Abstracts

Basema BashirPalestinian Local Expert

Ramallah, West Bank, Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT).

Title: Water Scarcity in the West Bank - Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT): Facts, Figures and Realities on the Ground

The tremendous uncertainty in the water quantity presently available (or will be available) under future Palestinian control, together with the arid climate prevailing in the area, in addition to the economic constraint represented by the increasing unemployment rate and drop in GNP caused directly by the Israeli restriction on movement and access to jobs, are major constraints that cause water scarcity in Occupied Palestinian Territory in general and in the West Bank in particular. Therefore, constraints can be grouped under three main subtitles: political, natural, and economical constraints. It is expected that the Palestinian per capita fresh water availability may not exceed 250 cubic meters per year under any optimistic scenario of water allocation.

This paper focuses on presenting results of analysis of available data and information that helps in verifying and highlighting the dire status of the water situation in the West Bank / Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT). The information presented in this paper is meant to increase the international community’s awareness of the dire situation in the West Bank and aid efforts for advocacy and actions that not only demand an end to the Occupation, but strive for the provision of water as a fundamental Palestinian right. This should urge the need for immediate actions and support to Palestinians by the international community.

Natasha CarmiPolicy Advisor on water and environment

Affiliation: Palestinian Negotiations Support Project, Palestine

Title: Water for a Viable Palestinian State.

Today, Palestinians face serious, Israeli imposed and man-made water scarcity problems, while Israelis enjoy an ample supply far above the average of many water rich countries in Europe. This asymmetry stands at the heart of the water conflict. While technical and managerial solutions have been repeatedly proposed by Israel to resolve it, they cannot replace principles of water rights. We, Palestinians, believe that the keys to achieving water security for all are available through the adoption of two fundamental concepts – international water law and cooperative management. These should be coupled with a sincere motivation and willingness of countries to work together as partners on an equal footing.

This presentation will show that the use of customary international water law among the various regional riparian countries can serve as a vehicle for peace and as a tool for future political stability in the region in general and for a viable two-state solution in specific. It emphasizes the importance of water – one of the core permanent status issues on the Palestinian-Israeli negotiation table, in providing a solution to the 60+ year old conflict. It will outline the Palestinian proposal for a Positive-Sum Outcome offering a ‘win-win solution’ to the protracted water conflict. It will show that a just solution to the water conflict is entirely possible, and can help pave the way to resolve the broader conflict. Sharing water equitably is only one step closer to a two-state solution.

Francesca de ChâtelEditor, Water Around the Mediterranean

Affiliation: Revolve Magazine

Title: Blame It on Climate Change: Spinning Syria’s Four-Year Drought

Between 2006 and 2009 Syria’s north-eastern Jazeera region suffered several consecutive droughts, which led to dramatic crop failure, the decimation of the livestock herd and the migration of hundreds of thousands of people to the south of the country. In September 2010, the UN estimated that 3.7 million people in the Jazeera – around 17 percent of the country’s population – remained food insecure.

The Syrian government framed the situation entirely in the context of the drought and climate change, appealing to the international community for emergency food aid and other types of assistance.

To local farmers and herders the drought was just one of many factors that forced them to abandon their land. The depletion of the region’s aquifers following years of illegal over-extraction, an overambitious dam construction and irrigation project, and, more recently, drastic subsidy cuts, mean that “agriculture is dead” in the words of one farmer.

This paper argues that the four-year drought represents the dead end of Syrian water and agricultural policy. Far from being the result of climate change, the environmental and humanitarian crisis in Syria’s north-east is the culmination of 50 years of systematic bad governance, corruption and failure to enforce legislation.

I show how the designation of water as a strategic resource that relates to national security has further enabled its overexploitation. The fact that water and all aspects of its management are taboo has created a climate in which lack of accountability and transparency, corruption and misinformation thrive.

Regional models show that Syria is highly vulnerable to climate change. However, ongoing failure to acknowledge the scale of the water crisis constitutes a much larger threat to the country’s water resources.

Research for this paper was carried out between 2007 and 2010 and includes first-hand data from a) interviews

with drought victims in the north-east and displaced people in the south and in Lebanon b) interviews with government officials and representatives of UN agencies in Syria c) UN agency and Syrian government reports.

Vangelis ConstantianosExecutive Secretary

Affiliation: Global Water Partnership, Mediterranean.

Title: Collaboration on Transboundary Water Resources Management in the Mediterranean: How far, how fast?

Most water bodies, surface and underground, in the Mediterranean are shared between two or more countries and territories. As presented by competent sub-regional initiatives ‘in Southeastern Europe (SEE), 90% of the area falls within shared basins’ (Petersberg Phase II/Athens Declaration Process in SEE), and ‘66% of the Arab region’s annual renewable water resources flow from outside of the region’ (UNDP Water Governance Programme in the Arab States); the way these two internationally demonstrated figures are phrased present already a noticeable difference, indicating how transboundary water resources are perceived in different sub-regions.

Enhanced cooperation, or at least coordination, among riparians is necessary to ensure protection and sustainable use of the transboundary water resources. Successful cases towards joint management of water resources exist and related agreements have been signed, with most of them documented in Southeastern Europe, though some progress in the South and East of the Mediterranean shall not be neglected. However, there is a long way to go for actual collaboration among countries, particularly in the eastern and southern rims of the Mediterranean. Obstacles include deeply rooted political dispute leading to deadlocks, conflicting water uses, coupled with diverse legal and institutional frameworks, different political priorities and strategic interests, unequal level of development including of infrastructure in each country, etc draw a wide spectrum of geo-political and socio-economic specificities that affect magnitude, intensity, complexity and potential for resolution of such obstacles. These result to a variety of realities as it regards the challenges in need of solutions.

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This paper will elaborate on challenges, possible solutions as well as existing and eventual cases of collaboration on transboundary water resources management in the Mediterranean. The prospect of sharing the benefits stemming from cooperative integrated management of shared waters, or sustaining the actual sharing of such benefits where cooperation is on-going, is an incentive that could be helpful for overcoming some of the obstacles and for promoting joint approaches and synergy in action.

The water-food-energy nexus is of particular interest in that transboundary context. The fact that this nexus is in the focus of upcoming international conferences and fora (e.g. Bonn-November 2011, Marseilles-March 2012, Rio-June 2012), present some opportunities for advancing the agenda.

Cases in SEE like in the Sava River, Prespa Lake and, recently, in the extended Drin River Basin will be briefly elaborated upon. In a similar manner, brief references will be made to the Western Sahara Aquifer and the potential for collaboration in the Orontes River Basin and the Orontes River Basin. The role of neutral regional and sub-regional initiatives in promoting collaboration among riparians and raising capacity will be highlighted.

Nadim Farajalla, Rouba Ziade, and Roula Bachour

Affiliation: American University of Beirut

Title: Drought Frequency and Evapotranspiration Trends under a Changing Climate in the Eastern Mediterranean

The United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4th assessment report predicted a 20% to 25% reduction in precipitation by the year 2050 in the Mediterranean Region in addition to an estimated 1.5 °C to 2.5°C increase in temperature. The combination of these parameters may lead to extended periods and frequencies of drought and an increase in rates of evapotranspiration (ET).

Lebanon lies in the eastern Mediterranean and relies substantially on food production from the Beka’a Valley and the coastal plain. Nearly 70% of Lebanon’s available fresh water sources are used in agriculture. Any

decrease in the amount of precipitation along with an increase in temperature can lead to droughts and increases in evapotranspiration which would result in a significant prolonged reduction in agricultural output leading to a decrease in the income of rural communities and could possibility lead to civil strife or unrest.

The objective of this paper is to assess the impact of the predicted climate change on the frequency of drought in the Beka’a Valley (where most of the irrigated agriculture is focused) and on evapotranspiration trends in the Beka’a and the coastal plain. The Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI) was chosen due to its specificity to the Mediterranean and its simple data requirements. CROPWAT was used for the evapotranspiration assessment.

In an attempt to project drought events according to the IPCC report predictions, eight scenarios were built through manipulating precipitation by reducing it up to 40% and increasing evapotranspiration up to 20% using a dataset of six near normal years (in terms of precipitation, i.e. no drought). No deviation from the near normal conditions were observed until the precipitation decrease and associated evapotranspiration increase reached 30% and 10% respectively. Subsequently drought frequency doubled from one event in six years to two, and then four until ultimately (precipitation reduction at 40% and evapotranspiration increase to 20%) reaching six years of drought in the six-year bracket.

In determining the trends in evapotranspiration, two sites of similar land use and agriculture cropping pattern were selected – one in the Beka’a and the other along the northern coast of Lebanon. Three scenarios were run in which temperature and relative humidity were varied singularly then collectively. It was determined that temperature increases would increase crop water demand by 2% to 12% in both basins while a decrease in RH would increase crop water demand by 7% to 14%

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Stephanie Galaitsis and Annette Huber-Lee

Affiliation: Tufts University

Title: Domestic Water Demand in the West Bank

The economic value of water – inclusive of social values – is increasingly recognized as a critical component of water planning and management. This study aims to explore values of user willingness to pay for domestic water consumption in the Palestinian West Bank and to use this data to construct demand curves. The West Bank, lying between the Jordan River and the 1967 border with Israel, accesses water with substantial constraints imposed by political agreements giving the Israeli water supplier Mekorot control over most of the volume available to Palestinian residents. For this study, over twenty Palestinian households were interviewed to determine current water usage, pricing, and constraints and to identify what additional volume might be used if some constraints were lifted. The resulting demand curve can then be incorporated into a larger systems analysis framework, and can inform infrastructure investments beneficial to all parties sharing the water resources. Therefore, the assessment of Palestinian’s willingness to pay leads to important conclusions and suggests future options for water allocation in a region of water scarcity.

Alia GANAResearch Professor

Affiliation: CNRS, Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne

Title: After the Revolution: the new crisis of water management in Tunisia

In Tunisia, the growing demand and competition for water resources have imposed a reform of water policies since the late 1980’s. With state disengagement from the direct management of irrigated schemes, the distribution of water was decentralized and transferred to regional bodies. At local level, groupings of collective interests were implemented since the early 1990’s, as a means to foster users’ participation and increased efficiency of

water management. Research conducted in various regions reveals however that the functioning of water user’s associations have continued to be faced with major technical, financial and decision-making related problems, resulting in increased inequalities in access to water. Rather than the reinforcement of collective action, an exacerbation of conflicts and the development of individual strategies to secure access to the resource have continued to be observed. In the new area opened up by the Tunisian Revolution of January 14th, contestation of the legitimacy of water users’ associations has amplified, leading very often to the eviction of their representatives and refusal of farmers to pay for water fees. More over water users are now asking for a return to the previous public water management system, considered as more protective and less risky. Based on recent field research and drawing on institutional approaches of natural resources management, this paper examines the ways in which current socio-political dynamics in Tunisia are likely to modify the institutional arrangements of water management systems. It also assesses the conditions for a sustainable use of water in the farming sector.

Irene J. KlaverAssociate Professor

Affiliation: Department of Philosophy & Religion Studies, University of North Texas

Title: Re-engaging the Mediterranean

Two thousand years ago historian Strabo related how in the third century B.C the ports of the once thriving ancient cities of Ephesus and Miletus were silting up, the effect of an early exploitation of natural resources: clear-cutting the forests.

At the beginning of the 21st century the stresses on the Mediterranean eco-region are beyond Strabo’s imagination. Tourism, urban growth, intensive agriculture and industrialization have led to unprecedented water use, waste production and pollution. The results are an increasing depletion of the biological diversity of the waters and desertification of the lands. This has not gone unnoticed. Governments, United Nations, not-for-profit organizations, private sector and scientists are devising models to counter ecological deterioration.

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These social-economic governance approaches are of great importance, but often lack a connection to the general public. Being the world’s leading tourist destination, engagement with the Mediterranean dire environmental situation could be greatly improved. Education of the resident and visiting public, and the development of a conservation-based ethics and aesthetics could raise environmental awareness. I will model a third element-engagement through the creation of a cultural-environmental identification.

Based on my work on cultural re-engagement with river basins, I will present the potential of collective memory and public imagination around water bodies as civic space. I expand ethical and aesthetic relations to water with culturaI ones, using Appadurai’s notion of culture as ‘the capacity to aspire.’ I will also show how cultural aspirations in developed areas, as cities and the Mediterranean region, include infrastructural elements. I will conclude with a projection of a interactive library/new media program around the Nile-basin.

Tzvi LevinsonAdvocate

Affiliation: The Levinson Environmental Law Firm. (Israel)

Title: Israel's New Holistic Legal Approach to Waste Water Treatment and Reuse

Israel has highly limited water resources; consequently, a high percentage of wastewater in Israel is treated and reclaimed. Israel has recently adopted a new system of effluent management.

In practice, each part of the process, including industrial plants that produce effluent, sewer conveyers run by local authorities, sewage treatment plants and the suppliers of treated effluent may be owned and operated by different entities. Previously, if pollutants entered the system due to negligence or mismanagement it was difficult to ascertain and sanction the responsible party. Therefore, although something can go wrong at any point in the chain that might seriously affect the ultimate quality of treated effluent, the independent legal liabilities of each party in the system allowed each to shift responsibility to the other. New Israeli legislation takes a

collective responsibility approach to dealing with this dilemma by making each and every link in the chain responsible and liable despite the exact source of pollution. This results in a holistic legal approach among industry, local government authorities and treatment plants whereby each party must share information and work together to ensure water quality. The goals and tactics of this new legislation provide a means to explore the nexus between technology, economics, politics and the basic human need for quality water resources.

This presentation will explore the new Israeli legislation and present a model for treated waste water and reuse legislation for other jurisdictions.

Gaspar MairalProfesor Titular de Antropología Social

Affiliation: University of Zaragoza (Spain)

Title: Spain: between a “grand” and an environmental water policy.

The European Water Directive (2000) rules today the water policies for all members of the European Union not being most of them either dry or Mediterranean. The inclusion of water management as a relevant parameter for a global environmental policy is a basic principle for this EWD. The introduction of these principles is being difficult in Spain, a mostly dry country, where the 20th century water policy was conceived as a “grand” policy that is a policy which becomes axial to the economics, politics and culture for a whole country.

I will introduce the analysis of the Spanish water policy trough a crossed examination of these ten water issues which define all together a water scenario.

European Union Water Directive Desalination Drought Future of irrigations Imbalances and water transfers Partisanship Public participation and contest Reform of water administration Water wars Pricing and water markets

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A complex mixture of natural resources, environment, technology, science and engineering, economics, socio-cultural issues, law and politics, shape this scenario in which the struggle for regional or national identities, power and democracy has in the past been a crucial point.

An environmental water policy gives democracy for granted whereas a “grand” water policy tends to be one of the most relevant issues in the struggle for democracy. My suggestion is that we could characterize dry regions of the world and the Mediterranean basin in particular with such a comparison.

Khayyun Rahi and Todd Halihan

Affiliation: Oklahoma State University

Title: Salinity Changes of the Tigris River Downstream of Baghdad

The Tigris River is the second longest river in Southwest Asia, originating in Turkey and ending in Iraq. The total length of the Tigris is approximately 1850 km and most of it (77%) in Iraq. The river is heavily dammed in Turkey and Iraq. Currently, there are two major dams under operation in Turkey: Kralkizi and Dicle. The Ilisu, which will be the largest, and other at least 8 dams are either under construction or in planning stages. The planned total storage capacity of the Turkish reservoirs alone is 20.5 billion cubic meters (BCM). The mean annual flow of the river within Turkey is 17 BCM. The storage capacities of the reservoirs constructed or planned within Iraq exceed twice the average annual flow of the river.

Construction of dams on the Tigris River upstream of Baghdad has decreased the flow of water to southern Iraq below Baghdad. This, combined with pollution has raised the salinity of the lower reaches of the river. This paper analyzes the changes in salinity of the Tigris downstream of Baghdad and predicts future salinity changes due to decreased flows.

Dr. Arun Kumar Singh

Title: Freshwater Disputes in South Asia & A Rational Water Sharing Model

Practically all the existing Indian treaty arrangements for sharing/harnessing riparian rivers have somehow become debatable.Sharing the water of Ganges at Farrakka Barrage, during the lean summer period (January 1 to May 31) - about 55,000 cusecs - is the bone of contention between India and Bangladesh. Bangladesh needs this water for irrigation and India needs it for keeping Kolkata port operational. The rivers, which pose problems of co-operation, development and utilization of common water resources between India and Nepal, are: Ghaghra, Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala, Kosi, and Sarda or Mahakali. The historical context of bilateral mistrust emerges from Sarda Treaty (1923) involving submergence of 4,000 acres in Nepal. And it lingered on till 1980s! Last bilateral agreement Mahakali Treaty (1996) only remained on paper, both sides having their own interpretation of the treaty.

Between India-Pakistan, Indus water Treaty (1960) was signed with mediation of World Bank, allocating three rivers each to both India (Ravi, Sutlej and Beas) and Pakistan (Sindh, Jhelum and Chenab); India was allowed limited use of water from Pakistani rivers. In last 2 decades all Indian projects on Pakistani rivers - Salal, Baglihar, Kishanganga, Wullar/Tulbul, Chutak, Nimoo-Bazgo – have become controversial. Similarly, growing Indian role in Afghanistan has reached to Afghanistan-Pakistan water dispute too. Finally, a fresh China-India dispute is in the making over Brahmaputra waters.

In this backdrop, a rational water sharing model for South Asia is evolved, largely based on the guidelines enshrined in UN Convention on Non-Navigational Uses of International Fresh Waterbodies.

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Saleh M.K. Saleh

Affiliation: Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy, University of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom; IHP-Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science, University of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom

Title: Transboundary Groundwater Law in the Arid Regions of the Nile Basin: An Important Instrument for the Mitigation of Conflict and the Promotion of Regional Development

This article seeks to explore the role that Transboundary Groundwater Law can play in mitigating regional conflict and catalysing regional development. The two Sudans shall be presented as a case study of a sub-region where the combination of environmental degradation, climate change, weak governance and demographic growth have the potential to exacerbate existing local regional conflict and to directly effect five neighbouring Nile Basin Riparians and a key Nile Riparian and Mediterranean Basin State. The case shall be made for Public International Law’s role in enabling good governance through the facilitation of the rational management of scarce water resources and the development of positive-sum partnerships that are linked to the attainment of international development benchmarks in the overlapping Sahelian – Nile Basin regions. This article proposes that a set of specialised legal provisions that are formed with the input of scientific practitioners be forumulated for the transboundary groundwaters of regions with climatic and hydrological specificities such as those in arid regions. This article shall also explore the role and function of institutional mechanisms that govern the use of transboundary groundwater resources whilst drawing from international experience.

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