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REPORT DOCUMENTATION

Title: WETLAND PLANTS OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

Authors: Fred WeinmannMarc Boule'Ken BrunnerJohn MalekVic Yoshino

Prepared by: U.S. Army Corps of EngineersSeattle District

Final Report: September, 1984; 85 pages; Unclassified

Key Words: Eelgrass Beds Salt Marshes WetlandsMeadows Swamps Wetland Plants I t

Abstract: Fifty-nine species of wetland plants are described and illustratedwith color photographs. These wetland species occur in eelgrassbeds, low salt/brackish marshes, high salt/brackish marshes, deepfreshwater marshes, shallow freshwater marshes, wet meadows andswamps. Definitions and a general introduction to wetlands are alsoprovided.

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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

Even a small guide such as this cannot be prepared without the effort andsupport from many individuals and the authors are grateful to all thosewho assisted. Special appreciation is extended for the review and adviceprovided by our colleagues at the Pacific Ocean Division and SeattleDistrict Corps of Engineers offices: James Maragos, Margaret Elliot, MikeLee, Steve Dice, Steve Martin, Sam Casne, and Mike Bowlus providedparticularly helpful comments. We are also grateful to David Mason ofWestern Washington University and Dick Butler of the King CountyPlanning Department, who found time to review an early manuscript andprovided a much needed critical review. J. Kirk Hilsabeck, Lonnie Reid, BillKnox, Seattle District Graphics Branch, were particularly helpful ingraphic design and layout; Caroline Maas created the wetland cross-section drawings; and the Seattle District word processing staff was everpatient in interpreting the various and unique handwritings of the authors.A special thanks is also due to Shapiro and Associates and their wordprocessing staff for their timely support. Finally, the special ambianceprovided by the seaside retreat of Joe and Elsie Fickel catalyzed the initialdrafting of this wetland guide. All of the aforementioned assistancecontributed positively to the finished product and has been appreciatedthroughout this lengthy process of preparation. Any and all errors of fact or

omission in the guide can be attributed solely to the authors.

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CREDITS

Authors:

Marc Souls' likes plants and birds just fine, with no discernable preference. When he isnot in the field increasing his extensive wetlands expertise and slides collection, hejuggles paper and figures as Vice-President of Shapiro and Associates, Inc., anenvironmental consulting firm in Seattle. Mr. Boule' has a B.S. in Geology from Caltechand an M.S. in Marine Sciences from William and Mary College. He is the westernrepresentative for the Society of Wetland Scientists.

Ken Brunner has a marked preference for birds over plants and is delighted that he wasable to find a bird in the cover photograph. Since he is a wildlife biologist, receiving hisB.S. from the University of Washington, these eclectic tastes are tolerated. Mr.Brunner's experience with wetlands is one of the best results of his 7 years with theSeattle District, Corps of Engineers.

John Malek hunts birds and occasionally plants, and thinks fish are also fine, in theirplace. Mr. Malek has a B.A. from Western Washington State College and an M.A. fromthe University of Washington; both are in English. After 10 years with the SeattleDistrict, Corps of Engineers, he has become reasonably proficient in environmentalplanning and can pronounce correctly the Latin names of several wetland species.

Fred Wemnmanm on the other hand, absolutely prefers plants to birds and managed toedit out nearly every wetland photograph showing a bird. Dr. Weinmann has beenstudying various aspects of wetland ecology for over 15 years. In addition to his dutiesas Chief, Estuarine Studies Unit, and wetland specialist for the Seattle District, Corps ofEngineers, he is actively involved in the Society of Wetland Scientists and is acting as aregional coordinator for the Corps of Engineers and Fish and Wildlife Service to developnationwide wetland plant species lists. Dr. Weinmann received his Ph.D. in MarineEcology/Botany from the University of Washington.

Victor Yoahino once hunted birds and sprayed organophosphates over plants ineastern Washington. He now prefers to photograph both plus motorcycles and fashionmodels. Mr. Yoshino has studied Pacific Northwest wetlands with Dr. Weinmann andwetlands of the Midwest and East Coast during Corps of Engineers sponsored training.He is currently pursuing an interdisciplinary degree in applied regional ecology and is amember of the Society of Wetland Scientists.

j .Photographs:

Cover photograph of Skagit Flats wetlands is by Fred Weinmann.

Some of the photographs appearing in this document were taken by Victor Yoshinoor other Corps of Engineers' personnel during field inspections or other Corpsduties. Other photographs were contributed by the authors from their personalcollections and are used here by permission.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................ iii

CREDITS .................................................... iv

INTRODUCTION .............................................. 1

WETLANDS, A DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW ........................ 2

COVERAGE. CONTENTS. AND ORGANIZATION ........ .............. 5

WETLAND HABIT S ......................................... 13

WETLAND IDENTI CATION COMPLEXITIES ........................ 20

WETLAND PLANT )ESCRIPTIONS ............................... 21

EELGRASS EDS ....... ....... I......................... 22

LOW SALT RACKISH MARSHES .......................... 23

HIGH SALT/BRACKISH MARSHES .......................... 32DEPFEHAEHASE ..............4DEEPLO FRESHWATER MARSHES......................... 49

WET MEADOWS ........................................ 64

SWAMPS ............................................. 68

GLOSSARY ................................................ 78

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................. 82

INDEX ..................................................... 84

INTRODUCTION

This guide was prepared to assist those persons involved in implementingCorps of Engineers' authorities and activities in wetlands of the PacificNorthwest. It is intended as a tool that will aid in identifying wetland plantsand habitats for this region. While the guide is most representative ofwetlands species and habitats in the state of Washington, very similar spe-cies and habitats exist in the state of Oregon and in northern California. Inaddition, freshwater wetlands throughout the north temperate United Statesshare many commonalities, so portions of this guide will have application toother areas of the country.

Although this guide is principally intended to be used by agency personnel ininterpreting whether or not a particular habitat is a wetland, the authors hopethat it will appeal to others who wish to acquire an understanding of wetlandplants and habitats. For those persons who do not work regularly withwetland jurisdictions and issues, some explanation of these topics as theyrelate to Corps of Engineers' authorities is provided in the following section.This discussion also describes briefly other agencies' involvement withwetlands management and protection, again, principally as they relate toCorps of Engineers' authorities and activities. Thereafter is provided explana-tion of the coverage, contents, and organization of this guide; brief descrip-

". tions of the wetland categories used by the authors; and finally a caution forthose using this guide in the field, especially when attempting to determinewhether a particular habitat is a wetland, since there are complexities andlimitations to wetland identification that exceed the scope of this publication.

While an effort has been made to write and organize this guide so that anextensive knowledge of botany is unnecessary, some awareness of wetlandfunctions and values on the part of the user was assumed. Some botanicalterms are used throughout the species and habitat descriptions; these aredefined in the glossary at the back of this publication. General plantdescriptions, including anatomical terms, have been included in the glossary.

Finally, wetlands are ecologically important areas, and over the last severalyears the public has become aware and appreciative of their values andconcerned with their preservation. Many Federal, state, and local agenciesare interested in and may have regulatory responsibilities for managing or

: Iprotecting wetlands. As a result, research that has been directed towardwetland ecology has changed and expanded our understanding of wetland

Svalues, functions, and processes. Exhaustive reference to this body ofliterature has been avoided in this document to maintain brevity. A limitedbibliography is provided at the end of this publication for persons desiring tofurther explore some of the concepts, classification systems, and technicaldetails that are alluded to in this guide.

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WETLANDS, A DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW

For Corps of Engineers' authorities and activities, a formal definition ofwetlands is provided by regulation. Wetlands are defined as:

Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water ata frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normalcircumstances do support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted forlife in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps,marshes, bogs, and similar areas. (33 CFR 323)

Corps of Engineers' concern and authority for wetlands stems from three

major sources:

e Pursuant to the Clean Water Act, Congress gave the Corps the

responsibility and authority to issue permits for the discharge of dredgedor fill material into waters of the United States, including adjacentwetlands. (Known commonly as "Section 404" permits.) This regulatoryprogram is the one with which the public is most familiar in terms ofwetland regulation and through which the above wetland definition wascreated.

* The Office of the Chief of Engineers has issued a very stringent policywith respect to Corps of Engineer's civil works projects and regulatory pro-grams where wetlands may be affected This policy states in part:

The Corps of Engineers recognizes that wetlands constitute a productiveand valuable public resource. Their unnecessary alteration or destructionis discouraged as contrary to the public interest. Wetlands considered toperform functions important to the public interest include

(7) Wetlands which serve significant natural biological functions,including food chain production, general habitat, and nesting, spawning,rearing, and resting sites for aquatic or land species;

(2) Wetlands set aside for study of the aquatic environment or as

sanctuaries or refuges;

(3) Wetlands, the destruction or alteration of which would affectdetrimentally natural drainage characteristics, sedimentation patternssalinity distribution, flushing cheracteristic, current patterns, or otherenvironmental characteristics.

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(4) Wetlands which are significant in shielding other areas from waveaction, erosion, or storm damage. Such wetlands are often associatedwith barrier beaches, islands, reefs and bars;

(5) Wetlands which serve as valuable storage areas for storm and floodwaters,

(61 Wetlands which are prime natural recharge areas. Prime rechargeareas are locations where surface and ground water are directlyinterconnected; and

(7) Wetlands which through natural w'er filtration processes servesignificant water purification functions.

I ln 1977, President Carter issued Executive Order 11990 which directsall Federal agencies to avoid activities that adversely affect wetlandsunless there is no practicable alternative. Section 2(a) of Executive Order11990 states, in part:

...each agency, to the extent permitted by law, shall avoid undertakingor providing assistance for new construction located in wetlands unlessthe head of the agency finds (1) that there is not a practicablealternative to such construction and (2) that the proposed actionincludes af practicable measures to minimize harm to wetlands whichmay result from such use

In responding to this charge, the Corps has acquired considerable expertise inidentifying and understanding wetland habitats as they relate to ourregulatory definition. Other Federal agencies also play major roles in theoverall Federal wetland program, both as part of their own agencyresponsibilities and expertise and in association with the Corps of Engineers'permitting program. The Fish and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department ofthe Interior has long been concerned with wetlands because of their value tofish and wildlife species and is currently engaged in preparing a systematicinventory and classification of the Nation's wetlands known as the NationalWetland Inventory. The Environmental Protection Agency, with the Corps ofEngineers, is responsible for administration of Section 404 of the CleanWater Act and has promulgated technical guidelines for use in evaluatingpermit applications. These Federal agencies, and the National Marine

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Fisheries Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,must review and comment on all Section 404 permit applications. In addition,all Federal agencies are charged with implementing Executive Order 11990.

In the Pacific Northwest, the states of Washington and Oregon have accordedprotective status to wetlands in developing their Federally-approved CoastalZone Management Programs. In addition, local governments within eachstate have become increasingly concerned with wetland issues. Several localgovernments have developed specific policies and regulations aimed atprotecting and enhancing important wetlands through the administration oftheir land use programs. Foremost among these is the wetlands programdeveloped under the Sensitive Areas Ordinance for King County in the stateof Washington. Similar attention is being paid to wetlands by state and localauthorities elsewhere in the Nation.

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COVERAGE. CONTENTS, AND ORGANIZATION

This wetland plant guide contains photographs and descriptions of 59common wetland species in the Pacific Northwest. Our objective has been toillustrate, using a minimal number of plant species, the broad range ofwetland habitat types in this portion of the country. A variety of plants arerepresented, including species that are permanently submerged by a meter ormore of freshwater as well as species representative of wetlands that rarely

have standing water. In like manner, representatives of marine areas includespecies that typically occur in habitats only exposed at the lowest tides andother species that only grow at elevations that are seldom (and then only forvery short duration) inundated by tidal waters. While these represent only asmall percentage of plant species that occur in Pacific Northwest wetlands,they include most of the best indicators of Pacific Northwest wetland types.

These types have been limited for this guide to those which traditionally havebeen considered "wetlands" by professional wetland ecologists. Habitat types Iwhich only in recent years have come to be defined as wetlands, but do notfall under the previously given Corps of Engineers' regulatory definition ofwetlands, have not been inrluded. Information on these wetland types may befound in other scientific publications, some of which are included in thebibliography at the back of this guide. Notable examples of these additions are

algal- and/or invertebrate-dominated marine and estuarine shorelines,invertebrate-dominated streambeds without vascular plant populations, andephemeral streams which have no significant populations of wetland plants(e.g. dry washes and gullies). Due to insufficient space in this edition, bogsalso have not been included as a separate wetland type; although some of thedominant plant species of bogs are included.

Table 1 compares the wetland classification system of Martin, et al. (1953),published in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 39 by Shaw and Fredine(1956), with the Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of theUnited States by Cowardin, et al. (1978). The Circular 39 system, untilrecently the most widely used wetland classification system in the UnitedStates, was developed to inventory the Nation's wetlands in the early 1950's,In 1974, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service initiated another nationalinventory of wetlands. Whereas the earlier inventory primarily assessed theamount and distribution of waterfowl habitat, the primary objective of theNational Wetlands Inventory classification system is to impose boundaries onnatural ecosystems for the purposes of inventory, evaluation and

management.

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TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF WETLAND TYPES DESCRIBED IN U.S.FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE CIRCULAR 39 WITH SOMEOF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE NATIONALWETLAND INVENTORY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

National Wetland Inventory Classificationof Wetlands and Deepwater HabitatsUSFWS Circular 39

Type Classes Water Regimes

Type 1 -Seasonally Emergent Wetland Temporarily FloodedFlooded Basins or Forested Wetland Intermittently FloodedFlats

Type 2 - Inland Fresh Emergent Wetland SaturatedMeadows

Type 3 - Inland Emergent Wetland SemipermanentlyShallow Fresh FloodedMarshes Seasonally Flooded

Type 4 -Inland Deep Emergent Wetland Permanently Flooded I tFresh Marshes Aquatic Bed Intermittently Flooded

SemipermanentlyFlooded

Type 5 - Inland Open Aquatic Bed Permanently FloodedFresh Water Unconsolidated Intermittently Exposed

Bottom

Type 6 - Shrub Scrub-Shrub Wetland All nontidal regimesSwamps except Permanently

Flooded

Type 7 - Wooded Forested Wetland All nontidal regimesSwamps except Permanently

Flooded

Type 8 - Bogs Scrub-Shrub Wetland SaturatedForested WetlandMoss-Lichen Wetland

Type 9 - Inland Saline Unconsolidated Seasonally FloodedFlats Shore Intermittently Flooded

Temporarily Flooded

Type 10 - Inland Emergent Wetland Seasonally FloodedSaline Marshes Seripermanently

Flooded

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WETLAND IDENTIFICATION COMPLEXITIES:LIFE IS NOT SIMPLE

For a number of reasons, when determining whether or not a particular habi-tat parcel is a wetland, the field person must exercise judgment and caution.Many plants that are not truly "wetland species" - that is, they are not mosttypically found in, or are not typically adapted to existence in wetlands - willoccasionally be found in an obvious wetland habitat for any of many ecologi-cal reasons. In wetlands such as wet meadows, nonwetland annual plantsand those perennials that die back to ground level each year, will begin theirgrowth during the driest part of the season, grow rapid, , and complete theirlife cycle before the advent of wet conditions. Goldenrod and some commonlotus species commonly follow this pattern. In other instances, plants that areparticularly successful at populating disturbed areas, either wetland or non-wetland, will invade. Once they have become established on the site, thesespecies can persist as sparse individuals or even dominate such areas.Blackberries and thistles are prime examples of such invader species.

Other species seem to occur at random in wetland and nonwetland situa-tions; these plants readily adapt to a variety of moisture conditions. To furthercomplicate wetland identification, many nonwetland plant species can occurin what appears to be a wet habitat, but in fact is a relative!y dry microhabitatwithin a predominantly wet site. Finally, some species are broadly adapted forlife in either wetland or nonwetland situations, A few notable examples aretwinberry, red alder, and fireweed. Such species typically will often exhibitdifferent morphological characteristics in wetlands as compared with theirappearance in nonwetlands. Red alder, for example, will be shorter andappear more twisted in a swamp than in an upland habitat because itsgrowth is inhibited by the high moisture content and resulting lack of oxygenin the soil Persons identifying wetlands are encouraged to check beyond

what appears obvious.

One also needs to be aware of the wide diversity of habitats that are transi-tional between wetlands and nonwetlands. These habitats typically occupythe shoreward edges of lakes, ponds, rivers, swamps, bogs, marshes, andestuaries, and their vegetation is a mixture of species typically associatedwith, and adapted to. saturated conditions and species that normally wouldnot occur in a wetland situation At times, these transitional zones or "eco-tones" will be so narrow as to be barely discernable, easily defining theextent of the wetland area Other times, these areas will be extremely broadwith apparently no definitive boundary between the wetland and the nonwe-tland The width of this transition zone will normally reflect the gradient inelevation and moisture regime. This knowledge, however, does not simplifythe identification task

To summarize, caution and judgement must be exercised in interpreting thenature of wetland habitats and in evaluating their floristic features. Where adiverse flora exists, the field person should not place great emphasis on thepresence of any single species, but should focus on the community of speciescomprising the habitat. Where nece ;sary, hydrologic and soil conditionsshould be identified and evaluated. Finally, the person attempting identifica-tion must recognize that some habitats cannot truly be termed wetland ornonwetland, but are a transition between the two.

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Swamps: The essential feature of swamps is the presence of (and usuallydominance by) woody vegetation, either shrubs or trees. Swamps often havestanding water during a portion of the growing season with water depths of20 cm or more during wet seasons. Swamps occur most frequently alonglow-lying streams, in river overflow areas, and in shallow lake basins.Freshwater swamps may also be tidally influenced. The most commonswamps in the Pacific Northwest are the coastal/maritime spruce swampsand the ubiquitous alder bottom swamps. Common woody plants in theswamps include Sitka spruce (Picea sitchenss), red alder (Alnus rubra)willow (Safix spp.), and Douglas spiraea (Spiraea douglasi).

The transition from deep freshmarsh (the tidal channel), toshallow marsh dominated bysedges, then to shrub-swampdoininated by willows and redalder, with a spruce swamp inthe background, is shown nearJunction City. Washington.

This photograph shows a typicalassociation in Pacific Northwestcoastal situations. A tidal channelin the foreground is bordered bya dense growth of sedges; adjacentto the sedges is a swamp dominat.ed by red alder and Sitka spruce.

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Wet meadows: these freshwater wetlands are normally inundated for onlya portion of the growing season, but the soil remains saturated near thesurface for most or all of the growing season. Wet meadows occur over largeareas of the flood plains in western Washington and characterize manyriparian areas east of the Cascades. The most obvious examples are wetpastures dominated by soft rush (Juncus effusus) as well as ungrazed openareas where reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) forms lush stands.Other species of grasses, sedges, and rushes occur in these habitats as do anumber of showy wildflowers.

U.- .The wet meadow in the fore-ground is dominated by grassesand the tufted soft rush. Similarmeadows are abundant through-

out the Pacific Northwest, espe-cially in pastures, diked areas,estuarine deltas, and adjacent to

lakes and streams.

In the foreground is a typicalwet meadow dominated by

buttercups and grasses. In thebackground, an area having asimilar water regime is being

used for grazing and hay produc-tion.

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Shallow fresh marshes: Surface water, up to several decimeters (dm),may persist for short periods, but water depth in this wetland type is typicallyless than 16 cm and there often is no standing water during the dry season.Shallow freshwater marshes have the most diverse assemblage of plantspecies of all wetland types and are perhaps the most commonly recognized.Two of the most apparent species are cattails (Typha spp.) and purpleloosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). The margins of lakeshores, often adjacent todeep fresh marshes, are typical locations where examples of this wetlandtype may be found, although easily observable examples are ubiquitous alongroadsides, in undeveloped urban areas, and virtually anywhere standingwater persists during the growing season.

Seen in late summer, this shal-low marsh is dominated bygolden-brown reed canarygrassand cattails. The cattails prob-ably indicate wetter areas. Inthe foreground is a deepmarsh vegetated withsubmerged aquatic plants.

VA shallow marsh at Lake* Washington dominated by pur-

ple loosestrife and cattails witha willow swamp in the back-ground.

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Deep fresh marshes: This wetland type is usually permanently inundatedby freshwater from a few centimeters (cm) to two meters (m) in depth. Thesehabitats are best typified by the sheltered bays of large lakes, the shorelinesof many small lakes and ponds, and sluggish streams and rivers. Thiswetland type contains a variety of different typical plant types, includingsubmerged aquatic plants (watermilfoil), floating leaved aquatic plants (waterlilies), floating plants (duckweed), and emergent plants (bulrushes). Easilyobservable examples are Union Bay on the west side of Lake Washington aswell as hear the mouth of Mercer Slough on the east side of LakeWashington.

This deep fresh marsh has awater depth of nearly a meterand is dominated by a dense growth

of Eurasian watermilol.

I fThe transition from open waterito a deep fresh marsh dominatedby white water lilies and bul-rushes, to a shallow marsh com.posed of purple loosestrife andcattails. then to a willow swamp,is shown at Lake Sammamish.

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High salt/brackish marshes:High marshes also occur in marine and estuarine areas, generally aboveMHHW where they are inundated by tidal waters on a less than dailyfrequency. High marshes occur contiguous with the shoreward edge of lowmarshes, although as noted, there is often much overlap. Typical dominantspecies include tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa), Pacific silverweed(Potentilla pacifica), and meadow barley (Hordeum brachyantherum).

This high salt marsh is dominatedby tufted hairgrass. The centralportion of the picture shows asalt panne where sea water hasevaporated creating a highly salinearea essentially devoid ofvegetation.

Pacific silverweed, and occasionalclumps of tufted hairgrass domi-nate this high salt marsh.

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Low saft/brackish marshes:These wetlands occur in marine and estuarine areas below mean higher highwater (MHHW) where they can be inundated by high tides on most days. Lowsalt marsh species can extend down to about 1.8 m above MLLW where theymay mix with algae and narrow-bladed eelgrass. Salinities can range broadlyfrom essentially marine (30 to 35 parts per thousand) to only mildly brackish(5 to 7 parts per thousand). Under high salinities, these marshes are oftendominated by fleshy jaumea (Jaumea carnosa) or pickleweed (Salicorniavirginica). In brackish conditions, low marshes are often dominated by sedges(Carex spp.) and sometimes by arrowgrass (Triglochin maritimum), bulrush(Scirpus spp.), or various combinations of other species. There is considerableintergradation and overlap between low and high marsh species so there maynot be a distinct boundary. Examples of low salt and brackish marshes occurthroughout the Pacific Northwest in relatively sheltered marine waters. Broadexpanses of these marshes can be found in Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay.

This low brackish marsh inWillapa Bay has circular patchesof Lyngby's sedge (left corner)and salt marsh cordgrass (rightcenter). Eventually these patcheswill expand until the circlesmeet, forming a complete vege-tation cover.

AA tidal channel, near Westport,Washington, bordered by a lowsalt marsh composed of pickle-weed and fleshy jaumea.

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WETLAND HABITATS

The species described and illustrated here are organized into seven sectionsthat represent distinct wetland types. A brief description and example photo-graphs of the seven wetland types are provided in the following paragraphs.For purposes of simplification, we have combined some of the Circular 39habitat types as follows:

Eelgrass Beds includes Type 19Low Salt/Brackish Marsh includes Type 17High Salt/Brackish Marsh includes Type 17Shallow Fresh Marsh includes Type 3Deep Fresh Marsh includes Types 4 and 5Wet Meadow includes Type 2Swamp includes Types 6 and 7

Eelgraas beds: These intertidal and subtidal wetlands are dominated byeelgrass (Zostera marine) and/or narrow-bladed eelgrass (Z. japonica). Thiswetland type can be found throughout the extensive intertidal lands in GraysHarbor and Willapa Bay as well as in protected embayments in Puget Soundand the San Juan Archipelago. The substrate is usually mud or mixed mudand sand. Z marina generally occurs between 6.6 m below mean lower lowwater (MLLW) and 1.8 m above MLLW. At its upper limits, Z marina oftenintermixes with Z japonica, which generally occurs between 1.0 m above 4 I IMLLW and 2.4 m above MLLW. At its upper limits of growth, Z. japonica willintermix with low salt marsh vegetation.

A dense bed of eelgrass impartsthe greenish co/or to this inter-tidal beach near GooseberryPoint on Puget Sound.

This detailed view of a portion ofan eelgran bed shows a number of-j algal species intermingled with theselgras$ blades.I

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Field Characters: Nontechnical descriptions of identifying characteristicsthat can be easily observed in the field are presented. These descriptionssupplement the photographs, pointing out distinctive features that can beseen in the accompanying photographs. All dimensions given are approxima-tions in metric measurements; a conversion table is provided on the insideback cover. As most species are quite variable morphologically, they will notalways exhibit field characters precisely as described. Also, some species donot have easily observable and/or describable nontechnical characters, eventhough their overall appearance is distinctive to the experienced wetlandbiologist.

Familiarity with the botantical characteristics of the different plant familiesaids considerably in field identification. Reference to one of the publicationscited in the bibliography may be necessary to obtain specific botanticaldescriptions or to distinguish some of the more difficult species from similar Ispecies. Field experience will aid in recognizing many species, and is neces-sary to correctly identify most wetland species during their nonfloweringseasons and in the winter. Some species illustrated in this guide have

nonwetland counterparts that are quite similar in appearance.

Habitats: The guide provides a brief narrative of the general nature of allhabitats where the plant may be found. Many species, while typical of onewetland type, commonly occur in other wetland types and may occur innonwetland situations as well. This is expressed in a more compact form inTable 2. Other species commonly associated with the illustrated plant arelisted. This section represents the combined experience of the authors withPacific Northwest wetlands rather than a textbook approach detailing wherethe species ought to be found. Also, functional values, such as wildlife habitatvalue and primary productivity, are not discussed. To be properly treated,these values require lengthy and complex discussion beyond the scope of thisguide. Furthermore, and in most cases, the important functional valuesattributable to wetlands are on a community rather than an individual species

*b basis.

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TABLE 2: OCCURRENCE OF PLANT SPECIES IN DIFFERENTWETLAND TYPES

Z2

HABITATTYPE x

Hgh SM b8 I T C TI g I TI C

0"p Flash Mars I T1 IT

90.owIrrva gMarsh T C l I C I TI TI C I I

SWo MIl 7 I TI I I T C

T Typical C Commno I -Infrequenl X - Occurs in non-wetn hab#ati

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WET SHALLOW DEEP FRESH SHALLOW FRESHWAIER

MEAOW FRESH MARSH FRESHMARSH OPEN WATE MARSH FRESH MARSH SWAMP

FIGURE 2: IDEALIZED CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF FRESHWATERWETLANDS.

Table 2 lists all of the plant species included in this guide and referencesthem to the habitat types where they occur; the habitat type where they areboldfaced (e.g. T) indicates the habitat section in which the plant's descriptionand illustration appear (refer to pages 10 and 11).

The plant descriptions section provides the following information for eachspecies:

Scientific Name: Genus and species are given, or where the plant type isrepresented by a group of similar species, the notation "spp." is substitutedfor the species name. Scientific names are based on nomenclature inVascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest (Hitchcock, et al, 1969). A fewexceptions to this nomenclature are noted.

Common Name: Only the name or names most commonly applied to theillustrated plant are given. In cases where no vernacular name is known, ageneric name is given. $

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Figures 1 and 2 show generalized spatial relationships of selected types ofwetlands; the user should understand that each of these wetland typesrepresents a diversity of habitats with much overlap in plant species

composition in response to site-specific environmental conditions. As a result,many of these species will be found in more than one wetland type and mayalso occur in nonwetland situations.

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ELOIASS BED OW SALT MARSH HIGH SALT MARSH COASTAL SWAMPMEAN LOWER MEAN MEAN HIGHER EXTREMELOW WATER HIGH WATER HIGHWATER HIGHWATER

FIGURE 1: IDEALIZED CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF SPATIAL ANDVERTICAL RELATION OF ESTUARINE WETLAND TYPES.

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National Wetland Inventory Classificationof Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats

USFWS Circular 39

Type Classes Water Regimes

Type 11 - Inland Open Unconsolidated Permanently FloodedSaline Water Bottom Intermittently

Flooded

Type 12 - Coastal Emergent Wetland Regularly FloodedShallow Fresh Irregularly FloodedMarshes Semipermanently

Flooded-Tidal

Type 13 - Coastal Emergent Wetland Regularly FloodedDeep Fresh Marshes Semipermanently

Flooded-Tidal -

Type 14 - Coastal Aquatic Bed SubtidalOpen Fresh Water Unconsolidated Permanently

Bottom Flooded-Tidal

Type 15 -Coastal Salt Unconsolidated Regularly FloodedFlats Shore Irregularly Flooded

Type 16 - Coastal Salt Emergent Wetland Irregularly FloodedMeadows

Type 17 - Irregularly Emergent Wetland Irregularly FloodedFlooded SaltMarshes

Type 18 - Regularly Emergent Wetland Regularly FloodedFlooded SaltMarshes

Type 19 - Sounds and Unconsolidated SubtidalBays Bottom Irregularly Exposed

Aquatic Bed Regularly FloodedFlat Irregularly Flooded

Type 20 - Mangrove Scrub-Shrub Wetland Irregularly ExposedSwamps Forested Wetland Regulary Flooded

Irregularly Flooded A

7

WETLAND PLANT DESCRIPTIONS

21

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4 2

EELGRASS BEDS

Zostera marina; Zostera japonicaSCIENTIFIC NAME

EELGRASS, GRASS-WRACK; DWARF EELGRASS, NARROW-BLADED EELGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: In Z. marina,the flat, grass-like leaves are up to1.4 cm wide and can be over 3meters in length while the leavesof Z. japonica are up to 2 mm wideand do not exceed 15 cm inlength. In both species, the up-right stems originate from anunderground rhizome. The seedsare enclosed in elongated mem-branous, translucent packets.

Habitats: Z. maidna occurs upto about 1.8 m above MLLW andas deep as 6.6 m below MLLW. Z.japonica occurs higher on theintertidal, between about 1.0 mand 2.4 m above MLLW. Bothspecies grow well in sandy or Imuddy substrate and mE, befound along both low andmoderate energy shorelinesthroughout Puget Sound.

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LOW SALT/BRACKISH MARSHES

Cotula coronopifoliaSCIENTIFIC NAME

BRASS BUTTONSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This low,sometimes creeping, fleshy plant isreadily distinguished by its manybright yellow flowers (approxi-mately 1 cm in diameter) lookingmuch like the buttons for whichthey are named. The flowers areborne singly on stems about 3 to 6cm above the highest leaves. Thenarrow, often toothed or dividedleaves have no petiole and claspthe round fleshy stem.

Habitats: Although extremely

salt tolerant, this plant only occa-sionally is found in undisturbed Itidal marshes. It is more commonin isolated saline habitats wheredrainage is poor and semi-perma-nent inundation in the spring mayi be followed by severe drying in thesummer. Brass buttons is mostcommonly found in isolateddepressions (salt pannes) of tidalwetlands, on dredged material, orbehind dikes. As with saltweed,these conditions may discouragecompetition by other species. It isfrequently associated with salt-weed. pickleweed, or saltgrass.

1I

$ ' 23

,


Cuacuto salinaSCIENTIFIC NAME

SALTMARSH DODDERCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Saltmarshdodder is a parasitic plant thatentwines itself about a host plantfrom which it obtains essentialnutrients. As a parasite, it lackschlorophyll and appears to bewithout leaves, which have beenreduced to microscopic scales. Thestems are yellow-orange, while thetiny bell-shaped flowers (2 to 4.5mm) are white to cream in color

Habitats: Typically found in lowsalt marshes, this plant is mostoften associated with pickleweedand fleshy jaumea, though it will Ialso parasitize other plants,primarily those of the goosefootand sunflower families. It occursinfrequently in high salt marshes.

24

I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

.. ... . - -* -"4 . . . . ia i i I I . .

Jaumea carnosaSCIENTIFIC NAME

FLESHY JAUMEACOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The leaves arefleshy and succulent. Stems, up to3 dm long are lax, so the plantappears matted. The yellowcomposite heads of flowers (1.5 to2 cm in diameter) are solitary andshowy, but rarely appear to be fullyopen. The lax stems, fleshy leaves,and yellow composite flowersdistinguish the plant from all othersin the salt marsh.

Habitats: Along with pickle-weed, this plant best typifies lowsalt marsh habitats of the PacificNorthwest, although it is commonlyfound in high salt marshes as well.Fleshy jaumea forms extensivemarshes as a codominant withpickleweed or in monospecificstands at and above the mean highwater level.

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ULiaeopsis occidentalisSCIENTIFIC NAME

LILAEOPSISCOMMON NAME

Field Charactevs: The cylindri-cal, hollow leaves of lilaeopsis growin tufts at intervals along a rhizome,These leaves are generally lessthan 5 mm in diameter and lessthan 10 cm long, although theymay grow to 15 cm. Each leaf isdivided by partitions, appearing incross-section to consist of 5 to 10sections. The plant is usually noterect when exposed at low tide andoften appears similar to algae ordwarf eelgrass lying in the bottomof a tidal channel. The flowers aresmaller than the leaves and rarelyseen, but when carefully examinedthey look like those of other mem-bers of the parsley family.

Habitats: Lilaeopsis is commonon the bottom of channels that areexposed only at low water in tidaland brackish marshes. Althoughwater velocity may be high in thesechannels during ebb tide, during

most of the tidal cycle the plantsare inundated by very slow movingwater. As a result the substrate isusually mud or silt. Lilaeopsis israrely associated with other vege-tation, although narrow-bladedeelgrass may also occur in channelbottoms.

26

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Salicornia virginicaSCIENTIFIC NAME

PICKLEWEED, GLASSWORTCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This plant hasno true leaves; its cylindrical, fleshystems (to 5 mm in diameter) are aunique feature. The low growingplants often form dense mats,sometimes 20 cm thick. Tiny yellowflowers are clustered at the tips ofthe stems, emerging from depress-ions at the joints. New growth issucculent, edible, and may take ona reddish tinge; older stems arewoody and perennial. In winter,much of the fleshy growth is lost,leaving only a tangle of woody Istems.

Habitats: Pickleweed is mostcommon in low salt marshes allalong the Pacific Coast where it isgenerally inundated twice daily. It isalso common in high salt marshesand may occasionally be observedmixed with eelgrass. Pickleweed isusually found in sandy substrate,but also grows in muddy or clayeymaterial. Associates in low saltmarshes are salt grass, arrowgrass,and fleshy jaumea.

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Scirpus americanusSCIENTIFIC NAME

AMERICAN THREESQUARECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Americanthreesquare forms stands of scat-tered culms from 0.3 to 1.5 m inheight. Each culm is triangular incross section, with flat sides. Theseveral flat, elongated loaves (2to 4 mm in width and 0.2 to 1.0 mlong) are borne near the base. Acompact cluster composed of oneto eight yellowish-brown toreddish-purple spikelets protrudesat the base of a prominent, sharplytipped green bract, 2 to 15 cm inlength, which appears as a continu- Iation of the culm. American three-square is a perennial and fruitsfrom June through September. Theplant grows from dark brownrhizomes as does a similar species,Olney's threesquare; t~ie latterappears slightly stouter, and its

culm appears three-winged in crosssection.

Habitats: American threesquareis typical of low salt and brackishmarshes occurring at or near meanhigh water, but extends into highmarshes such as the fringing saltmarshes of Grays Harbor, WillapaBay and Padilla Bay. The speciesdoes not appear to tolerate highsalinity compared to Olney'sthreesquare. Associated speciesinclude smooth cordgrass, seasidearrowgrass, and Lyngby's sedge.

28

Spartina alternifloraSCIENTIFIC NAME

4SMOOTH CORDGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This robustperennial grass may reach 2.5 m inheight, but is most commonly I to2 m. The stems are often 1 cm ormore in diameter. Long flat leavesare 0.5 to 1.5 cm wide and to 0.5 min length. The panicle has numer-ous branches, but these are closelyappressed, giving the appearanceof a single cylindrical flower spike.The plant is lush green in summerand fades to gold in the fall.

Habitats: This prolific grassdominates most salt marshes of the IAtlantic Coast, but is known onlyfrom Willapa Bay on the westcoast, where it is thought to havebeen introduced by the oyster in-dustry. A similar, hybrid speciescommon to Great Britain (S. towns-endii) has been identified innorthern Puget Sound, where itwas undoubtedly introduced. Cord-grass typically occurs in low saltand brackish marshes in sandy tomuddy substrates where it may beinundated twice a day.

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i 29 . .

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Spergularia marinaSCIENTIFIC NAME

SALTMARSH SANDSPURRYCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This sprawlingannual plant feels fleshy to thetouch. The drab white to pale pinkflowers are about 1 cm in diameter.The sepals are longer than thepetals, partially obscuring them.Opposite. narrow linear leaves are2 to 4 cm long.

Habitats: This plant is mosttypical of low salt and brackishmarshes where it is sometimes apioneer species; it may also rangeinto the high salt marsh. Capable ofwithstanding regular tidalinundation, it is also particularly _ !adapted to high salinities. As thecommon name implies, it generallygrows on sandy substrate. Theplant is often inconspicuous amongits dominant associates, whichinclude pickleweed and fleshyjaumea.

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30

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Triglochin maritimumSCIENTIFIC NAME

SEASIDE ARROWGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The fleshy.succulent leaves are 1 to 8 dm inlength and tufted from the root mator from short rhizomes. Each leafhas a sheath which encircles theinner, older, and usually shorterleaves. This sheath may extend asmuch as one-third of the leaflength The sheath distinguishesseaside arrowgrass from seasideplantain, which appears similarwhen not in flower A long flowerstalk extends from the center of theplant above the leaves. The tiny,green or purplish flowers are nu-merous, individually stalked, anddensely clustered along the upperone-third of the stalk The plant isnonpersistent in winter, the above-ground portion being removed bywinter tides.

Habitats: Arrowgrass is com-mon in low salt or brackishmarshes where it is usually inun-dated twice a day. Occasionallyarrowgrass may be found in highmarshes where inundation occursonce daily; however, only rarelyis it a dominant feature in thesecommunities. In salt marshes, itmay be associated with pickleweed,fleshy jaumea, and salt grass. Inbrackish marshes, common associ-ates are sedges, Pacific silverweed.and American threesquare. Al-though not common, seasidearrowgrass has also been noted inalkaline seelps east of the

31

. .. ...._ _.-_.__ _ _ _ _.+-4,-

HIGH SALT/BRACKISH MARSHES

Aster subspicatusSCIENTIFIC NAME

DOUGLAS ASTERCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This plantstands about 6 to 10 dm tall withnarrow, linear alternate leavesabout 1.5 to 3 cm long. Stems arestiff and fibrous, nearly woody atthe base, and freely branching.Flower heads are numerous, eachabout 2 to 3 cm in diameter withdistinctive purple rays and yellowcenters.

Habitats: This showy wild-flower is common in high brackishtidal marshes and can be found Ialong stream banks and in moist

woods. In high tidal marshes, it isusually found close to the tran-sition zone where it is inundatedless than once a day. Commonassociates are bentgrass, Pacificsilverweed, and meadow barley.

32

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Atriplex patulaSCIENTIFIC NAME

SAILTWEED, ORACHE, FAT HENCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The leavesare distinctly triangular orarrowhead shaped, 3 to 8 cmlong, and turn from green toreddish to purple in late summer.The flowers are small and non-descript on a terminal spike; theyare green, also triangular inshape, and normally 0.5 to 1 cmin length.

Habitats: This widespread saltmarsh plant is a common, butrarely dominant, component ofhigh and low salt marshes. Ittolerates both inundation andhighly saline conditions, and as aresult, often occurs in isolateddepressions within tidal marshes(salt pannes) where water istrapped and ultimately evaporatesrather than drains. The plant alsogrows in dredge disposal areaswhere diking prevents runoff ofrainwater and salt is concentratedat the surface. In highly saline oralkaline habitats, it is often foundin monotypic stands, althoughbrass buttons, saltgrass, andpickleweed may be present. Thesehigh salinity conditions are proba-bly not required for iurvival butmay serve to eliminc te competitors.Saltweed is also found commonlyin alkaline nonwetlands east of theCascades.

33

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Carex lyngbyei; Carex obnuptaSCIE N IFIC NAME

LYNGBY'S SEDGE; SLOUGH SEDGECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Growing to 1 mnin height, these species are verysimilar in appearance. They bothhave flat, deep green leaves, 2 to 6mm wide and to 3 dm long, with anobvious channel running along theleaf's axis. In tidal situations, thatportion of the plant above grounddisappears during winter. Newgrowth from the root mass beginsin February and floral spikes appearin early spring, Each culm is triang-ular in cross section and bearsthree to seven pendulate floralspikes 1 5 to 5 cm long. The twospecies can be distinguished in thefield by the spikes; on slough sedgethe spikes are more erect and ses-sile due to absence of a peduncle.

Habitats: These sedges are ex-tremely common wetland plants inthe Pacific Northwest. Lyngby'ssedge is most frequently associatedwith low and high brackish marsh-es in estuaries, although it hasbeen reported in bogs, the under-story of swamps, and shallow,freshwater marshes in both tidaland nontidal situations. While thedistribution of the two speciesoverlaps, slough sedge is mostcommon in shallow coastal freshmarshes and coastal swamps. Truehydrophytes, these species arealmost never found in nonwetlandhabitats, and then only under veryunusual conditions

34

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DEEP FRESHWATER MARSHES

Scirpus acutusSCIENTIFIC NAME

HARDSTEM BULRUSHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: One of thetallest herbaceous marsh plants inthe Pacific Northwest. hardstembulrush typically stands at least2 m high and may grow to 2.5 m.The grey-green, round stems canbe as much as 3 cm in diameter atthe base. A spike bearing about 10spikelets on short peduncles at thetop of the main stem is a distinctivefeature. A narrow bract, 3 to 4 cmin length, extends beyond the spike,appearing to be an extension of thestem The plant has short linearleaves concentrated near the base.Soft-stem bulrush is not readily Idistinguishable from hardstem

bulrush in the field, but is generallyless common in this region.

Habitats: This species growsprimarily in freshwater marshes,but occasionally occurs in highbrackish marshes as well. It isassociated most often with cattailsin shallow marshes and with whitewater lilies in deep marshes,though it often forms visuallydominant monotypic stands. Thespecies is restricted to wetlandhabitats and can grow where thewater reaches a meter in depth.

484 -.-. -.- •j * ,

Nymphaea odorataSCIENTIFIC NAME

WHITE WATER LILYCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: One of themore familiar wetland plants, thelarge, showy white flowers (10 to15 cm in diameter) and large,roundish leaves (up to 25 cm indiameter) floating on the watersurface are easily recognized. Itdiffers from spatterdock in havingsomewhat flatter and morerounded leaves that float on thewater surface and, of course, in itsflower color

Habitats: This common speciesis limited to sheltered ponds andlakes where water depth varies Ifrom a few dm to about 2 m

47AV


Nuphar polysepalumSCIENTIFIC NAME

SPAT"ERDOCKCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The yellow,globular flowers about 3 to 6 cm indiameter are unmistakable, thoughwhen no flowers are present, theplant can be confused with whitewater lily which has similarlyshaped leaves. The leaves ofspatterdock are to 25 cm indiameter and generally have up-turned edges. The leaves often pro-trude as much as one foot abovethe water surface, giving the plantsan untidy appearance. In contrast,the leaves of white water lily lie flaton the water surface.

Habitats: Spatterdock occursonly in deep freshwater marshes,growing in water 1 to 2.5 m deep.As few other plants grow in waterthis deep (other than submergedaquatics) it often forms monotypiccommunities in sheltered ponds.

46 "op

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Myriophyllum spicatumSCIENTIFIC NAME

EURASIAN WATERMILFOILCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Eurasianwatermilfoil grows to lengths of 2to 3 m, with reddish to light brownstems 2 to 4 mm in diameter. Thefeatherlike, olive-green leavesoccur in whorled groups of three tosix between 3 and 6 cm in length.Flowering spikes are emergent.with pink or white flowers ingroups of four along the stem,

Habitats: This introducedspecies occurs in deep freshwatermarshes or lakes and ponds withsilty bottoms and water depth lessthan 5 m. It grows rapidly and oftenforms a dense, submerged massthat interferes with swimming andboating. Because it spreads readilyfrom any broken portion of stem, itis often inadvertently dispersed byboaters. It has become a nuisancespecies in some parts of Washing-ton State (e g., Lake Washingtonand portions of the Columbia River),and control programs have beenestablished. Common associatesinclude pond weeds, white waterily, and common duckweed.

45 40-

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Lemna minorSCIENTIFIC NAME

COMMON DUCKWEEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Individualplants are minute, consisting of asingle leaf (called a "thallus") 2 to 4mm in diameter. These leaves floatand form a mat on the surface. Theminute flowers are located in a foldof the leaf. Two or three short, root-like structures hang from the leaf.

Habitats: Duckweed preferssheltered water between 5 and 50cm in depth and occurs commonlyin standing water of shallow anddeep fresh marshes and in slow-flowing drainage ditches and smallcreeks. It typically forms dense,monotypic mats on the surface of Ipools, giving the impression thatthe water is stagnant; however, thepresence of this plant usuallyindicates a healthy aquaticenvironment. It is often found onmud after the water level hasdropped. Associated speciesinclude cattails, sedges, andaquatic grasses.

.. . . ..-. I" $iT ..,44

44 -

Trifolium wormskjoldiiSCIENTIFIC NAME

SPRINGBANK CLOVERCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: A low-grow-ing, compact plant, springbankclover rarely exceeds 15 cm inheight. The red to purple flowersform a spherical head typical ofmost clovers and bloom throughoutthe summer. The leaves are com-pound, with three oblong leaflets10-25 mm in length.

Habitats: This clover occurs inhigh salt and brackish marshes thatare usually inundated once daily. Italso can be found in wet meadowsand along streambanks where itinhabits sandy substrates. Commonassociates include Pacific silver- Iweed, Douglas aster, and other

brackish marsh species.

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HIGH SALT/BRACKISH MARSHESScirpus maritimus (known as Scirpus robustus in California andalong the Atlantic Coast)SCIENTIIC NAME

SALTMARSH BULRUSHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: A sharplytriangular stem, 5 to 10 mm indiameter and 0.5 to 1.5 m inheight, typifies this bulrush. Theleaves (to 0.5 m long) are evenlydistributed along the stem. Spike-lets are reddish-brown, large (1 to3 cm long), and numerous. Mostare attached closely to the stem, al-though there are normally two orthree short (to 5 cm) stalks eman-ating from the basal cluster with 5to 10 spikelets at their ends.Several bracts up to 10 cm long ex-tend from the base of the spikelets.

Habitats: This large bulrushcommonly occurs in high brackishor salt marshes that are inundatedabout once a day. It may also occurinfrequently in low salt marshes. Itoften forms a minor component ofI I high marsh communities contain-ing Pacific silverweed, sedges, andother species In the Skagit Riverdelta, however, it is one of threebulrushes. (with hardstem bulrushand American threesquare), whichdominate most tidal marsh com-munities There it is recognized asa malor food source for migratingand wintering waterfowl, especiallysnow geese,

; 1I, 42 .i4

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Potentilla pacificaSCIENTIFIC NAME

PACIFIC SILVERWEEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This perennialplant is usually low-growing and"strawberry-like." It spreads byrunners and often forms densetangles. Glossy yellow flowers are1.5 to 2 cm in diameter with fivepetals. The flowers are borne singlyat the nodes of the runners. Glossygreen, compound leaves (to 4 dmlong) have distinctive silveryundersides and deeply notchedleaflets; they dry out and turnbrown, but remain intact andidentifiable throughout much of thewinter.

Habitats: Pacific silverweedoccurs most typically in high saltmarshes, at or above mean higherhigh water where it is oftenassociated with tufted hairgrassand Douglas aster. Pacific silver-weed can be found in nontidalfresh meadows with high soil mois-ture content, a habitat essentiallylimited to meadows adjacent to saltmarshes. In these situations it isoften associated with buttercupsand several species of grasses andsedges. Historical conditions (e.g.,the diking of a salt marsh) mayaccount for the species' occurrencein non-wetland habitats.

41 .

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A "14


Plantago maritimaSCIENTIFIC NAME

SEASIDE PLANTAINCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This speciessuperficially resembles seasidearrowgrass, but is shorter (only 2 to3 dm in heighti. In addition, theleaves are broader, more succulent,and are frequently taller than theflower spikes. The plant is coveredwith short, woolly hairs, giving it agrayish-green color. Individually theflowers are inconspicuous, butcollectively form distinctive dense,elongated spikes. The stamens pro-trude from these clustered spikes,an identifying feature of the genus.

Habitats: This relativelycommon salt marsh plant is welladapted to saline conditions, but isseldom a dominant species in themarsh. It occurs at all elevationswithin the marsh where it is oftenassociated with seaside arrow-grass, Douglas aster, saltgrass, andLyngby's sedge.

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II 40

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Orthocarpus castillejoidesSCIENTIFIC NAME

PAINTBRUSH OWL-CLOVERCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Although theflowers are inconspicuous, theplant's colorful white bracts give ita showy appearance. A searchbetween the bracts will expose thetiny, white and yellow, sac-likeflowers. The alternate, sessileleaves are multi-lobed and up to 2.5cm long. Plants range in heightfrom 5 to 20 cm.

Habitats: The species isrestricted to high salt marshes,generally in firm, sandy substrate. IAssociated species include Pacificsilverweed, tufted hairgrass, andother high marsh species.

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39

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Hordeum brachyantherumSCIENTIFIC NAME

MEADOW BARLEYCOMMON NAME

Field Characteirs: This tufted.erect grass grows to 7 dm high.The often purplish panicle, to 10cm long, is erect, and symmetrical.

Habitats: Meadow barley occursin high brackish or salt marsheswhere it is tidally inundated aboutonce a day. It also may be found inlow, diked pastures. Commonassociates include bentgrass,Pacific silverweed, and other highmarsh species.

*1 38

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Grindelia integrifoliaSCIENTIFIC NAME

GUMWEEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The entireplant, especially the flower head, issticky to the touch, hence thecommon name. Plants are up to 8 dmtall and often much branched.Blooming in spring and earlysummer, unopened flower buds areencased in scaly, gummy coverings.No other salt marsh plant hassimilar, large (2 to 4 cm indiameter) yellow sunflower-likeflowers.

Habitats: Gumweed is a com-mon inhabitant of high saltmarshes and occasionally occurs inadjacent nonwetlands as well aswet meadows. At times it will befound on the waterward slope ofprimary sand dunes, a nonwetlandsituation. Common associatesinclude satgrass and tuftedhairgrass.

37

4'.

4.. .IIIIII Di I I I -


Distichlis spicataSCIENTIFIC NAME

SALTGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Saltgrass isshort, usually less than 30 cm tall,and often forms mats on the soilsurface. The bilateral symmetry ofthe leaves in a single plane is dis-tinctive. The leaves are relativelyshort (about 5 cm) and angle sharp-ly from the stem. Salt crystals areoften extruded on the surface of theleaves. The robust, flower-bearingpanicles, 3 to 8 cm in length, arecompressed and terminal on theculms. These floral heads oftenappear purplish, drying to a strawcolor.

Habitats: This species is acharacteristic component of manyPacific Northwest high and low saltmarshes. Saltgrass apparently

1* tolerates extremely high salinitiesand can be found in evaporated saltpannes high within the marsh.Most frequently associated withhigh salt marshes, saltgrass willextend into mesophytic and xeric(upland) plant habitats as well asinto the lower salt marsh. It isfrequently associated with pickle-weed and fleshy jaumea.

36

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Deschampsia caespitosaSCIENTIFIC NAME

TUFTED HAIRGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Character-istically the tallest plant of the saltmarsh, tufted hairgrass is a peren-nial, with culms 2 to 12 dm tall.The leaves are very narrow (1.5 to4 mm) and often folded or rolled.The panicle is 8 to 25 cm long andopen rather than compressed. Highsalt marshes dominated by tuftedhairgrass are green in summer,then take on a distinctive golden-brown hue during late summerthrough fall. The abovegroundgrowth persists through much of

the winter.

Habitats: One of the most com-mon components of Pacific North-west salt marshes, tufted hairgrassoccurs in dense stands at or nearmean higher high water. Thesestands become less dense at lowerelevations, gradually being replacedby other salt marsh species in thelower marsh. It is commonly asso-ciated with Pacific silverweed inhigh salt marshes. Tufted hairgrassis widely distributed, but notcommon, in shallow freshwatermarshes at all elevations.

35

35 .,

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SHALLOW FRESHWATER MARSHES

Alisma plantago-aquaticaSCIENTIFIC NAME

AMERICAN WATER PLANTAINCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The narrowto oval leaf blades (3 to 15 cm)rise on petioles (10 to 20 cm) fromthe base of the plant. The smallwhite-to-pink or purple flowershave three distinct petals and arenumerous on the whorled branch-es of the panicle.

Habitats: Generally found inshallow freshwater marshes, thisplant is common in protectedwaters with depths of 5 to 15 cmand a soft muddy substrate. It iswidely distributed in the PacifcNorthwest and can be found in !deep marshes, wet meadows, andswamps; it is rarely a dominantspecies and often only solitaryplants are seen. It is common

a along lakeshores and permanentlyflooded ditches where it may beassociated with cattails or rushes.

49

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SHALLOW FRESHWATI MARSHES

Bidens cernuaSCIENTIFIC NAME

BEGGARS-TICKCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Beggars-tickgrows as a low, bushy plant to 30cm in height. The showy, yellow'sunflowers" (2 to 4 cm in dia-meter) are borne singly at the tipof individual branches. Leaves areopposite and measure 4 to 20 cmlong and 1.0 to 4.5 cm wide.

Habitats: Most typically ashallow freshwater marshspecies, beggars-tick also occursnear ponds just above high waterlevel in saturated, highly organicsoils. Common associates includespike rush, soft rush, sedges, and Ilady fern.

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Eleocharis spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

SPIKE RUSHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The genus iseasily identified by the terminal andsolitary floral spikelets. Somespecies are diminutive, such as E.parvula (I to 10 cm), while othersare large and robust, such as E.palustris (to 1 m).

Habitats: Several species arerepresented in the Pacific North-west; habitats range from brackishmarshes (E parvula) to shallowfreshwater marshes, wet meadows(E. palustris), and swamps. Thespecies is apparently limited towetland situations. Spike rush isoften found in standing water inroadside ditches or the edges ofponds where it is frequently associ-ated with duckweed, bulrushes andother marsh plants. Spike rush isalso common in the wetter portionsof meadows dominated by softrush.

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Epilobium angustifoliumSCIENTIFIC NAME

FIREWEEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Fireweed iseasily recognized by its four-petalled, purple to purplish-pinkflowers that are borne on multi-flowered racemes. After bloomingin early summer, the seed podsburst, forming downy masses. Inwetland situations, the plants growto 1.5 m in height and have alter-nate leaves 8 to 15 cm long.

Habitats: Fireweed is commonin the drier portions of shallowfresh marshes and occasionally inwet meadows. Fireweed also mayoccur in high salt marshes. It iscommon in nonwetlands, especiallyin disturbed habitats such as alonghighways and burned over mon-tane habitats. It is a pioneer specieswhich invades immediately afterfires, thus the common name. Inwetland habitats, the flowers aresmaller, more intensely colored,and bloom later in the season thanin nonwetland situations. Thespecies has been occasionallycultivated as an ornamental, butcan become weedy, Fireweed hassome value to beekeepers. It isoften associated with lady fern,purple loosestrife, and otherfreshwater marsh species.

52 -

Epilobium watsoniiSCIENTIFIC NAME

MARSH WILLOW-HERBCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Marsh willow-herb belongs to the same genus asfireweed and is similar in appear-ance, but smaller (3 to 10 dm inheight). The four-petaled flowersare small (5 to 7 mm) and pink-purple in color. Leaves are opposite,strongly veined, glossy green, andlinear with minute points along theedges. Flowers and seeds areborne on what appear to be peti-oles, but are actually elongatedovaries.

Habitats: Found in shallow freshmarshes, this species also occursin shrub swamps and wet mea-idows. This plant cannot withstandprolonged periods of inundation(although it rarely occurs in non-wetland habitats) and thus isusually found in higher, drier areasof shallow marshes. It is typicallyan understory plant associated withcommon cattails in shallow freshmarshes; willows, Pacific ninebark,and red-osier dogwood in shrub-swamps; and soft rush in wetmeadows.

f

- - . - - . - -. , - - - - -


Impatiens noli-tangereSCiENTIFiC NAME

TOUCH-ME-NOTCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The distinctivebright-orange, irregular flowers,flecked with brownish purple, are 2to 3 cm in length with a tube at thebase of the flower stem. Flowersand seeds often drop from the stemwhen touched, hence the commonname. Both stems and leaves aredelicate in appearance and theleaves are distinctly edged withprominent points. The plant growsto I m or more in height.

Habitats: Touch-me-not occursin shallow fresh marshes where itmay form dense stands, and in thetransition zones between wetmeadows and forests or swamps,typically those that are onlyseasonally inundated. The planttends to grow in the drier portionsof such wetlands and within theshade of relatively large trees orshrubs. Common associatesinclude red alder, red elderberry,and cattails.

54

Iris pseudacorusSCIENTIFIC NAME

YELLOW IRISCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The stems andleaves superficially resemble cat-tails, but the leaves are generallybroader, stiffer, and shorter and thestems are stouter and shorter. Theleaves are primarily basal, foldingnear the base and clasping theplant. The outer leaves are shorterthan the inner ones. Flowers arebright yellow, marked with black orpurple lines, and consist of threesets of sepals and petals radiatingfrom the stem. The sepals areabout 3 to 5 cm in length and thepetals about 1 cm shorter, muchlike the common garden iris. Plantsare from 0.5 to 1 m in height.

Habitats: Yellow iris occurs onboth sides of the Cascades, typicallyoccurring along rather steeplysloped sandy banks in shelteredfreshwater ponds, swamps, ormarshes where the water is about4 to 7 dm deep. It often growsalong the edge of cattail marsheswhere the water deepens and mayform a fringe around ponds or deepfresh marshes.

55

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-- - - -4-1-1W


Lythrum salicariaSCIENTIF IC NAME

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Loosestrife isa tall plant (1 to 2 m in height) withspectacular spikes of bright pink-purple flowers (1 to 2 cm across)consisting of five to seven petals.Flowering occurs from late springthroughout the summer. Leavesare opposite, linear, up to 1 dm inlength, and often have a distinctreddish tinge. The plant can beconfused with fireweed duringnonflowering seasons.

Habitats: This introduced Ispecies has rapidly become estab-lished in shallow fresh marshes,typically those dominated by cat-

1tails. In some parts of the country ithas been identified as a pest sinceit often displaces native wetlandspecies. Loosestrife also occurscommonly at the edges of shrub-swamps. To date, it has been foundin lowlands on beth sides of theCascades. Associates are Douglasspiraea, willows, and cattails.

5

. .

0enanthe sarmentosaSCIENTIFIC NAME

WATER PARSLEYCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The umbels oftiny white flowers in water parsleyare borne laterally on the stemsand are set off by narrow leafybracts. The compound leaves, 10 to30 cm long, have a distinctivearrangement of toothed leaflets.The lax, succulent stems oftenexceed a meter in length, are viney,and are often reddish colored. Theflowers are replaced by hard,maroon seeds in late sum r andfall. The plant dies back to roots inwinter.

Habitats: Water parsley is limit-ed to shallow fresh marshes that Iare near saturation, are inundatedyear round, or are inundated duringthe growing season. It may occuras an understory component ofswamps, although it is typically acomponent of a diverse communityin lushly vegetated marshes. Com-mon associates include purpleloosestrife, fireweed, and burreed.

57

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Phragmites communisSCIENTIFIC NAME

REEDGRASS, COMMON REEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Dense mono-typic stands of reedgrass consist of .' . -.stout (up to 1 cm diameter) stemsgenerally 2 to 3 meters in height.The leaves are 1 to 4 cm wide andcan be 50 cm long. The densebrush-like floral spike is about 15 to35 cm long and purplish, fading tostraw color later in the season.

Habitats: This large grass occursthroughout the temperate regionsof the world. It is often found indisturbed areas where inundationis erratic it will flourish in dredgedmaterial disposal sites, roadsideditches, and diked flats. In thePacific Northwest, it is typicallyfound in shallow fresh marshes,although it can apparently toleratehigh salinity (or alkalinity). In tidalareas it is usually found in the highmarsh and marsh-upland transitionzones where salinity is low. Due toits large size and tolerance ofsalinity and inundation extremes,reedgrass readily outcompetesmost ither species where it isestablished and forms dense,monotypic stands. Along theAtlantic Coast it is often identifiedas a pest, quickly choking out otherwetland species of greater habitatvalue It does not appear to be asprolific or intrusive in the PacificNorthwest.

58: |4i

t9,

Polygonum spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

SMARTWEED. KNOTWEEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Mostknotweeds are characterized byswollen nodes where the leaf joinsthe stem. There is also a distinctivesheath which surrounds the nodeand leaf junction and may extendup the stem as much as 1 cm. Thestems are generally round, smooth,shiny, and often reddish. Watersmartweeds have long (5 to 15 cm),narrow leaves with very distinctiveveins. The pink or pink and whiteflowers form dense elongatedclusters at the tip of the stem aswell as from the leaf axils. In deepfresh marshes, these clusters standerect above the water surface,

I while most of the leaves remainsubmerged.

Habitats: Over 30 species ofsmartweed occur in the PacificNorthwest. Most of those west ofthe Cascades are found in moist towet freshwater areas. Two speciesof water smartweed (P. persicariaand P. punctatum), are mostcommon along lakeshores and inshallow and deep fresh marshes.

I

59

, , I ,- . .

!I


Sagittaria spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

ARROWHEAD, WAPATOCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The distinc-tive, arrowhead-shaped leavesreadily identify this plant. Leavesare tufted from a rhizome whichalso bears a starchy, edible tuber.The small (2 cm) white flowers areborne singly in the summer onwhorled branches of the openflower spike.

Habitats: This plant is foundcommonly in shallow freshmarshes and occurs in deepmarshes. It readily grows in soft,mucky substrate in quiet water. The Ituber is a favorite food of ducks andwas commonly harvested by nativeAmericans.

W 40P

60 -- I

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Scirpus microcarpusSCIENTIFIC NAME

SMALL-FRUITED BULRUSHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The blackishflower spikelets are borne onseveral, long, green peduncleswhich arch loosely from the mainstem. The spikelets of this speciesare small relative to others in thegenus, hence the name. The stemsare distinctly triangular and thespecies can be easily mistaken for asedge (Carex spp). A single stembetween several, broad (1 to 2 cmwide), channeled, grass-green.basal leaves distinguishes the plant.Narrow, linear, alternate leaves arealso borne on the main stem.

Habitats: This bulrush grows inshallow fresh marshes, wet mea-dows, and occasionally bogs, fromsea level to middle elevations(1,200 m) It is adapted to saturatedsoil conditions, but does not appearto tolerate prolonged inundation. Itwill grow in relatively dry swampsin association with soft rush andred alder and also may be foundalong streambanks and roadsides.

61


Sparganium spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

BURREEDCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The genus ischaracterized by one to severalspherical flower heads which growon the sides of the stem, oneabove, and usually separated from,another. The genus has separatefemale and male flowers which areeasily distinguished as the smaller(0.3 to 1.5 cm) male flower headsare always located above the larger(0.5 to 3 cm) female heads on thestems. At each point of attachment,the stem angles away from theflower head, giving the plant a bentappearance. Leaves are typicallystrap-like, from 2 to 8 dm long and I3 to 15 mm wide, and are oftenthick and fleshy.

Habitats: These plants are mostcommonly found in shallow freshmarshes, but occur in deep freshmarshes, up to 1,000 m elevation.Some species are aquatic and growin standing water with their leavesfloating on the surface. Others areerect and grow in saturated soil.Associated species include bul-rushes, smartweed, and sedges.

..62 -.

SWAMPS

Salix spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

WILLOWCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: More than 30species of willow with a variety ofcharacteristics are recognized inthe Pacific Northwest . Leaves aregenerally elongated, but vary fromextremely narrow to almost round;most have a pointed tip. Lengthvaries from 2 to 10 cm. For somespecies, the furry catkins whichemerge in late winter to spring,often before the leaves, are a dis-tinctive feature. Willows aregenerally tall shrubs or short trees(4 to 8 m) but can reach 20 m inheight. In swamp situations,willows may be mistaken for redalder, but can be distinguished bytheir smaller leaves with smoothedges and indistinct veins.

Habitats: Willows are commonin swamps and along streams andriver banks, but may also be foundin moist upland settings. Theytolerate temporary inundation, butnot prolonged flooding during thegrowing season. Along rivers, theyoften grow on sand and gravel barswhich are inundated during highwater. In this setting they trapsediments, ultimately raising thebar's elevation sufficiently to allowcottonwoods and other less water-tolerant species to establish. In thisway, the willow often establishesnew riparian communities In morebog-like situations they are oftenassociated with Douglas spiraea.Cattails, Pacific ninebark, and redosier dogwood are commonassociates in swamps.

76

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Pyrus fuscaSCIENTIFIC NAME

WESTERN CRABAPPLECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Crabapple isnormally less than 5 m in heightthough it sometimes grows to 12 mand is more tree-like. Rather untidyin appearance, it is often coveredwith lichens. Flowers (2 to 3 cm)are white to pink-purple and occurin clusters. Fruits are likewiseborne in clusters, are smaller thancherries, and are usually yellowishor dull red when ripe (about thecolor of ripe Gravenstein apples).The fruiting stalks are short, stout,and although not sharp, can easilypuncture flesh. Leaves are similarto domestic apple leaves, thoughmore deeply toothed.

Habitats: A relatively commoncomponent of shrub swamps fromcoastal lowlands to elevations up to1,500 m, the species may also befound bordering streambanks, inbogs, and occasionally in freshmeadows. Associated wetlandspecies include willows, red alder,Pacific ninebark, and Labrador tea.

754

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SWAMPS

Picea sitchensisSCIENTIFIC NAME

SITKA SPRUCECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Sitka sprucedominates our spruce swamps. It isthe only spruce, (in fact, the onlyneedled tree) commonly found inPacific Northwest wetlands. Conesand needles are distinctive. Femalecones have cornflake-like scales;male cones appear to be extensionsof upper branches giving theimpression the branch tips aredying, Needles are stiff and uncom-fortably sharp.

Habitats: In nonwetlands. Sitkaspruce is a very large tree, especi-ally on the Olympic Peninsulawhere it grows to 70 m in heightwith a diameter to 5 m at the base.Under very wet conditions, thetrees do not achieve this great sta-ture but are short and oftenscrubby in appearance with ganglylower branches and a broad basedtrunk. Sitka spruce can toleratestanding water throughout much ofthe year. Common understoryplants are red alder, sedges, andskunk cabbage. The higher anddryer hummocks at the base of thetree often are populated by norm-ally nonwetland species such assword fern, lily-of-the valley, andsalal. It is a useful and valuablelumber tree.

74 3

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Physocarpus capitatusSCIENTIFIC NAME

PACIFIC NINEBARKCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The alternate,palmately lobed leaves are gener-ally about 3 to 6 cm long, and turnto a distinctive, bright yellow in thefall. The shrub may be up to 5 mtall with shredded bark on most ofthe branches. The showy, whiteflowers form a dense hemisphericalhead 5 to 10 cm in diameter.

Habitats: This woody shrub isfound in both swamps and uplandsituations. It is common in the tidalswamps of the Snohomish andChehalis Rivers, where inundationprobably occurs no more than oncea day, but saturation is almost !continuous. It may also be foundalong streams or on wet banks.Associated species include redosier dogwood, Sitka spruce, andcattails.

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SWAMPS

Lysichitum americanumSCIENTIFIC NAME

SKUNK CABBAGECOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The very large,shiny green leaves (up to 1 m longand 40 cm wide) and fleshy,greenish-yellow spikes of tinyflowers surrounded by a yellowspathe are unmistakable. Theflowers exude a fetid aroma, hencethe common name. The plantsappear in very early spring as large(2 to 5 cm in diameter) yellowishprotrusions on the ground surface;leaves appear after the flowers. Theplants are perennials with fleshyroots and die back to the groundin early to fate summer.

Habitats: Skunk cabbage occurs f,f in a variety of freshwater wetland

habitats, but seems to achieve itsmost lush and robust stature as anunderstory species of relativelyopen swamps. The species alsooccurs in low depressions of freshmeadows, in shallow fresh mea-dows, and in boggy situations. Itsoverriding habitat requirement isstanding water and/or saturatedsoil conditions throughout much ormost of the year. Skunk cabbage isnot so successful in lushly vegeta-ted marsh situations where there iskeen competition for availablespace. In swamps, associatedunderstory plants include sedges;in marshes many species may bea sscited,

72 $h±iF

Fraxinus latifoliaSCIENTIFIC NAME

OREGON ASHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This decidu-ous tree grows 10 to 20 m inheight and to 1 m in diameter. It iseasily distinguished from othertrees by its compound leaves whichhave five to seven leaflets; winged "fruits 3 to 5 cm long and 3 to 9 mmbroad; and bark that becomes deep-ly ridged as the tree attainsmaturity

Habitats: Oregon ash is typicallya component of swamps adjacentto lakes and lowland streams. Itshabitat is similar to that of redalder, in that soils are usually wetin all seasons and saturated ornearly so for much of the growingseason; generally these areas arenot flooded for lengthy periods.Common associates are red alderand woody shrubs such as redosier dogwood and ninebark

71

,#.

SWAMPS

Cornus stoloniferaSCIENTIFIC NAME

RED-OSIER DOGWOODCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The glossy,red bark of the shrub's youngerbranches is a conspicuous featureduring all seasons. This speciestypically has many branches up toseveral meters in length. Leavesare 6 to 15 cm long and half aswide with pointed tips. Veins curveprominently toward the leaf tips, aa distinctive characteristic of alldogwood species. Round, whitishflower heads (4 to 7 cm in dia-meter) appear in spring andsummer. Individual flowers are tiny(5 mm in diameter) and have fourpetals. Eventually, white berriesreplace the flowvirs and some ofthe leaves turn t eep red.

Habitats: Thi i deciduous shrub0 is extremely common in riparianI situations along creeks, rivers, aod

other low, swampy areas and innonwetland forests where shade orother conditions prevent excessivedrying of the soil. Common associ-ates include red alder, willows, andother swamp species.

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f1 70

SW __ _ _ _

w* . . i

Athyrium filix-feminaSCIENTIFIC NAME

LADY FERNCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This is theonly species of fern that common-ly occurs in Pacific Northwestwetlands. The spreading frondsgrow to 1 m in height, dying backto the root mass each fall, Eachfrond is composed of twice-compound, lance-shaped leaves,6to 12dm long and 2 to 3dmwide. The brownish spore-produc-ing structures on the underside ofthe leaves distinguish this as afern rather than a flowering plant.

Habitats: Lady fern occursmost typically in swamp under- Istories, but is a frequent com-ponent of shallow fresh marshesand less often found in wet mea-dows. It commonly occurs innonwetland situations whereI shading allows cool conditionsand wet soils to persist through-

* out most of the year. Most fre-quently associated species includered alder, water hemlock, skunkcabbage, and reed canarygrass.

69

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SWAMPS

Alnus rubraSCIENTIFIC NAME

RED ALDERCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Under satur- swamps of Pacific Northwest floodated soil conditions, red alder ap- plains. Red alder is not consideredpears shrubby and stunted. Under to be tolerant of saline conditions,drier conditions, alder grows to 25 but does occur in tidally-influencedm tall and over 35 cm in diameter. freshwater situations. It frequentlyThe bark is normally smooth and is a component of the understory ofdirty gray in color, often appearing spruce-dominated swamps. Com-mottled with light patches. Leaves mon understory plants in red alderare 5 to 15 cm long and half as swamps include lady fern, sedges,wide, usually dark green, heavily and skunk cabbage.veined, alternate, and distinctivelytoothed or notched. Separate maleand female catkins are produced inthe spring prior to the appearanceof the leaves. At first the catkinsare green. Male catkins arecylindrical, about 5 mm in diameterand 2 to 5 cm long. Female catkinsare more "conelike'" and shorter, to2.5 cm. Later in summer, theseclustered cones turn brown and arean obvious feature. Similar appear-ing species of alder occur in the

Pacific Northwest; however, redi alder is the most common.

Habitats: Red alder is a verycommon, deciduous tree through-out lower elevations of the PacificNorthwest and occurs in both wet-land and nor wetland situations. Inwetlands, the species is typical ofriver -bottomlands, especially thosewest of the Cascades. These areasnormally flood for short periods oneor more times per year and thesoils remain saturated or nearly sofor much of the growing season. Inits stunted. "shrubby" form, alderoften dominates in the shrub-

68 ~

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-. .. -. •

Rumex spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

DOCKCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: In the PacificNorthwest, curly dock (R. crispus)will be the species most frequentlyencountered in wetlands, althoughother dock species do occ, ,r. Curlydock is distinguished by its overalldeep reddish-brown colorationthroughout most of the year,appearing dried out or dead. Thespecies grows erect from 3 to 8 dmin height and stands above mostplants in fresh meadows where it isone of the most distinctive species.Prior to and during flowering, theplant is yellowish green, often witha reddish tinge. Flowers aregreenish white and individuallyinconspicuous though formingdense, branched spikes. Theminute seeds are sharply three-angled and sometimes appear to bewinged. Leaves, stems, and flowersIi turn reddish-brown soon afterinitial flowering. The leaves are 1 to3 dm in length and wrinkled alongthe edges.

Habitats: Dock is an adaptableplant found in wet meadows,shallow fresh marshes, and innonwetland habitats throughoutlow elevations. It is occasionallyfound in high salt or brackishmarshes. Associated species arenumerous and diverse, includingreed canarygrass, various grasses,and sedges.

' I67

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WET MEADOWS

Ranunculus spp.SCIENTIFIC NAME

BUTTERCUPCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Buttercups areeasily recognized by the combin-ation of bright, glossy yellowflowers with five petals (someplants have double flowers) andnumerous stamens and stronglydissected leaves. The leavesnormally have three lobes, thoughsome species have simple, unlobedleaves. Plants typically form lushmasses about 5 to 15 cm in height.Some species can be erect andoccur singly and, if so, are usuallybetween 2 and 6 dm in height.Flowers can be minute (5 mm) orup to about 4 cm depending on thespecies. A few species have whitepetals, which are usually yellow atthe base. Fruits are usually dis-tinctive globular structures.

Habitats: Several species ofbuttercups are considered to bewetland plants in the Pacific North-west and occur in many hydro-logic regimes, from continuousinundation to no inundation.Most occur in meadows or shallowmarshes, but a few species aretruly aquatic, growing in standingwater A wide variety of plants areassociated with buttercups sincethey are common in a variety ofhabitats including pastures,roadside ditches, streambanks, andbogs.

6 66

10

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Phalaris arundinaceaSCIENTIFIC NAME

REED CANARYGRASSCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Reed canary- flower, canarygrass meadows pro-grass is a tall, perennial grass, duce abundant pollen and chaff,normally exceeding 1 m, and under aggravating hay fever and allergies.ideal conditions, exceeding 2 m inheight. The sturdy, often hollow,stems can be 1 cm in diameter andhave a reddish tinge at the topduring the growing season. Individ-ual leaves measure up to 2 cm 'Iwide and 3 dm long. Flowers andseeds are borne on culms whichstand high above the leaves. Thepanicles measure to 2 dm inlength.

Habitats: Reed canarygrass is I fone of the most broadly rangingand, therefore, commonly encount-ered freshwater wetland plants.The species typically occurs wheresoils remain saturated or nearlysaturated during most of the grow-ing season, but where standingwater does not persist for extendedtimes. Once established, thespecies can tolerate extendedinundation. Reed canarygrass candominate where irregular or fluct-uating water regimes inhibit thesuccess of other wetland species(e.g., cattails). It commonly grows inroadside ditches, rights-of-way, andon river dikes and levees where thesoils would appear to be well-drained and only rarely saturated,as well as in shallow marshes andmeadows. Under the dryer condit-ions, the plant is shorter, hassmaller flowering spikes andflowers earlier in the season.Common associates include lady

fern, sedges, and rushes. When in

65

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WET MEADOWS

Juncus off ususSCIENTIFIC NAME

SOFT RUSHCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: This rush hasa strongly tufted appearance. Indi-vidual culms are round and hollow,can be 1 cm thick and grow to 1 min height. Its floral panicles areborne laterally on the culms. Latein the season the stems often takeon a brown or grayish color. Thetufts of culms are evident through-out the year.

Habitats: Soft rush is a verycommon indicator of wet meadows(also wet pastures) in the PacificNorthwest. In pastures, it oftendominates the wettest areas where Iwater stands in winter and part ofthe spring. It is also common in

Ishallow fresh marshes, but only asisolated (albeit robust) plants ratherthan as a dominant. Apparently softrush can exist in nonwetlandsituations when spared fromcompetition by other species. Softrush is very common in wetpastures because it is tolerant oftrampling and not palatable forgrazing. Under dryer conditions inwet meadows, it is associated withspecies of grasses. In slightlywetter situations, buttercups arecommon associates. In the wettestparts of the meadow, it isassociated with spike rush.

4j 6dm _ __ __ _

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Typha latifolia; Typha angustifoliaSCIENTIFIC NAME

NARROW-LEAVED CATTAIL; COMMON CATTAILCOMMON NAME

Field Characters: Cattails haveseparatn female and male flowers.The female flowers are borne onthe familiar large, brown cylinderatop each stem. The male flowersare borne above the female flow-ers, becoming a withered spikeshortly after flowering. In thenarrow-leaved cattail (T. angusti-folia), approximately 0.5 to 8 cmseparates the male from the femaleflowers, whereas there is no sepa-ration in common cattail. Leavesare strap-like, sheathing and nearlyas tall as the flower stems. Cattailsstand between 1 and 2 m in height.

Habitats: One of the mostabundant and commonly encount-ered marsh plants, the commoncattail is restricted to shallowmarshes, usually growing instanding water. It often forms vastmonotypic stands, but scatteredindividuals commonly grow inroadside ditches and wet disturbedareas. Generally a lowland species,it occurs up to about 1,000 melevation. Numerous shallowmarsh species are associated withthis plant; it is also a commoncodominant with Douglas spiraeain shrub-swamps. Narrow-leavedcattail occurs in similar habitats butis much less common.

I,. 63&SOP

Spiraea douglasiiSCIENTIFIC NAME

DOUGLAS SPIRAEACOMMON NAME

Field Characters: The plantsstand 1.5 to 2.5 m in height withalternate leaves 3 to 8 cm long; thenotches on the terminal portions ofthe leaves are distinctive. When inbloom, the shrub is readily ident-if ied by plumes of soft pink flowers(between 1 and 2 dm in height)rising above the leaves. At othertimes, it appears rather untidy. Theflower spikes turn brown soon afterflowering and may persist through-out the winter.

Habitats: Spiraea is a commoncomponent of shrub-swamps andoften dominates such habitats. Thisspecies appears to become estab-lished in old marshes that arebegining to "fill in" or dry up, but

£can withstand inundation for pro-longed periods. It is also common intidal fresh swamps of Puget Soundestuaries. It frequently grows alongroadside ditches, wet meaows,and streambanks. Associatedspecies include willows, purpleloo'-vstrife, and cattails.

!4

77

____

GLOSSARY

Alkaline - Refers to soils having Community - A group of plantshigh concentrations of soluble and animals which are found inmineral salts. Such soils often association and interaction, formingoccur in arid regions. a distinct system.

Alternate Leaves - Leaves Composite - Belonging to theattached at different levels on family Asteraceae, having numer-opposite sides of a stem. ous small individual flowers

arranged compactly in a flower

Annual - A plant which completes head resembling a single complexits life cycle in less than a year. flower.

Appressed - Pressed flat against Compound Leaf - A leaf com-

another organ or surface. posed of two or more leaflets.

Association - A group of plant Cone - A woody, reproductivespecies which are consistently structure composed of seed or Ifound growing together, pollen-bearing scales usually

associated with evergreens but alsoBasal - At the base, especially a characteristic of alder.leaves originating from ground levelsuch as those of the iris. Culm - The aboveground stem of

Bilateral Symmetry - Identical grasses or grasslike plants.

structures of a plant having one Deciduous Plant - A plant thatplane of symmetry, such as the sheds its leaves at the end of theleaves of salt grass. growing season.

Oract - A specialized leaf (often adifferent size, shape, or color than Dominant - A species whichfoliage leaves) which is borne near comprises the greatest part of thethe flower or flower cluster, vegetation in a given community.

Bulrush - A large rush, often Emergent Plant - An aquatic

referring to a plant of the genus plant which extends partially aboveScirpus. the water surface.

Catkin - An erect or lax spike Extreme High Water - The high-consisting of unisexual, apetalous est elevation reached during aflowers. Examples include the storm or rising tide, including tidesflowers of willows and alders, affected by meteorological events.

78

Flower - A complex specialized Leaf - Functionally, the majorreproductive structure which photosynthetic organ of mostproduces fruits and seeds, plants.

Forb - A broad leaved herb or Leaflet - A discrete segment of aherbaceous plant other than a compound leaf.grass.

Lobe - A projection from theFrond - The leaf-like structure of a margin of a leaf, usually with thefern, margin indented on either side of

the projection.Fruit - A mature ovary with itsenclosed seed. Mean High Water - A tidal datum

derived from the arithmetic meanGlume - A bract which encloses of the daily high tide over a specificthe spikelet of grasses. 19-year metonic cycle.

Habitat - The set of environ- Mean Higher High Water - A tidalmental conditions in which a plant datum derived from the arithmeticor animal occurs, mean of the daily higher high tide

over a specific 19-year metonicHerbaceous - A seed-producing cycle.plant without persistent woodytissue, usually refers to grasses and Mean Lower Low Water - A tidalforbs. datum derived from the arithmetic

mean of the daily lower low tideHydrophytic - Refers to plants over a specific 19-year metonicwhich typically grow in water or on cycle.a substrate that is periodicallydeficient in oxygen as a result of Mesophytic - Refers to plantsexcessive water; a hydrophyte. which typically grow where

moisture conditions are moderate;Inflorescence - The specific a mesophyte.arrangement of the flowers onflowering plants. Monotypic - Refers to a

community consisting of only oneInundation - Flooding or covering species.with water, usually on a periodicbasis. Needle - A specialized teaf having

a slender compressed form, usuallycharacteristic of evergreens.

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Node - An enlarged joint of a Petiole - The stem or stalk of astem, often where a leaf is attached leaf.to the stem.

Pistil - The female part of a flowerOpposite Leaves - Leaves which which consists of the ovary and itsoccur two at a node on opposite appendages.sides of the stem.

Raceme - An unbranchedOvary - The part of the pistil inflorescence with the flowersbearing the ovules, and maturing to borne on short stalks.form at least part of the fruit.

Rhizome A horizontalOverstory - The highest layer of underground stem which may bearvegetation in a given habitat. roots, shoots, and leaves.

Ovule - An unfertilized egg Rush - Usually a member of thecontained within the ovary of genus Juncus and oftenflowering plants. characterized by cylindrical hollowt stems.Palmate Leaf - A leaf having

several lobes radiating from a Salinity - A measurement of thecommon base like the fingers from concentration of dissolved salts inthe palm of the hand. seawater.

Panicle - A compound flower Sedge - Usually a member of thehead in which the axis is branched genus Carex, often having edged orone or more times; usually winged stems.referring to grasses.

Sepals - The outermost circle ofPanne - An isolated, unvegetated specialized leaves on a flower.depression within a tidal marsh.

Sessile - Attached directly by thePeduncle - The stem of a solitary base; lacking a stem or stalk.

0flower, or the main stem of aflower cluster. Sheath - The tubular portion of a

grass leaf which wraps around thePerennial -A plant living three or stem.more seasons, e.g.. cattail.

Shrub - A woody plant less than 7Petals - Modified leaves, usually meters tall and usually havingcolorful, surrounding the several stems.

reproductive organs of a flower.

.. . . ............ ..... ... ...- , -. . =m - .m J m, - * = -,

Spathe - A sheathing, lateral Tufted - A dense cluster oforgan or pair of organs usually elongated structures, generallyopen on one side and enclosing an leaves and stems, which spreadinflorescence. from a common point.

Spike - A type of unbranched Umbel - A flower head of a few toinflorescence in which the axis is many flowers on stalks of approx-somewhat elongated and the imately equal length arising from aflowers are numerous and sessile. single point; usually resembling the

structure of an umbrella.Spikelets - The segment of theinflorescence, generally of grasses, Understory - A layer of vegetationenclosed by a pair of bracts. which occurs beneath a higher

layer or layers.Spore - A simple, one-celledreproductive unit; the reproductive Whorled - Arranged in a circle,structures for ferns and mosses. i.e., several leaves which emerge

from around a node on a stem.Stamen - The male, pollen-producing structure of a flower. Xerophytic - Refers to plants

* which typically grow in conditionsSubmergent Plant - A plant that are frequently dry a xerophyte.which normally grows underwater,such as watermilfoil or pondweed.

Swale - An area of land lowerthan the surrounding vicinity whichis often lower than the water table,thus tending to retain water.

Toothed Leaf - A leaf with minorprojections and indentionsemanating along the leaf margin.

Tree - A large woody plant usuallyover 7 meters tall with a singletrunk.

* Tuber - An enlarged, fleshy,reproductive structure produced on

potato.

8"Of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Representative technical and nontechnical publications that will assist inunderstanding wetland plants and their ecology are listed in the Bibliography.Other published information exists that can be accessed via library research.

Adamus, Paul R. and Lagren T. Stockwell, 1982. A Method For WetlandFunctional Assessment, Volume I. Critical Review And Evaluation Concepts.164 pp, U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration.Provides an excellent technical survey and evaluation of the functionalvalues of wetlands.

Clark, Lewis J., 1974. Lewis Clark's Field Guide To Wild Flowers of TheSea Coast In The Pacific Northwest and 1974, Lewis Clark's Field Guide ToWild Flowers Of Marsh And Waterway In The Pacific Northwest. GraysPublishing Limited. These field guides provide descriptions and colorphotographs of many wetland plant species.

Cowardin, Lewis M., Virginia Carter, Francis C. Golet, and Edward T.LaRue, 1979 Classification Of Wetlands And Deepwater Habitats Of The

1United States. 103 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-79/31. Thisreport describes the wetland classification system being used by the U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service to inventory all wetlands of the United States,

Crawford, Victoria, 1982. Wetland Plants Of King County And The PugetSound Lowlands. King County. 80 pp. Contains excellent descriptions andline drawings of many common freshwater wetland plants.

Franklin, Jerry F., and C.T. Dyrness, 1973. Natural Vegetation Of OregonAnd Washington. 417 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest ServiceGeneral Technical Report, PNW-8. Describes the vegetational characteristicsof habitats including wetlands in Oregon and Washington.

Frayer, WE., T.J. Monahan, D.C. Bowden, and FA. Graybill, 1983. StatusAnd Trends Of Wetlands And Deepwater Habitats In The ConterminousUnited States, 1950's to 1970's 30 pp. Describes changes in acreage ofwetlands by wetland type.

Good, Ralph E., Dennis F. Whigham, Robert L. Simpson, and Crawford G.Jackson Jr., editors, 1978. Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes AndManagement Potential. 378 pp. Academic Press. A technical volume treatingfreshwater wetland ecology and functional values.

Greeson, Phillip E., John R. Clark and Judith E. Clark, editors, 1979.Wetland Functions And Values: The State Of Our Understanding.Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands. 674 pp. The AmericanWater Resources Association. A thorough technical treatment of wetlandfunctional values.

82

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It C,

Hitchcock, C. Leo, Arthur Cronquist, Marion Ownbey and J.V.. Thompson,1969. Vascular Plants Of The Pacific Northwest. Five Volumes. Universi, / ofWashington Press. A comprehensive flora of the Pacific Northwest.Nomenclature used in this guide is from this treatise.

Hitchcock, C. Leo and Arthur Cronquist, 1973. Flora Of The PacificNorthwest. University of Washington Press, 730 pp. A condensed version ofthe five-volume treatise.

Hitchcock, A.S., 1971. Manual Of The Grasses Of The United States.Volumes I and /I. Dover Publications Inc. An exhaustive flora of the grasses.

Horowitz, Elinor Lander, 1978. Our Nations Wetlands. An Interagency TaskForce Report. 70 pp. U.S. Government Printing Office. An excellentnontechnical discussion of wetland resources and values in the UnitedStates.

Hotchkiss, Neil, 1972. Common Marsh, Underwater And Floating - LeavedPlants Of The United States And Canada. 208 pp. Dover Publications Inc. A Iclassic field guide to wetland plants.

Mason, Herbert L., 1957. A Flora Of The Marshes Of California. 897 pp.University of California Press. A technical treatise of plants occurring inCalifornia wetland habitats.

Munz, Phillip A., 1964. Shore Wildflowers Of California, Oregon. AndWashington. University of California Press. A nontechnical guide book withcolor photographs illustrating many wetland species.

Peck, Morton E., 1961. A Manual Of The Higher Plants Of Oregon. 936 pp.Oregon State University Press. A technical flora.

Pomeroy, L.R. and R.G. Wiegert, editors, 1981. The Ecology Of A SaltMarsh. 271 pp. Springer-Verlog. A state-of-the-art series of technical articles.

Reinhold, Robert J. and William H. Queen, editors, 1974. Ecology OfHalophytes. 605 pp. Academic Press Inc. A series of technical articles.

Reppert, R.T., Wayne Sigleo, Eugene Stakhiv, Larry Messman, and CaldwellMeyers, 1979. Concepts And Methods For Wetland Evaluation. 110 pp. U.S.Army Corps of Engineers. Institute for Water Resources. A reasonably easy to

use wetland assessment methodology.

Shaw, Samuel P and C. Gordon Fredine, 1956. Wetlands Of The UnitedStates. Their Extent And Their Value To Waterfowl And Other Wildlifu. 67 pp.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 39. Documents the originalclassification and inventory of the Fish and Wildlif, Service in the 1950's.The report has been utilized extensively by Federal agencies for their wetlandevaluations over the last 30 years.

83_

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INDEX

Ahisma plantago-aquatica..49 Fleshy Jaumea .............. 25Alnus rubra,................ 68 Frasinus latifolia ............. 71American Threesquare ........ 28 Glasswort .................. 27American Water Plantain..49 Grindefia integrif 0/ia .......... 37Arrowhead ................. 60 Gumnweed ................. 37Aster subspicatus ............ 32 Hdrdstem Bulrush ........... 48Athyrium fi/ix-femnina ......... 69 i-Iordeum brachyantherum ... 38

A triplex patula .............. 33 Impatiens noli-tangere ........ 54

aBeggars-tick ................ 50 Iris pseudacorus ............. 55Bidens cernua .............. 50 Jaumea carnosa ............. 25Brass Buttons ............... 23 Juncus effusus .............. 64Burreed ................... 62 Knotweed .................. 59fButtercup .................. 66 Lady Fern .................. 69Cares /yngbyei .............. 34 Lemna minor ............... 44C obnupta ................. 34 Lilaeopsis..................26Cattail .................... 63 Ulaeopsis occidentalis ........ 26Cornus sto/onif era ........... 70 Lyngby's Sedge ............. 34Cotula coronopifolia .......... 23 Lysichitum, americanum ... 72

Cuscuta salina .............. 24 Lythrum salicaria ............ 56Deschampsia caespitosa,...35 Marsh Willow-herb .......... 53Distich/is spicata ............ 36 Meadow Barley ............. 38Dock ..................... 67 Myrioph ri/urn spicatum ....... 45Douglas Aster .............. 32 Narrow-bladed Eelgrass ... 22Douglas Spiraea ............. 77 Narrow-leaved Cattail ......... 63Duckweed ................. 44 Nuphar polysepalum,......... 46Eelgrass ................... 22 Nymphaea odorata ........... 47Eleocharis spp .............. 51 Qenanthe sarrnentosa ........ 57

Epi/obium, angustifolium,...52 Orache .................... 33E. watsonii ................. 53 Oregon Ash ................ 71Eurasian Watermilfoil ......... 45 Orthocarpus castillejoides..39Fatreee..................523 Pacific Silvebree...........47FirtwHen...................332 Pacific Ninvebrk.e............73

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Paintbrush Owl-clover ........ 39 Skunk Cabbage ............. 72Phragmif as communis ........ 58 Slough Sedge ............... 34Pha/aris arundinacea ......... 65 Small-fruited Bulrush ......... 61Physocarpus capitat us ........ 73 Smartweed ................ 59Picea sit chensis ............. 74 Smooth Cordgrass ........... 29Pickleweed ................. 27 Soft Rush .................. 64Plantago maiif ma ........... 40 Sparganium spp ............. 62Polygonum spp .............. 59 Spartina afterniflora .......... 29Potenti/a pacifica ............ 41 Spatterdock ................ 46

Purple Loosestrife ........... 56 Spergularia, marina .......... 30Pyrus fusca ................ 75 Spike Rush ................. 51Ranunculus spp ............. 66 Spiraea douglasi/............ 77Red Alder .................. 68 Springbank Clover ........... 43IRed Osier Dogwood .......... 70 Touch-Me-Not .............. 54Reedgrass ................. 58 rrifolium wormskjoldii........43Reed Canarygrass ........... 65 Trig/ochin mar/f/mum ......... 31Rumax spp ................. 67 Tufted Hairgrass ............ 35Sagifttaria spp ............... 60 Typha angust/folia ........... 63Sa//cornia virginica ........... 27 T lat if 0ia .................. 63Salix spp .................. 76 Wapato ................... 60Saltgrass .................. 36 Water Parsley .............. 57Saltmarsh Bulrush ........... 42 Western Crabapple .......... 75Saltmarsh Dodder ........... 24 White Water Lily ............ 47Saltmarsh Sandspurrv ........ 30 Willow .................... 76Saftweed .................. 33 Yellow Iris ................. 55Scirpus acuf us .............. 48 Zost era japonica ............. 22S. americanus .............. 28 Z marina .................. 22IS. mar/f imus ............... 42S. microcarpus .............. 61Seaside Arrowgrass .......... 31Seaside Plantain ............ 40Sitka Spruce ................ 74

85*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1985 - 595-045

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