Colleges and Yogi Vemana University offering P.G.

courses for general education. For Technical education the District has 9 polytechnics and 26

Engineering colleges, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Medical sciences, 1. Dental college, 1

Homoeopathic Medical college, 1 Veterinary college and 1 IIIT centre at Rajiv Knowledge

Vally.

Table:4.1 Literacy trends in Kadapa

Year Literacy Rate

1951 15.5

1961 21.75

1971 24.73

1981 31.16

1991 48.12

2001 64.02

2011 67.88

Source: Census of India, 1991, 2001 & 2011

The following table 1.5 clearly reveals that female literacy rate needs to be improved.

Table 4.2: Literacy Rate among Men and Women in Kadapa

since 1971

Census Year Men Women

1971 36.2 12.7

1981 43.8 17.7

1991 65.8 33.9

2001 76.98 50.76

2011 78.41 57.26

Source: Census of India, 1991, 2001 & 2011




Kadapa district consists of 51 mandals , there are 17 mandals comes under less than 50 per cent

of female literacy, where as 28 mandals are less than 60 per cent and rest of the mandals i.e. only

6 mandals.

Conclusions:

The status of women in all the countries of the world today is very important as they are

fundamental to the process of economic development since women constitute half of the

population and one third of labour force. But, with regard to their position in society there are

many differences between developed and developing countries. In industrialized countries

women are placed on par with men with some variations in their position. In developing

countries, the situation of women is different. Evidence of gender inequality and exploitation of

women exist in most societies, yet some of the worst cases are found in the developing countries.

More than one billion in the world today, the great majority of whom are women, live in

unacceptable conditions of poverty in developing countries. Multiplicity of causes results in

poverty. Poverty is a complex, multidimensional problem, with its origin in both the national and

international level. Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to

ensure sustainable livelihood. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access

to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack of

participation in decision-making.

India being the second most populous country occupies only 2.4 per cent of the world‘s land

area but supports 17.5 per cent of the world‘s population. About two-thirds of the India‘s

population confined to live in rural areas as per the 2011 census. As per the 2011 census in India,

out of the total population of 121 crores there are 58.6 crores women and they constituting 48.5

per cent. Out of the only 65.5 per cent of women are literates. About 77 per cent of them belong

to the rural areas and rooted predominantly in agriculture and other related activities. Traditional

artisanship and craftsmanship and services are the lifeline for the large majority of poor. Poverty

has been a pervasive problem in India. Around one-third of Indians do not have the basic

resources for survival. The 73rd

Amendment of the Indian Constitution is an important in the

history of gender empowerment in India. Universal primary education is therefore crucially

important to reduce poverty. It is essential for everyone but in case of women it is particularly




significant. Education plays an important role in bringing about awareness on women‘s rights.

Educating women is one of the most effective means to counter gender discrimination and

enhance status of women and higher education would contribute much more effectively in

abolishing gender inequality.

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