Hydrological ReportBy:-

ARKAN IBRAHIM

M.Sc. student at

GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY

SUBMITTED TO

Y.Doc.Dr.Mazen KAVVAS

Content:- Fundamentals of Hydrology The Hydrological Report Some example of hydrological

report Analysis of Data Conclusion References

Introduction 1.1 World’s Water Resources 31.2 Hydrology and Hydrologic Cycle 1.3 Forms of Precipitation 1.4 Scope of Hydrology 1.5 Hydrological Data 1.6 Hydrologic Equation

WORLD’S WATER RESOURCESThe World’s total water resources are estimated at 1.36 × 108 ha-m. Of these global waterresources, about 97.2% is salt water mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is available as freshwater at any time on the planet earth. Out of this 2.8% of fresh water, about 2.2% is availableas surface water and 0.6% as ground water. Even out of this 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% isfresh water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% is available in lakes andstreams, the remaining 0.04% being in other forms. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water, onlyabout 0.25% can be economically extracted with the present drilling technology (the remaining being at greater depths). It can be said that the ground water potential of the Ganga Basinis roughly about forty times the flow of water in the river Ganga.

Hydrology:-the branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's water, and especially its movement in relation to land.

Hydrological cycle:-

Description of the Hydrologic Cycle 

This is an education module about the movement of water on the planet Earth. The module includes a discussion of water movement in the United States, and it also provides specific information about water movement in Oregon. 

The scientific discipline in the field of physical geography that deals with the water cycle is called hydrology. It is concerned with the origin, distribution, and properties of water on the globe. Consequently, the water cycle is also called the hydrologic cycle in many scientific textbooks and educational materials. Most people have heard of the science of meteorology and many also know about the science of oceanography because of the exposure that each discipline has had on television. People watch TV weather personalities nearly every day. Celebrities such as Jacques Cousteau have helped to make oceanography a commonly recognized science. In a broad context, the sciences of meteorology and oceanography describe parts of a series of global physical processes involving water that are also major components of the science of hydrology. Geologists describe another part of the physical processes by addressing groundwater movement within the planet's subterranean features. Hydrologists are interested in obtaining measurable information and knowledge about the water cycle. Also important is the measurement of the amount of water involved in the transitional stages that occur as the water moves from one process within the cycle to other processes. Hydrology, therefore, is a broad science that utilizes information from a wide range of other sciences and integrates them to quantify the movement of water. The fundamental tools of hydrology are based in supporting scientific techniques that originated in mathematics, physics, engineering, chemistry, geology, and biology. Consequently, hydrology uses developed concepts from the sciences of meteorology, climatology, oceanography, geography, geology, glaciology, limnology (lakes), ecology, biology, agronomy, forestry, and other sciences that specialize in other aspects of the physical, chemical or biological environment. Hydrology, therefore, is one of the interdisciplinary sciences that is the basis for water resources development and water resources management. 

The global water cycle can be described with nine major physical

processes which form a continuum of water movement. Complex pathways include the passage of water from the gaseous envelope around the planet called the atmosphere, through the bodies of water on the surface of earth such as the oceans, glaciers and lakes, and at the same time (or more slowly) passing through the soil and rock layers underground. Later, the water is returned to the atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning an it has no end. It can be studied by starting at any of the following processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage. 

The information presented below is a greatly simplified description of the major contributing physical processes. They include: 

EVAPORATION

Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from a liquid state to a gaseous state. A considerable amount of heat, about 600 calories of energy for each gram of water, is exchanged during the change of state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air temperature, vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of natural evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. Evaporation can occur on raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as seas and lakes. It can even occur from water settled on vegetation, soil, rocks and snow. There is also evaporation caused by human activities. Heated buildings experience evaporation of water

settled on its surfaces. Evaporated moisture is lifted into the atmosphere from the ocean, land surfaces, and water bodies as water vapor. Some vapor always exists in the atmosphere. 

CONDENSATION

Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes it's physical state from a vapor, most commonly, to a liquid. Water vapor condenses onto small airborne particles to form dew, fog, or clouds. The most active particles that form clouds are sea salts, atmospheric ions caused by lightning,and combustion products containing sulfurous and nitrous acids. Condensation is brought about by cooling of the air or by increasing the amount of vapor in the air to its saturation point. When water vapor condenses back into a liquid state, the same large amount of heat ( 600 calories of energy per gram) that was needed to make it a vapor is released to the environment. 

PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from the atmosphere and reach the ground. There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice-crystal process. As water drops reach a critical size, the drop is exposed

to gravity and frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a turbulent wake behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken to join and combine with the lead drop. The other sub-process that can occur is the ice-crystal formation process. It occurs when ice develops in cold clouds or in cloud formations high in the atmosphere where freezing temperatures occur. When nearby water droplets approach the crystals some droplets evaporate and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets. Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and change into raindrops. 

Precipitated water may fall into a waterbody or it may fall onto land. It is then dispersed several ways. The water can adhere to objects on or near the planet surface or it can be carried over and through the land into stream channels, or it may penetrate into the soil, or it may be intercepted by plants. 

When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation. 

The portion of precipitation that appears in surface streams is called runoff. Runoff may consist of component contributions from such sources as surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or ground water runoff. Surface runoff travels over the ground surface and through surface channels to leave a catchment area called a drainage basin or watershed. The portion of the surface runoff that flows over the land surface towards the stream channels is called overland flow. The total runoff confined in the stream channels is called the streamflow. 

INTERCEPTION

Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of transportation events leading to streams. The interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression storage in puddles and in land formations such as rills and furrows. 

When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic materials spreads over the surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at points or edges. When the maximum surface storage capability on the surface of the material is exceeded, the material stores additional water in growing drops along its edges. Eventually the weight of the drops exceed the surface tension and water falls to the ground. Wind and the impact of rain drops can also release the water from the organic material. The water layer on organic surfaces and the drops of water along the edges are also freely exposed to evaporation. 

Additionally, interception of water on the ground surface during freezing and sub-freezing conditions can be substantial. The interception of falling snow and ice on vegetation also occurs. The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer forests and hardwood forests that have not yet lost their leaves. 

INFILTRATION

Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil surface conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of the soil profile. Typically, the infiltration rate depends on the puddling of the water at the soil surface by the impact of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial soil moisture content, the decreasing water concentration as the water moves deeper into the soil filling of the pores in the soil matrices, changes in the soil composition, and to the swelling of the wetted soils that in turn close cracks in the soil. 

Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can also become the water that later is evapotranspired or becomes subsurface runoff. 

PERCOLATION

Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by gravity and capillary forces. The prime moving force of groundwater is gravity. Water that is in the zone of aeration where air exists is called vadose water. Water that is in the zone of saturation is called groundwater. For all practical purposes, all groundwater originates as surface water. Once underground, the water is moved by gravity. The boundary that separates the vadose and the saturation zones is called the water table. Usually the direction of water movement is changed from downward and a horizontal component to the movement is added that is based on the geologic boundary conditions. 

Geologic formations in the earth's crust serve as natural subterranean reservoirs for storing water. Others can also serve as conduits for the movement of water. Essentially, all groundwater is in motion. Some of it, however, moves extremely slowly. A geologic formation which transmits water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for economic development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is possible because of the voids or pores in the geologic formations. Some formations conduct water back to the ground surface. A spring is a place where the water table reaches the ground surface. Stream channels can be in contact with an unconfined aquifer that approach the ground surface. Water may move from the ground into the stream, or visa versa, depending on the relative water level. Groundwater discharges into a stream forms

the base flow of the stream during dry periods, especially during droughts. An influent stream supplies water to an aquifer while and effluent stream receives water from the aquifer. 

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the day. Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion of the plants and to cool the leaves exposed to the sun. Leaves undergoing rapid transpiration can be significantly cooler than the surrounding air. Transpiration is greatly affected by the species of plants that are in the soil and it is strongly affected by the amount of light to which the plants are exposed. Water can be transpired freely by plants until a water deficit develops in the plant and it water-releasing cells (stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then continues at a must slower rate. Only a small portion of the water that plants absorb are retained in the plants. 

Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation that is shading the soil, reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing water vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount of direct evaporation from the soil or from snow or ice cover. The absorption of water into plant roots, along with interception that occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general effects that vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest vegetation tends to have more moisture than the soil beneath the

trees. 

RUNOFF

Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages or other works that society might have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls directly on the stream , surface runoff that flows over the land surface and through channels, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow enters the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period before joining the water in the stream. When each of the component flows enter the stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff in the stream channels is called streamflow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow. 

STORAGE

There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in the planetary water cycle. Water is stored in the atmosphere; water is stored on the surface of the earth, and water stored in the ground. 

Water stored in the atmosphere can be moved relatively quickly from one part of the planet to another part of the planet. The type of storage that occurs on the land surface and under the ground largely depend on the geologic features related to the types of soil and the types of rocks present at the storage locations. Storage occurs as surface storage in oceans, lakes, reservoirs, and glaciers; underground storage occurs in the soil, in aquifers, and in the crevices of rock formations. 

The movement of water through the eight other major physical processes of the water cycle can be erratic. On average, water the atmosphere is renewed every 16 days. Soil moisture is replaced about every year. Globally, waters in wetlands are replaced about every 5 years while the residence time of lake water is about 17 years. In areas of low development by society, groundwater renewal can exceed 1,400 years. The uneven distribution and movement of water over time, and the spatial distribution of water in both geographic and geologic areas, can cause extreme phenomena such as floods and droughts to occur. 

If a fifty-five gallon drum of water represented the total supply of water on the planet then: 

a) the oceans would be represented by 53 gallons, 1 quart, 1 pint and 12 ounces;b) the icecaps and glaciers would represent 1 gallon, and 12 ounces;

c) the atmosphere would contribute 1 pint and 4.5 ounces;d) groundwater would add up to 1 quart, and 11.4 ounces;e) freshwater lakes would represent one half ounce;f) inland seas and saline lakes would add up to over one third of an ounce;g) soil moisture and valdose water would total to about one fourth of an ounce;h) the rivers of the world would only add up to one-hundredth of an ounce (less than one one-millionth of the water on the planet).

Hydrological Report

PURPPSE:The purpose of hydrological report is to understand the a hydrological behavior of s pacific region with time and mostly in this section the report will give a specific purpose for example the report might have been prepared for constructing a dam so this will be mentioned in this part.

Introduction:-In this section of hydrological report the reporter will give a summery about the region and also talk about some historical background of the region with describing the topography of the and may provide a site map of the region.

For example this is a sample introduction of a HYDROLOGY OF THE UPPER GANGA RIVER

(Introduction The Ganga River Basin covers 981,371 km2 shared by India, Nepal, China (Tibet) and Bangladesh. The River originates in Uttar Pradesh, India from the Gangrotri glacier, and has many tributaries including the Mahakali, Gandak, Kosi and Karnali which originate in Nepal and Tibet. The focus of the present study is on the Upper Ganga - the main upper main branch of the River. The UpperGanga Basin (UGB) was delineated by using the 90m SRTM digital elevation map with Kanpur barrage as the outlet point (Figure 1). The total area of the UGB is 87,787 km2 . The elevation in the UGB ranges from 7500 m at upper mountain region to 100 m in the lower plains. Some mountain peaks in the headwater reaches are permanently covered with snow. Annual average rainfall in the UGB is

in the range of 550-2500mm. A major part of the rains is due to the south-western monsoon from July to October. The main river channel is highly regulated with dams, barrages and corresponding canal systems (Figure 1). The two main dams are Tehri and Ramganga. There are three main canal systems. The Upper Ganga G Canal takes off from the right flank of the Bhimgoda barrage with a head discharge of 190 m3 /s, and presently, the gross command area is about 2 mill ha. The Madhya Ganga canal takes off from the Ganga at Raoli barrage near Bijnor and provides annual irrigation to 178,000 ha. The Lower Ganga canal comprises a weir across the Ganga at Naraura and irrigates 0.5 million ha. To provide the background hydrological information for the assessment of environmental flow requirements at four selected ‘Environmental Flow’ (EF) sites, a hydrological model was set up to simulate the catchment in the present state (with water regulation infrastructure) and to generate the natural flows (without water regulation infrastructure). The report further summarizes the hydrological information at these sites using a series of graphs which illustrate annual runoff variability, seasonal flow distribution, 1-day flow duration curves and daily flow hydrographs for one wet and one dry year. The document also contains a table, which lists some typical flow characteristics at EF sites on a month-by-month basis: range of expected baseflow discharges, number, magnitude and duration of flood events.)

HYDROLOGICAL DATA:-

For the analysis and design of any hydrologic project adequate data and length of records are necessary which the length of data depends on the type of project generally but mostly annually available data is used for analysis. A hydrologist is often posed with lack of adequate data. The basic hydrological datarequired are:(i) Climatological data(ii) Hydrometeorological data like temperature, wind velocity, humidity, etc.(iii) Precipitation records(iv) Stream-flow records(v) Seasonal fluctuation of ground water table or piezometric heads(vi) Evaporation data(vii) Cropping pattern, crops and their consumptive use(viii) Water quality data of surface streams and ground water(ix) Geomorphologic studies of the basin, like area, shape and slope of the basin, mean and median elevation, mean temperature (as well as highest and lowest temperature recorded) and other physiographic characteristics of the basin; stream density and drainage density; tanks and reservoirs(x) Hydrometeorological characteristics of basin:(i) a.a.r., long term precipitation, space average over the basin using isohyets and several other methods (Rainbird, 1968)

(ii) Depth-area-duration (DAD) curves for critical storms (station equipped with self-recording raingauges).

(iii)Remote sensing

Each of these above data will be given in form of tables in detail in atypical hydrological report. for example this is some data from HYDROLOGY OF THE UPPER GANGA RIVER )

Table 3: Typical flow characteristics for EF sites (natural conditions), where flows are in m3/s and durations are in days.

SOME EXAMPLE ABOUTAustinClimate Data

perception of temperatures to higherextremes in the summer and coolerextremes in the winter.SolarLocated at 30°N latitude, Austinresides in a part of the country thatreceives a large amount of sunlight.As seen in Figure 5, on averageAustin maintains 15 hours ofdaytime in the summer and 11 hoursof daytime in the winter. SinceAustin lacks heavy cloud cover, thereis a range of 50-75% of availablesunlight throughout the year. Thisrange is extremely important whenconsidering methods such as solarenergy, since the solar benefit has alot of potential. Likewise, the largequantity of sun affects buildingdesigns due to possibilities ofextreme solar heat gain and glareissues from large amounts ofsunlight. All of these issues can beincorporated into building design toallow for optimization of the solarimpact in Austin.

WindWithin Austin, there is wind that isdominant on the North and SouthAxis, with some variety to the East.Overall, Austin mainly contains windunder 21 knots (35.4 f/s), with themajority of the winds ranging from 7to 10 knots (11.8 f/s - 16.8 f/s). As acomparison, Chicago has an overallaverage of 9.25 knots (15.6 f/s)annually while Austin averages at7.7 knots (13 f/s).3 In addition to thevarying average wind speeds,Chicago allows for greater windspeeds than Austin while alsocreating larger percentages of timeat these higher wind speeds. Inaddition to these factors, it also has alarger variety of wind directions than

Austin, possibly due to the proximityto Lake Michigan and the varied builtenvironment and terrain.

Exterior Design Conditions. The design parameters in Table BELOW shall be used for calculations under this code.

Data Analysis :-In this section of the report after all the available data is collected the reporter will have to arrange the data and if there is any gap in the data it should be filled out, the next step after the missing data has been estimated then all the data will be analyzed in form of tables and duration curves, and then each data will be discussed separately.Here are some important section need to be consider in data analysis Methods of estimating missing data:-Estimation of Missing Precipitation DataThis situation will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to instrument failure). Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data. Three approaches are used:

Arithmetic mean:

Use when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which data are being reconstructed

Where:Pm = precipitation at the missing locationPi = precipitation at index station IN = number of rain gauges

The Normal ratio method:

Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In this method, the precipitation amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of their normal annual precipitation data in a relationship of the form:

Where:

Pm = precipitation at the missing locationPi = precipitation at index stationNm = average annual rain at ‘missing data’ gaugeNi = average annual rain at gaugeN = number of rain gauges

Consistency of Precipitation Data

A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:

compute cumulative rainfall amounts for suspect gauge and check gauges

plot cumulative rainfall amounts against each other (divergence from a straight line indicates error)

multiplying erroneous data after change by a correction factor k where

 Precipitation Analysis

Areal precipitation estimation

Depth-area analysis

Precipitation frequency

Intensity-duration analysis

Intensity-duration- frequency analysis

Areal Precipitation Estimation

1. Arithmetic mean method2. Thiessen method3. Isohyetal method

Arithmetic mean methodTheissen Method

Divide the region (area A) into sub-regions centred about each rain gauge;

Determine the area of each sub-region (Ai) and compute sub-region weightings (Wi) using: Wi = Ai/A

Compute total aerial rainfall using

Isohyetal Method

Potentially most accurate approach, but subjective

Plot gauge locations on a map; Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between

gauges at a selected interval; Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal

rainfall amounts (isohyets); Compute aerial rain using:

Infiltration Indexes

1. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.

2. Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous infiltration and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of infiltration indexes.

3. Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant throughout the storm duration. This assumption tends to underestimate the higher initial rate of infiltration while overestimating the lower final rate.

4. Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving either long-duration storms or a catchment with high initial moisture content. Under such conditions, the neglect of the variation of infiltration rate with time generally justified on practical grounds.

5. Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.

Hydrologic Soil groups

All soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups of distinct runoff-producing properties. These groups are labeled A, B, C and D. Following is the brief of  their runoff and infiltration properties:

A Lowest runoff potential (Greater than0.03 in/hr)B Moderately low runoff potential (0.15 – 0.30 in/hr)C Moderately high runoff potential (0.05 – 0.15 in/hr)D Highest runoff potential (0 – 0.05 in/hr)

Land use and Treatment

1. The effect of the surface conditions of a watershed is evaluated by means of land use and treatment classes.

2. Land use belongs to watershed cover, including every kind of vegetation, litter and mulch, fallow  (bare soil), as well as nonagricultural uses such as water surfaces (lakes, swamps), impervious surfaces (roads, roof, and the like), and urban areas .

3. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land uses, and it includes mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as grazing control and crop rotation.

4. A class of land use/treatment is a combination often found in a literature.

Ground surface (Hydrologic) condition

Hydrologic condition is based on combination of factors that affect infiltration and runoff, including:

1. Density and canopy of vegetative areas,2. Amount of year-round cover,3. Amount of grass or close-seed legumes in rotations,4. Percent of residue cover on the land surface 5. Degree of roughness

Poor: Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoffGood: Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to decrease runoff.

HydrographOne other important that reporter should use a hydrograph analysis.

A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a specific point in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).

It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a particular outfall, or location in a sewerage network, graphs are commonly used in the design ofsewerage, more specifically, the design of surface water sewerage systems and combined sewers.

Types of hydrograph can include:

Storm hydrographs Flood  hydrographs Annual hydrographs  aka regimes Direct Runoff Hydrograph Effective Runoff Hydrograph Raster HydrographStorage opportunities in the drainage network (e.g., lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, channel and bank storage capacity)

Unit Hydrographs•Two storms of equal duration but different intensities will givesimilarly shaped hydrographs• Separate base flow to get watershed response• Many methods to separate base flow•To determine start of surface runoff response (point A) to theending (point B).

PredictionsObservations of hydrologic processes are used to make predictions of the future behavior of hydrologic systems (water flow, water quality). One of the major current concerns in hydrologic research is "Prediction in Engaged Basins" (PUB), i.e. in basins where no or only very few data exist.

Conclusions:-After a complete set of information analysis the reporter will discuss the results of the analysis and give his conclusions on the analysis then a final report result will be written a paragraph.

Sample of conclusion about Bridge

Conclusion

Based on the above studies and observations, the existing channel under the bridge may or may not be satisfactory in containing and directing flood flows. This conclusion must be substantiated by detailed hydraulic analysis using discharges for both the 50 year design flow, and the 100 year check flood flow events. If the existing channel is not capable of safely passing these flows, the proposed bridge opening may have to be increased or the clearance increased by raising the vertical alignment. It seems as though that the existing bridge is just hydraulically satisfactory for the present time. The results of the hydraulic analysis of the existing bridge and channel should help to better understand the hydraulic conditions, and to determine whether a change in either alignment or flow area is warranted.

Reported by:

Roger M. Naous, P.E.

Date: October, 2009

Or the result my be shown in a hydrological summary table as shown(Dam construction):-

References:-1-http://www.nwrfc.noaa.gov/info/water_cycle/hydrology.cgi2-HYDROLOGY OF THE UPPER GANGA RIVER Bharati L. and Jayakody, P International Water Management Institute.

3-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology#Precipitation_and_evaporation.

4-Hydrology(principles .analysis , design ) H.M. Raghunath 2nd edition .

5-University of Texas at Austin(school of architecture(https://soa.utexas.edu/sites/default/disk/preliminary/preliminary/3-Ward-Austin_Climate_Data.pdf)